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Instruction for All Students 10th Edition

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 Tenth Edition

Creating Literacy
Instruction
For All Students

Thomas G. Gunning
Southern Connecticut State University, Emeritus
viii Preface

• Fuller discussion of literacy instruction in pre-K and K

• Discussion of why today’s first graders are better prepared for literacy instruction

Chapter 5: Teaching Phonics and Syllabic Analysis

• Added practice activities
• Added suggestions for using technology
• Discussion of sound and visual blending
• Discussion of single-sound and successive blending
• Explanation of split digraphs as an alternative way of presenting final-e patterns
• Expansion of major word patterns
• Expanded information on assessing phonics knowledge

Chapter 6: High-Frequency Words, Fluency, and Extended

Reading
• Suggestions for assessing the ability to read high-frequency words
• Expanded discussion of oral vs. silent reading

Chapter 7: Building Vocabulary

• Added information on word tiers
• Expanded suggestions for teaching new words
• Discussion of storytelling as an approach to developing vocabulary
• Explanation of an extended introduction for presenting new vocabulary words
• Added information on teaching morphemic analysis
• Expanded discussion of electronic dictionaries
• Description of a variety of vocabulary programs
• Expanded information on assessing vocabulary
• Suggestions for aiding students whose vocabularies are underdeveloped

Chapter 8: Comprehension: Theory and Strategies

• Expanded explanation of mental model theory of comprehension
• Explanation of techniques for integrating and synthesizing text
• Expanded discussion of role of interest in comprehension
• Added information on modeling strategies
• Suggestions for more thoroughly teaching students how to support responses
• Expanded discussion on visualizing
• Expanded discussion of embodied comprehension, which involves carrying out
actions specified by the text in order to understand the text

Chapter 9: Comprehension: Text Structures and Teaching

Procedures
• Added discussions of using text structure to aid comprehension
• Added suggestions for using questions to foster deeper understanding
• Expanded discussion of the steps in a guided reading lesson
 Preface ix

• Discussion of the importance of a text walk for struggling readers

• Discussion of the importance of providing adequate pre-reading preparation
• Explanation of guided close reading of informational text
• Expanded coverage of critical (evaluative) reading
• Discussion of reflective reading

Chapter 10: Reading and Writing in the Content Areas and

Study Skills
• Contrasting content-area with disciplinary literacy
• Discussion of shallow reading and ways to overcome it
• Expanded explanation of using writing to support comprehension
• Explanation of concept sorts
• Discussion of infographics
• Increased coverage of digital texts
• Discussion of the use of scaffolding to help student reads difficult texts
• Suggestions for using Simple English Wikipedia, digital aids, and differentiated texts
• Discussion of open educational resources
• Listing of high-quality informational websites
• Added information about using primary sources
• Expanded discussion of using content to teach English learners
• Added information about the importance of retrieval as a study skill
• Explanation of steps for preparing students for required assessments who are
reading significantly below level

Chapter 11: Reading Literature

• Expanded coverage of close reading
• Discussion of text-based interpretations of literature
• Expanded discussion of a close reading lesson
• Suggestions for using annotations
• Expanded discussion of reader’s theater

Chapter 12: Approaches to Teaching Reading

• Discussion of digital programs, blended learning, and adaptive programs
• Expanded discussion of thematic teaching
• Discussion of use of reader’s notebook
• Extended discussion of use of leveled readers
• Increased coverage of guided reading
• Expanded coverage of project learning
• Suggestions for creating a literacy program

Chapter 13: Writing and Reading

• Emphasizing the importance of building foundational writing skills
• Discussion of a lesson for developing a strategy for adding details
x Preface

• Expanded discussion of techniques and procedures for teaching revision skills

• Listing of sources that publish children’s writing
• Expanded discussion for holding effective writing conferences
• Suggestions for assembling mentor texts
• Expanded discussion of the role of author’s chair
• Expanded discussion of teaching English learners to write
• Discussion of Self-regulated Strategy Development, a technique that is especially
effective with struggling writers
• Teaching students how to write annotations
• Explanation of a guide for writing an argument piece
• Expanded discussion on the assessment of writing

Chapter 14: Creating and Managing a Literacy Program

• Expanded discussion of Universal Design For Learning (UDL) guidelines
• Discussion of teacher-created curriculum and resources
• Discussion of online curriculum resources
• Expanded discussion of working with parents
• Expanded discussion of using Internet resources both for instruction and
professional development
• Expanded discussion of Professional Learning Communities

Organization of the Text

The text’s organization has been designed to reflect the order of the growth of lit-
eracy. Chapter 1 stresses the construction of a philosophy of teaching reading and
writing, including the concepts of close reading and reader response. Chapter 2
stresses the need to prepare every child to be college and career ready and discusses
the diversity of students in today’s schools and some special challenges in bringing
all students to full literacy. Chapter 3 presents techniques for evaluating individuals
and programs so that assessment becomes an integral part of instruction. Chapters
4 and 5 discuss emergent literacy and basic decoding strategies, including phonics
and syllabic analysis. Chapter 6 explores high-frequency words, fluency, and the role
of extended reading in developing automatic word recognition and fluency. Chap-
ter 7 presents advanced word-recognition skills and strategies: morphemic analysis,
dictionary skills, and techniques for building vocabulary. Chapters 8 through 10 are
devoted to comprehension: Chapter 8 emphasizes comprehension strategies that stu-
dents might use, including those needed to read complex text; Chapter 9 focuses on
text structures and teaching procedures; Chapter 10 covers the application of com-
prehension skills in the content areas and through studying. Chapter 11 takes a step
beyond comprehension by focusing on responding to literature.
Chapters 4 through 11, which emphasize essential reading strategies, consti-
tute the core of the book. Chapters 12 through 14 provide information on creating
a well-rounded literacy program. Chapter 12 describes approaches to teaching read-
ing. Chapter 13 explains the process approach to writing narrative, informational, and
persuasive text and discusses how reading and writing are related. Chapter 14 pulls
all the topics together in a discussion of principles for organizing and implementing
a literacy program. Also included in this final chapter are a section on intervention
 Preface xi

programs, a section on technology and its place in a program of literacy instruction,

and a section on professional development.
This text, designed to be practical, offers detailed explanations and numerous ex-
amples of applications for every major technique or strategy. Many suggestions for
practice activities and reading materials are also included. I hope that this book will
furnish an in-depth knowledge of literacy methods and materials so that the teachers
and future teachers who use it will be able to construct lively, effective reading and
writing instruction for all the students they teach.

MyLab Education
One of the most visible changes in the tenth edition, also one of the most significant,
is the expansion of the digital learning and assessment resources embedded in the
eText and the inclusion of MyLab Education in the text. MyLab Education is an on-
line homework, tutorial, and assessment program designed to work with the text to
engage learners and to improve learning. Within its structured environment, learners
see key concepts demonstrated through real classroom video footage, practice what
they learn, test their understanding, and receive feedback to guide their learning and
to ensure their mastery of key learning outcomes. Designed to bring learners more
directly into the world of K-12 classrooms and to help them see the real and powerful
impact of literacy concepts covered in this book, the online resources in MyLab Educa-
tion with the Enhanced eText include: *

• Video Examples present brief video clips of literacy techniques being taught, stu-
dents being assessed, or explanations of key concepts by literacy experts.
• Application Exercises give learners opportunities to practice applying the con-
tent and strategies from the chapters. The questions in these exercises are usually
constructed-response. Once learners provide their own answers to the questions,
they receive feedback in the form of model answers written by experts.
• Self-Checks are presented at the end of each section and align with each learning
outcome. This is a powerful feature in the digital revision. In addition to enabling
readers to check their knowledge of a section, the quizzes foster retrieval of es-
sential information, which promotes long-term memory. The quizzes also provide
preparation for professional tests, such as the Praxis (ETS) or Foundations of Read-
ing exam that readers might be required to take.
• Study Modules can be found in the left navigation bar of MyLab. These inter-
active, application-oriented modules provide opportunities to learn foundational
literacy concepts in ways other than reading about them. The modules present
content through screen-capture videos that include animations, worked examples,
and classroom videos. Each module consists of three parts: a Learn section that pre-
sents several key concepts and strategies, an Apply section that provides practice
applying the concepts and strategies to actual teaching and learning scenarios, and
an Assess section that contains a multiple-choice test to measure mastery. Topics
include: Multi-Tier Systems of Support, Formative Assessment, Text Readability,
Implementing Guided Reading, Using Nonfiction Structure and Features, and
Writer’s Workshop.
• Content Extensions present additional information on key topics, such as sources
of high-quality websites or motivating voluntary reading. Others feature a brief his-

* Please note that these enhancements are available only through the Pearson MyLab w/eText platform.
Other third-party eTexts (i.e., Vitalsource, Kindle) might not contain these enhancements.
xii Preface

tory of literacy instruction covered in the chapter, for example, a history of phonics
or writing instruction.
• Guided Teaching Lessons are a series of semi-scripted lessons designed to show
how a key technique might be implemented. The lessons provide step-by-step pro-
cedures and all necessary materials but encourage users to adapt the lessons to fit
their instructional situations. These lessons can be printed by students for use in
the classroom.
 Features of this Text
Throughout the tenth edition of Creating Literacy Instruction for All Students, special peda-
gogical features draw the reader’s attention to issues of recurring importance in literacy
instruction and foster retention and deeper understanding of key concepts.

