INJIBARA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

DEPATRMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENIVRONMENTAL STUDIES

Research Proposal On: Assessing the roles of Land Management Practices in enhancing
Rural Livelihoods in Quarit Woreda, Northwest Ethiopia

A THESIS PROPOSAL SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY

AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES, INJIBARA UNIVERSITY FOR THE IN
PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR OF THE DEGREE
OFMASTERS OF SCIENCE IN ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT

Research Proposal On Assessing Land Management Practice And Its Implication On

Rural Livelihood In Case Of Quarit Woreda, Amhara Regional State, North West
Ethiopia
BY;
TIGIST TAMENE

Advisor Name; AMENE AFEWORK (Ph.D. Candidate)

December 2023
Injibara, Ethiopiaa

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 Table of contents

Table of Contents
Table of contents.........................................................................................................................i

List of figures.............................................................................................................................ii

List of Acronyms and abbreviations.........................................................................................iii

Key words.................................................................................................................................iii

Chapter one................................................................................................................................1

1. Introduction.........................................................................................................................1

1.1. Back ground of the study.............................................................................................1

1.2. Statement of the problem.............................................................................................4

1.3. Objectives....................................................................................................................6

1.3.1. General objective.................................................................................................6

1.3.2. Specific objectives...............................................................................................6

1.4. Research questions......................................................................................................6

1.5. Scope of the study.......................................................................................................7

1.6. Significance of the study.............................................................................................7

1.7. Organization of the study............................................................................................7

CHAPTER TWO.......................................................................................................................7

2. LITRATURE REVIEW......................................................................................................7

2.1. Concepts and definition...............................................................................................7

2.1.1. Land......................................................................................................................7

2.1.2. Land degradation..................................................................................................8

2.1.3. Land management practice..................................................................................9

2.1.4. Sustainable land management............................................................................10

2.2. Environmental aspects trend and practice of land management practice..................11

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 2.2.1. Land management practice in the world............................................................11

2.2.2. Land management practice in Ethiopia..............................................................12

2.2.3. Indigenous land management practice...............................................................16

2.3. Factors determinant to land management practice....................................................17

2.4. The role of land management practice for rural livelihood.......................................21

2.5. Conceptual framework of land management practice and livelihood.......................23

CHAPTER THREE..................................................................................................................25

3. Research methodology......................................................................................................25

3.1. Description of the study area.....................................................................................25

3.1.1. Location and climate..........................................................................................25

3.2. Research design and methodology............................................................................26

3.2.1. Research design..................................................................................................27

3.3. Sample size and sampling technique.........................................................................27

3.4. Tools and techniques of data collection....................................................................28

3.5. Techniques of data analysis.......................................................................................28

Time and Budget breakdown...................................................................................................29

Budget breakdown................................................................................................................29

Time frame...........................................................................................................................29

Reference..................................................................................................................................30

List of figures

Figure 1 Conceptual framework...............................................................................................23

Figure 2 Locational map of the study area...............................................................................25

Equation 1..........................................................................................................................................27

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 List of Acronyms and abbreviations

CBP Central Highlands Barley and Potato Production

CC Climate Change
CSA Central Statistical Agency
FAO Food and Agricultural Organization
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft for Technische Zusammenarbeit
ICRAF International Council for Research in Agroforestry
M.a.s.l Mean above Sea Level
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
SAERT Sustainable Agricultural and Environmental Rehabilitation in Tigray
SLM Sustainable Land Management
SPSS Statistical Package for Social Science
SSA Sub Saharan Africa
SWC Soil Water Conservation
SWCT Soil and Water Conservation Technology
SWM Soil Water Management
WFP World Food Program
SLMP Sustainable Land Management Program

Key words

Land, land management, livelihood

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 Chapter one

1. Introduction

[1.1.] Back ground of the study

Land is an important and key productive asset. Human activities, including hunting, foraging,
land clearing and agriculture began 12,000 years ago leading to the Neolithic Revolution.
This led to the abandonment oftransforms traditional hunter-gatherer lifestyles for sedentary
way of life through permanent settlements establishment and reliable food production.
Around 8,000 years ago, agriculture al land use expanded in Mesopotamia, Fertile Crescent,
China, India, and Europe. This led to complex societal organization with fertile land and
domestication of wild food crop species enabling nomadic tribes to form early towns and
cities (Source??).

Around 6,000 years ago, agricultural expansion led to the clearing of native vegetation and
domestication of herbivores. As human populations grew, intensive crop and livestock
management replaced native flora and fauna. This rapid land use change continues to
influence today (Source??). Capitalist value calculation views land as a free gift of nature,
leading to uncontrolled exploitation and environmental degradation (Source??).

The history of human civilization shows exampleslargely manifests of unsustainable land

management practices, such as deforestation, soil degradation, and societal collapse
(Source??). The 20th century saw the beginning of the mainstream economists' discussion of
natural capital, its significance for human welfare, and the impact of land degradation on
economic progress (Source??).

The natural environment consists of various valuable natural resources such as air, water,
soil, land, forest, flora and fauna that are fundamental to the survival of all of people in the
world (Motuma, 2017). However, these resources are under intense pressure from population
growth and poor management practices. If the world population continues to multiply, the
impact on environment could be devastating. Rapid population growth in developing
countries has resulted in less progress than might have been lost opportunities for raising
living standards, particularly among the large numbers of the world's poor (Anonymous,
1971).
The broad concept of land management practices refers to activities on the ground that uses
appropriate technologies in the respective land use system for the improvement of the
productive capacity of the land.

Farmers’ access to inputs, knowledge and skills delivering institutions is an essential

condition to enhance technological change and thus to accelerate production intensification.
For example, access to irrigation water and management knowledge permit higher cropping
intensity and reduce crop failure rates, and is expected to increase crop yields. Since most of
the technological innovations are input-embodied (e.g. fertilizer, high yielding crop varieties,
pesticides, herbicides etc.), supply of the inputs to farmers at the right time and price is
crucial to increase crop productivity. Generally, farmers with relatively small farm size have
poor access to extension service, for the inclination of the extension service (workers) is
generally towards external input using large farmers. This situation marginalizes small
farmers from using improved technologies. This again is aggravated by the preference of
input supply organizations for large and better-off farmers, for they are considered
dependable clients to use the services at larger scale.

Population growth and the increasing economic and technological push to exploit the land
and land-based resources have accelerated the breakdown of traditional value systems. There
are far more pressures on the land in Africa than anywhere else in the world because
employment alternatives are limited and sources for the generation of foreign exchange are
few.

A complex of factors mediates this linear relationship so that planning and managing land in
Africa throws up very complex issues. Among these factors are population pressure, land
tenure arrangements that affect land distribution, appropriation of land by the state and
companies for agriculture, mining, logging and pasture, as well as government policies that
favour or do not actively discourage over-exploitation of land resources. The latter is
particularly important because for Africa owing to the poverty associated with rural living,
there is a very important role for government in providing the enabling environment within
which resource management decisions can made.

An integrated approach to planning the use and management of land resources therefore
requires the involvement of all stakeholders (national and sub-national governments,
traditional authorities, non-governmental organisations, multi-lateral agencies and the

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international development institutions). Each of these have important roles to play in deciding
the uses to which land can be put, the capacity of nation states to reduce dependence on
agriculture and the effective management of land resources. It requires careful attention to the
identification of the uses to which every land unit can be put and such uses must be
technically appropriate, economically, viable, socially acceptable and environmentally non-
degrading.

