1. Style and Stylistics.

The subject and aims of

Stylistics
The main subject of stylistics is that of style . The word “style” goes
back to the Latin word "stilos "which meant a sharp stick used for
writing on wax tablets .The term”stylistics”is originated from the Greek
“stylos”which means “a pen”
To do stylistics is to explore language and more specifically ,to explore
creativity in language. Stylistc is a branch of Linguistic. The word
stylistic was firstly confirmed in the “Oxford English Dictionary”in
1882.
The object of a science is a certain phenomenon which exists
irrespective cognizing and transforming role of human mind. The
subject-matter of a science covers one or several aspects of the given
object.Thus stylistics is subdivided into separate, quite independent
branches, each treating one level and having its own subject of
investigation. Stylistic phonetics, stylistic morphology, stylistic
Lexicology and stylistic syntax.
Stylistic phonetics studies the style-forming phonetic features of sounds,
peculiarities of their organization in speech.
Stylistic morphology is interested in stylistic potential of grammatical
forms and grammatical meanings peculiar to particular types of speech.
(we mean form grammatical point of view) .
Stylistic lexicology considers stylistic functions of lexicon, expressive,
evaluative and emotive potential of words belonging to different layers
of vocabulary. ( we mean words)
Stylistic syntax investigates the style-forming potential of particular
syntactic constructions and peculiarities of their usage in different types
of speech.
The subject of Stylistics has not so far been definitely outlined. This is
due to this reason: there is confusion between the terms style and
stylistics. Style in architecture, literature, behaviour, linguistics, dress
and in other fields of human activity .
The term INDIVIDUAL STYLE should be applied to that sphere of
linguistic and literary sience. The individual style of writer is marked by
its unique.
A functional style of language is a system of interrelated language
means which serves a definite aim in communication (I. R. Galperin).

2.Stylistcs as a branch of Linguistics

The main subject of stylistics is style in all linguistic definitions of this
term. The word “style” goes back to the Latin word "stilos "which meant
a sharp stick used for writing on wax tablets. The term "stylistics" is
originated from the Greek "stylos", which means "a pen". It is no news
that any content, any idea can be verbalized in several different ways:
"May I offer you a chair?", "Take a seat, please" ,"Sit down" have the
same idea, the same subject matter but differ in the manner of
expression, which depends upon the situational conditions of the
communication act.
The term “style” is understood by various scholars in the following
senses:
1) the individual style of a writer or a speaker.
2) functional style of language (registers, discourses).
3) a variety of linguistic expression serving particular communicative
purposes, or so-called style of language’.
A functional style of language is a system of interrelated language
means which serves a definite aim in communication (I. R. Galperin).

3.Expressive Means (EMs) and Stylistic Devices (SDs)

To define expressive means it’s necessary to know what is
expressiveness .
Expressiveness is a kind of intensification of an utterance. So, all
stylistic means are divided into:
a) expressive means;
b) stylistic devices.
1) The expressive means are those:
1. phonetic means; .
2. morphological forms;
3. means of word-building;
4. lexical forms; suffixes, prefixes (təzəsözlər)
5. phraseological forms; -(figurated meaning) metafor, metanomy,
proverb, idioms
6. syntactical forms, logical and emotional meanings
The most powerful expressive means are phonetic ( melody, stress,
whispering, pausation, intonation and other). The human voice can
indicate subtle nuances of meaning
Among morphological EMs one should mention the historical present,
which helps the author to make things described more vivid. (The word
“shall” in the 2-nd and 3-d person singular always gets emphatic stress
in this case).
Among word-building means found many forms which serve to make
the utterance more expressive and fresh. The diminutive suffixes as y
(ie), -let (e.g. dearie, streamlet) add some emotional colouring to the
words.
Lexical EMs are those words which possess inner expressiveness (e.g.
interjections,Ah,Wow)
Phraseological level. The same can be said of the set-expressions of the
language (e.g. when in Leeds: our farewell party, my speech: “I’ve got a
frog in my throat…”). Proverbs and sayings as well as catch-words,
idioms form a considerable number of language units which serve to
make speech more emphatic.
Finally, at the syntactical level there are many constructions which,
being set against synonymous ones, will reveal a certain degree of
logical and emotional emphasis. Ex.:
1. I have never seen such a film.
2. Never have I seen such a film
Stylistic device is a conscious and intentional intensification of some
typical structural or semantic property of a language unity (neutral or
expressive) promoted to a generalized status.
Stylistc devices always carry additional information,either emotive or
logical.

4.Types of Lexical meaning

A number of stylistic devices are based on the peculiar use of lexical
meanings. Therefore it is necessary to define the types of meanings of
words which we meet in stylistic devices.
Before we start analyzing different meanings of a word let’s see what is
a word. The word is a language unit that expresses a concept by its form
and meaning. A concept is an abstract or in other words generalized idea
of a phenomenon.
The three main meanings in the word semantic structure
are:logical,emotive,nominal
The logical meaning sometimes named referential meaning. Logical
meaning may be primary and secondary (derivative). E.g.: an empty
box; "fate" - good or bad luck coming to a person;
Emotive meaning express feeling and emotions called forth by the
phenomenon denoted.It shows the subjective attitude of the speaker,his
or her evaluation of phenomenon. In many words both logical and
emotive meanings co-exist: sonny (kingship + emotional attitude), sweet
(direct + figurative meanings), smart , etc.
Nominal meaning characterizes beings or things.Nominal meaning is
characteristic of proper names,the logical meaning of the words they
originate from may be forgotten :smith-Smith;taylor -Taylor

5. Varieties of language
One of the basic classifications of literary language is according to the
spheres of human activity.There are 2 varieties of language:
- the spoken (is primary)
- the written (is secondary)
( the spoken variety is primary and the written one is secondary.)
The spoken language is maintained in the form of a dialogue,the
written in the form of a monologue. The spoken language has a great
advantage over the written one in that in it the human voice comes into
play.
The written language is more carefully organized,more explanatory,the
word choice is more deliberate.The spoken language is spontaneous and
momentary. In spoken language we used unfinished sentences.
They have own features which in many ways may be regarded as
opposed to each other.
1.Spoken language- are colloqiual words.

 -have omission of the part of utterance

 -unfinished sentences (if i were you...)
 -absence of connecting words (came home, went to bed)
 -expressing definite emotions (isn't she cute! Don't you tell me
that)
 -form of dialogue
  -is full of repetitions, incomplete sentences, corrections and
interruptions (expect formal speech) he'd- he would; how come?
(how did it happen)
The spoken languagediffers from the written language phonetically,
morphologically, lexically and syntactically.
2.Written language- form of monologue

 -bookish words; like prove

 -the exact nature of utterance
 -bookish "space wasters"
 -use of connectives
 -role of context
6. Stylistic Classification of the English Vocabulary
(neutral, common literary and common colloquial)
The functional styles, vocabulary can be subdivided into bookish
(literary), which is typical of formal styles, and colloquial vocabulary
which is used our daily speech ; besides there is always present in the
language a stylistically neutral vocabulary which can be used in
different kinds of style.
• child (neutral) – kid (colloq.) – infant (bookish, official) – offspring
(bookish, scientific);
• father (neutral) – daddy (colloq.) – male parent / ancestor (formal);
• continue (neutral) – go on / carry on (colloq.) – proceed (bookish,
formal);
Stylistically neutral words usually socalled synonymic dominant: they
can be used in any style, they are not emotionally colored .
The style of informal, friendly oral communication is called colloquial.
The vocabulary of colloquial style is usually lower than that of the
formal or neutral styles, it is often emotionally colored and characterised
by connotations.
The Literary layer has no local or dialectical character. The literary
vocabulary consists of these groups:
1) Common literary
2) Terms and learned words
3) Poetic words
4) Archaic words
5) Barbarisms and foreign words
6) Literary coinages including nonce-words