162 Chapter 4

Opening Learning Aids include Anticipation

▼ Guides, which are statements designed to
probe students’ attitudes and beliefs about key
Lesson 4.2
Speech to Print—Introducing the Correspondence m = /m/
Objectives with the letter s. S makes a /s/ sound. This is the word man.
It begins with the letter m. M makes the /m/ sound that you
• Students will explain that m stands for /m/. hear at the beginning of man.” Proceed to additional word

concepts and practices that will be explored in the • Students will be able to say the sound that m represents
and spell /m/.
groups similar to the following:

Which word says sun? man sun hat

Learning Target: I can say the sound that the letter m
upcoming chapter. Using What You Know is an makes, and I can spell the sound /m/.
Which word says hat? man sun hat
Which word says me? me see he
Step 1. Phonemic awareness Which word says he? me see he
overview of the chapter and is designed to activate Teach the correspondence m = /m/. You might do this with Which word says see? me see he
a storybook such as Moo in the Morning (Maitland, 2000). Which word says mat? mat sat hat

students’ background knowledge about the chapter Read the book aloud, and discuss it. Talk about the words
moo and morning and how they begin with the same sound.
Which word says had? mad sad had
Which word says sat? mat sat hat
Emphasize the sound of /m/ as you say moo and morning.

content. Stress the way that the lips are pressed together to form the
sound /m/. Show pictures of a man, moon, mouse, monkey,
Which word says had? mad sad had
Which word says mad? mad sad had
mirror, and mop. Have students say the name of each item. Which word says sad? mad sad had
2 Chapter 1
Repeat the names of the items, emphasizing the beginning
Go through the words in groups of three several times
sound as you do so. Ask students to tell what is the same
or until students seem to have some fluency with the words.
about man, moon, mouse, monkey, mirror, and mop. Help
To make the activity more concrete, you might have the
Anticipation Guide students to see that they all begin with the same sound.
students place a plastic letter on the word they have identi-
Explain that man, moon, mouse, monkey, mirror, and mop
fied—placing an m on man, for example. An informal way
Complete the following anticipation guide. It will help to no right or wrong answers to Anticipation Guide statements; begin with /m/. Have students say the words.
to use speech-to-print phonics is to say a sound and have
activate your prior knowledge so that you interact more the statements will alert you to your attitudes about reading
students choose from three letters the one that represents
fully with the chapter. It is designed to probe your attitudes instruction and encourage you to become aware of areas Step 2. Letter–sound integration
that sound.
and beliefs about important and sometimes controversial where you might require additional information. After com- Write the words man, moon, mouse, monkey, mirror, and
topics. Sometimes, we don’t realize that we already know pleting the chapter, you might respond to the anticipation mop on the board. Stress the sounds as you write the let- Step 4. Guided spelling
something about a topic until we stop and think about it. By guide again to see if your answers have changed in light of ters that represent them. Explain that the letter m stands for
In guided spelling, the teacher carefully articulates the word,
activating your prior knowledge, you will be better prepared what you have read. For each of the following statements, the sound /m/ heard at the beginning of mmman, mmmoon,
and the student spells it with a set of plastic letters. Initially,
to make connections between new information contained select “Agree” or “Disagree” to show how you feel. Discuss mmmouse, mmmonkey, mmmirror, and mmop. If any of your
the student might simply select from three plastic letters the
in this chapter and what you already know. There are often your responses with classmates before you read the chapter. students’ names begin with /m/, also write their names—
one that spells the beginning sound. Later, the student might
Maria, Martin, Marisol—on the board, again emphasizing the
be asked to spell two- or three-letter words and be given the
Agree Disagree beginning sound as you do so.
letters in mixed-up order. Later still, the student spells the
1. Before children learn to read, they should know the sounds of most letters. word without the aid of plastic letters.
2. Reading should not be fragmented into a series of subskills.
Step 3. Guided practice
To help students make the transition from recognizing
Assuming that the correspondences s = /s/ and h = /h/ have that m represents /m/ to retrieving the sound of m when
3. Oral reading should be accurate.
been introduced, present a group of three word cards con- they see it, present the letter m and have students tell what
4. Phonics should be taught only when a need arises.
taining the words man, hat, and sun. Ask: “Which word says sound it makes. If necessary, tell them the sound and pro-
5. Reading short passages and answering questions about them provide excellent practice. man?”After each correct response, ask questions similar to vide additional practice. Also have students spell the sound.
6. Mistakes in oral reading should be ignored unless they change the sense of the passage. the following: “How do you know this word says man?” If You say the sound for m, and they spell it. Once students
the student says, “Because it begins with the letter m,” ask, have a solid grasp of m /m/, have them read and write sto-
“What sound does m stand for?” If the student says he or ries that contain m /m/ and other phonic elements that have
she chose the word because it begins with an /m/ sound, been taught.
ask what letter stands for /m/. In that way, students will
Using what you Know make connections between the letters and the sounds they Step 5. Evaluation and review
represent. If a student has given an incorrect response, read
This chapter provides a general introduction to literacy instruction in preschool and grades Note students’ ability to provide the sound for m and the
USING WHAT YOU KNOW This chapter provides a
K–8. Before reading the chapter, examine your personal knowledge of the topic so that you
the word that was mistakenly pointed to and then point to
spelling of /m/. Provide added instruction and practice as
the correct word and read it: “No, this word is sun. It begins
general
will be better introduction
prepared to interact with to literacy instruction
the information. What do you think in preschool
reading is? Whatand needed.
do you dogrades
when youK–8.
read?Before
What doreading
you think the chapter,
the reader’s examine
role is? Is it simplyyour personal
to receive the
author’sknowledge of itthe
message, or should topic
include someso thatinput?
personal you Howwillabout
be better prepared
writing? What pro-
cesses doto
you use when with
interact you write?
theHow would you go What
information. about teaching
do you reading and writing
think reading
to today’s students? What do you think the basic principles of a literacy program should
is? What do you do when you read? What do you think the
Model Lessons cover nearly every area of
▲
be? What elements have worked especially well in programs with which you are familiar?
reader’s role is? Is it simply to receive the author’s message,
or should it include some personal input? How about writing?
Major Theories of Literacy Learning
What processes do you use when you write? How would you literacy instruction.
go about teaching reading and writing to today’s students?
and Language Development
What do you think the basic principles of a literacy program
M04_GUNN6487_10_SE_C04.indd 162
Assessing for Learning 57
Emergent/Early Literacy 173
26/11/2018 13:51

“Awake!should
Awake!” be?
These What elements
are the first have worked
words I remember reading. Butespecially well
the words were as in
ongoing assessment would be used. Alignment also means that the curriculum and
magicalprograms
as any that I have
withread
whichsince.you
Evenare
after all these years, I still have vivid memo-
familiar? instruction are based on agreed-upon objectives and that the tests are assessing what
ries of that day long ago in first grade when reading came alive for me, and, indeed,
awakened a lifetime of reading and a career as a reading teacher.
is being taught (Webb, 1999). Classroom and other assessments should be aligned with Exemplary Teaching
standards (objectives) and instruction.
Reading is, first and foremost, magical, as those who recall learning to read or who
The Nature of Literacy 17 Alignment needs to be flexible. Based on aUsing study of Assessment to Reduce Potential Reading Problems
fourth graders’ performance
have witnessed their students discover the process will attest. It opens the door to a
on a state proficiency test, Riddle Buly and Valencia (2002) warn that
vast world of information, fulfillment, and enjoyment. After having learned to read, a The purpose of the Early Intervention Reading Initiative in The PALS project makes heavy use of the Internet.
provided with the scaffolds needed to read more challenging text. In one study, pre-
person is never quite the same. requiring teachers to align their instruction Virginia
with grade level content
is to reduce of students inMyLab
standards
the number Education When teachers report their scores, they get an immediate
grades kin-
teaching difficult words so that students were brought up to their instructional level
Although magical, reading is complex. Becoming an effective teacher of reading may . . . fall short. Assuring, for example, that 4th-grade
dergarten teachers
through 3 with are problems by Video
teaching
reading using Example
early 3.2 summary report. Principals can also get reports for their
proved effective in boosting students’ ability to read texts that otherwise would the 4th-grade content standards does not assure they
diagnosis are
and providing
accelerationappropriate
of early reading skills. The initia- schools. The site contains instructional suggestions and a
requires grounding in the theories that underlie reading acquisition and instruction. As Aligning Assessment with
have been on their frustration level (Burns, Dean, & Foley, 2014). Shared reading in instruction for all students. To be sure, some students would
tive provides benefitwith
teachers from instruc- tool that
a screening helps them
Standards listing
Instruction and of materials. Instruction provided to students must
assessment
Pinnell, a noted literacy researcher and practitioner, states:
which teacher and students read texts together before students read them on their tion and practice reading material that is at adetermine
lowerLiteracy
Emergent/Early grade level
which 117and some
students wouldwould should be aligned with be
benefit from additional standards.
in addition to their regular classroom instruction. When
own can also enable students to tackle challenging texts (Stahl, 2012).Teaching will miss the mark if it is not based on a coherent theory of learning. benefit from more advanced curriculum. (p. 234) instruction. Schools are also given incentive funds to obtain retested in the spring, approximately 80 percent of kinder-
The word theory simply refers to the set of understandings that a teacher holds
3. Instruction should be differentiated. Providing students with text on the appropriate would be a short word because a mouse is a short animal. AsAs the children
authorsnotice long at grade leveladditional
note, reading
instruction for students in need. Students are
can be a goal for below-level readers.
gartners identified as needing added help were making sat-
and believes about how children learn. Everything teachers do in the classroom administered the Phonological Awareness Literacy Screening isfactory progress. Retention is not considered a means of
level is a good first step. However, below-level readers need additional intensive words for little creatures (hummingbird, mosquito) and short words for large creatures
proceeds from this set of beliefs and understandings, whether they are conscious However, instruction should be provided that is (PALS) on their reading level
instrument. but aims
According to move
to PALS scores, approximately providing additional assistance and is not the purpose of the
instruction that will boost their reading ability so that eventually they are reading (whale, tiger), they assimilate this and make an accommodation students upby to giving up their
grade level.
of it or not. (2006, p. 78) 25 percent of students need additional instruction. Early Intervention Reading Initiative.
on or close to grade level (Tomlinson, 2017). Likewise, it isn’t sufficient to make texts hypothesis of a physical relationship between size Teaching
of wordsAll Students
and size 41of objects or
If you are using a commercial program, chances are that it is aligned. However,
accessible by reading them to those students who can’t read them on their own, creatures represented. They may then theorize that although examine letters do not
it closely torepresent
see if any revisions are needed. In addition, you might need to
doesn’t know
while the proficient readers read the texts independently. the required
Struggling words.
readers She then takes steps
should physicalto acquire the neededletters
characteristics, words.do Locat-
somehow identify themake person or thing named.toThey
Marginal annotations provide the reader with
some adjustments ensure that the program aligns with state, district, and other