In most African countries, over 70% of the population derive their livelihood from the land.
This extreme dependence on nature in subsistence farming, fuel wood extraction, and
hunting, etc. is also associated with growing poverty and is one reason for the reported high
rates of land degradation in the African continent (Kendie, n.d.). The problem of land
degradation (soil erosion, nutrient depletion and deforestation) is severe in the highlands of
Ethiopia, and especially so in the Amhara Region (Lakew , D. Menale, K. Beninet al., 2020)
although many organizations are carried out different activities for improving food security
and reducing land degradation in different parts of the country including Amhara region.
Nevertheless, many organizations are carried out different activities for eradicating poverty
by improving food security and reducing land degradation in different parts of Ethiopia
including Amhara region.

Agriculture continues to be the main livelihood for the populations of east African countries.
It is most important in Ethiopia, where it accounts 85 percent of the work force is engaged in
agriculture and produces about 45 percent of the total gross domestic product (Pender , J. F,
Place, and S, Ehuiet al., 2003). Most of Ethiopia’s population resides in the highlands.
However, much of the highland areas are not of high agricultural potential.
Since the 1970s, Ethiopia has been working to address land degradation through sustainable
land management practices such as soil and water conservation, soil fertility management,
and controlled-grazing. However, these efforts have not effectively reduced land degradation
(Source??). Factors such as the failure to consider indigenous practices, high initial costs for
poor farmers, and uniform techniques in different regions have contributed to the lack of
success. Traditionally, farmers have developed their own soil conservation and land
management practices, which continue to play a significant role in subsistence agriculture. In
the 1980s, the World Food Program (WFP) consolidated its support for rehabilitation of
forest, grazing, and agricultural lands, with the government adopting a watershed approach.

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However, efforts until 2000 were considered inadequate, with the remaining land estimated to
take seven decades to treat (Desta, 2012).
On the other hand, Sustainable Land Management Programme (SLMP) launched in 2008 to
address Ethiopia's agricultural productivity and land degradation (Engine, 2003). The project
consists of four components: integrated watershed and landscape management, institutional
strengthening, capacity development, and rural land administration. The first component
supports the adoption of sustainable land and water-management technologies by smallholder
farmers and communities in selected watersheds and woredas. The second component
focuses on institutional strengthening, capacity development, and knowledge generation and
management. The third component aims to enhance tenure security for smallholder farmers
and provide incentives for sustainable practices. The fourth component is project
management, adopting an integrated landscape management approach at the watershed level.

However, Land management practices in Ethiopia are complex and influenced by various
factors, including government policies, programs, and institutions. Factors such as
infrastructure development, agricultural extension, conservation technical assistance
programs, land tenure policies, and rural credit and savings programs affect awareness,
opportunities, and constraints at the village or household level. Household-level factors such
as physical assets, human capital, social capital, financial capital, and natural capital also
influence land management practices (Desta, 2012).
Recent empirical studies on sustainable land management practices highlight the complexity
of these practices. For example, a study in Ethiopia found that farmers' age, farm size,
perceptions of technology profitability, slope, livestock size, and soil fertility influence the
adoption of stone terraces and physical soil and water conservation structures (Amsalu,
2006).

1.1.[1.2.] Statement of the problem

High population growth and pressure on rural lands is a reality in Africa generally and in
Ethiopia particularly (Kendie, n.d.). The basic needs of the majority of the population are yet
unchanged. Land is a basis for many life support systems through the production of biomass,
that provide foods, fodder, fibre, fuel, timber and other biotic materials for human use. This
production function of land is vital because many African countries including Ethiopia rely
on primary products for export and other purposes (Kendie, n.d.). Thus, the sustained
performance of this function is vital to African development. This provides a compelling

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reason for conservation, sustainable use, planning and management of land
resource.However, high population growth and pressure on rural lands is a reality in Africa
in general and Ethiopia in particular (Kendie, n.d.). These problems highly threaten the land
resources throughout the continent. This provides a compelling reason for conservation,
sustainable use, planning and management of land resource (Source???).
Ethiopia is one of the oldest civilizations of the world and endowed with a distinct geography
that ranges from mountains and wetlands to valleys and deserts with a bountiful diversity in
topography, climate and biological resources. Such diversity offers potentially favourable
conditions for humans to live, though the potential has remained largely untapped (Amsalu,
2006). Consequently, More than 80% of the human population and 75% of the livestock
population are concentrated in and about 90% of the country's total agricultural produce is
generated from the highlands of Ethiopia (Shibru, 2010). Altitude plays an important role in
land management (Kendie, n.d.). But in order to secure their livelihoods and feed their
livestock, people have exploited the natural resources to a maximum and used marginal lands
for cultivation and grazing (Zenebe, 2015). Hence, Human activities, such as deforestation,
overgrazing, tillage, and unsuitable agricultural practices, are the main cause of accelerated
soil erosion (Mukai et al., 2021). A study by (Borrelli et al., 2017) found that 3.3% of the
world's land surface underwent land-use change between 2001 and 2012, with 2.4%
experiencing an increase in soil erosion due to cropland expansion, and 0.9% experiencing a
decrease due to soil and water conservation practices.
Ethiopia has implemented various land management practices for the past five decades to
address land degradation and increase agricultural production. Watershed management was
adopted by NGOs and bilateral organizations, with the Food and Agricultural Organization
(FAO) and the Deutsche Gesellschaft for Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) implementing
projects to address food insecurity. According to (Beyene, 2022), There are five types of land
management practices: such as, physical soil and water conservation, biological soil and
water conservation, agro forestry and forestry practice, gully control and water harvesting.
Land management plays a key role to make worse those problems through increased land
productivity by improving water use efficiency and water management, increasing soil
fertility, managing vegetation and attending to the microclimate (Source??). In addition, it
also improved livelihoods and improved ecosystems by addressing the problems of water
scarcity; low soil fertility, organic matter and reduced biodiversity, adapt to and mitigate

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climate change by adopting more versatile and CC-resilient technologies (Liniger , H.P.,
andR. Mekdaschi Studer, 2011).
Moreover, it is very critical to human well-being because it provides a range of biophysical
and socioeconomic goods and services that support the sustainability of ecosystem services,
livelihoods and greatly other human wellbeing. However, those land managements are
influenced by factors like education, age, family size, agro-ecology, income, market access,
credit, farming experience, livestock ownership of rural household (Aberash, 2021).
As studies show, Human beings are most instruments for the problems. In spite of its very
critical importance, soil is losing its productivity and fertility due to erosion by either wind or
water, overuse, salinization, use of agrochemicals that leads to irreversible degradation of
land and other multifaceted environmental problems. However, land management practice
could play a great full role to improving livelihood in general and rural farmer livelihood in
particular. Different studies were conducted related to land management practice in different
places, such as (Betigist, 2020), (Motuma, 2017), (Kendie, n.d.), (Gizachew, 2020),
(Alemayehu, 2022), (Arega et al., 2018), (Zenebe, 2015), (Aberash, 2021). The researchers
were primarily interested in defining what land management practices look like, evaluating
different land management practices in their study area, and the influence of land
management on land degradation. They also concentrated on areas that are prone to soil
erosion and the properties of land degradation. According to the researcher's knowledge,
there is a research deficit on the topic of evaluating how land management approaches affect
rural livelihood. This study focuses on land management practices and how they affect rural
livelihood, including chances for employment, generating money, reducing poverty, and
enhancing the general well-being of rural populations. Hence, Understanding these aspects
can help develop effective strategies for sustainable land management and rural livelihoods.