7. Special colloquial Vocabulary

The colloquial vocabulary falls into the following groups: 1. Common
colloquial words: 2. Slang: 3. Jargons: 4. Professional words: 5.
Dialectal words: 6. Vulgar words: 7. Colloquial coinages-are
spontaneous.
Professionalisms
Professionalisms –are term like words. They are used and understood by
members of a certain trade or profession.
Professionalisms generally remain in circulation within a definite
community, as they are linked to a common occupation and common
social interests. The semantic structure of the term is usually transparent
and is therefore easily understood. For examle; outer( knock out blow),
financier etc.
Professionals should not be mixed up with jargonisms. Like slang
words, professionalisms do not aim at secrecy.
Dialectal words
Dialectal words are in the process of the integration into the English
Neutral Language, remain beyond its literary boundaries and their use is
referred to a definite layer (lower). They are recognized as Standard
Colloquial English. Dialectal words are mostly found in the style of
emotive description. Thus they characterized personalities through
speech. Ex; y’all talk mighty fine- which means ‘ sir, you speak English
well’
Vulgar Words or Vulgarisms
The term vulgarism is rather misleading. Webster’s New International
Dictionary defines vulgarism as a vulgar phrase or expression, or one
used only in colloquial, or, esp. in unrefined or low, speech.
There are different degrees of vulgar words. Some of them, the obscene
ones, are called four-letter words. The function of vulgarism is to
express strong emotions. Vulgarisms are: expletives and swear words
which are of an abusive character, like damn, bloody, to hell, goddam
and, as some dictionaries state, used now as general exclamations.

8. Slang and Vulgar words

Slang is highly informal and is often used in colloquial speech.Some
linguists say that slangs never grow stale. If a slang word or phrase does
become stale, it is replaced by a new slangism.
Slangs are informal words which is used by social groups among
friendly atmosphere. Slangs are very fashionable, vivid more flexible.
Slang requires constant innovation, so that words are replaced by new
slangisms.
There’re many kind of slangs – public, house, commercial, military.
Slang is very informal usage in vocabulary and idiom that is
characteristically more metaphorical, playful, elliptical, vivid, and
ephemeral than ordinary language. Slang words depend on the language
used, country or area, ethnic background, subculture, and specific
occupation or part of society – in other words, everyone has their own
slang.
There are a lot of examples of slang in teenager’s dialogues:
• Crumbs! That girl is really choong, blud.
• Crumbs! – Wow!
• choong- attractive
• blud; man – friend
In normal words:
• Wow! That girl is really attractive, friend.
American Slang:
Cash – paper money
Bathroom, Restroom, john, can - toiletChicken – afraid
Mad – angry
Nuts, A Nut- crazy
British Slang:
For a small country, the UK has a lot of slang!
Fag -cigarette
Bird – girl
Cockney Rhyming Slang:
Rhyming slang is a subculture slang originating in the Cockney east end
of London. It is perhaps the most recognized and most colorful slang in
the world. Rhyming slang terms include
Bees and honey – money

Vulgar word
The term vulgarism is rather misleading. Webster’s New International
Dictionary defines vulgarism as ;
Vulgarism - a vulgar phrase or expression, or one used only in
colloquial, or, esp. in unrefined or low, speech.
I.R.Galperin defines vulgarisms as expletives or swear-words and
obscene words and expressions.
The function of vulgarisms is is to express strong emotions.
Vulgarisms are coarse words with a strong emotive meaning, mostly
derogatory, normally avoided in polite conversation. Vulgar words are
harder than coarse words. Vulgar words are strong charge words. They
are not socially accepted words.
So vulgarisms are: expletives and swear words which are of an abusive
character, like damn, bloody, to hell, goddam and, as some dictionaries
state, used now as general exclamations;obscene words.
Ex’ 1. So I got the ax
2. I was the goddam manager of the fencing team.

9. Jargonisms
Jargonisms are code words or Jargon is a group of words with the aim to
preserve secrecy within one or another social group. Jargonisms are
generally old words with new meanings imposed on them. Jargon may
be defined as a code within a code. E.g. grease-money; tiger hunter-
gambler; loaf -head.
Jargonisms are social in character. They are not regional. They are
common. In Britain and in the US almost any social group of people has
its own jargon. The following jargons are well known in the English
Language: the jargon of thieves and vagabonds, generally known as
cant; the jargon of the army, known as military slang; the jargon of
sportsmen, of jazz musicians and many others.
Jargon remains a foreign language for the outsiders of any social group.
Slang needs no translation, while jargon is a code. But on the whole
jargonisms are special groups within the non-literary layer of words.
Ex. From students jargon: exam (examination), math (mathematics),
trig(trigonometry), ec (economics), a big gun or big wig (an important
person), an egg(an inexperienced pilot).

10.Professionalism
Professionalisms –are term like words. They are used and understood by
members of a certain trade or profession. Professionalisms are correlated
to terms. Professionalisms are special words in the non-literary layer of
the English vocabulary, whereas terms are a specialized group
belonging to the literary layer of words.
Professionalisms generally remain in circulation within a definite
community, as they are linked to a common occupation and common
social interests. Like terms, professionals do not allow any polysemy,
they are monosemantic. Professionals should not be mixed up with
jargonisms. Like slang words, professionalisms do not aim at secrecy.
[Professionals are used in emotive prose to depict the natural speech of a
character. The semantic structure of the term is usually transparent and
is therefore easily understood. Some professionalism, however, like
certain terms , become popular and gradually loses their professional
flavor.
Here are some professionalisms used in different spheres of activity:
tin-fish (submarine), piper (a specialist who decorates pastry with the
use of a cream- pipe); outer (a knock out blow).

11.Dialectal words
Dialectal words are in the process of the integration into the English
Neutral Language, remain beyond its literary boundaries and their use is
referred to a definite layer (lower). They are recognised as Standard
Colloquial English. Dialectal words are mostly found in the style of
emotive description. Thus they characterised personalities through
speech. Ex; y’all talk mighty fine- which means ‘ sir, you speak English
well’
Old-English and Middle English also had unique regional dialects. In
Old English, the FOUR MAJOR REGIONAL DIALECTS were West
Saxon, Kentish, Mercian, and Northumbrian. As the centuries went
by, West Saxon became increasingly the standard. In Middle English,
the major dialects included Southern, Kentish, West Midlands, East
Midlands, and Northern.
Modern American English regional dialects include Eastern New
England, New York, Inland Northern, North Midland , Mid- southern ,
Southern , General American, and Black English Vernacular.
There is sometimes a difficulty in distinguishing dialectal words from
colloquial words. Some dialectal words have become so familiar in good
colloquial or standard colloquial English that they are universally
accepted as recognized units of the standard colloquial English. To these
words belong lass, meaning a girl or a beloved girl and the
corresponding lad, a boy or a young man,daft from the Scottish and the
Northern dialect, meaning of unsound mind;silly; fash, also Scottish,
with the meaning of trouble, cares. Still they have not lost their dialectal
associations and therefore are used in literary English.
The term dialect encompasses the sounds, spelling, grammar, and
diction employed by a specific people as distinguished from other
persons either geographically or socially.

12.Antiphrasis
Greek anti "opposite" and phrasis, "diction" is a figure of speech in
which a word or phrase is used to mean the opposite of its normal
meaning to create ironic humorous effect; verbal irony. The adjective
form is antiphrastic.
Ex "He's only a child of 50 years old".
"She's so beautiful. She has an attractive long nose".
"Get in, little man," he told his fat old friend. It is a cool 45 degrees
Celsius in the shade".
Even a brief consideration of the most common rhetorical devices
deployed in ironic texts will show that antiphrasis explains only some of
them, such as litotes and contradiction; whereas, on the contrary,
hyperbole works by excess, not opposition, and meiosis operates by
playing downmore than by playing against.