▼
be provided the kind of systematic instruction ing the words,
needed to buildthe student
the skills formulates
required her message, which leadsthatto the second function ofoftheir names belong
may theorize the first letters uniquely
outside to them (Ferreiro,
assessments.
Summary
If you are using a program that you or your school has created,
Exemplary Teaching features help make the
▲
to read the texts (Tomlinson, 2017) or given texts output: onhypothesis testing. Inlevel.
their instructional hypothesis
On testing, the student
1986). delivers
At age 4, my thegranddaughter
message and uses Paige told me that you her friend
will need Paul tohad her letter.
construct or adopt an assessment system that aligns with your objec- 12 Chapter 1

interesting, practical, and handy guidance for plan-

M01_GUNN6487_10_SE_C01.indd 2 23/01/2019 15:07
the other hand, differentiation should be morefeedback
qualitative to revise
ratherthe than message if necessary. The She
quantitative. thirdregarded
function of theoutput
lettersisof reflecting
her name on as being personal andand
tives specific. The P in Paige
instruction. • Emergent literacy instruction attempts to capitalize on persistence. Children are ready to begin learning letter

descriptions of teaching techniques come alive

Rather than assigning two book reports to advanced what wasreaders said and possibly
while modifying
assigning just the message. The speaker
identified her but might realizeShe
not Paul. thatdidwhatnot realize that P represents /p/ and can be used
the literacy skills that the child brings to school. Stu- sounds when they know 10 lowercase letters and can
one book report to average readers, it would be shebetter
said didn’t
to guide sound right and then
the advanced read-takes steps to incorrect
any word her statement
containing (Swain,
a /p/2005). sound (Ferreiro, 1986). When Paige comments that MyLab Education Content Ex
ning and adapting instruction. These notes are titled
ers to tackle more complex texts and to analyze the texts more deeply. Paul has her letter, Paige might be told that both their names Databegin Analysis with a P because
dents form their own concepts of reading and writing. perceive and isolate beginning sounds. and Procedures

by offering examples of good teaching practices. All

Knowing how students understand reading and writ- • Language development should be an essential com- This listing shows which researc
4. Instruction should be functional and contextualHandle as well Errors
as systematic.with Care Focus to
In addition on meaning prather standsthan on sound
for the correcting /p/errors.
and Paige Cor- and Paul both begin Along
withwith aligning
the sound /p/, assessment
so both with standards, it is also important to analyze data.
ing, teachers can plan activities that build on these early
Adapting Instruction for Struggling Readers and Writers,
ponent in any emergent literacy program. Language
systematically teaching skills, teach or reviewrecting errors during
a word-attack an interchange
skill because students can be embarrassing also begin with andthe will probably
letter p. limit a Using the power of digital technology and its almost limitless capacity to collect and
conceptualizations.
student’s development is a key factor in long-term literacy
teach orwillingness to takepre- risks
justwith language. Before You might provide a rephrase, as
are true-life accounts; many were drawn from the mem-
must have it to decipher words. For example, review the prefix children discover the alphabet principle, they analyze data, educators
may refine their theoriesare making
of increasing use of data about students’ performance.
• reveals
To fosterthe literacy, the teacher attainment. As a teacher, you should b
long dinosaurs.
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be helpful
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the purposetoofthe student,
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before the class reads a selection about prehistoric Students
research so that you can constr
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value. session later. Through exposure to print, they will have noticed that words many attempts
form patterns,the students
and they made to respond toing and writing
a question, whatactivities.
words they By asked
reading forto children, the • Increasingly, preschool and kindergarten programs are

5. Teachers should make connections. Build a bridge between Student: There are
children’s too manyand
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begin to
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reasonable with, how
patterns. long they
Usually,
oirs of gifted teachers, and others were garnered from
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words are between three and seven characters long and vides
only insight
repeat into
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same of tasks and skills they
letter have apparently mastered and those of experience. Kindergarten has been called the new first grade. As an
what they are about to read. Help 12 themChapter
see how 1 what they know is related to the story
To build language, and your situation. A techniqu
Teacher: Yes, there is too much noise in the twice room.(Schickedanz,
No wonder your ears hurt. as mock words, these they amount the school should an use techniques to
newspaper reports or my own observations.
1999). Known are having
creations look like difficulty with. Given the ever-increasing
real words. of data available, apparent result, students are entering first grade better
or article. Students in Montana reading about an ice hockey game may have no experi- effective with small groups. O
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The is the abilitymake the child
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Using readiness of
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ence either playing hockey or watching the sport.
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Build However,
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which they probably are familiar. You should also help students connect new
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greet others, make conversational listingstatements, and ask questions. This tion, Use
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copy words that they have completed.
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articles exploring
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build on Video Example 2.7 to replacing or improving elem
communication is heavily and is augmented by gestures, pointing
or books. As adults write multisyllabic words for children,at decisions.
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the newknowledge,
literacies.
each other. Reading and talking about humorous storiesand
objects, can expand
pantomiming. students’ concept schooling demands academic language, which is Everyday and Academic Language
However, are missing.
as they write each syllable and also say the letters:Cummins
“An-dycially. . students
the who
. A-N-D-Y didAndy.”
spells not perform adequately. ter What
formation, writing
are some in preschool
possible reasonsand for kindergarten is and print knowledge. A nurturing•prekindergarten that Center
The Joan Ganz Cooney