1.2.[1.3.] Objectives

1.2.1.[1.3.1.] General objective

Land management practices play a crucial role in shaping rural livelihoods, as they directly
influence agricultural productivity, natural resource conservation, and socioeconomic
development. Effective land management practices can contribute to sustainable rural
livelihoods by promoting food security, income generation, and environmental resilience.
This Study aims to highlight the importance This study aims to assess the existing of
implementing land management practices and explore their their implications on rural
livelihoods in Quarit woreda, Amhara region, Northwest Ethiopia Ethiopia

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 1.2.2.[1.3.2.] Specific objectives

Specifically the study targeted to;

1. Assess the current state of land management practices in the study areas.
2. Identify the major sustainable land management practices
3. Evaluate the implications of improved land management practice on rural livelihoods
in the study area.
[3.] Identify the key challenges and or constraints faced in affect in the
implementiimplementation ng of effective land management practices in the study
area.
[4.] Evaluate the implications of improved land management practice on rural livelihoods
in the study area.

[1.4.] Research questions

The study will be attempt to answer the following questions,

1. What land management practices are conduct in the study area?

[2.] What are the indigenous land management practices and its benefits on rural
livelihood in the study area?
2.[3.] What factors that affect land management practice in the study area?

1.3.[1.5.] Scope of the study

Thematically, tThe study will be focused on land management practice and its role for
enhancing rural livelihood. In additionMore specficallyspecifically, it will be emphasized to
identify major land management practice, assessing impact of indigenous land management
practice on rural livelihood and identifying the determinant factors of land management
practice in the area. Accordingly, the study will be bounded thematically, spatially, and target
population. Thematically, the study will focused on the role of land management for rural
livelihood. Spatially, the study will conduct in Quarit Woreda of West Gojjam Zone, Amhara
Regional state, Ethiopia. The study population was total population of Quarit Wereda, while
the target population was total households of Mircha Gonado and Enangiya Shimie Kebeles
from which the sample population was will be drawn drawn.

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 1.4.[1.6.] Significance of the study

The study will provide beneficial information to stakeholders and government and non-
government bodies regarding the contribution of rural household land management practices
for their livelihoods. In addition, it will help to create awareness on farmers to protect their
farmlands from land degradation. In addition, the result of the study will be contributed
fruitful findings to the farmers in the study area to understand severity of land degradation,
thereby implementing appropriate land management practices. The study will enrich the
existing literature that can be useful for agricultural experts by providing viewpoints
regarding the importance indigenous practices for land management.

1.5.[1.7.] Organization of the study

This study organized in to three chapters. The first chapter presents the introductory part, problem
statement, objectives, both general and specific objectives, research questions, scope and significance of
the study. In the second chapter, literature review, and conceptual framework on land management
practice and its implication on rural livelihood. The third chapter deals with the description of the study
area and methods that will be employed to conduct the study are included.

CHAPTER TWO

2. LITRATURE REVIEW

2.1. Concepts and definition

2.1.1. Land

Land refers to cropland, range, pasture, forest and woodlands (Woodfine, 2009). It has long
been a means of production and a source of income (Safronov, 2022). On the other hand, it
is a defined area on Earth's terrestrial surface, encompassing biosphere attributes such as
climate, soil, terrain, hydrology, sedimentary layers, plant and animal populations, human
settlement patterns, and physical results of human activity. (Batista, e Silva, 2011).

Generally, Land means different things to different people. It is generally defined as a

measurable entity divisible into parcels by means of mathematical and technical processes of
surveying and cartography. Land comprises all elements of physical environments to the
extent that they influence potentials for land use. It does not only refer to soil, it includes
relevant features of geology, land forms, climate and hydrology, the plant cover and fauna,
insects and micro fauna.

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 2.1.2. Land degradation

Land degradation is difficult to understanding in its totality. However, different studies define
Land degradation as the temporary or permanent decline in the productive capacity of the
land. On the other hand, it also defined as the aggregate diminution of the productive
potential of the land, including its major uses (rain-fed, arable, irrigated, rangeland, forest),
its farming systems (e.g. smallholder subsistence) and its value as an economic resource.
(Stocking & Murnaghan, 2020).

On the other hand, Some Studies define land degradation; as it is a phenomenon that reducing
the productive capacities of cropland, rangeland and wood land during a time of rising
demand for food, fibre, fuel, freshwater, fodder, household energy and income and it is both a
source and a result of climate change as well as a constraint to adapting production to climate
variability (Woodfine, 2009).

According to (Kendie, n.d.) about 45% of the continent's 30 113 million sq. km consist of
slopes of at least 8%. Also about 55% of the continent is higher than 500 metres above sea
level, more than 20% is over 1000 metres and about 1% is over 2000 metres high. These
shows the variety of topography and the vulnerability of much of the continent to erosion,
when the slopes are not well protected. For instance, Farming practices such as strip farming
and ploughing across the contours accelerate erosion and this has been one cause of much
land degradation in such areas.

Land degradation is a significant issue in Africa, causing severe environmental and socio-
economic impacts. It leads to a decline in vegetation, watercourses, and soil quality, affecting
food security, causing persistent poverty, and decreasing ecosystem resilience. Sub-Saharan
Africa, with 65% of the population being rural, is particularly affected. Soil erosion is a major
problem in Ethiopia, causing billions of birr in losses. Land degradation also reduces
livestock productivity, increases runoff, and contributes to flooding problems. It also disrupts
ecosystems, disrupting nutrient cycling, carbon cycling, and hydrological cycles. The
degradation of forests and woodlands impacts global biodiversity, changes in forest cover,
and may affect global climate change (Gashaw et al., 2014).

Land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas is a reduction or loss of the
biological or economic productivity and integrity of rain fed cropland, irrigated cropland, or
range, pasture, forest, and woodlands resulting from land uses (Lennart, Olsson, 2018). In
addition, it also a direct outcome of unwise agricultural activities in the past (Zenebe, 2015).

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The problem of land degradation is severe in the highlands of Ethiopia, and especially in the
Amhara Region (Lakew et al., 2020).

Moreover, Land degradation in Ethiopia is a multifaceted issue influenced by biophysical,

socioeconomic, and political factors. Factors such as unsuitable land use, poor land
management practices, poverty, and illiteracy contribute to the issue. The growing population
and interplay of these forces are crucial for effective resource management. Preventing or
reversing degradation can be achieved through nutrient addition, topsoil rebuilding,
vegetation re-establishing, and soil acidity buffering. Environmental principles for reducing
degradation include maximizing vegetation cover, replacing nutrients, and reducing water
flow.(Gashaw et al., 2014). Soil erosion and degradation are significant environmental issues
that limit food production, threaten climate change, and pollute air and water quality. In
Ethiopia, soil degradation is a major issue, with nearly two billion tons of soil lost annually
(Tesfayohannes et al., 2022). Consequently, A yearly loss of 1–1.5 percent of Ethiopia's grain
crop results from even small topsoil loss, which drastically lowers soil productivity (Fontes,
2020).