13,14,15,16, 17. Special literary vocabulary, Terms,

Archaic words,Barbarisms and foreignisms, Literary
coinages (noncewords)
14. Terms. A term- is a word (word-combination) denoting a
scientific concept. Terms may be divided into three main groups
depending on the character of their etimology. Terms formed from
Greek, Latin, French, German or other foreign sources, e.g.
Botany,Anatomy, schedule (Greek) locomotive, chivalry, march,
parliament, estate (Latin); facade, Renaissance, retreat, maneuver, squad,
coup d’etat, cliché (French); cobalt, zinc, quartz, sauerkraut (German).
Terms formed from the common word stock, by means of semantic
change, e.g. tank, company(milit.); wing (archit); fading, jamming
(radio) Terms formed by means of special suffixes and prefixes: e.g.
ultra-violet, antidote, transplant.Usually these suffixes and prefixes (and
sometimes word root components) are borrowed from Greek or Latin
and as such have the same meaning in all the languages. Any term taken
separately has the following peculiarities: It has no emotional value. It is
usually monosemantic, at least in the given field of science, technique or
art. In any language with the increase of general education some terms
are losing their original quality and are gradually passing into common
literary or even neutral vocabulary. This process is called
determinization. E.g.: radio, television, computer, network. Terms are
stylishtically neutral,they may be used with a stylist purpose.Terms
mustn’t be overused.
15. Archaic words
Archaism a word, expression, spelling, or phrase that is out of date in the
common speech of an era, but still deliberately used by a writer, poet, or
playwright for artistic purposes. Archaisms are more rare in modern and
postmodern poetry.Archaic words are divided into the three groups:
archaic, obsolescent, obsolete. There are three stages in the aging
processes of words: They become rarely used; they are in the stage of
gradually passing out from use; They have already gone completely out
of use and are still recognised by the English-speaking people .ex; nay-
no . Archaic words proper is no longer recognizable in modern English;
such words were in use during the Old English period, are earlier
dropped out of the language or have changed in the appearance so much
that they have become unrecognizable. for example; losso – lazy person.
Obsolescent words are used in different kinds of documents and legal
English. Obsolent words are used mostly in poetry. Archaic words are
also used to create an evaluated effect.

16. Barbarisms and foreignisms

In the vocabulary of the English language there is a considerable layer of
words called barbarisms. These are words of foreign origin which have
not entirely been assimilated into the English language. Most of them
have corresponding English synonyms; e.g. chic (stylish); bon mot (a
clever witty saying); en passant ( in passing); ad infinitum (to infinity)
and many other words and phrases. It is very important for purely
stylistic purposes to distinguish between barbarisms and foreign words
proper. Barbarisms are words which have already become facts of the
English language. Foreign words, though used for certain stylistic
purposes, do not belong to the English vocabulary.
Both babarism and foreing words are widely used in various style of
language, but are most often to be found in the style of belles- letters and
the publicistic style.

17. Literary coinages (nonce-words)

Some words are coined to be used at the moment of speech, possessing
the property of temporariness. New coinages may become synonyms of
some old words or substitute them.
Terminological coinages, indicating new-born concepts(computer).
Stylistic coinages are coined because their creators seek expressive
utterance (thingism).
Nonce words are coined for a particular occasion. These neologisms
called always so because they’ll never lose their novelty: "Let me say in
the beginning that even if I wanted to avoid Texas I could not, for I am
wived in Texas, and mother-in-lawed, and uncled, and aunted, and
cousined within an inch of my life." (J. Steinbeck) The past participles
mother-in-lawed, uncled, aunted and cousined are coined for the
occasion on the analogy of wived . Colloquial coinages or noncewords
are spontaneous. They are not fixed in dictionaries. They dissapear from
the language without a trace.
Neologism is a term which is covered by its very nature. In dictionaries
it’s defined as a new word or a new meaning.
There are 2 types of new coined words:

 The 1st type of newly coined words is concepts may be named

terminological coinages.
 The 2nd type is expressive utterance may be named stylistic
coinages.

18.Lexical EMs and SDs.- 19/20

Lexical stylistic devices is such type of denoting phenomena that serves
to create additional expressive, evaluative, subjective connotations.

19. METAPHOR, METONYMY, Synecdoche

METAPHOR- is a stylistic device based on the principle of
identification of two objects. The metaphor is a well-known semantic
way of building new meanings and new words. E.g; sunny smiles
• Those which are commonly used in speech and are sometimes fixed in
the dictionaries as expressive means of language are trite metaphors or
dead metaphors .E.g : a shadow of smile / a ray of hope / floods of
tears/foot of a bed.
• The metaphor is one of the most powerful means of creating images.
This is its main function.
Types of metaphor:
1) genuine metaphors - are absolutely unexpected, are quite
unpredictable. E.g Through the open window the dust danced and was
golden. 2) Anthropomorphic metaphors- in which the words denoting
parts of the body. E.g head of an army / foot of a hill / arms and mouth
of a river.
METONYMY- is a different type of interaction between logical and
contextual logical meanings.It based on definite relations between the
object implied and object named. In fact, metonymy means “change of
name.” e.g Crown (for the power of a king) , Hollywood (for US
Cinema). Metonymy is a a figure of speech that a thing or concept is not
called by its own name, but by the name of smth intimately associated
with that thing or concept. Like metaphors Metonymy can be divided
into trite and genuine metonymy . The stylistic effect of trite
metonymies is in the most cases weak. Metonymy used in emotive prose
is often called contextual and in this case considered to be genuine and
unexpected. For ex;to live by pen etc.
Synecdoche. It is a part of speech similar to metonomy. Synecdoche is a
spesific kind of metonomic relotionship a qualitative one where a part
stands for a whole, singular stands for the plural. E.g: a Red Hat, I want
to live with the wolf and owl. Synecdoche is the case when the part of an
object is called instead of the whole object. It has given rise to many
phraseological units.e.g under one’s roof (in one’s house)
Types of syndecdoche.
• Part of something is used to refer to the whole thing – e.g: A hundred
head of cattle (using the part head to refer to the whole animal)
• The whole of a thing is used represent part of it – e.g: The world
treated him badly ( using the world to refer to part of the world).

20. IRONY - is a stylistic device based on the use of words to

convey a meaning that is opposite of what is actually said , two
meanings stand in opposition to each other. E.g;Nice weather, isn’t it?
(on a rainy day)
Irony may be expressed by any part of speech, most often by a noun ,
adjective and adverb.
• The main stylistic function of irony is to produce a humorous or satiric
effect.ex; How clever it is not to take an umberlla when it is raining
hard.
Irony is realized in the context.
Types of irony :
1) VERBAL IRONY : also called sarcasm. Sarcasm is a bitter or
wounding, especially ironically worded. E.g : The boy is so intelligent
that he failed in all the subjects.
2) DRAMATIC IRONY: (the most important type for
literature)Dramatic irony is when the reader knows more than the
character. It creates tension and suspense. E.g : The wife believed that
her husband died in an airplane crash and but the audience was aware
that the husband had survived.
3) SITUATIONAL IRONY: also called cosmic irony. Situational irony
occurs when there is a difference between what is expected to happen
and what actually happens. E.g Dr. Johnson smokes a pack of cigarettes
a day.