variety of topics).
of humor and remind them of funny things thatmore havevaried
happened to them. and They Professor explains
and abstract amight
Asrelatively
teacher,decontextualized.
you should become Thisacquainted
issounded
the language withinthe major findings of literacy
which their poor performance? What might be done to now seenthem?
assist as a valid
If you means
have of expression.
scores from Children are website provides information
builds self-regulatory skills is also recommended. As far as possible, the sugg
Hearing words out, children catch on to the
difference idea
between that
everydayletters
and represent speech
then write about these events. Also build on what mathstudents know. This
procedures will
and subject make
research your
so
matter that you can
concepts areconstruct
explained. an effective program and can assess whether new on using media to advance in some instances they are base
sounds. Because the words they hear haveacademic been spoken the
in
language same
syllables
and orwhile
comparable
implications assessments, note whether
being written, encouraged
there hastobeen useaninvented spelling
improvement and write as best
and • A number of formal and informal measures can be used
teaching easier because you will be starting at theCummins students’ level. refersIt to willeveryday
also help
techniques or functional
materials that you are as
language thinking about trying
conversational are supported
language for literacybyinstruction.
research. learning. Teaching literacy is an art as we
the children may use one letter to represent each syllable whether
and one the letter
improvement they are
is such that the students
for the final canon at track
first, to
butreach
gradually
target develop
bench- the ability to to assess emergent literacy. Most emergent literacy
students make a connection between what they(previously know and what known they are
Youlearning.
as Basic should
Interpersonalalso assess the research
Communicative Skills) base
and tospellings
see if it is applicable to your students
decontextualized
sound and produce such as JRF for giraffe. marks by the end of the school year. Also analyze spell conventionally.
items that students responded to. On assessments feature measures of letter knowledge and
6. Teachers should promote independence. Whenever you teachlanguage a skill orand your situation.
asstrategy, language A
ask technique known that works well on Academic
a one-to-one basis may not be
school-type
yourself: How can I teach this so that studentsLanguage will eventually
academic
effective
use it(Cummins
on their own? with
(previously
small2015).
groups.
If you have some
Of course,
as Cognitive
research
insight into students’ current scheme
doesn’t answer all the instructional
a phonics
for thetest,
writingfor instance,
system, you note the items that•students
Progress gotincorrect.
literacyPerhaps the students
is closely tied to knowledge of phonological awareness and may include measures of The New Literacies,
Proficiency & Early, It takes one to two years for ELs to gottomost oftothe short-vowel itemsCCSS
correct but had difficulty with complex awareness,
vowel pat- and
Using Technology
How will students be called on to use this skill acquireor strategy questions
in school and skill
basic conversational that
Adapting
arise. You
canInstruction
need
in theand to catchunderstanding.
provide the
upReaders to become
forkind of explanation that Adapting
to English-speaking a teacher–researcher so
will help them
that you
Instruction
can test
move for a higher level of the alphabet, phonological Assessing concepts of print and language. FYI
students’for Learning and 21st-Century Sk
• The website of the New Struggling and For childrenstudents in English
who are moving from aLanguage
visualterns. This is the
or physical
Learners kind of information
hypothesis that you can use to plan instruction. Consider other Assessments for state standards
about CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RF.K.1: The term new literacies is used by
outside world? When you teach students howdecoding. to summarize, However, methods
makeitpredictions,
takes fiveand ormaterials
years or more and
Writers for have
ELs acatch
better upbasis
toalphabetical for selecting
in academic Englishthose that are most sources effec- of data. You might have information from an informal test, work sample, or Preparing students for success in
Literacies Research Team offers how the system operates to Academic
a phonological language one, sounding
should be out words as Demonstrate understanding of the include summative, benchmark/ some groups to describe changes
use context, phonics, or another skill or strategy, teach
(Cummins,
videos and articles exploring
so that
2011). there
Even tive
is ingradual
a
though your ELssituation.
may Youproficient
seem
Teachersyou
also need to
spell them
are taking
in assess
oral
increased
all aspects
English, they ofmay
provides helpful information.
your program with apersonal
Providing
emphasized
view
frommany observation
opportunities
the beginning of that Extending and Applying
sheds additional
to write light
organization andon students’
basic features skill
of levels and cognitive interim, and formative in literacy practices as well as the
cies, advanced literacy, and 21st
release of responsibility (Pearson &the Gallagher, 1983). Gradually fade to replacing
your instruc-
have difficulty with academic language.responsibility or improving
Mastery elements
of helps that
conversational aren’t working
English may and to adding elements that the reading, writing, and comm
new literacies. also students to
for helping explore themask
writingELs’ schooling. processes.
system. Academic English print. assessments. addition of new tools. The focus is
tion and guidance so that students are applying
• The Joan Ganz the skillCenter
deficiencies
Cooney or strategy are
in important missing.
onhigher-level
their own. language
strugglingskills (Sutton,
readers and 1989).
writers. Because of the time varies by subject matter and on Also
how these new tools have led to nology. New literacies include t
1. Using the procedures described in this chapter, plan measures described in this chapter. obtain a writ-
Do the same with the selection of websitereadingprovides
materials.
required Although you may
to acquire academic Aslanguage,
far as possible,
discuss ELs may thenotsuggestions
workingmade
demonstrate in this
their truetext are evidence-based.
abilities on increases as However, locate, interpret, evaluate, synth
information Suggestions for
Essential with
Skillsexperience
and Understandings grade levels increase
for Emergent ing sample. Based on an analysismore collaboration and participation
ways of choosing books with the class, on usingyoumedia
ultimately
achievement
to advance wantandstudents in some
cognitive toabilityinstances
reach they are
a struggling
tests administered based
readers on
andpersonal
in English.writers are or the experience
(Franz, Starr, Formative,
of&others.
Bailey, 2015). Summative, and Interim Assessments
a lesson teaching letters or beginning sounds. If pos- of the assessments,
(Tracey & Morrow, 2017). New literacies are explored thro
sible, teach the lesson and make a video recording of it. highlight the strengths and needs of the student(s), and
point where they select their own books.learning. Academic vocabulary Teachingcan be literacy
thought is an
made asLiteracy
art as
ofthroughout well and
bricks as
thisa text.
science.
mortar (Dutro & Moran, Formative assessment, which is also known as ongoing Reflect on assessment, takes place
the effectiveness of theduring
lesson. plan a program for them..
In addition to technical kn
7. Teachers should believe that all children can learn2003).
to readBricks
and write are andthe content-specific
act on that belief. technical words such as cells,
Understanding hownucleus,
print workshypotenuse,
and the many roles it plays learning and is used
in people’s livestoisplan
knownor modify instruction. Using formative assessment, teachers nitive and social skills, such as
2. Administer to one or more kindergarten students 3. Examine stories written by a kindergarten class. What
Given the right kind of instruction, virtually all and democracy.
children can learnContent toThe teachers
read. New
There is Literacies,
typically present
as seeingtheAdvanced
technical wordsLiteracy,
the “big picture” necessary to
(Purcell-Gates, 1997). The big can assessis
picture thetheimpact of theiron
foundation instruction on students’ learning and make adaptations as include critical thinking and pro
assessments of letter knowledge, beginning sounds, are some characteristics of children’s writing at this
increasing evidence that the vastFYI understand
majority of children cankey learn concepts
to readinattheir leastdisciplines
on butwhich
not theall mortar
otherwords.
informationMortarabout consists
reading and writing is built. Children also need communicate and collaborate w
and 21st-Century Skills letter sounds, and developmental spelling, using age? How do the pieces vary?
xiii
a basic level. In her analysis of data that new of the
tracked general from
students wordsKused throughto articulate
eighth the concepts represented
to become morebyfamiliar
the technical
with the words:
types of language used in books and to acquire a innovations (Partnership for 21
The term literacies is used by
grade, Northrup (2016, 2017) found that require,
students who causation,
were behind inPreparing
temporary, kindergarten students
determine. Mortar for success
words
deeper in sense
are college
also used
ofand to
how career
describe
stories also requiresOn
academic
develop. developing
a more new litera-
formal level, they need to construct FYI
some groups to describe changes
tasks:as analyze, cies,
contrast,group, advanced
synthesize. literacy,
Academic languageand 21st-century
includes skills.
ofstock The
print,phrases, new literacies
which can be thought of as
followed one of three trajectories.inSome 52 practices
literacy percent, the compensatory
well as the
the
caught
reading,
when all writing,
is said
basic concepts
andinclude
and done, communication
what it all skills
if they have
to,required
not already learned them. These concepts of print Reinforce concepts of print
for the
the successful use of tech-
Advanced Literacy
up and were reading on grade additionlevel or ofbeyond
new use figurative
by
tools. the focus
The time language:
they reached
is eighth theboils down
following: read between M03_GUNN6487_10_SE_C03.indd 57 whenever the opportunity 24/11/2018 15:27
nology. New Given the rate at which knowl
grade. A second group, the cumulative lines,
deficitnew
on how these group,seefell
tools eye farther
have toled
eyeto(Zwiers,
behind 2008).
each year.literacies include the ability to use a variety of digital devices and skills to presents itself. When writing
M04_GUNN6487_10_SE_C04.indd 173 on 23/01/2019 15:11
more collaboration and participation locate, interpret, evaluate, •synthesize, What weorganize,
say and what others sayand
communicate, can create
be written down and read.
information. the board, emphasize that you nated, and the interconnectedn
 Lesson 5.2
phonics to read. To determine how they are using these systems, analyze their word- Children who have learned the alphabet in their native language have a head start
recognition errors, or miscues, with a modified miscue analysis. On a sheet similar to learning English letters. They will have a concept of alphabet, even if some of the
Sorting
the one in Figureby3.11,Beginning
list a student’s Consonant Sounds
miscues. Try to list at least 10 miscues, but do not letters differ from the English alphabet. The Spanish alphabet includes both n and
analyze any that are at the frustration level. Miscues can be chosen from the indepen- ñ and so has 27 letters. Some of the letter names also differ, and some of the letters
dent Objective
and instructional levels and from the buffer zone between the instructional and
xiv Features of this Text
frustration levelswill
• Students (91distinguish
to 94 percent wordwords
between recognition
accordingor 51 to 74%
to their comprehension).
beginning sounds. Also
list the correct version of each error. Put a check in the syntactic column if the miscue CCSS
represent sounds different from the sounds they represent in English. The letter j, for
instance, is known as jota and represents the sound /h/. When teaching ELs, find out
Learning Target: I can put pictures that begin like sun or ring in the right column. the nature of their alphabet and build on similarities between their alphabet and the
is syntactically correct—that is, if it is the same part of speech as the word in the text or CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RF.K.2:
English alphabet.
Demonstrate understanding
PREPARATION was put under sun and discuss its correct placement. In an of spoken words, syllables, and

StudentPhonological
Reading Awareness
Lists are provided in all
individual sort or sort with a partner, students place their cards

▼
Set up the sort. Set up two columns. At the top of each col- sounds (phonemes).

Case Study
umn, place an illustration of the sound to be sorted. If you
plan to have students sort /s/ and /r/ words, use an illustra-
by saying the name of the card and its beginning sound and
compare it with the key picture at the top of the column (sun, In their natural environment, children do not have to deal with individual sounds;

instructional chapters as a resource for titles

ring). Students check their sort by saying each word in the col- however, the ability to detect speech sounds in words is absolutely crucial for literacy
tion of the sun and an illustration of a ring. A pocket chart FYI
Good Decoding, Poor Comprehending
works well for this activity. umn to see if all the words have the same sound as sun or ring. Phonemic awareness demands
development. Without the ability to abstract separate sounds, students will not be able
to understand, for example, that the letter b stands for the sound /b/ heard at the begin-
that reinforce the particular literacy skills being
Although he has excellent decoding skills and reads orally he had difficulty with questions that required linking ideas that the child ignore meaning
Step 1. Explain
with fluency SortingMark
and expression, andhas Demonstrate
problems under-
Step 3. Children Reflect
across sentences or passages. Putting ideas together and attend to the word’s form.
ning of ball. They will not even be able to consider a beginning sound because they will
standing
Tell students what he you
that reads.
willHe
be also
giving hasthemdifficulty
cards answering
that have Children reflect onfor
posed problems the similarities
him. Mark could of the sound
pick of each picture
up information This requires a new perspective, a not be able to abstract it from the word itself. They may be able to write alphabet letters,