2.1.3. Land management practice

Altitude also plays an important role in land management (Kendie, n.d.). Traditional beliefs
in some parts of Africa considered mountains slopes as the abode of the gods. Thus
worshipped and protected the slopes of the mountain. This also helped to protect the
headwaters of various streams on which the people depended for irrigation of their vegetable
fields. These beliefs may have to be recharged with modern explanation of the need to protect
slopes to reduce degradation of such fragile lands(Kendie, n.d.). The broad concept of land
management practices refers to activities on the ground that use appropriate technologies for
the improvement or maintenance of productive capacity of the land. This includes activities
such as soil and water conservation, soil fertility management and controlled-grazing.
Farmers' awareness and attitudes can have a major relevance to land management and land
use (Zenebe, 2015). The goals of land-management strategies are to increase the amount of
carbon trapped in terrestrial sinks and prevent or minimize emissions (Izquierdo-Tort et al.,
2021).

2.1.4. Sustainable land management

Many actions can be taken to reverse land degradation trends. SLM is one solution and it is
the maintenance over time of the productivity and ecological integrity of rural landscapes,

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including forest, water and wildlife resources. SLM practices aim to deliver a range of public
goods, which include the rehabilitation of degraded production landscapes, protection of
watershed functions, expansion of carbon pools, prevention of forest degradation and
depletion, systematic replanting of felled trees and biodiversity conservation in production
landscapes. Measures to ensure SLM of forests could include the creation of forest reserves
with managed access, prevention of bush fires, woodlots, logging and harvesting permits
accompanied by replanting as well as forest management regulations and legislation
(Woodfine, 2009).

Activities on the ground that make use of suitable technologies to maintain or increase the
land's productive potential are included in the broad category of land management
techniques. Controlled grazing, soil fertility management, and conservation of water and soil
are some examples of these. Consequently, the sustainable land management approach places
a strong emphasis on identifying locally relevant, socially and economically acceptable, and
environmentally sound solutions. This could encourage the use of participatory land
management techniques to address ecological deterioration.

SLM practices are adapted practices for the range of land-use systems- and rain-fed and
irrigated cropping, grazing, and forest, as well as protected areas. Sustainable management
implies the appropriate and integrated management of crops (including trees and forage
species), livestock grazing/browsing, soil, water, nutrients, biodiversity, diseases, and pests to
optimize and sustain the delivery of a range of ecosystem services (provisioning, regulating,
cultural and supporting) for the present benefit without affecting the future generation
(Alelgn, 2021)

2.2. Environmental aspects trend and practice of land management

practice

2.2.1. Land management practice in the world

Land management is the process by which the resources of land are put into good effect. In
addition, it encompasses all activities associated with the management of land and natural
resources that are required to achieve sustainable development. The broad concept of land
management practices refers to activities on the ground that use appropriate technologies for
the improvement or maintenance of productive capacity of the land. This includes activities
such as soil and water conservation, soil fertility management and controlled-grazing.
(Enemark, 2006), (Desta, 2012). As different studies show, different land management

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practices are applicable worldwide. According to different studies, land degradation is a
serious problem that caused by both natural and human induced factors like education, age,
family size, agro-ecology, income, market access, credit, farming experience, livestock
ownership of rural household (Aberash, 2021).

Food production is impacted by increased competition for natural resources resulting from
Africa's growing population and rising food demands. In order to meet the world's food needs
while minimizing environmental degradation, a sustainable agricultural model is required,
such as Soil and Water Conservation Technologies (SWCT). This is especially crucial in
Ethiopia, where soil degradation is a serious problem brought on by wind and water erosion.
(Fontes, 2020).

Land degradation persists for a variety of causes. Therefore, an evaluation of various land
management technologies had to consider not only the technological tools at play but also the
strategies aimed at ensuring successful measure implementation, as well as the socio-
economic environment, markets, infrastructure, extension, and other services, as well as the
socio-cultural structures. The term "best practices" refers to the "best" methods currently
available to us; in the context of Terrific, "best" means methods that boost output while being
lucrative, efficient with a focus on speed. Nevertheless, they also have long-term benefits, are
simple to learn, accepted in society and culture, successfully embraced and implemented,
favourable to the environment, and suitable for all stakeholders, including marginalized
social groups (Gizachew, 2020).

2.2.2. Land management practice in Ethiopia

The agricultural sector in Africa is crucial for economic development, and sustainable
productivity growth is essential. Soil and Water Conservation (SWC) technologies can reduce
erosion, increase soil moisture, and increase land productivity (Fontes, 2020).

According to (Aberash, 2021), SLM is a crucial component of land use planning and policy,
enhancing crop yields, reducing poverty, enhancing community health, and achieving global
land degradation neutrality. It improves land uses like food security, energy supply, water
quality, livelihoods, carbon storage, and weather damage mitigation.

In developing nations like Ethiopia, the most important concerns for natural resource
management are those related to sustainable agriculture, and more especially, sustainable
land use. According to the same principle, sustainable soil management entails using soil,

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water, and plant nutrients from limited and only partially renewable resources for farming,
pastoral, and forestry in order to prevent or reverse the process of soil degradation and
preserve soil productivity for future generations.

According to (Gizachew, 2020), Small farmers are unable to implement efficient resource
conservation strategies because they cannot afford to do so until land security is ensured.
Farmers find it more difficult to adopt traditional techniques that cause famine, drought, and
land degradation. The ineffectiveness of conservation measures is partly due to their
development and transfer, and is further compounded by political impediments, poor
planning, insufficient resource allocation, and periodic drought. The extension system for
managing land and natural resources in Ethiopia is predicated on the idea that population
pressure is the primary driver of land degradation. Small farmers are unable to implement
efficient conservation practices due to poverty, and they will only make these investments if
they are certain of their land's security. Due to the long-term effects of traditional practices,
poor farmers generally have little interest in conservation, which leads to greater land
degradation, starvation, and drought.

Ethiopia has implemented various land management practices over the past five decades to
address land degradation and increase agricultural production. Watershed management has
been adopted by NGOs and bilateral organizations, with the Food and Agricultural
Organization (FAO) focusing on institutional strengthening and capacity building for
technical experts and development agents. Land rehabilitation projects, such as the World
Food Programme (WFP) and food for work assistance, have addressed food insecurity
through soil conservation structures, community forestry, and rural infrastructure works. The
Deutsche Gesellschaft for Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) integrated food security
program in South Gondar has also used an integrated watershed management approach.
Watershed management is widely considered a practice of soil and water conservation, with
five types of practices: physical, biological, agro forestry, gully control, and water harvesting
(Beyene, 2022).

Study shown that watershed development interventions can improve agricultural productivity,
job opportunities, household income, food security and used to reduce degradation and
increase crop yields (Tesfayohannes et al., 2022).

Since 1973/74, Ethiopia has implemented soil and water conservation practices to reduce
erosion losses. These include agronomic measures like tillage and contour planting,

13
vegetative measures like grass strips, and structural measures like bunds and waterways. Over
85% of plots have adopted these measures, with bunds retaining water while draining excess,
while grass strips increase soil cover but are prone to weed infestation and rodent harboring.
Artificial waterways conduct runoff water safely, with bunds preferred in moisture-deficient
areas and waterways in areas with excess rainfall (Fontes, 2020).