21. Zeugma and Pun

Zeugma is a figure of speech which applies two or more things. A
zeugma is a literary term for using one word to modify two words, in
two different ways . For example , She broke his car and his heart.
When you use one word to link two thoughts , you’re using a zeugma .
For ex; She opened her door and her heart to the orphan.
Simultaneous realization within the same short context of two
meanings of a polysemantic word is called zeugma.
Zeugma is the use of a word in two meanings - literal and figurative.
The zeugma is sometimes utilized to create drama, add emotion or
produce some sort of shock value. For ex; "He lost his coat and his
temper."
When Zeugma Goes Wrong
"Sitting by the fence, the dog barked at the cat" is an example of when
zeugma goes wrong. The function of zeugma is to create a humorous
effect.
Pun
A pun( or paronomasia) – is a form of wordplay ,Which suggest two or
more meanings, by exploiting multiple meanings of words or phrase for
an intended humorous or rheteorical effect. For ex: ‘ Atheism is a non-
prophet institution’ the word ‘ prophet’ is put in place of its
homophone profit, altering the common phrase non-profit institution.
For ex; An elephant’s opinion carries a lot of weight; You can tune a
guitar , but you can’t tuna fish. Unless of course , you play bass.

22.Interjections and exclamatory words.

Interjections are words we use when we express our feelings strongly
and which may be said to exist in language as conventional symbols of
human emotions. In traditional grammars the interjection is regarded as
a part of speech, alongside other parts of speech, as the noun, adjective,
verb, etc. But there is another view which regards the interjection not as
a part of speech but as a sentence.
Interjections can be divided into primary and derivative. Primary
interjections are generally devoid of any logical meaning E.g: Oh! Ah!
Bah! Pooh! Gosh! Hush! Alas! Voy! Eh! Oh! Be! Ie! Iy! Voey! E-ha!
xa! Voy-bo`y! Xaya! I-i! Yop! Ey! Xax! Obbo!
Derivative interjections: E.g: Heavens! Good gracious! Dear me! Good!
By the lord! God knows! Bless me! Hum bug!
“Heavens!”, “God knows”, “Bless me” are exclamatory words generally
used as interjections.

23. Epithet
Epithet is an attributive word or phrase used to characterise an object,
i.e. to express an individual perception and evaluation of its features and
properties. E. g. a giant moustache, a pessimistic rumble. (J. B.
Priestley)
The epithet is a stylistic device based on the interplay of emotive and
logical meaning in an attributive word, phrase or even sentence used to
characterize an object and pointing out to the reader. The epithet( for
ex;loud ocean; wild wind) is markedly subjective and evaluative. The
logical attribute( for ex; white snow; round table ,etc.) is purely
objective, non-evaluating.
Semantically, there should be differentiated two main groups, the
biggest of them being affective (or emotive proper) (e.g. "gorgeous";
"nasty"; "magnificent" ;"atrocious" etc.). The second group - figurative,
or transferred, epithets-is formed of metaphors, metonymies and similes
expressed by adjectives. E.g. "the smiling sun", "the frowning cloud",
"the sleepless pillow"etc.
Epithets may be classifed from different standpoints; semantic,
structural .
Semantic classifiction of epithets:
Associated:dark forest; carefully attetion ,etc.
Unassociated: heart-burning smile ; vioceless sands ,etc.
From the point of view of structure Epithets maybe divide into:
Compound: weak-minded ideas. Paired epithets : wonderful and happy
summer. Reserved epithet: a day of happiness. Pharse epithet : a life and
death struggle . etc.

24.SDs based on the interaction of the logical and

nominal meanings ( Antonomasia)
Antonomasia (Gk. antonomasia 'naming instead’; antonomazein 'to
name differently’) is usually the substitution of the proper name of a
person for another name in order to characterize him/her.
Function: characterization through name, creation of humorous
atmosphere.
This SD is based on the immediate interplay between logical and
nominal meanings of a word which is realized in the text. Depending on
the character of the contextual meaning there are two types of
antonomasia:
1) That based on the interaction between the nominal and contextual
logical meanings.
2) That based on the interaction between the logical and contextual
nominal meanings.
To the first group those cases in which a proper noun is used for a
common noun. This type of antonomasia is usually trite for writer
repeats the well-known, often-mentioned facts.
 The second type of antonomasia observed the interaction between the
logical and the contextual nominal meaning, i.e. practically any common
noun can be used as a common name.
e. g. So, my dear Simplicity, let me give you a little respite.
Antonomasia stands close to epithets. For ex: : Miss Sharp, Mr.
Backbite, Miss. Murdstone.
There exist 2 major types of antonomasia:
1.metaphoric – is based on similarity.( for ex: Mrs Snakes,
Mr.Murdstone( murder+stone) 2.metonymic- is based on
association.(for ex; He has married money)
There are several types of antonomasia:
1) the name of the place for the event that took place there: E. g.
Waterloo - defeat;
2) the name of some establishment (or the policy): E. g. The White
House - American policy; Fleet street - English mass media; Old Bailey
- the Court system;
3) geographical names for the things that came into being there: E. g.
China - china; Champaign - champaign;
4) names of things after the names of their inventors: E. g. Sandwich,
Machintosh.

25. Intensification of a certain feature of a thing or

phenomenon (euphemisms, hyperbole).
EUPHEMISM
Euphemism using a mild or gentle phrase instead of a blunt, embarrassing,
or painful one. For instance, saying "Grandfather has gone to a better
place" is a euphemism for "Grandfather has died."
So euphemisms are synonyms which aim at producing a deliberately mild
effect. Euphemism is sometimes figuratively called "a whitewashing
device".
Euphemism may be divided into several groups :1. moral 2. medical 3.
Parliamentary political.
In emotive prose euphemisms are usually exdivssed by metonymy,
metaphors or periphrases. One of the stylistic functions of euphemisms-
is to produce a humorous effect or to distort the truth, to make the
statement milder.
Euphemism is often contrasted with dysphemism. Some euphemisms
intend to amuse, while others intend to give positive appearances to
negative events or even mislead entirely. Ex: Going to the other side -
death, Passed away - die. On the streets - homeless. Between jobs -
unemployed.
Genteelism is a kind of euphemism, which means the substitution of a
mild or indirect expression for one that might be offensive.
Hyperbole
Hyperbole is a stylistic device based on the interaction between the logical
and emotive meanings of a word. It is a deliberate over statement. Both
the writer and the reader (or the speaker and the listener) are fully aware
of the deliberateness of the exaggeration.Hyperbole is a figure of
speech in which statements are exaggerated. It may be used to evoke
strong feelings or to create a strong impression. Ex. "I tried a thousand
times.",. 'scared to death’.I had a ton of homework; I could sleep for a
year etc.
Very often the hyperbole is used to create humorous or satirical effect and
so to express the author’s attitude towards the described. This figure of
speech is mainly used in several jokes or as a way of insult. It is to
dramatize a normal situation or to make it look worse. Ex: The whole
world was staring at me.
26. Peculiar use of set expressions (27,28)
27. Cliché, Proverb and Sayings
Cliche
A cliché is generally defined as an expression that has become
hackneyed and trite. Cliché is a derogatory term and it is therefore
necessary to avoid anything that may be called by that name. It has lost
its precise meaning by constant reiteration: in other words it has become
stereotyped.
There are thousands of clichés in the world. Many of them have meanings
that you can obviously see, but some have meanings that are only clear
if you know the context. E. g. “any port in a storm" has a hidden
meaning. The obvious meaning is that, in a bad situation, anything will
do.
Clichés can be figurative or literal and are overused. An example of a
figurative cliché is “raining cats and dogs”, meaning it is raining heavily.
A literal cliché would be “to tell the truth” because you are going to do just
that.
Clichés are often idioms.
Clichés that Describe Time:
A waste of time: -refers to something that was silly or not valuable to do
The time of my life:- to a really great time
At the speed of light: -something done very quickly.
Some cliches that describe people;
Brave as lion etc.
Clichés About Life, Love and Emotions:
Opposites attract: -people who like different things and have different
views are likely to fall in love or to become friends
Frightened to death- describes being very frightened
Proverbs and Sayings
Proverbs are short, well-known, supposedly wise sayings, usually in
simple language.
For ex: Never say never.
Proverbs are expressions of culture that are passed from generation to
generation. They are words of wisdom of culture lessons that people of
that culture want their children to learn and to live by They are served as
some symbols, abstract ideas. e. g. Out of sight, out of mind. Proverbs
and sayings are mostly used by writers in the direct speech of characters
to individualize their speech.They never lose their freshness and vigor.
A saying is a common phrase differing from a proverb in that the thought
is not completely expressed as a proverb. It is often elliptical in
structure. E. g. Come! he said, milk's spilt. e.g. to kill two birds with one
stone.

