Mechanical Properties : the behaviour of materials

under forces and deformation .

Modes of Mechanical Properti :

Tensile Bending compression

/ IIIIIIIIII

-
load
V

-4

(load applied
along the axis)
3
point bending ↳ point bending
3 ↓
↓ 3 4

I 2
2
I
Morsion
shearing 7
111111111111

L
a
Tensile properties : The properties that describes
fiber behaviour under forces and deformation
fiber-axis
applied along the is called tensile

properties .

principles of tensile
testing :

↳ Constant rate of
loading LCRL :

-
upper jaw"IIIIII
extension specimen -

lower jaw-

7 Vload
->

load

In this
principle ,
the load on the fiber is increased
at a constant mate and the load causes extension .
is At first the specimen is
gripped in a fixed
jaw and in a moveable lower jaw
upper .

is then a force (load) zero but

,
initially increasing
at a constant rate is applied to the specimen
,

in a downward direction .

iii the force extend the specimen untill it

eventually breaks .

in the
loading has they caused the extension .

2) Constant mate of Extension (CRE) :

R
/I((((( !

load
~ ->

extension
7
W Frew
In thi principle ,
the fiber is extended at a

constant nate and the extension causes

loading .
 i) At first fixed
,
the specimen is gripped in the

jaw and in the lower jaw which can

upper
be moved downwards at a
velocity by means

of a screw mechanism .

is the tension is
Initially ,
zeno ,
but the lower

jaw moves downward , the specimen is extended

and an
increasing tension is developed until

the specimen finally breaks .

in In this the
case ,
the extension causes
loading .

CRL 1235 specimen short or

long E-RR Fo pur same
loading I specimen break
EMIT
CRE I EMS Specimen short load exate 80s specimen
long In load ear wither break

E3253 Jo Me
:
,
long specimen : amorphous region infor de her load se-extension
EIGE Its citets break
 -
CRL

CRE

stress
load)
(g/d
~ ->

Strain()
-

centension)
If same sample is tested both in CRI and CRE
,

principle based instrument some discrepancies

,
were

observed in their stress-strain curves when the data

were overlapped in the same curve .

In CRL principle time required

,
to break the

specimen is higher than the CRE method .

Under CRI condition the rate of in both

,
loading
short and
long specimen is same but if the
specimen length in REprinciple is increased ,

the nate of loading will be decreased .

# Difference between CRL and CRE

CRL CRE

i the load on the fiber is is the fiber is extended

increased at a constant rate at .
a constant pate .

i the
loading causes exten is the extension
.

causes
sion .

loading
iii)
Y
upper jaw"IIIIII /I((((( !

specimen

lower jaw-
-

W . rew

Vload
in R
iv) R

extecm)
nsion
↑
↓ rad(ym)
Breaking
X
load
7
load
(gm)
~· ->
L
Breaking
extension

extension (cm)
7
~
# stress-strain instead of
Why we use curve

load-extension curve ?
the behaviour of an individual fiber under a
gradually
applied force extension
increasing or can be
express-
ed the load-extension where the load
by curve

is plotted against the extension The load is measured

.

and the extension in But

in
dynes or
grams em .

if we wish to compare different of fibers

types ,

load-extension
we can't compare
properly through
curve because ,
their cross-section diameter , ,
length ,

linear not That's load is

density are same .

why
normalised to stress and extension is normalised

to strain .
1gm =
181
dynes

load (gm or
dyness Extension (cm)
Stress -
Strain-
initia
linear
density (Denier) length (cm)
# An
example of load extension curve to stress-stra-

in curve ⑨

-
30 Den

250 Den Nylon

~
load Viscose
strebt
N

cym 30Den I (Pa)

250 Den

~ -
Viscose
Nylon

- -
-

extension (cm) Strain %

From the load-extension that

curve , it is
apparently seen

fiber But need to

viscose is
stronger than the
nylon .

compare this two fibers at same standard That's .

why the load is converted into stress

ension
(stress-density)
and extension is converted into Strain Strain J
initial
.

length
Then the load-extension curve turns into stress-

strain curve .
As it is seen, the
general shape of
the curves remain same but their relative position
have changed .
The
superior strength of Nylon is

clearly visible and the companison between the

of two of fibens
strength types is easier .
#Stress-strain curve of a semi-crystalline polymeric fiber :