Land management practice in Ethiopia includes as follows:

i. Agroforestry
Agroforestry systems are land management practices in which trees and shrubs are produced
on the same land area as agricultural crops or livestock. Therefore, agroforestry systems
combine trees, crops, or livestock to increase diversity, productivity, profitability, and
environmental stewardship. Therefore, agroforestry systems can provide a sustainable
alternative to biologically simplified or low diversity cropping systems. Agroforestry systems
are also suited for the innovation of marginal land in both temperate and tropical biomes.
Improved soil quality, through organic matter input from trees and crops lead to increased
crop yield, ensuring the long-term security of food and soil.

The World Agroforestry Centre “International Council for Research in Agroforestry

(ICRAF)” was established in 1978 to transform agroforestry from a science-based practice to
a science-based approach addressing global land-management challenges. Today,
agroforestry is recognized as a strong land-management discipline, contributing to global
efforts to eradicate hunger and poverty, rebuild resilient rural environments, and address over
10% tree cover in agricultural landscapes (Izquierdo-Tort et al., 2021). Agroforestry ranks
high among the significant initiatives in improving land management that have occurred the
world over during the past few decades.

The impact of specific management practices on mitigating climate change in various land-
management systems has been extensively documented in the literature. These include, but
are not limited to, the following: tree species, silvicultural operations, harvesting regimes, etc.
in forestry; fodder species, grazing management, etc. in animal production systems; land
preparation and tilling, nutrient management and manure/fertilizer use, irrigation, etc. in
agricultural systems (Izquierdo-Tort et al., 2021).

Agroforestry produces fodder for livestock, lowers rain drop erosive splash erosion, and
improves soil moisture conservation and retention. In addition, trees yield building materials,
fences, and fuel wood that can be sold for a profit. Regular revenue and employment
14
opportunities are also offered by agroforestry. By forming a multispecies plant community, it
increases soil moisture retention, nutrient recycling, productivity, and prevention of soil
erosion.

Ethiopian farmers are overly familiar with agroforestry, which is an old practice. It is also a
type of sustainable land use system that successively and concurrently combines agriculture
or animal husbandry with tree cultivation. It has enormous positive effects on the
environment and socioeconomic levels. The most prevalent agroforestry practice types are
woodlot, farmland, home gardens, and coffee farms. However, how farmers were distributed
and perceived regarding those different practices differed (Endale, 2019).

ii. Integrating crop and livestock and crop production

Population growth, urbanization and income growth in developing countries are fuelling a
substantial global increase in the demand for food of animal origin, while also aggravating
the competition between crops and livestock (increasing cropping areas and reducing
rangelands). Animals are an important part of many sustainable farming systems because
they recycle nutrients, provide food, power, and revenue, and turn agricultural leftovers into
marketable products(Van, 2004).

A complex adaptive system of crop livestock production is made up of many different

resources, ranging from different stages of production to food distribution and consumption.
These resources include land, animals, productive and non-productive assets, and livelihood-
specific assets. Crop-livestock integrated systems enhance food security, stability, workforce,
and sociocultural goals. Retaining a high level of biodiversity helps agriculture meet
consumer demands and fulfil societal goals while promoting sustainable agricultural systems,
maintaining food availability, reducing environmental degradation, and assisting in the
adaptation of agriculture to climate change (Asrat et al., 2018).

The livestock sector in Ethiopia contributes 12 and 33% of the total and agricultural Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) respectively, and provides livelihood for 65% of the population.
The sector also accounts for 12–15% of total export earnings, the second in order of
importance. Of the total household cash income from crop and livestock, livestock account
for 37–87% in different parts of the country, and the higher the cash income the higher is the
share of livestock, indicating that increased cash income come primarily from livestock,
particularly in the pastoral areas (Solomon et al., 2003).

15
In an integrated system, livestock and crops are produced within a coordinated framework.
Hence, the waste products of one component serve as a resource for the other. For example,
manure is used to enhance crop production; crop residues and by-products feed the animals,
supplementing often-inadequate feed supplies, thus contributing to improved animal nutrition
and productivity. Furthermore, Animals also provide manure and other types of animal waste
like Excreta. It has crucial roles in the overall sustainability of the system, Excreta contains
several nutrients (including nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium and organic matter, which
are important for maintaining soil structure and fertility. Through its use, production is
increased while the risk of soil degradation is reduced.(Van, 2004).

Generally, the overall benefits of crop-livestock integration is Agronomic (through the

retrieval and maintenance of the soil productive capacity), Economic (through product
diversification and higher yields and quality at less cost), Ecological (through the reduction of
crop pests less pesticide use and better soil erosion control), and Social (through the reduction
of rural urban migration and the creation of new job opportunities in rural areas).

iii. Soil nutrient management

Nutrient management is the process of managing the amount, source, timing, and method of
nutrient application with the goal of optimizing farm productivity. It includes developing
nutrient budgets that consist of knowing the amounts of nutrients present in the soil,
determining the amount of nutrients needed by the crop, accounting for all the potential
sources of nutrients, and then applying manures, composts, irrigation water, or inorganic
fertilizers to meet the nutrient need of the crop. However, Farmers who over apply fertilizer
may cause detrimental effects on the environment, such as nutrient leaking into surface and
groundwater bodies. For instance, because excess nitrogen surpasses the national drinking
water limit, it can harm young children, the elderly, horses, and ruminants (Athens, 2009).

iv. Structural Soil and water Conservation Methods

Ethiopia, a Sub-Saharan African country, relies heavily on rain-fed agriculture for
employment and GDP. However, the country's farmers, who cultivate one hectare of food
crops and livestock, are increasingly dependent on natural conditions and cannot tolerate
further soil productivity deterioration. Soil and water conservation is crucial for the
sustainable development of the agricultural sector and the economy. Since the mid-1970s and
80s, efforts have been made to conserve soil and water in Ethiopia, focusing on highland
areas with food deficits. Despite these efforts, some farmers have destroyed erosion-

16
controlling structures without incentives, highlighting the need for more sustainable practices
(Birhanu & Meseret, 2014).

(Gizachew, 2020) states that, by lowering ground slope gradients through the creation of
terraces, ditches, and water harvesting structures, structural soil conservation techniques
manage erosion. Intercropping, crop rotation, animal farming, arable cultivation, cut and
carry, managing grazing, and the use of semi-permanent crops like cassava and enset are
examples of farming techniques that lower input use and boost output. Moreover, these
methods encourage the voluntary planting of crops like sweet potatoes and legumes. These
practices enhance soil fertility and improve its structure and water-holding capacity. While it
offers numerous benefits, soil conservation has its own set of challenges that can hinder its
widespread implementation. One of the primary obstacles is the lack of knowledge or
awareness among landowners.

Ethiopia has implemented several kilometres of soil and water conservation measures on
croplands, but farmers have not sustainably used these structures. This failure is mainly due
to planners and implementing agencies neglecting local biophysical and socio-economic
realities (Birhanu & Meseret, 2014).