discussed
questions
pictures onabout
them.selections
Name the that haveand
pictures been read to
explain anyhim.
words in theone
from column.
segmentTheybut
conclude,
couldn’t forintegrate
instance,that
thatwith
all the words
informa- change in the way the child “looks but their writing will not evolve beyond the early alphabetic stage because they will be
On the
that mightreading inventory,Point
be unfamiliar. Markout wastheable
key to readthat
words the will
6th-be in thefrom
tion sun another
column begin
segment. with /s/. (In other sorts, they might at” a word (Gough, Larson, & Yopp, unable to isolate the sounds of words. In addition to being critical, detecting individual
grade word
placed at thelist withofno
head difficulty.
each column: Hesunwasandalso able
ring. to read
Explain the note Mark
similarities and differences
also overrelied in spellingknowledge.
on background pattern or mean-
He 2001). sounds in words is quite difficult.
the words
contrast onstudents
that the 6th-grade
will beoral passage
making. withtonostudents
Explain errors. ing).
madeToup help students
answers. Thisreflect, ask questions,
happened when he wassuchunable
as, “Tell
tome What makes detecting sounds in words difficult? Two factors: metalinguistic
However, his comprehension was below 50
that they will be placing the cards under the picture of the percent on the about
recall ayour
factsorting. Why did
or put pieces of you put all these
information cardsMark
together. (words)
alsoin awareness and coarticulation. Metalinguistic awareness requires students to reflect on
6th-grade
sun passage
if the words andwith
begin also/s/,
onthethesound
4th- and
heard 5th-grade pas-
at the begin- this
had column?
some minor What is the same
difficulty about them?”
with complex Through
syntactical reflec-
structures
sages.
ning of Puzzled by Mark’s
sun, or under performance,
the picture of the ring theif reading
the words con-begin tion
and students
vocabulary.seeBased
patternson and construct
an analysis of generalizations.
Mark’s responses,
sultant
with /r/,analyzed
the soundMark’s
The consultant
heard responses
wanted to Shuffle
Model the procedure. get some
(Dewitz
at the beginning
the insight
of&ring.
Dewitz, 2003).
intothe
cards. Tell Mark’s
students,
the consultant created a program for Mark and other stu-
Step 4. Students
dents who Extend Their
had similar difficulties. LearningMark was
After instruction, Student Reading List
thinking
“Say the processes.
name of the When
picture.erroneous responses
Listen carefully to seewere ana-
whether Students may extend6th-grade
able to comprehend their learning by sorting
material. He wastheno
cards sev-
longer
lyzed,
the name patterns
of the appeared.
picture beginsMarklikecould
/s/ asanswer
in sun or questions that
/r/ as in ring.” eral more times
overrelying for reinforcement
on background and toand
knowledge, makehe their learning
was connect- Alphabet Books
required
Model thecomprehending
process with twoonly a single
or three sentence.
cards: “This is a However,
picture of more
ing andautomatic. Or,ideas.
integrating if sorting words, they might engage in a
Aylesworth, J. (1991). Old black fly. New York: Holt. Rhyming Onyefulu, I. (1993). A is for Africa. New York: Dutton. Color
a saw. Saw has an /s/ sound and begins like sun, so I will put word hunt in which they find words in reading materials that
text follows a mischievous black fly through the alphabet photos and a brief paragraph using the target letter show
it under sun. Sun and saw both begin with /s/.” Also make sure fit the pattern they have studied. Ideally, they would read
as he has a very busy day. everyday life in Africa.
that students can identify all the objects being pictured. selections that contain the words or patterns they sorted. A
Ehlert, L. (1989). Eating the alphabet. New York: Harcourt. Scarry, R. (1973). Richard Scarry’s find your ABC. New
sample sort can be found in Figure 5.2. Have students sort
Drawings of foods beginning with the letter being York: Random House. Each letter is illustrated with
Case Studies offer perspectives on teachers
▲
Step 2. Children Sort and Check cards a second and third time to solidify their perception of
presented are labeled with their names in both upper- and numerous objects and creatures whose names contain
Distribute85the
M03_GUNN6487_10_SE_C03.indd cards. In a group sort, have the students take beginning sounds. Pairs of students might work together on24/11/2018 15:27 lowercase letters. the letter.
these subsequent sorts.
at work improving their programs.
turns placing a card in the /s/ or /r/ column. When students Hoban, T. (1982). A, B, see! New York: Greenwillow. Smith, R. M. (2008). An A to Z walk in the park. Alexandria,
place their cards, have them say the picture’s name and the Uppercase letters are accompanied by objects in VA: Clarence Henry Books. Letters are illustrated with
Step 5. Evaluation and Review
sound it begins with. Correct errors quickly and simply. For silhouette that begin with the letter shown. more than 200 animals.
instance, if a student puts a picture of a rat in the /s/ column, Note students’ ability to sort accurately and with increasing Jocelyn, M. (2006). ABC × 3. Plattsburgh, NY: Tundra Vamos, S. R. (2018). Alphabet boats. Ann Arbor, MI: Sleeping
say, “Rat begins with /r/ and goes under ring,” or ask why rat speed. Provide added instruction and practice as necessary. Books. Presents letters and illustrative words in English, Bear Press. Target letters are found in descriptions of the
Spanish, and French. The letter p is accompanied by pear, boats and in the illustrations. SeeTeaching
also Alphabet Trains 51
All Students
pera, and poire. Some words and illustrations will need and Alphabet Trucks.
Reading Recovery (What Works Clearinghouse, 2007,Wood,
explaining. A. (2003). Alphabet mystery. New York: Blue Sky
Student Strategies achievement.
Martin, D. (2010). David Martin’s ABC: Z is for zebra. North
2013; Phillips,
ward, & Norris, 2011) and other high-quality programs have shown that most students,
Hay-
Press. When the letter x is missing, the other 25 letters
Vancouver, BC, Canada: DJC Kids Media. Clever search for him.
even those who are older, will become proficient readers when properly taught. How-
Applying the Variability (Try Another Sound) Strategy to Consonant drawings reinforce the shapes of letters. Each letter is Wood, J. (1993). Animal parade. New York: Bradbury. A
ever, achieving this goal will take not just an all-school effort, but alsoparade
the involvement
Correspondences accompanied by a humorous illustration, such as an ant
of all of crawling
society as evidenced
starts with an aardvark, an antelope, and other
over the letter by
A. the success of the Harlem Children’s Zone animals(n.d.), which
whose names begin with A and proceeds through
1. Try the main pronunciation—the one the letter usually Display a chart showing consonant correspondences as provides support
Musgrove, M. for low-income
(1976). Ashanti tochildren
Zulu. Newfrom
York:cradle to college and currently
Dial. This the rest of has 500 of the alphabet.
the letters
stands for. in Figure 5.3. A student feeling puzzled when pronouncing participants in college
Caldecott winnerand
gives500 in the pipeline
information for college.
about African Well-stocked
tribes as Ziefert,neighborhood
H. (2006). Me! Me! ABC. Maplewood, NJ: Blue Apple
2. If the main pronunciation gives a word that is not a real cider as “kider” can look at the chart and note that c has and school libraries, adequate health care, parenting programs, contributions from busi-
it presents the alphabet. Books. Dolls make a series of requests.
one or does not make sense in the sentence, try the two pronunciations: /k/ and /s/. Because the /k/ pronuncia-
nesses, and the support of all citizens will be needed to foster the high level of literacy
other pronunciation that the letter usually stands for. tion did not produce a word that made sense, the child tries
achievement being called for. More than ever, parents will need to become partners in
3. If you still get a word that is not a real word or does not the /s/ pronunciation.
their children’s education.
make sense in the sentence, ask for help. Preparing all students to be college and career ready requires taking a long-term
view of literacy. As literacy professionals, we need to ask ourselves, “What kind of

Each chapter ends with a brief summary and

▼
program will result in literacy proficiency for virtually all students?” The temptation
M04_GUNN6487_10_SE_C04.indd 148 26/11/2018 13:51
is to drill students on the kinds of items they will be tested on. The drill–skill approach

Student Strategies outline step-by-step hasn’t worked in the past and won’t work now. It is too shallow.

▲
M05_GUNN6487_10_SE_C05.indd 192

strategies to help students become inde-

19/11/2018 14:02 activities designed to extend understanding
Insofar as possible, the suggestions made in this text are evidence-based. However,
in some instances, they are based on personal experience or the experience of others.

of key concepts: Extending and Applying provides

Teaching literacy is an art as well as a science.

pendent learners. suggestions for practical application. Professional

MyLab Education Self-Check 2.5

Emergent/Early Literacy 149 Reflection asks readers to reflect on their ability to

Reinforcement Activities
implement key assessment and instructional prac-
MyLab Education Content Extension: Learning from the Past: History of RTI/MTSS

Alphabet Knowledge tices in the chapter.

• Have children create their own alphabet books.
• Help children create name cards. Explain that names
begin with uppercase letters but that the other letters in a
name are lowercase.
• Make a big book of the alphabet song, and point to the
letters and words as children sing along.
• If children are using classroom computers or tablets,
teach the letters of the alphabet as you teach them key-
boarding skills.
• Encourage students to write as best they can. This will
foster learning of the alphabet as they move from using
pictures and letterlike forms to actual letters to express
themselves.
• As you write messages, announcements, or stories on the
board, spell out the words so that students will hear the
names of the letters in a very natural way.
language on an abstract level, to treat language as an object of thought. Coarticulation
• Sing songs, such as “Bingo,” that spell out words or use
letters as part of their lyrics.
• Read books such as Chicka Boom (Martin & Archambault,
1989), in which letters play a prominent role.
• Most important, provide an environment in which children
are surrounded by print. Encourage students to engage in
reading and writing activities. These might include, using
a combination of drawings and letterlike figures to com-
pose a story, creating some sort of list, using invented
spelling to write a letter to a friend, exploring a computer
keyboard, or completing an app that reinforces letter
knowledge. Interaction with print leads to knowledge of
print. The ability to form letters improves without direct
instruction (Hildreth, 1936). However, systematic instruc-
tion should complement the provision of opportunities to
learn. Learning the alphabet is too important to be left to
chance.
Summary
• The United States is the most diverse nation in the world.
Nearly half of the 50 million students in the public schools
are members of ethnic or racial minorities. Adding to this
diversity is the inclusion of students with special needs.
In the average classroom, as many as one student in three
may be in need of some sort of differentiation or extra
attention to reach his or her full literacy potential.
• Students with diverse needs, students raised in pov-
erty, and students who have physical, mental, or cog-
nitive disabilities or who struggle with reading benefit
from instruction that develops language, background,
and literacy skills and that respects their language and
culture. Gifted and talented students need to be given
for learning to read in English. The greatest need for
ELs is to develop English language skills. All teachers
need to adapt instruction so as to build the English lan-
guage skills of ELs.
• RTI, which can be used as part of a process for iden-
tifying students with learning disabilities, is a practi-
cal approach in which struggling students are offered
increasingly intensive instruction but is also designed
to benefit all students. MTSS is a broader approach that
places greater emphasis on meeting the academic and
behavioral needs of all students.
• It is important for teachers to understand, value, and
build on every student’s culture and language. Under-