28. Epigrams
Epigrams
The origin of the word epigram is Greek,Epigram is a stylistic device
which is very close to a proverb. The difference between them lies in the
fact that epigrams are created by individuals, famous writers, poets,
scientists, philosophers whom we know, while proverbs are the
coinage of the people. In other words, when using epigrams, usually
make a reference to its author. Their aim is to convey some generalized
idea in a laconic and expressive form. Unlike proverbs, epigrams have a
literary-bookish air that distinguishes them from proverbs. Brevity is the
main quality of the epigram.
 Epigrams are often confused with aphorisms. It is difficult to draw a
demarcation line between them. Real epigrams are true to fact and that is
why they win general recognition and acceptance. But there is no brevity
in aphorisms. They are too long. The following sentence seems to meet
all the necessary requirements of the epigram: Ex: "A thing of beauty is
a joy forever" (Keats). It is brief, generalizing, witty. Writers use
epigrams to criticize their heroes. Epigram is a short clever amusing
saying or poem. E.g:I am not young enough to know everything.

29.Decomposition of a set Phrases

Decomposition of a set expressions is alike to pun. It is the interplay
between the literal meaning and the phraseological meaning (i.e.
figurative)
I am eating my heart
The meaning of a set expression can be understood only from the
combination as a whole.
There are several types of decomposition of set expressions:
Inclusion-she took a desperate hold of his arm
Interaction- to be fed up with sth
Substitution-divorces are made in heaven
changes in spelling-Sofa,so Good!
Decomposition of a set Phrases bring humor and laugh.

30.Lexico-Syntacical Ems and SDs-31-32

31.Simile,Periphrasis
Simile is a figure of speech where two essentially unlike things are
compared with each other. The simile is a stylistic device expressing a
likeness between different objects. The formal element of the simile is
the following conjunctions and adverbs: like, as, as like, etc .ex; Life is
like an onion. Simile may be original and traditional.
There are two kinds of simile:genuine or trite and lexical
Genuine similes are fresh .A trite simile which is often repeated.Ex;as
strong as horse;as ugly as a sin,as pretty as picture.
The function of simile is specifying and illustrating.
Periphrasis
Periphrasis is a word combination which longer-phrase is used instead of
a shorter one.One of the stylistic functions of periphrasis is to produce a
satricial or humorous effect .for ex; My better half (my wife, husband)
Periphrases are devided into two groups;logical and figurative
The logical periphrasis is based on one of the proprties of the object;to
turn over a new leaf(make a better start),one’s better half(one’s wife)
Figurative ps. is based on the use of a metaphor or metonomy.
Periphrasis may be trite and original.
Trite periphrasis is also called traditional or dictionary. Ex- the seven -
hilled city-Rome
Original periphras is also called stylistic,speech periphrasis.

32.Antithesis,Climax,Anticlimax
Antithesis is a figure of speech based on parallel constructions with
contrasted words. Antithesis is a stylistic device presenting two
contrasting ideas in a close neighbourhood.Ex:
”Youth is lovely,age is lonely”
Youth is fiery,age is frosty.
I burn and I freeze.
Antithesis is a device bordering between stylistics and logic.
Climax is an arrangement of senteces which secures a gradual increase
in significance, importance, or emotional tension in the utterance; as in:
"It was a lovely city, a beautiful city , a fair city, a veritable gem of a
city”
There are several types of climax: logical, emotional and quantitative.
Logical climax - the relative importance of the components is looked
from the point of view of the concepts embodied in them. Every
successive word or word-combination in logical climax is semantically
more important than the previous one.
Emotional or Emotive climax is based on the relative emotive
meaning.
For example: "He was pleased when the child began to adventure
across floors on hand and knees;
Quantitative climax is an evident increase, in the volume, of the
corresponding concepts;numerical increase, concepts of measure and
time. in;
"Lite by little: bit by bit, and day by day,and year by year the baron got
the worst of some disputed question.»
Anticlimax is a stylistic means opposite to climax. It is a sudden change
ofthought from the serious to ridiculous by adding a weaker element to
one/several strong ones.
E.g.: "He was inconsolable - for an afternoon"
Anticlimax is a drop often sudden and unexpected,important idea or
situation to one that is humorous. Anticlimax is also called
bathos.Inrhetoric, the effect is frequently intentional and comic.
Ex: "America is the Paradise for women.That is why, like Eve, they are
so extremely anxious to get out of it.

33.Syntactical Ems and SDs.Composition of utterance

34.35.36
34.Supra-Phrasal units
The term supra- phrasal unit (SPU) is used to denote a larger
unit than a sentence. It generally comprises a number of
sentences interdependent structurally and semantically. A
sentence from the stylistic point of view does not necessarily
express one idea,as it is defined in most manuals of grammar.It
may express only part of one idea.Thus the sentence; Guy
glanced at his wife’s untouched plate ,if taken out of the context,
will be perceived as a part of a larger span of utterance where
the situation will be made clear and the purport of verbal
expression more complete
Guy glanced at his wife’s untouched plate’’if you have finished
we might stroll down….
As a stylistic term the word ‘utterance’ must be expanded.Any
utterance from stylistic point of view will serve to denote a
certain span of speech in which we may observe
coherence,interdepence of the elemenets,one definite idea and
last but not least ,the purport of writer.
35.The Paragraph
A paragraph- a group of related sentences that develop a
single idea.A paragraph is a term used to name a group of
sentences meaning a distinct portion of written discourse.In fact
the paragraph as a category is half linguistic,half
logical.Paragraph in the belles-lettres and publicist styles is
strongly affected by the purport of the author.The length of a
paragraph normally changes from 8 to 12 sentences.In
newspaper style,however,most paragraph consist of 1 or 2 or 3
sentences .
Paragraph structure depends on the style:
• The scientific prose style paragraph is built on logical
principles;
• The newspaper style paragraph,on psychological
principles;
• The belles-lettres and the publicistic style
paragraph,according to the author’s purpose;