2.2.3. Indigenous land management practice

Indigenous knowledge is crucial for protecting land for future generations by ensuring natural
balance, supporting plant life, and improving soil fertility, moisture retention, and plot
fencing through land management practices (Karse, 2014). Land management practices
divided in to Physical land management practices and Biological land management practice
(Simeneh, & Wasihun, 2021). Accordingly, The most commonly applied land management
practices of the study area are application of organic manure, crop rotation, Agro forestry,
Mixed cropping, (Biological land management practice) crop residue, counter farming,
residue management, tillage and weeding (Used to improve soil fertility and increase crop
productivity), crop-livestock production. These practices are crucial for enhance livelihood
generally and rural livelihood particularly.

2.3. Factors determinant to land management practice

Agricultural land is a scarce resource in the highlands of Ethiopia. It constitutes the

fundamental base of rural livelihoods (Miheretu & Yimer, 2017). However, Land
management is a major worldwide concern because of the pressure that population growth is

17
placing on the planet's limited resources and the rapid degradation of land and water supplies,
particularly in Ethiopia. Land management decisions made by farmers are impacted by a
variety of factors, including social capital, family labour availability, agricultural experience,
information access and household resources. Strategies for sustainable land management
should build on these elements, stress the group effort, and take into account the social,
economic, cultural, and biophysical contexts. It is important to actively involve farmers in the
micro level implementation of site-specific land management practices (Adimassu et al.,
2012). Current agricultural areas are being utilized more intensely for food production as
available agricultural land becomes scarcer. To mitigate environmental effects, policies and
technology for sustainable land management must be developed. Soil erosion is the major
environmental problem in Ethiopia. In response to this problem, the country has been in
continuous struggle to adopt land management practices. However, Land management
practices are impacted by a number of factors, including laws, infrastructural development,
conservation efforts, agricultural extension, and household-level factors like material
belongings, human capital, social capital, financial capital, and natural capital. Traditional
knowledge is under threat in Africa due to a number of issues such as urbanization,
education, emigration, poverty, climate change, and ecological degradation. Sustainable land
management strategies are influenced by a number of other factors, including agricultural
input utilization, crop yield, land ownership, labour force availability, and plot level features
(Gizachew, 2020), (Betigist, 2020).

Ethiopian land management techniques are intricate and impacted by a wide range of
elements, such as institutions, policies, and plans of the government. These include policies
affecting to land tenure, conservation support, agricultural extension, infrastructural
development, and rural credit and savings schemes. Land management techniques are also
influenced by household-level variables such as material possessions, human capital, social
capital, and natural capital (Desta, 2012). For instance, Watershed management practices face
social, economic, and natural challenges, including land shortage, lack of resource awareness,
disagreements between households and local leaders, youth resistance to conservation,
climate variability, and lack of follow-up, knowledge, water scarcity, low agricultural
technology skills, and lack of sector integration (Meaza, 2015). Therefore, the major
determinants of land management practices are as follows.

i. Economic Factors

18
Low investments in sustainable land management (SLM) limit agricultural production in the
East African Highlands, leading to increased soil erosion, low productivity of land and food
insecurity (Nyanga et al., 2016). Farmers employ conservation methods for the soil only
when they have the labour, capital land, and direct financial benefits. Land management
techniques are influenced by livestock ownership, with wealthy farmers having greater access
to manure and using more techniques to regulate soil fertility. Due to land fragmentation and
off-farm activity, poor farmers on smaller farms could be less inclined to invest in soil
conservation techniques (Gizachew, 2020). Several economic factors can influence land
management practices. Like Market Demand, Land Value, Financial Considerations,
Infrastructure and Market Access, Cost of Inputs and Technology, Global and Local
Economic Conditions.

ii. Environmental factors

Land management practices are influenced by a variety of environmental factors that shape
decision-making processes and outcomes. Various factors such as climate conditions, soil
qualities, physical features, water availability, biodiversity conservation, land degradation,
natural dangers, legal frameworks, and environmental restrictions also influences land
management activities. In dry regions, drought-tolerant crop types and climate-efficient
irrigation methods are essential. Fertilization plans and erosion control depend on the results
of soil testing and analysis. Slope, elevation, and landform are examples of physical
characteristics that affect land management techniques. For effective irrigation and crop
selection, water scarcity and biodiversity conservation are essential. Environmental
restrictions, land tenure systems, and legal frameworks also influence Land management
techniques.

There are diverse factors behind the low agricultural productivity in Ethiopia. Among others,
recurrent drought, erratic rainfall, pests, land tenure insecurity, population pressure, soil
erosion, overgrazing, deforestation, lack of efficient rural organizations and weak
institutional support (Desta, 2012).

Plot-level variations in biophysical characteristics, such as size, slope, and soil fertility, affect
farmers' decisions on where to invest (Adimassu et al., 2012).

iii. Socio cultural factors

19
Differences between farm households concerning social, economic and cultural
characteristics lead to differences in how much households invest in sustainable land
management (Adimassu et al., 2012). Increasing agricultural productivity is an important
challenge in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Since the 1960s, agricultural production in SSA
has failed to keep up with population growth. The situation is severe in Ethiopia,
particularly in the highland areas (Pender, J. F, Place, and S, Ehui, 2003). Demographic
factors includes gender, age, education, family size, influence in decision making,
experience in agriculture ability to obtain and process information, networking, financing
and credit sources of producers in the region (Animaw, 2019).

Sociocultural factors significantly influence land management practices, as they shape

people's attitudes, values, and behaviours towards the environment and land use.
Traditional Practices and Indigenous Knowledge, Cultural Heritage and identity,
Community Values and Norms, Land Tenure Systems and Property Rights, Social
Organization and governance structures, Education and Awareness, Demographic
Changes and Urbanization, Cultural Shifts and Globalization.

iv. Policy and Institutional Support Related Factors

Land users, governmental organizations, and other concerned agencies are among the
stakeholders involved in the effective management methods of the land demand team.
Farmers, more than anybody else, should get training on land management techniques
because they have the closest interaction with the land. In this instance, farmers who
contacted extension services received guidance on inputs, their application, and
management techniques. Extension agents typically set up demonstration plots where
farmers can learn and test new agricultural technologies and land management
techniques. The implementation of a natural resource management method that meets the
goals set forth by interested profits requires an appropriate policy framework. Action on
government policy does not happen unless there is political will to support them.

Farmers' decisions on land managements are influenced by government policies and

initiatives, which in turn affect issues such as infrastructural development, agricultural
research, land tenure, and macroeconomics. Policymakers face the challenge of
identifying and implementing appropriate policies and programs to mitigate the problem
of land degradation and help achieve sustainable agricultural development (Berhanu et
al., 2006).

20
 The policy options for different development pathways may be different. Meanwhile,
High agricultural potential areas with high market access may benefit from intensifying
cereal crop production and expanding perishable cash crops, while less favoured areas
with low potential may benefit from improved livestock productivity and integrated
natural resource management.

V. Technological Factors

Mechanization and precision farming are two examples of how agricultural technology
advancements have a big impact on land management techniques, improving sustainability,
productivity, and resource efficiency. Determining best practices, developing trends, and
using this knowledge to inform decision-making requires access to information and expertise,
including research findings and extension services.