Breaking Brea king point

or
stress I
tenacity
I.
I
8
· ⑧

~
Point
③
Yield ⑤ Strain hardening
Yield
stress .
X
⑳
⑱
⑤

M
-

M
④ plastic or permanent deformation
strebb ② Elastic deformation
A

configuration
O ⑪ Initial
↳ ⑧
⑧. ⑧

O B Strain
-
Yield strain >

Strain Breaking on

upto this 2-3 % maintain elongation at break

Look's law Stress . Strain
So,
Young's modulus-tand
-
stress
-

strain
= -
OA
OB
 of molecules
① Initial
configuration in amorphous region :

ab cd e
chain-1
Intermolecular
<

bonding
(between
chain-2
molecules a ↓'I d'e

Intramolecular
bonding (within chain)
-

② Elastic deformation with of

stretching shearing
&

itra-and intermolecular bondings :

a b c d e

a'6cd e

fiber follows book's law and behave like an

elastic
body .
③
Breakage of intermolecular
bondings during yielding
(Yield Point] :

py py
-

a'6cd e

④ Plastic or Parmanent deformation :

!
with further breakage of intermolecular bonds ,

molecular arrangements/orientation occurs where

large strain is produced with small increase of

stress .
⑤ Strain
Hardening :

a b cd e

a'6 cd e

Fiber
again gains strength till nupture dur to
strain-induced
crystallization .

stress is defined as the load

stress :
Generally
per cross-section But .
for textile material ,

stress-adensity .

It has two types .

true stress stress

Engineering
Engineering stress
.

⑪ true stress
 Stress True Stress
.
Engineering
① If the cross-sectional ① If the cross sectional
area is considered to be the area is
continuously monito-
same as the
original undeforred or known
during the

med
specimen ,
this is the test then it is called trur
,

stress stress
engineering .
.

② Engineering stress- e a
true stress-
interarea
③ a
> L
inEngineerin In true stress .

↳y E
I

o
④ N

~
A

stress Stress

> >

strain Strain
Elongation and Strain : When a
sample is

deformed
by stretching with tensile stress it beco-,

mes
longer .
This is called
elongation .

Eon
(AL)
Elongation() x100 %
=

Initial
length (1)
L AL
stress
->

Elongation has two types .

Ultimate
①
elongation .

⑪ Elastic
elongation .
 Ultimate Elongation Elastic elongation
. Ultimate elongation is i . Elastic elongation is

the amount of sample the

percentage elongation
stretch before it breaks defor-
.
Without
permanently
ming the sample .

Ro 2 .

A A

~↓
A

see
Stress I

>
7 11
>

Strain Strain
elongation
at
break
Young's modulus/Elastic modulus/ Tensil modulus :

It is parameter to express the stiffness

a
rigidity ,

of fiber of form
a or
yarn .
It
gives a measure

which is required to produce a small extension .

the higher the

Young's modulus the ,
more

resistant the fiber is stretched

to
being .

moduly Y tano-tes
Young's
=

Strain
,

if 04 then modulus ↑
, ,
Young's
Rigidity 4

stiffness
and lower at force or
elongation
load
 R

stress Highly crystalline (A)

e
~
0
-
- X
fined strain
>

Strain
Semi-crystallin (B)
Amorphous (2)

>

3
:
YA =
OX
Here stain is
,
fixed for all .

So, YAY YBY Ye because

YB =

of high to low stress .

Yz =

:
stiffness : A >B>C

Rigidity : A >B>c
Work of napture or toughness or work to break :

Work of nupture is the work on which

energy
is
required to break the specimen .

-
F
.........
...
...
.

. . . .is
-
/
-Area (toughness
-
--

......
- .. or

....... /

.
-

d ↑
of
loc work
rupture)
- -
.
↑
E &

- :
.......... .......
↑ /

~ ↑
.....

⑨ -

Extension

If a fiber under a load F ,

increasing in length is de
then ,

Work done = Exdl

:
total work dom to break the fiber-work of rupture
-

gbreak qxdl
O
 Brittle Structure : If fiber rupture occurs

night after the elastic elongation ,

then brittle
structure is formed .

stress
R

⑯
e
Fracture Strain
Strain 5%

111111111 111111111

"I
III
III
III

III
X

↳
m

Crystallin
 of a fiber
Ductility :
Ductility is the
ability
tensiv load rather it breaks
to stretch against .

Ductil fracture : If the fiber is able to deform

under tensile stress then ductile fracture is

,

formed
Yield point

-
.

B deformation
plastic

l
↑
stress
Elastic deformation

7
7

strain
111111111

"
111111111

Wo W
2

n
>

i
i

Semi-exystalline
# Information from stress-strain curve :

·
A

-
stress
a

- 7

stain
A
Highly Crystalline
: :

is Draw natio 12
Application
:
:

oriented
is
Highly tyre cord conveyor belt
, ,

iii)
Strength is
high pope .

iv) Brittleness is high

vs Low
ability to elongate
B :
Semi-crystalline :

is Draw natio : 8-9

i Amorphous + crystalline structure

iii Ductile
(ability to stretch
against tensive loads .

is is
toughness

I
high .

Application :

to deform
)
Ability .

Bullet proof rest

,
car air-

bag .