36.Stylistic Inversion
The violation of the traditional word order of the sentence which does
not alter the meaning of the sentence only giving it an additional
emotional coloring is called stylistic inversion. Ex; your mother is at
home?
Patterns of Stylistic inversion:
1.Object is placed at the beginning of the sentence. (To this Iris also
agreed)
2.The attribute is placed after the word it modifies.
3.The predicative is placed before the subject. (At you feet I fall)
4.The adverbial modifier is placed at the beginning of the sentence.
(Eagerly i wished the morrow)
The Stylistic Device of inversion should not be confused with
grammatical inversion.Unlike grammatical inversion,stylistic inversion
doesn’t change the structural meaning of the sentence in an
utterance,but has some structural function.
37.Detached construction and Parallel construction
İsolated members of the sentence. Sometimes one of the secondary
parts of a sentence by some specific consideration of the writer is placed
so that it seems formally independent of the word it logically refers
to.Such parts of structures are called detached.In the English language
detached constructions are, generally used in the belleslettres prose style
and mainly with words that have some explanatory function. Detached
construction as a stylistic device is a typification of the syntactical
peculiarities of colloquial language. A variant of detached construction
is parenthesis.Parenthesis is a qualifying, explanatory or appositive
word, phrase, clause, sentence, or other sequence which interrupts a
syntactic construction without otherwise affecting it, having often a
characteristic intonation and indicated in writing by commas, brackets or
dashes.For example:”June stood in front,fending off this idle curiosity-a
little bit of a thing,as somebody said,’’all hair and spirit…’’ I have to
beg you for money! Daily!-.Functions of detachment emphasizing the
word or phrase: E.g. I had a feeling. Of the most peculiar closeness to
him – not love or attraction or sympathy in any way. But linked destiny
(Fowles).
Parallel Construction
Parallelism is a figure of repeition, which is of interest to rhetoric as
well as literature. The term stands for the repetition of linguistic , paterns
such as sentences, phrases and expressions. Parallelism, with its
unexpected regularity, is also considered to be a main typé of
foregrounding.Parallelism is a figure based on the use of the similar
syntactic pattern in two or more sentences or syntagms:
When the lamp is shattered
The light in the dust lies dead
When the cloud is scattered
The rainbow’s glory is shed
Reversed parellism is called chiasmus. Parallelism can be partial and
complete..

38.Chiasmus
Chiasmus belongs to the group of stylistic devices based on the
repetition of syntactical pattern;but it has a cross order of words and
phrases. It must be remembered that chiasmus is a syntactical, not a
lexical device. i.e. It is only the arrangment of the parts of the utterance
which constitutes this stylistic device. “ In the days of old men made the
manners” , Manners now make men” there is no inversion , but a lexical
device. Syntactical chiasmus is sometimes used to break the monotony
of parallel constructions. But whatever the purpose of chiasmus, it will
always bring in some new shade of meaning or additional emphasis on
some portion of the second part. Chiasmus can appear only when there
are two successive or coordinate parts of a sentence.
For example: Eat to live,don’t live to eat. I lead the life I love, I love the
like I lead etc.
Man is not a creature of circumstances,circumstances are the creature
of men.

39.Repetition
Repetition as a stylistic device is a direct successor of repetition as an
expressive language means, which serves to emphasize certain
statements of the speaker, and so possesses considerable emotive force.It
is not only a single word that can be repeated but a word combination
and a whole sentence too. Four main types in English literature:
1. Anaphora – Anaphora is the repetition of the first word of several
succeeding sentences or clauses (a …, a …, a …); E.g It was the best of
times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age
of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity,
it was the…
2. Epiphora – the repetition of the final word.for ex: the sky was
bright.Her simile was bright .My heart was bright.
3. Anadiplosis– the end of one clause/sentence/verse
line/stanza/paragraph is repeated at the beginning of the following one
(… a, a …).
 4. Framing or ring repetition – the repetition of the same unit at the
beginning and at the end of the same sentence (a …, … a).
For Exaple:I told you how to do,I told you when to do it,I told you why
to do it,yet you did nothing.

40. Enumeration,Suspense
Enumeration is a stylistic device by which separate
things,objects,phenomena,properties,actions are named one by one so
that they produce a chain ,the links of which,being syntactically in the
same position .
Ex;famine,despair,cold ,thirst and heat had done Their work on them by
turns….’’(G.G.Byron) .Enumeration are listed one after another .The list
may produce different impression on the reader. From semantic point of
view there are 2 types of enumeration:homogenous and heterogoneous
. Other parts of speech such as verbs, adjectives ,adverbs and participles
may easily be used in enurmeration.
Suspense-Suspense is a deliberate delay in the completion of the
expressed thought. What has been delayed is the main task of the
utterance, and the reader awaits the completion of the utterance with an
ever increasing tension. Suspense is the deliberate slowing down of the
thought, postponing its completion till the very end of the utterance .Thus
the reader's attention is held and his interest kept up
For example: “Mankind, says a Chinese manuscript, which my friend
was obliging enough to read and explain to me, for the first seventy
thousand ages ate their meat raw.” (Ch. Lamb)

41) Particular ways of combining parts of the

utterance;
Asyndeton;
Asyndeton is a Greek word meaning unreleated. In this technique,
conjunctions are omitted and only commas are used instead. This speed
up the rhythm of the passage. Asyndeton is deliberate avoidance of
conjunctions in constructions in which they would normally used . For
example; “He couldn’t go abroad alone, the sea upset his liver, he hated
hotels.”Asyndeton helps the author make each phrase or word sound
independent and significant. Asyndeton is used in speech, written prose,
movies, poetry, lyrics.
Polysyndeton;
Polysyndeton is a stylistic device that combines sentences, phrases or
words by using conjunctions before each component. For example;
Heput on his coat and found his mug, and plate, and knife,and went
outside. Repetition of conjunction to sand other means of
communication makes the idiom more rhythmic. Polysyndeton has a
splitting(distintegrating) function. “I love Jack, but he loves Ann, but
she likes Mike.”
The Gap Sentence Link; Attachment
Gap Sentence Link- mainly in various characteristics of the character’s
voice- dialogue, speech found in the story. For example; “Prison is
where she belongs. And my husband agrees one thousand per cent.”The
second part of the statement is seperated from the first part by a full stop.
The second part appears as an after thought. Gap sentence link moves
the reader’s, listener’s suppositions, connections and associations. Gap
sentence link is generally indicated by “ and” or “ but”. It is based on the
characteristics of spoken language.

42) Asyndeton; Polysyndeton

Asyndeton is a Greek word meaning unreleated. In this technique,
conjunctions are omitted and only commas are used instead. This speed
up the rhythm of the passage. Asyndeton is a deliberate avoidance of
conjunctions in constructions in which they would normally used . For
example; “He couldn’t go abroad alone, the sea upset his liver, h ehated
hotels.” Asyndeton helps the author make each phrase or word sound
independent and significant. Asyndeton in speech- this kind of tool is
more effective in oral speech. For example; “I came, I saw, I
conquered”. Translate from the Latin saying “ Veni, Vidi,Vici”. These
are words by Julius Caesar describing one of his greatest victories.
Asyndeton is also used in written prose. Asyndeton in movies-makes
this movie memorable. Asyndeton is better in poetry and lyrics.

Polysyndeton
Polysyndetonis a stylistic device that combines sentences, phrases or
phrases by using conjunctions before each component. For example; He
put on his coat and found his mug, and plate ,and knife, and went
outside.Repetition of conjunctions and other means of communication
makes the idiom more rhythmic. Polysyndeton has a splitting function.

43) The Gap Sentence Link;

Together with polysyndeton and asyndeton, attachment(GPL) belongs to
various types of connection used within the sentence or between
sentences.Gap Sentence Link- mainly in various characteristics of the
character’s voice- dialogue, speech found in the story. For example;
“Prison is where she belongs. And my husband agrees one thousand per
cent.” The second part of the statement is seperated from the first part
by a full stop. The second part appears as an after thought. Gap sentence
link moves the reader’s, listener’s suppositions, connections and
associations. Gap sentence link is generally indicated by “ and” or “
but”. It is based on the characteristics of spoken language.