According to (Negatu, 2005), Sustainable land management technologies are knowledge and
skill intensive; for instance, it requires knowledge and skill for preparation and applying
organic fertilizers (e.g. composting), for selection of compatible crops for inter-cropping and
legume trees for agroforestry practices, and for controlling soil erosion and waterlogging.
This situation asserts the crucial role of extension service and farmers training in the
promotion and application of sustainable technologies.

Population development and a lack of alternate fuel sources would frequently lead to a rise in
the use of dung and crop wastes for fuel rather than soil fertilizer. These circumstances may
also result in a decrease in the practice of fallowing or a reduction in the length of fallow
seasons.

Effective farming methods and technologies are the most realistic choice for promoting
economic growth, ensuring food security, and reducing poverty. The Ethiopian government
initiated a rural development program called SAERT (Sustainable Agricultural and
Environmental Rehabilitation in Tigray) over a decade ago. And installed permanent micro
dams throughout the region, aiming to bring irrigated agriculture to surrounding villages.
However, the micro dams may not always lead to widespread technology adoption or
increased agricultural productivity. Rather, the presence of standing water may increase the
prevalence of water-borne diseases, such as malaria and schistosomiasis. These may affect
technology adoption decisions due to financial constraints and reduced work time (Enemark,
2006).

21
 2.4. The role of land management practice for rural livelihood

Land management practices play a crucial role in shaping rural livelihoods, as they directly
influence agricultural productivity, natural resource conservation, and socioeconomic
development. Effective land management practices can contribute to sustainable rural
livelihoods by promoting food security, income generation, and environmental resilience.
A household may be enabled to gain sustainable livelihood security in many ways-through
ownership of land, livestock or trees; rights to grazing, fishing, hunting or gathering; through
stable employment with adequate remuneration; or through varied repertoires of activities.

The highlands of East Africa are home to the highest rural population densities in Africa
because of the attraction of the relatively cool climates, low risks of disease (e.g., malaria), as
well as the potential for high agricultural productivity (Pender, J. F, Place, and S, Ehui,
2003). In most developing countries like Ethiopia, agriculture takes the dominant share in
livelihood contributions. Therefore, to support the ever-increasing population pressure in
least developed countries agricultural productivity is the necessary condition to assure the
sustainable supply of food and stabilization of price (Kassie, 2013).

Due to complex and rugged topography as well as high rainfall over short period of time,
sustainable land management practices are important in the highlands of Ethiopia that support
over 75% of the population so as to increase land productivity and improve food security. In
line with this, over the last three decades, natural resource conservation interventions carried
out in the highlands to reduce environmental degradation, poverty, increase agricultural
productivity and food security (Betigist, 2020).

Large number of rural households are still dependent on natural resources for a range of basic
living requirements. Accordingly, Contribution of land-based activities to rural livelihoods is
important in both financial and social terms, and is probably greater than previously
appreciated within the whole extent of livelihood strategies adopted by rural households,
including transfers from formal employment and state incomes. Watershed management
assisted households in expanding their sources of income (Meaza, 2015). Accordingly, the
numerous water storage facilities boosted the availability of surface and groundwater, and the
conservation of biological and physical soil led to a rise in agricultural intensity and assisted
households in finding new ways to increase incomes while lowering environmental risk.
Sustainable Land Management (SLM) should provide economic benefits that offset land use

22
and policy costs. It should also contribute to improving livelihoods by reducing food
insecurity and poverty, aligning with community aspirations (Kansanga et al., 2021).
Land-based livelihood strategies are clearly more important than is usually recognised,
especially in direct provisioning (sometimes called ‘subsistence’) and as part of the rural
safety net. (Shackleton et al., 2010). Hence, most rural households probably derive
livelihoods from at least two of these broad categories (natural resources, livestock or
agriculture) at any one time. Studies recommended that, the land-based livelihoods that rural
people currently practise, and seeking ways to enhance their economic value might be more
appropriate than attempting to replace them with fully market-oriented or commercialised
approaches (Shackleton et al., 2010).

The livelihood diversification and sustainable land management determinant factors can be
grouped broadly in to household characteristics, socioeconomic characteristics, market
characteristics and asset endowments of the farm household (Kassie, 2013). Land tenure
rights in promoting long-term investments improve agricultural productivity, which
ultimately enhances rural livelihoods (Place & Otsuka, 2014).

Organic manure, crop rotation, agroforestry, and crop residue are all methods used to increase
crop productivity and improve household income. Organic manure, derived from animal,
human, and plant residues, releases nutrients after decomposition, similar to fertilizers. Crop
rotation reduces reliance on one set of nutrients, pest and weed pressure, and the risk of
developing resistant pests and weeds. Agroforestry combines agricultural and forestry
technologies for sustainable land-use systems.
Sustainable development (SLM) encompasses ecological, economic, and socio-cultural
dimensions, also known as the '3 Es' - Equality, Economy, and Ecology, which are
interconnected (Snodgrass, 2013).
Ecologically, SLM technologies – in all their diversity – effectively combat land degradation.
However, a majority of agricultural land is still not sufficiently protected, and SLM needs to
spread further.
Socially, SLM helps secure sustainable livelihoods by maintaining or increasing soil
productivity, thus improving food security and reducing poverty, both at household and
national levels
Economically, SLM pays back investments made by land users, communities or
governments. Agricultural production is safeguarded and enhanced for small-scale

23
subsistence and large-scale commercial farmers alike, as well as for livestock keepers.
Furthermore, the considerable offsite benefits from SLM can often be an economic
justification in themselves.

2.5. Conceptual framework of land management practice and livelihood

The conceptual framework provides a holistic understanding of the relationships between

land management practices and their implications on rural livelihoods. It highlights the
inputs, practices, intermediate outcomes, pathways, and mediating factors that link land
management to rural livelihood outcomes. The framework acknowledges the complex
interactions and feedback loops that shape these relationships and considers the influence of
external factors on the overall process. This framework can guide research, policy
formulation, and interventions aimed at promoting sustainable land management and
improving rural livelihoods.

Land management practices involve strategies and techniques to sustainably manage land
resources, such as soil conservation, water management, agroforestry, crop rotation, organic
farming, and sustainable grazing and livestock management. These practices require specific
inputs and processes, including knowledge and education, resources, technology and
innovation, and institutional support. The effective implementation of these practices leads to
intermediate outcomes such as improved soil health and quality, sustainable natural resource
use, increased agricultural productivity, and climate change resilience.

Livelihood outcomes of land management practices have direct implications for rural
livelihoods, including income generation, food security, employment opportunities, resilience
and vulnerability reduction, and social well-being. Feedback loops between land management
practices and livelihood outcomes are acknowledged, with knowledge and learning from
farmers and communities informing research, policy, and practice. Policy interventions and
institutional support also influence the adoption and success of land management practices.
Livelihood outcomes shape farmers' and communities' strategies and decisions regarding land
management practices, livelihood diversification, and investment in sustainable agriculture.