Reinforcement Activities provide practice

is a feature of language that makes listening and speaking easy but makes reading challenging materials and programs. standing students’ diverse cultural approaches to

▲
difficult. For instance, when saying the word cat, you do not say /k/, /a/, /t/; you
coarticulate the phonemes: As you form the /k/, you also form the /a/, and as the /a/
and application, particularly in the area of
is being formed, you coarticulate the final sound /t/. Because of coarticulation, cat is
a blend of sounds, rather than three separate sounds. Coarticulation makes it easier to
• English learners do best when taught to read in their
first language so that they can use that as a foundation
learning and responding can help prevent misunder-
standings and enhance learning.

reading and writing for real purposes.

form and perceive words. However, because the sounds in the words are coarticulated,
they seem to be one continuous sound and so are difficult for young children to pry 52 Chapter 2
apart (Liberman & Shankweiler, 1991).
Language is the foundation for phonological awareness. The larger children’s FYI
vocabularies are and the better their articulation of speech sounds, the easier it is for Phonemic awareness is not the
Extending and Applying
M02_GUNN6487_10_SE_C02.indd 51 24/11/2018 15:20

them to acquire phonological awareness. Initially, children learn words as wholes. same as speech discrimination.
1. Interview the special education, Title 1, reading spe- 3. Observe a classroom in which a special education
The ability to segment individual sounds in words apparently develops as children’s Speech discrimination is the
ability to discriminate the sounds cialist, or literacy coach at the school where you teach teacher is offering instruction or assistance according
vocabularies grow and they acquire larger numbers of words that have similar pro-
of language, such as being able to or at a nearby elementary or middle school. Find out to the inclusion model. What arrangements have the
nunciations, such as cat, can, cap, and cab (Metsala, 1999). For children to be able to
detect a difference between bat what kinds of programs the school offers for special specialist and the classroom teacher made for work-
distinguish among such words and represent them in memory, they must be able to
and hat. Speech discrimination education, Title 1, and struggling students. Also find ing together? What are the advantages of this type of
mentally segment the words into smaller units of pronunciation. Children with larger
does not require abstracting out whether RTI/MTSS is being implemented in the arrangement? What are some of the disadvantages?
vocabularies have segmented more words (Metsala, 1999) and so are better prepared
sounds, whereas phonemic school and, if so, how it is structured. What might be 4. Investigate the culture of a minority group that is rep-
to perceive separate sounds.
awareness does (Snow, Burns, & your role in this process?
Because some words have elements that occur more frequently, they are easier to resented in a class you are now teaching or observing.
Griffin, 1998).
segment than others. Children are better at segmenting at words into onset and rime 2. Observe a lesson in which English learners are being Find out information about the group’s literature, lan-
than at segmenting ud words. In other words, they are more likely to be able to detect taught. Note whether the teacher makes adapta- guage, and customs. How might you use this informa-
FYI tions for the students and, if so, how. In particular, tion to plan more effective instruction for the class?
the at in cat and rat than the ud in bud and mud. There are more at words than ud words,
Students should be taught what does the teacher do to make input comprehen- Plan a lesson using this information. If possible, teach
so children know more at words and thus have had more experience noting differences
phonological awareness for as the lesson and evaluate its effectiveness.
among them. Words that children learn early and word elements such as at that have sible? What is done to encourage output? Does the
long as they need it. There is a
a large number of examples are easier to learn (Metsala, 1999). For novice readers, teacher intentionally present vocabulary and language 5. What rules or regulations, if any, has your state issued
reciprocal relationship between
begin instruction in phonemic awareness with patterns that appear in very basic structures? for dyslexia?
phonemic awareness and phonics.
words that students have learned early and patterns that encompass many words. Being able to detect phonemes
These are more likely to have segmented representations in children’s memory helps the child learn phonics.
(Goswami, 2001). Practice your ability to segment words into phonemes by clicking Learning phonics fosters growth in
on the following link. phonemic awareness. Professional Reflection
Do I . . . Am I able to . . .
____________ Have an understanding of the diverse ____________ Differentiate instruction?
populations served by today’s elementary and middle ____________ Build on the culture and background that
M04_GUNN6487_10_SE_C04.indd 149 26/11/2018 13:51 schools? each student brings to literacy?
____________ Have an understanding of the principles of
RTI/MTSS?
____________ Have an understanding of how I might
adapt and differentiate instruction to meet the needs of
all learners?
____________ Have an understanding of the importance
of believing that all students can learn?

Glossary
Academic language is abstract, decontextualized school-
type language that is used to understand and express
complex ideas.
Accommodation is a change in the process of instruction
or assessment that does not change the content. It could
be the use of large-print books or extra time when tak-
ing a test.
Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) refers
to a difficulty focusing and maintaining attention. It
can exist on its own or coexist with hyperactivity and
impulsivity.
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental
typically experience difficulty communicating with
others and acquiring social skills. They may have lim-
ited interests and may engage in repetitive behaviors.
Severity of symptoms varies (NIH, 2018).
Cochlear implants are electronic devices that provide
representations of sound by stimulating the auditory
nerve.
Comprehensible input is the practice of taking steps
such as speaking more slowly, using visuals, or using
easy-to-read materials to make the English language
input more understandable to English learners.
Culturally responsive teaching is a way of instructing stu-
 Features of this Text xv

Support Materials for Instructors

The following resources are available for instructors to download on www.
pearsonhighered.com/educators. Instructors enter the author or title of this book,
select this particular edition of the book, and then click on the “Resources” tab to log
in and download textbook supplements.

Instructor’s Resource Manual and Test Bank

The Instructor’s Resource Manual and Test Bank feature a series of Learning Out-
comes, a Chapter Overview, suggestions for Before, After, and During Reading, a list
of suggested Teaching Activities, a Resource Master (a graphic organizer designed to
help readers organize information from the chapters) and suggestions for Assessment.
The test bank offers more than 200 questions, including multiple choice and essay
questions. This supplement has been written completely by the author, Tom Gunning.

PowerPoint Slides
Designed for teachers using the text, the PowerPoint™ Presentation consists of a se-
ries of slides that can be shown as is or used to make handouts or overhead transpar-
encies. The presentation highlights key concepts and major topics for each chapter.

TestGen
TestGen is a powerful test generator available exclusively from Pearson Education
publishers. You install TestGen on your personal computer (Windows or Macintosh)
and create your own tests for classroom testing and for other specialized delivery op-
tions, such as over a local area network or on the Web. A test bank, which is also called
a Test Item File (TIF), typically contains a large set of test items, organized by chapter
and ready for your use in creating a test, based on the associated textbook material.
The tests can be downloaded in the following formats:

• TestGen Testbank file—PC

• TestGen Testbank file—MAC
• TestGen Testbank—Blackboard 9 TIF
• TestGen Testbank—Blackboard CE/Vista (WebCT) TIF
• Angel Test Bank (zip)
• D2L Test Bank (zip)
• Moodle Test Bank
• Sakai Test Bank (zip)

Acknowledgments
I am indebted to Drew Bennett, Editor/Portfolio Manager, who provided many
thoughtful suggestions for making the text more understandable and more practi-
cal. Thanks to his efforts, the text is better organized and there are more visual and
application activities. I would like to thank Kim Norbuta, the developmental editor,
for guiding me through the complex process of assembling the material and its many
multimedia elements. To Yagnesh Jani my appreciation for handing the production of
the text and securing needed files and electronic tools. To Mohamed Hameed, Clara
Bartunek, and Maria Piper, project managers at Pearson CSC, and Pearson CSC editors,
Jaimie McLeod and Nancy Moyer, my appreciation for accomplishing the complex task
of getting the manuscript into a print and digital text.
xvi Features of this Text

The following reviewers provided many perceptive comments and valuable sug-
gestions. They challenged me to write the best book I could, and for this I am grateful.
For the ninth edition: Cindy Jones, Utah State University; Erika Gray, Univer-
sity of NC at Greensboro; Irene Welch-Mooney, University of New Mexico; Kerry P.
Holmes, University of Mississippi.
For the eighth edition: Lisa Cheek, Eureka College; Angela J. Cox, Georgetown
College; Lisa N. Mitchell, University of North Carolina at Pembroke; Shonta M. Smith,
Southeast Missouri State University; Debra F. Whitaker, Cumberland University.
For the seventh edition: Beth A. Childress, Armstrong Atlantic State University;
Deborah A. Farrer, California University of Pennsylvania; Shelley Hong Xu, California
State University, Long Beach; Lynn Malok, Moravian College; Lucy Maples, Western
Kentucky University; Beth Otto, University of Southern Indiana; Sherrie E. Pardieck,
Bradley University.
For the sixth edition: Elaine Byrd, Utah Valley State College; Ward Cockrum,
Northern Arizona University; Jo Ann Daly, Marymount University; Anita Iaquinta,
Robert Morris University; Laura King, Mary Hogan School, VT (in-service); Margaret
Malenka, Michigan State University; Melinda Miller, Sam Houston State University;
Sherrie Pardieck, Bradley University; Pamela Petty, Western KY University; Gail Sin-
gleton Taylor, Old Dominion University.
For previous editions: Jack Bagford, University of Iowa; Suzanne Barchers,
University of Colorado at Denver; John Beach, University of Nevada, Reno; Marian
Beckman, Edinboro University of Pennsylvania; Barbara J. Chesler, Longwood
University; Sharon Y. Cowan, East Central University; Donna Croll, Valdosta
State University; Audrey DíAigneault, Pleasant Valley Elementary School; Lauren
Freedman, Western Michigan University; Cynthia Gettys, University of Tennessee
at Chattanooga; Shelley Hong Xu, California State University, Long Beach; Maudine
Jefferson, Kennesaw State University; H. Jon Jones, Oklahoma State University; Joanna
Jones, Grand Canyon University; Betty Lou Land, Winthrop University; Janet W.
Lerner, Northeastern Illinois University; Barbara Lyman, Southwest Texas University;
Karl Matz, Mankato State University; Lea McGee, Boston College; Jean A. McWilliams,
Rosemont College; John M. Ponder, Arkansas State University; Laurence Stewart
Rice III, Humboldt State University; Judith Scheu, Kamehama Schools, Honolulu,
Hawaii; Patricia Shaw, University of Wisconsin, Whitewater; Gail Silkebakken, East
Central Oklahoma University; Shela D. Snyder, Central Missouri State University;
Steven Stahl, University of Georgia; Donna Topping, Millersville University; Doris J.
Walker-Dalhouse, Moorhead State University; Judith Wenrich, Millersville University;
Joyce Feist-Willis, Youngstown State University.
T. G.
Brief Contents
1 The Nature of Literacy 1