44) Ellipsis
The deliberate omission of one or more words in the sentence for
definite stylistic purpose is called the stylistic device of ellipsis.Ellipsis
is a typical phenomenon in conversation ,arising out of the situation.This
typical feature of the spoken language assumes a new quality when used
in the written language.It becomes stylistic device.
Ex: ’See you tomorrow, ’Had a good time?’
Ellipsis is absence of one or both principal parts(the subject, the
predicate in the sentence ).In any case these parts are easily restored
from the context.
Ex;”Where is the man I’m going to speak to?-Out in the garden
EX;A dark gentleman….A very bad manner’’
Ellipsis helps to avoid a lot of redundancy.
Ex: ’’She can help with the housework; Nancy can too’’.
45. Aposiopesis (BREAK-IN-THE-NARRATIVE)
Aposiopesis which means ‘silence’ in Greek denotes deliberate
abstention from continuing the utterance to the end. The speaker (writer)
either starts a new utterance or stops completely. A sudden break in
speech often occurs in the oral type of speech. It is caused by strong
emotion or some reluctance to finish the sentence. Aposiopesis is
marked graphically by a series of dots or a dash. It is often used in
represented speech. Graphical expressive means, such as dash and dots
are necessary in aposiopesis. e. g. “On the hall table there were a
couple of letters addressed to her. One was the bill.The other...”.
Sudden break in the narration has the function to reveal excited state of
the speaker. Sometimes the interruption is an artificial choice the author
makes for a dramatic effect. e. g. "The fire surrounds them while -- I
cannot go on."
Aposiopesis is a wonderful and flexible technique for showing a
character's overcharged emotions. Aposiopesis is a device which
dictionaries define as "A stopping short for rhetorical effect."

46.QUESTION-IN-THE-NARRATIVE
(RATIOCINATIVE QUESTION)
A figure in the form of a question which a speaker often asks and often
answers himself: “For what is left the poet there? For Greeks a blush –
for Greece a tear.” (G. B.) Question in the narrative changes the real
nature of a question and turns it into a stylistic device. A question in the
narrative is asked and answered by one and the same person, usually the
author. Question in the narrative is very often used in oratory.
Question–in–the–narrative may also remain unanswered and contain
only the hints of possible answers, as in the following example: E. g
"How long must it go on? How long must we suffer? Where is the end?
What is the end? " (Norris)
Question–in–the–narrative is very often used in oratory , here , it is
necessary to direct the listener’s attention to the speaker, absorb what is
said , and prepare for the next one.

47.REPRESENTED SPEECH
Represented, or reported speech is the representation of the actual
utterance by a second person, usually by the author, as if it had been
spoken, whereas it had not been spoken, but is only represented in the
author’s words: “Could he bring a reference from where he now was?
He could.”
There are 3 ways of reproducing character's speech. 1. direct speech 2.
indirect speech (reported speech) 3. represented speech. There is also a
device which conveys to the reader the unuttered or inner speech of the
character, his thoughts and feelings. This device is also called
represented speech.
Represented, or reported speech, is a stylistic device peculiarly
combining characteristic features of direct and indirect speech. It is a
comparatively young stylistic device dating its increasing popularity
from the end of the last century.
Represented speech exists in 2 varieties: uttered represented speech and
unuttered or inner represented speech.

48,49. STYLISTIC USE OF STRUCTURAL

MEANING
RHETORICAL QUESTION-Rhetorical question (from Greek- “an
orator”) – a statement reshaped into a question, generally a complex one:
Without a subordinate clause a rhetorical question would lose its specific
quality and might be regarded as an ordinary question. Rhetorical
questions are often asked in distress, or anger. E.g.: "What have I done
to deserve this? " (The implication: I have done nothing to deserve this.
Rhetorical question – a figure of speech based on a statement expressed
in an interrogative form, which requires no answer on the part of the
reader or speaker: “What is this life if, full of care, we have no time to
stand and stare?”
LITOTES (A VARIANT OF PERIPHRASIS)
Litotes (Greek- "plainness, simplicity") a figure of speech which
consists in the affirmation of the contrary by negation. The structural
pattern can be as follows: "not" /"no"/ “The wedding was no distant
event”. Litotes is an understatement that shows the insignificance of the
object by means of a peculiar use of negative constructions.
The stylistics device of litotes is used to weaken the positive
characteristics of a thing or phenomen.
The structure of litotes is rather rigid: its first element is always the
negative particle “not” and its second element is, too, always negative in
meaning, if not in form.
Litotes is a varied specific form of understatement. e.g.
"He's not a very generous man. "
"She is not very beautiful. "

50.Phonetic or graphical EMs and SDs

The stylistic approach to the utterance is not confined to its structure and
sense. There is another thing to be taken into account which in a certain
type of communication plays an important role. This is the way a word,
a phrase or a sentence sounds. The sound of most words taken separately
will have little or no aesthetic value. It is in combination with other
words that a word may acquire a desired phonetic effect.
The phonemic structure of the word proves to be important for the
creation of expressive and emotive connotations. The acoustic form of
the word foregrounds the sounds of nature, man and inanimate objects,
emphasizing their meaning as well. Separate sounds due to their acoustic
properties may awake certain ideas, feelings, images, and emotions. The
sounds of language also create different responses in us and writers and
poets use this in their works. . The most common sound features are
rhyme, rhythm, alliteration, assonance and onomatopoeia.

51. Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia is a combination of speech sounds which aims at
imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, water, leaves, etc.),by
animals, by people, and by things (machines or tools). There are two
varieties of onomatopoeia: direct and indirect.
Direct onomatopoeia imitates natural sounds, as buzz, clap, click,
cuckoo, whistle, ping-pong, tick-tock, etc. e.g. Then with enormous,
shattering rumble, sludge-puff, sludge-puff, the train came into the
station. (A.Saxton)
Indirect onomatopoeia is a combination of sounds that echoes the sense
of the utterance Indirect onomatopoeia demands some mention of what
makes the sound. e.g. "... where white horses and black horses and
brown horses and white and black horses and brown and white horses
trotted tap-tap-tap tap-tap-tappety-tap over cobble stones.
The sound /w/ may reproduce the sound of wind: "Whenever the moon
and stars are set,Whenever the wind is high, All night long in the dark
and wet A man goes riding by.
Indirect onomatopoeia sometimes called “echo writing”: “And the
silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain” (E. A. Poe)

52.Alliteration
Alliteration (from Latin ad- “near” and littera- “a letter”, i.e. “letters
near”) – repetition of similar consonant sounds (usually at the beginning
of successive/closely following words) to give a melodic effect to an
utterance. E.g.: a Monday morning meeting, the silver sweep of the sea.
Alliteration is therefore sometimes called initial rhyme. Alliteration in
The English language is deeply rooted in the traditions of English
folklore. It is frequently used as a well-tested means not only in verse
but in emotive prose, in newspaper headlines, in the titles of books, in
proverbs and sayings. Ex: the phrase "buckets of big blue berries"
alliterates with the consonant b. E.g.: "Blind as a bat"; and in the titles
of books: "Sense and Sensibility" (J. Austin)

53.Rhyme,Rhythm,Assonance
Rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound
combination of words. Identity and similarity of sound combinations
may be relative, distinguishing between full rhymes and incomplete
rhymes.
1.True/perfect/full rhyme.Identical sounds correspond exactly. For ex:
Boat-float;might-right;day-say.
2.Incomplete/imperfect/half rhyme.They can be divided into two
groups:vowel rhymes and consonant rhymes.For example ; for
vowel :Flesh-fresh-press
Example for constant :tale-tool-treble-trouble
3.eye-rhyme where the letters and not sounds identical.For
example:flood-brood.
4.Couplet rhymes:aa-məsnəvi
The seed ye sow,another reaps;a
The wealth ye find ,another keeps;a
5.Triplet rhymes:aaa:-üçlü
And on the leaf a browner hue,(a)
And in the heaven that clear obscure,(a)
So softly dark,and darkly pure ,(a)
6.Cross rhymes:abab:-aşma
It is the hour when from the boughts (a)
The nightingales ‘ high note is heard (b)
It is the hour when lovers’ vows (a)
Seem sweet in every whispered word (b)
7.Frame(ring rhymes):abba:
He is not here;but far away (a)
The noise of life begins again (b)
And ghastly thro ‘ the drizzling rain (b)
On the bald streets breaks the bland day (a)
8.Internal rhymes occur within the same line:. E.g.I bring fresh showers
to the thirsting flowers’
Rhythm -the measured flow of stressed and unstressed syllables in
poetry, and the repetition of similar structural units in prose. The
unit of measure in verse is a syllable.The unit of measure in prose is not
the syllable but a structure, a word combination, a sequence of
words ,that is phrases ,clauses, sentences, even syntactical wholes.
Rhythm in a work of literature is used to specify and intensify emotions
and thoughts. Rhythm reveals itself most conspicuously in music, dance
and verse.
Assonance is the repetition of similar vowel sounds.For ex:about the
house,moaning and groaning.
Some common conditions that assonance constructions include...
1.The repetitive sound must be that of vowels (A,E,I,O,U)
2.Some literary experts may argue that the assonance construction
cannot be a part of similar rhyme or a rhyme scheme.
Assonance is found in several forms prose and poetry. For ex:
“Or hear old Triton blow his wreathed horn.
Or hear old Triton blow his wreathed horn”.