C :
Amorphous :

is
Plasticity is
high .

ii)
Elasticity is
high .
 the of a fiber
tenacity tenacity is the
: mass

stress at break It is the

.

customary measure

of
strength of fiber
yawn
a or .

Mass stress-
density
wa
tenacity -

long
making

Breaking length :
Breaking length is a theoretical
of a
length fiber/yawn/rope at which it breaks
under its own
weight when hanging freely in
vertical direction
. However it is the
, length of the
specimen whose weight equals the
breaking load .

of
It is an
alternating method
expressing strength
of
fiberyarn/nope .
It is also known as "free

self-support length"
19

breaking length" or

RKM stands for "Reisskilometer" in German ,

"Resistance Kilometrique" in French and

"Resistance Kilometer" in Indian Sub-continent .

Application
-8
①
Helicopter long line
⑪ Bunger Jumping
⑪ Mountain
climbing pope
⑭
Hanging bridge .

Breaking length (kms tenacity (g/ter

#If a loo Denier breaks at load
yarn a

of
185g ,
calculate the
tenacity and
breaking
of
length yarn .

sal : we know,
- ster= Den
:
tex =

1 1 = =
11 11
:

...
tenacity
-

and
somity te e

-
= 16065 gonftex .

load
...

Breaking length-making
density

m
I

100gm
9000m
 =16650m

=16 65km
-

Numerically tenacity breaking length

So, .

for which
Breaking Strength : The
strength a

material (yarn fiber breaks

, .

F my
Breaking strength (Pa)
=
-

A Aper
#Determination of Yield Point :

the point at which bending occurs is called

"Yield Point" and this point is characterized

"Yield stress" and "Yield Strain"

by the :

Meredith method of
finding vield Point :

① Draw a
straight line from the
origin to the

breaking point
.
⑪ then draw a
parallel line of the first line .

⑪
Finding the
bending point carefully which is
the
yield point .

⑭ Then draw two perpendicular line from

the the two axis with the
yield point to

help of set square .

↑
#Draw two stress-strain curve
having
-

same
tenacity and
elongation at break but
different moduly
Young's .

tenacity 8.
8

!
-
stress
(ym/ter)
~ strain(Y)' elongation
 #Draw two stress-strain curve
having
-

same
tenacity elongation
,
at break
toughness but
,

different moduly
Young's .

stress e
(ym/ter)

Strain (")'
 #Draw two stress-strain curve
having
-

same
tenacity elongation
,
at break
I
Young's moduly
different
but
toughness .

~
stress
(ym/ter)

Strain (")'
 #Draw two stress-strain curve
having
-

same
tenacity elongation at
,
break ,
Young's moduly
but different yield point .

(2)
yield point

stress Sient-
~ -
~
.

igmiters

Strain (")'

Use Meredith method to find Yield point

 Draw two stress-strain
# curve
having
-

same
tenacity elongation
,
at break
, yield stress

but different toughness .

stressfev)
(yml
~
/
· @.
⑤

Strain (")'
same
yield stress
 #Draw two stress-strain curve
having
-

same
tenacity elongation
,
at break
, yield strain

but different toughness .

strain
same

stress
(ym/ter)
~
-
·
Strain (")'
Sot (a) F
mg
: =

50
x 9 8
.
=
0 .
49N
=100

d =

50um
...
r 25 m
25x150m
,
=
=

0 .

49 N
...
Breaking strength
=

*x (25x106sV mr

=
249 54. x 106 Pa

=249 55 MPa.
.

(b) We know , load

tenacity-linear density
I
↓ (inch) =

28 Ne
 1
=> Ne=
[28dr
1
=

(38x50x86x39 3772 .

= 329 16 .

We know ,

Nex tex =

590 .
5

590 5 .

. tex - I
1 :

794
329 : 16

50
(i)
tenacity (gm/ten) 27 87 gr/ten
=

.
=

1 .
794

-49 00
0
(i)
tenacity (zN/ten) = =
27 31 -
Nex

1 N = 100 <N

alinch) =

Five
Nex tex = 590 5 .
 (a) F
5 mg
=

200 1 96 N
x 9 8
= .
.
I

1000

d =

80um
... =

40 / m =
40 x150m
196 N
...
Breaking strength
=

x 440x106V mr

=
389 . 93x106 Pa

=
0 .
38993GPa

(b) We know , load

tenacity-linear density
I
d(inch) =

28 Ne
 1
=> Ne=
[28dr
1
=

(38x80x86x39 3772 .

=
128 58.

We know ,

Nex tex =

590 .
5

590 5 .

. tex -
=

4 59
.

128 58
.

200
(i)
tenacity (gm/tens I
=43 .

55gm/tex
4 59.

1 96 x 100
.

(i)
tenacity (zN/ten) =

4 59.

42 70 :
<N/teR