2 Teaching All Students 25

3 Assessing for Learning 54

4 Emergent/Early Literacy 115

5 Teaching Phonics and Syllabic Analysis 176

6 High-Frequency Words, Fluency, and

Extended Reading 240

7 Building Vocabulary 260

8 Comprehension: Theory and Strategies 310

9 Comprehension: Text Structures and Teaching

Procedures 362

10 Reading and Writing in the Content Areas

and Study Skills 401

11 Reading Literature 448

12 Approaches to Teaching Reading 478

13 Writing and Reading 510

14 Creating and Managing a Literacy Program 549

xvii
Contents
About the Author v OBJECTIVES • CONTENT/TEXTS/ACTIVITIES •
INSTRUCTION • EVALUATION • DIFFERENTIATION •
Preface vi
CLASSROOM ATMOSPHERE
Features of this Text xiii
Summary 22
1 The Nature of Literacy 1 Extending and Applying 22
Professional Reflection 23
Anticipation Guide 2
Glossary 23
Using What You Know 2
Major Theories of Literacy Learning and Language
Development 2 2 Teaching All Students 25
Behaviorism 3 Anticipation Guide 26
Cognitivism 3
Using What You Know 26
Piaget’s Theories 3
Diversity in Today’s Schools 26
Social Cognitive Views of Learning 4
Meeting the Literacy Needs of All Students 27
Cognitive-Behavioral Approach 5
Economically Disadvantaged Students 27
Top-Down and Bottom-Up Approaches 5
BOTTOM-UPPERS • TOP-DOWNERS • INTERACTIONISTS
Principles for Teaching Economically Disadvantaged
Children 28
Literary Theories 6
Students with Learning Disabilities 30
READER RESPONSE THEORY • NEW CRITICISM •
CRITICAL LITERACY Characteristics of Students with Learning Disabilities 31
Importance of Literacy Theories 7 Reading Difficulties 31
Approach Taken by This Chapter 8 Students with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder 32
The Status of Literacy and Major Literacy Initiatives 9 Assisting Students with ADHD 32
The Elementary and Secondary Act 10 Students with Intellectual Disabilities 33
Preparing Students to Be College and Slow Learners 34
Career Ready 10 Autism Spectrum Disorder 35
Evidence-Based Literacy Instruction 11 Students with Language and Speech Disorders 35
Key Effective Factors for Visible Teaching and SPECIFIC LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT • ARTICULATION
Learning 11 DISORDERS • INCLUSION

The New Literacies, Advanced Literacy, Students Who Are Gifted and Talented 36
and 21st-Century Skills 12 Fostering Literacy for English Learners 37
Advanced Literacy 12 English as a Second Language (ESL) Only 37
Role of Language and Culture on Literacy Learning 13 Provide a Secure Environment 37
Developing Language 13 Develop English 38
Components of Language 13 Techniques for Developing English 39
Learning a Second Language 13 MODEL • EXPAND • PLAN CONVERSATIONS •
USE SENTENCE STARTERS AND WORD WALLS
Acquiring Vocabulary 13
CHECK UNDERSTANDING • USE COOPERATIVE LEARNING AND PEER
Importance of the Students’ Cultures 15 TUTORING STRATEGIES • USE PRINT • EMPOWER STUDENTS • USE
Basic Principles of Teaching Reading 15 THE STUDENT’S LANGUAGE • FOSTER OUTPUT • HANDLE
ERRORS WITH CARE • BUILD ACADEMIC LANGUAGE • ACADEMIC
Qualities of Highly Effective Teachers 19 WORD LIST (AWL) • GEAR INSTRUCTION TO STAGES OF SECOND-
Caring and High Expectations 19 LANGUAGE ACQUISITION • PROVIDE INTENTIONAL, SYSTEMATIC
Extensive Instruction 19 INSTRUCTION • BUILD ACADEMIC IDENTITY

Scaffolding 19 Role of Response to Intervention (RTI) 46

Classroom Management 19 Universal Screening 46
High-Quality Materials 20 RTI and MTSS 47
Matching of Materials and Tasks to Student Monitoring Progress 47
Competence 20 RTI/MTSS and English Learners 47
Collective Teacher Efficacy 20 Collaboration 48
Essentials for an Effective Lesson 20 Impact of RTI/MTSS on Your Teaching 48

xviii
 Contents xix

A Multicultural Culturally Responsive Approach to General Questions for Evaluation 77

Teaching All Students 48 Placement Information 78
Including the Student’s Language 50 Informal Reading Inventory 78
Implications of Diversity for Instruction 50 DETERMINING PLACEMENT LEVELS • ADMINISTERING THE
WORD-LIST TEST • RECHECKING RESPONSES • ADMINISTERING
Summary 51
THE INVENTORY • ASSESSING FLUENCY • TALLYING UP
Extending and Applying 51 RESULTS • INTERPRETING THE INVENTORY • PROBING
Professional Reflection 52 COMPREHENSION PROBLEMS

Glossary 52 Using Lookbacks 85

MISCUE ANALYSIS OF IRIs • SELECTING AN IRI

3 Assessing for Learning 54 Running Records 87

Standards for a Running Record 88
Anticipation Guide 55 Tallying the Results 89
Using What You Know 55 Analyzing the Results 90
The Nature of Evaluation 55 COMMERCIAL RUNNING RECORDS

The Starting Point 55 Group Inventories 90

Alignment of Assessment and Data Analysis 56 Word-List Tests 92
Data Analysis 57 Screening, Benchmarks, and Progress-Monitoring
Formative, Summative, and Interim Assessments 57 Assessments 92
High-Stakes Testing 58 Curriculum-Based Measures 93
Assessment Item Formats 58 EMERGENT AND EARLY READING CBMs • FLUENCY AND
COMPREHENSION CBMs • MAZE PASSAGES
Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-Referenced
Assessments 59 Selecting a Level for Assessment 96
Criterion-Referenced Tests 60 Setting Benchmarks 96
NORM-REFERENCED REPORTING •
Creating Your Own Monitoring System 97
CRITERION-REFERENCED REPORTING Monitoring Progress and Assessing for Learning 98
Judging Assessment Measures 61 Assessing English Learners 98
RELIABILITY • STANDARD ERROR OF MEASUREMENT Creating a Literacy Profile 101
(SEM) • VALIDITY • CONTENT VALIDITY • CONCURRENT
Assessing Materials 102
VALIDITY • PREDICTIVE VALIDITY • CONSTRUCT VALIDITY
Quantitative Measures 102
ESSA Mandated Measurement of Literacy 63
ATOS (ADVANTAGE-TASA OPEN STANDARD) • DEGREES OF
Functional-Level Assessment 64 READING POWER (DRP) • FLESCH-KINCAID READABILITY
COMPUTER ADAPTIVE TESTS (CAT) ESTIMATE • COH-METRIX TEXT EASABILITY ASSESSOR •
Universal Design of Assessments 65 LEXILE® FRAMEWORK

Role of Assessing for Learning 65 Qualitative Assessment of Text Readability 103

Self-Assessment 67 Reader and Task Factors 103
Tools for Assessing for Learning 68 Leveling Systems 103
Checking for Understanding 68 The Basic Leveling Index 106
PICTURE LEVEL • CAPTION OR FRAME LEVEL •
Rubrics 68
PREPRIMER 1 (EASY, HIGH-FREQUENCY WORDS) •
RUBRICS FOR CONSTRUCTED RESPONSES PREPRIMER 2 • PREPRIMER 3 • PRIMER • FIRST GRADE
Observation 69 Summary 110
Anecdotal Records 70
Extending and Applying 111
Ratings 70
Professional Reflection 111
Checklists 70
Glossary 112
Questionnaires 71
Interviews 71
Conferences 72 4 Emergent/Early Literacy 115
Retelling 72
EVALUATING RETELLINGS • WRITTEN Anticipation Guide 116
RETELLINGS • STRUCTURED WRITTEN RETELLINGS
Using What You Know 116
Think-Aloud Protocols 74
Understanding Emergent Literacy 116
INFORMAL THINK-ALOUDS
The Development of Emergent Literacy 116
Exit Slips 74
Essential Skills and Understandings for Emergent
Logs and Journals 75 Literacy 117
Portfolios 75 Parents’ Role in Developing Emergent Literacy 118
REVIEWING PORTFOLIOS
THE VALUE OF PARENTS AND OTHER FAMILY MEMBERS
Performance Assessment 76 READING TO CHILDREN
xx Contents