54. Functional styles of the English language. The

Belles-Lettres style
Functional style FS became and remains an international,very important
trend in style study.
Professor I.R.Galperin distinguishes 5 Functional styles and suggests
their subdivision into substyle in modern English according the
following scheme:
The Belles-Lettres Style. This style has a following substyle:
A)poetry
B) emotive prose
C) drama
Publicist Style: (sometimes it calls the language of media):
a)Oratory and speeches;
b)The essay;
c)Articles (in newspapers, magazines, the radio and TV commentaries).
Newspaper Style: (sometimes it unites with publicist style):
a)The brief styles and communique news items;
b)Newspapers headlines;
c)Advertisements and announcements;
d)Editorials.
Scientific prose Style.
a)Humanitarian sciences;
b)Exact science;
c)Popular – scientific prose.
The Style of official documents:
a)Business documents;
b)Legal documents;
c)The language of diplomacy or the diplomatic documents;
d)Military documents.
Belles-Lettres Style is a French phrase meaning “beautiful “ or “fine”
writing .This style may be called the richest register or communication.
BLS makes ample use of other styles too.BLS has a unique task to
impress the reader aesthetically.The form becomes meaningful and
carries additional information. It has certain linguistic features:
1)genuine,not trite,imagery
2)the use of words in contextual and very often in more than one
dictionary meanings
3)a peculiar individual selection of vocabulary and syntax.

55. Scientific prose Style.Newspaper style.

The aim of a scientific work is to prove a hypothesis and to describe
scientific laws and new phenomena.Features;
1)Logical sequence of utterances
2)The use of terms
3)Sentence-patterns.There are 3 types :postulatory,argumentative and
formulative.
4)The use of quotations and references
5) use of foot-notes.
Newspaper Style was the last of all the styles of written literary English
to be recognized as a specific form of writing. Containing some
feautures: 1.brief news items;2.advertisements and announcements;3.the
headline;4.the editorial.
1.the Headline (the title given to a news item) is a main dependent form
of newspaper writing. The main function of the headline is to inform the
reader briefly what the text that follows is about. Headlines are very
short sentences or phrases.
2) Brief News items-the principal function of a brief news item is to
inform the reader. News item are essentially matter-of-fact, the language
of brief news items is stylistically neutral. The size of brief news items
varies from one sentence to several paragraphs.
Newspaper style has its spesific vocabulary features Special political
terms, abbreviations (UNO - United Nations Organizations); neologism.

56.The Style of official documents

The main function is regulative. It is used in the sphere of public
relations as the esablishment of norms and rules. Official documents are
written in a formal.There are substyles.
1.The language of buisiness documents (agreements,contracts,protocols)
2.The language of legal documents, law documents
3.The language of diplomacy (agreements, memoranda,note)
4.The language of military documents
Stylistic features of this style are: non-personal character, precision,
standard, imperative and Prescriptive nature.
Specific features of the official style: templet (pattern) text
composition, speech standard and Stereotyped ways of expression and
arrangement of the language means (cliches, standard
Vocabulary)Language means of the style of official documents:
graphic means: wide use of graphic means –Change of the
print.Lexical means: the use of special terminology to express
precision, repetitions, Grammatical means: nominal character
(predominance of nouns, a great number of nominal prepositions and
conjunctions. Compositional devices: the patterned structure of texts of
all the genres and substyles, declarative, ascertaining nature, neglect of
narration and discussion

57. Publicistic Style. (oratory and speeches, the essay

and journalistic articles)
The aim of publicistic style is to exert a deep influence on public
opinion, to convince the reader or the listener that the explanation given
by the writer or the speaker is the only true one. Publicistic style is also
characterized by brevity of expression. Publicistic style has some
substyles;
1) Oratorical 2)The essay 3)Articles
Unlike other styles it has a spoken variety -Oratorical style . Special
obligatory forms open the oration; Mr.Lords, Mr.President, Ladies and
Gentlemen. At the end of the speech the speaker thanks to the audience;
Thank you, thank you very much.
An essay –which can be moral, philosophical, literary etc. The essay was
very popular in the 17th and 18th centuries. Nowadays an essay is usually
used in a magazine or newspaper. Essay are written by one or the same
writer or journalist.
Article- all the features of publicistic style are to be found in any article.
Words of emotive meaning are few in popular scientific articles. The
language of political magazine articles differs little from that of
newspaper articles. Bookish words, neologisms are most frequent than
in newspaper articles.

58. Quotation
A quotation is a repetition of a phrase or statement from a book, speech
and used by way of authority, illustration, proof for further hypothesis.
What is quoted must be worth quoting, since a quotation will acquire
some degree of generalization. Quotations are mostly used in belles-
lettres style. Quotations are usually marked off in the text by inverted
commas (“ “), dashes (-). The use of quotations presupposes a good
knowledge of the past experience of the nation. Quotations are also used
in epigrams. In this case it possesses great power. Unlike epigrams,
quotations need not necessarily be short. Ex; “ Tell me and I
forget.Teach me and I remember.Involve me and I learn’-Benjamin
Fraklin.
“ I have no special talent . I am only passionately curious”-Albert
Einstein

59. Allusion
An allusion comes from Latin, it means hint. An allusion is an indirect
reference, by word or phrase, to historical, biblical, literary fact or to fact
of everyday life made in the course of speaking or writing. For ex; We
got a new Einstein in our school.2. Shakespeare talks of the herald
Mercury.The use of allusion presupposes knowledge of the fact. There
are some differences between quotation and allusion. First difference is
that no indication of the source is given. Another difference is of a
structural nature. Allusion is a casual reference in literature to a person,
place, event. Authors often use allusion to establish a tone, create an
implied association, contrast two objects or people.For ex; She’s a good
swimmer, but she’s not a Ariel.Allusion is deeply rooted in the traditions
of English folklore. For ex; Sense and Sensibility.There are many
advantages when you use an allusion; 1) don’t need to explain or clarify
a problem
2)make the reader become active 3) make your message memorable

60. Oxymoron
Oxymoron is a combination of words that express two diametrically
opposite notions. The plural is oxymorons or oxymora. For ex; Clearly
misunderstood.
Oxymoron is the use of an epithet or in attributive phrase that is
contradictory to the noun it modifies. For ex; beautiful sorrow, a
beautifully ugly face;Dark –light
Semantically there are two types of oxymoron; 1) evident composed of
dictionary antonyms (beautifully ugly)
2)non- evident composed of words that render mutually exclusive
notions and become contextual antonyms (jolly starvation)
Trite oxymorons are used in oral speech and fiction dialogue. For ex;
awfully nice
Sometimes oxymoron create an ironic or comical effect.For ex; cold
fire, living death.