Land management practices Role of land management

practice
 Water & soil conservation
 Control grazing  Sustainable Natural
 Soil fertility management Resource Use
 Agro forestry & agro  Improved Soil Health24
ecology and Quality
 Livestock management  Increased Agricultural
 Organic farming Productivity
Land management inputs
Factors that affect
 Knowledge and Land management Livelihood out comes
education practice  Income
 Resource generation
 Policy and
 Technology and  Food security
institutional
innovation  Employment
intervention
 Institutional & opportunity
 Livelihood
policy  Resilience and
diversification
Support Vulnerability
 Livelihood strategies Reduction
 Social wellbeing

Figure 1 Conceptual framework

Source; Author, 2023

CHAPTER THREE

3. Research methodology

3.1. Description of the study area

3.1.1. Location and climate

The study was conducted in Quarit wereda, west Gojjam zone of the Amhara national
regional state. The wereda is bordered by Jabi Tehenan wereda in the southwest, Sekela
wereda in the west, Yilmana Densa wereda in the north, East Gojjam zone in the east and

25
Dega Damot wereda in the southeast. Geographically Quarit wereda extends from 10°45´00´´
to 11°7´30´´ North latitude and 37°18´30´´ to 37°34´00´´ East longitude with altitudes
ranging between1861 and 3519 meter above mean sea level (m.a.s.l), that extends from Birr
River valley to the part of Chocke Mountain chain.

As per the local classification (Hurni, 1998) the wereda has two main agro-ecological zones,
i.e., Dega (cool, humid highlands, 2300 to 3200 m a.s.l.) and Wayna –dega (mild and sub-
humid highland climate with elevation of 1861 to 2300 m m.a.s.l.). Its average annual
temperature ranges between 16°C and 25°C with an annual average rainfall of above 1000
mm (Yehenaw, 2019). Quarit wereda has 30 kebeles and the sample kebeles are Enangia
Shime and Mircha Gonado which are located to the south of mount Amedamit part of Chocke
Mountains. According to projection of 2007 national census data which was conducted by the
Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia (CSA, 2007) the total population of the wereda in 2019
was estimated to be 140,502 that based on growth rate (1.7%) of the Amhara region. Out of
this, about 69,494 estimated to be male and 71,008 were female. In terms of residence
location, about 4.1% are urban inhabitants. During the census time in (2007), the total
households were 25,402 that resulting in a total of 24,927 housing units that yielded an
average of 4.52 persons per household.

Majority of the wereda people means of livelihood and sources of income primarily
depending on mixed agriculture, where they produce both crop and livestock. According
Animaw (2019) referring to wereda Agricultural office report, the wereda has a typical rural
set up with about 90% of population making their living from subsistent agriculture and allied
activities. The total cultivable lands in the wereda are around 27,984 hectares. Crop
production is the major agricultural activity where the main crops grown in order of area
coverage include maize, teff, 15 wheat, barley, potato, horse beans and check peas. In order
of importance barley, wheat, potato, horse beans and chickpeas are major crops in the Dega
agro-ecology, while maize, teff, barley horse beans and check peas dominate in Wayna –dega
agro-ecology. These crops are largely rained. Livestock production is second key source of
livelihoods. The major livestock’s types reared by farmers are: cattle, equines (donkeys,
horses and mules), small ruminants (sheep and goats), chickens and honey bees (Animaw,
2019).

Quart Woreda is broadly divided into two livelihood zones, namely: Central highland barley
and potato producing (CBP) and Southwest maize, finger millet and teff producing (SWM)

26
livelihood zones. The CBP is a mountainous and hilly area with four seasonal calendar (Bega,
Kiremet, Tibi and Meher) while the extensive zone of SWM comprises three seasonal
calendar (Kiremt, Meher, and Bega). About 53 % of the woreda population is settled in CBP
livelihood zone and the remaining 47% of the population lives in the SWM livelihood
zone(Animaw, 2019).

Figure 2 Locational map of the study area

[3.2.] Research design and methodology approach

3.1.2.[3.2.1.] Research method

Onwuegbuzie & Leech, (2015) highlight the growing trend of researchers using mixed
research methods to gather meaningful results from both qualitative and quantitative data.
Accordingly, the study will be used a mixed method, involving both quantitative and
qualitative approaches to collect data. Qualitative methods, such as interviews and focus
group discussions, provide a deeper understanding of complex situations, while quantitative
methods, like semi-structured questionnaires, generate extensive information and provide
condensed results.

27
 3.1.3.[3.2.2.] Research design

In order to gather relevant data for the study, both qualitative and quantitative methods will
be used in a descriptive design. Descriptive statistics tools will be used to analyse the data
and provide answers to the what-and-how questions. In order to enable the function of land
management practices for improving rural livelihood, the study will use used the descriptive
analysis approach.

3.2.[3.3.] Sample size and sampling technique

In order to generate the required sample units, the determination of sampling Frame is
essential.

The basic sampling unit in this case was will be the rural farmers’ household who derive their
livelihood entirely from agricultural activities. Determining the size of the universe of the
frame also requires demarcation of the boundary in which this survey is conduct reasonably
with the available time and financial resources.

Sampling technique is used to select the representative sample from the total population
under the study. Without sampling, it is difficult to including the whole population. So, prior
to determining sample size of the study the area two kebeles will be selected purposively. For
each kebele sample house hold members areheads will be selected by simple random
sampling technique. Based on the 2015 Census conducted by the administration bureau of
Quarit woreda, the total household heads residing in the area of Enaniya Shimie and Mircha
Gonado is760 was 760 and 610 respectively. Following this, total sample size was
determined using the following formula of Yamane (1967) at 95% confidence level.

Where N = is total population of targeted kebeles

n= is sample size
n=1370/1+1370(0.05)2 =309 e = the maximum tolerable error value of 5% (e =
0.05)

Equation 1
[3.4.] Tools and techniques of data collection Data collection instruments

In order to achieve the intended objectives, the data for this study will collected from both
primary and secondary data resources. The primary data will be collected from sample

28
respondents through structured and semi structured questionnaire. Primary sources of data
will be collected by using household survey, focus group discussion (FGD), and key
informant interview (KII) as well as field observation made at rural smallholder farmers
farms. While, Secondary data will be collected from different published and unpublished
relevant documents. The questionnaire cover various aspects of all land management
practices mainly soil and water conservation, cause of land degradation and soil erosion, soil
fertility management, demographic and socio economic aspects that directly and indirectly
affect land management practices. The questionnaires will prepared in English but at the time
of interview, it will be translated into local language Amharic.

3.3.[3.5.] Techniques of data analysis

The study will use both qualitative and quantitative data analysis techniques to gather
analyze and interpret the collected datadata from respondents. Data will be organized and
analysed using descriptive and statistical methods. Qualitative data will be sort and
discussed using a narrative approach. Quantitative data will be interpreted using simple
descriptive statistics and presented in various ways. Data will be organized and analysed by
using Microsoft Excel and Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 27
software.

29
 Time and Budget breakdown

Budget breakdown

No Item description Unit Quantity Unit cost Total cost

measurement
1 Pen Packet 1 200 200
2 Paper Packet 1 500 500
3 Transportation Birr 4 300 1200
cost
4 Daily expense birr 5 100 500
5 Expense to collect birr 2 2000 4000
data
6 Laptop Birr 1 25000 25000
7 Flash 32GB 1 350 350
Tota 31750
l
cost

Time frame

No Activities October December January Februar March Apri July

y l

1 Topic selection 

2 Search of literature 

3 Proposal develop 

4 Proposal defence 

5 Questioner develop 

6 Data collection 

7 Data analysis 

8 Final thesis defence 

30
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