Fostering Emergent Literacy 119 LANGUAGE • ALPHABETICAL AND PHONOLOGICAL

KNOWLEDGE • PRINT KNOWLEDGE • IMPORTANCE
Making Use of Opportunities to Foster Literacy 120
OF DEVELOPING LANGUAGE, BACKGROUND,
Creating Centers That Foster Emergent Literacy 120 AND COGNITIVE SKILLS
WRITING CENTER • LIBRARY CORNER • Using Systematic Instruction to Help
DRAMATIC PLAY CENTER
Underachieving Students 166
Reading to Students 122 Core Activities for Building Emergent Literacy 167
ESTABLISH A ROUTINE FOR THE READ-ALOUD • PREVIEW THE
BOOK • DISCUSS STUDENT PREDICTIONS
Assessing Emergent Literacy 167
Reading Informational Books 124 Informal Assessment Measures 170
DEVELOPING LANGUAGE AND THINKING SKILLS • SELECTING Formal Measures of Emergent Literacy 171
READ-ALOUD BOOKS Using the Assessment Results 172
A Theme Approach 128 Summary 173
Emergent Storybook Reading 128 Extending and Applying 173
Using Shared Book Experiences 129 Professional Reflection 174
SUCCESSIVE READINGS • CONCEPT OF WORD
Glossary 174
Using Writing to Develop Literacy 131
Using Language-Experience Stories 131
Shared (Interactive) Writing 132 5 Teaching Phonics and Syllabic
Individual Interactive Writing 134
Analysis 176
A New Concept of Writing 134
Forms of Emergent Writing 135 Anticipation Guide 177
Encouraging Children to Write 136 Using What You Know 177
MAKING LISTS • WRITING NAMES • USING ROUTINES Laying the Groundwork for Effective Phonics Instruction 177
Dictation in the Writing Program 137 How Words Are Read: Implications for Phonics
Beginnings of Writing 138 Instruction 178
Formation of Speech Sounds and Their Impact on Stages in Reading Words 178
Spelling and Writing 139 PREALPHABETIC STAGE (PREPHONEMIC) •
CONSONANT FORMATION • VOWEL FORMATION PARTIAL ALPHABETIC STAGE (EARLY LETTER NAME) •
FULL ALPHABETIC STAGE (LETTER NAME)) •
Effect of Environment on Speech Sounds 139
CONSOLIDATED ALPHABETIC STAGE (WITHIN-WORD
NASALIZATION • SYLLABIC CONSONANTS •
PATTERN)
AFFRICATION • ASPIRATION • VOWEL BLENDING
Implications of Stage Theory for Phonics Instruction 180
Stages of Spelling 140
Basic Principles of Phonics Instruction 180
PREALPHABETIC (PREPHONEMIC) STAGE • ALPHABETIC (LETTER
NAME) STAGE • CONSOLIDATED ALPHABETIC STAGE • SPELLING Dialect Variation in Phonics Instruction 181
INVENTORY • ERROR GUIDE Phonics and Spelling 181
The Power of Invented Spelling 142 Integrated Approach to Phonics Instruction 182
Helping Children to Spell 143 Phonics Elements 182
Developing Alphabetic Knowledge and Phonological CONSONANTS • VOWELS • ONSETS AND RIMES
Awareness 145 Approaches to Teaching Phonics 184
Learning the Letters of the Alphabet 145 ANALYTIC APPROACH • SYNTHETIC APPROACH • WHOLE OR
Introducing the Alphabet and Reinforcing Letter WHOLE-TO-PART APPROACHES • EMBEDDED OR SYSTEMATIC
APPROACHES
Knowledge 146
Letter Names and English Learners 148 Teaching Consonants 186
Phonological Awareness 148 Teaching Initial Consonants 186
Key Phonological Skills 150 Using Children’s Books to Reinforce Initial
Consonants 186
Developing Phonological Awareness 150
DEVELOPING RHYMING ABILITY • DEVELOPING
Word Sorting 188
ALLITERATION • DEVELOPING BLENDING • DEVELOPING Teaching Final Consonants 189
SEGMENTING • PERCEIVING AND ISOLATING BEGINNING Teaching Troublesome Correspondences 189
CONSONANT SOUNDS • FORMING SOUNDS • COGNITIVE
GENERALIZATION STRATEGY • VARIABILITY (TRY ANOTHER
DEMANDS OF PHONOLOGICAL AWARENESS • INTEGRATING
SOUND) STRATEGY
PHONOLOGICAL AWARENESS AND PHONICS • USING LETTER
NAMES • SPEECH-TO-PRINT PHONICS • INTRODUCING OTHER Teaching Consonant Blends 191
CONSONANT CORRESPONDENCES Teaching Vowels 195
Fostering Language Development 161 Using the Word-Building Approach 195
Emergent Literacy in Kindergarten and Prekindergarten 164 Teaching Vowels Early 196
Planning a Preschool Reading Program 164 Blending 199
 Contents xxi

Teaching Patterns 200 ECHO READING • CHORAL READING • PAIRED

READING • ALTERNATE READING • REPEATED
TEACHING THE FINAL-e PATTERN • TEACHING VOWEL
READING • VARIATIONS ON REPEATED READING •
DIGRAPH PATTERNS • SPLIT DIGRAPH
RECORDED-BOOK METHOD • FLUENCY READ-ALONGS
Reinforcing Vowel Patterns through Reading 201
Purpose of Oral Reading 252
RHYMES • USING WORD WALLS • SECRET MESSAGES •
THE SECRET WORD • MAKING WORDS Oral versus Silent Reading 252
Planning the Scope and Sequence 206 Why Fluency Instruction Works 253
MAJOR WORD PATTERNS • TEACHING VOWEL Putting Fluency in Perspective 253
GENERALIZATIONS Extended Reading 253
Phonics Strategy Instruction 214 Establishing a Voluntary Reading Program 254
PRONOUNCEABLE WORD PART • ANALOGY STRATEGY •
Activities for Motivating Voluntary Reading 257
CONTEXT • ADVANCED DECODING STRATEGIES
Summary 258
Miscue Correction 218
Supporting Phonics Learning with Decodable Texts 218 Extending and Applying 258
Predictable Books 219 Professional Reflection 258
Taking a Flexible Approach 220 Glossary 258
Teaching Phonics to English Learners 221
TEACHING STUDENTS WHO ARE LITERATE IN SPANISH 7 Building Vocabulary 260
Assessing and Monitoring Phonics Knowledge Anticipation Guide 261
and Skills 223
Choosing Books Based on Phonics Elements 224 Using What You Know 261
Case Study: The Power of Systematic Instruction 227 Learning Words 261
Developing Syllabic Analysis 228 How Words Are Learned 262
Word Learning Tasks 262
Generalization Approach to Teaching Syllabic
Analysis 229 Selecting Words to Be Learned 263
Pattern Approach to Teaching Syllabic Analysis 230 Seven Principles of Developing Vocabulary 264
BUILDING EXPERIENTIAL BACKGROUND •
Combining the Generalization and Pattern
RELATING VOCABULARY TO BACKGROUND •
Approaches 231
BUILDING RELATIONSHIPS • DEVELOPING DEPTH OF
Additional Practice Activities for Multisyllabic Words 232 MEANING • PRESENTING SEVERAL EXPOSURES •
Multisyllabic Patterns 233 CREATING AN INTEREST IN WORDS • TEACHING
STUDENTS HOW TO LEARN NEW WORDS
Using Strategies to Read Multisyllabic Words 233
Summary 237 Teaching Words 268
Graphic Organizers 268
Extending and Applying 237
SEMANTIC MAPS • PICTORIAL MAPS AND WEBS •
Professional Reflection 238 SEMANTIC FEATURE ANALYSIS • VENN DIAGRAM
Glossary 238 Dramatizing 272
Constructing Memorable Events 272
Determining Shades of Meaning 273
6 High-Frequency Words, Fluency, Exploring Word Histories 273
and Extended Reading 240 Enjoying Words 273
RIDDLES • CROSSWORD PUZZLES
Anticipation Guide 241 Discovering Sesquipedalian Words 275
Using What You Know 241 Implementing a Word of the Day 275
Presenting High-Frequency Words 241 Labeling 275
Assessing the Ability to Read High-Frequency Comparing Word Meanings 276
Words 243 Using Word-Building References 276
Teaching High-Frequency Words 244 Predicting Vocabulary Words 276
Building a High-Frequency Vocabulary with PREDICT-O-GRAM • POSSIBLE SENTENCES
Children’s Books and Periodicals 244 Reconstructing Stories with Vocabulary 277
Using Word Banks 245 Using Word Sorts 277
Building Fluency 246 Personalizing Learning 278
Prosody 247 Building Vocabulary Using Wide Reading 279
Role of Comprehension in Fluency 247 Reading to Students 281
Assessment of Fluency 247 Storytelling 282
Building Word Analysis Skills 248 Speaking and Writing 282
Modeled Techniques for Building Fluency 249 Using a Thesaurus 282
xxii Contents

Introducing New Words 283 Comprehension Strategies 317

EXTENDED INTRODUCTION
Exemplary Teaching: Thoroughly Introducing
Vocabulary
Developing the Vocabulary of English Learners
BEYOND THE CORE PROGRAM • ACADEMIC VOCABULARY
Teaching Special Features of Words
Homophones
Homographs
Figurative Language
IDIOMS • PROVERBS
Multiple Meanings
Connotations of Words
Learning How to Learn Words
Morphemic Analysis
PREFIXES • SUFFIXES • ROOT WORDS • TEACHING
ROOT WORDS • APPLYING MORPHEMIC ANALYSIS
TO UNFAMILIAR WORDS • MORPHEMIC ANALYSIS
FOR ENGLISH LEARNERS
Contextual Analysis
DERIVING THE MEANING OF A WORD FROM CONTEXT •
TYPES OF CONTEXT CLUES • PRESENTING CONTEXT CLUES •
SUBSEQUENT LESSONS IN THE USE OF CONTEXT CLUES
Dictionary Usage
PREDICTIONARY USAGE • GLOSSARY USAGE •
LOCATING THE WORDS TO BE LOOKED UP • LOCATING
AND UNDERSTANDING MEANINGS • HOMOGRAPHS •
CONSTRUCTING THE CORRECT PRONUNCIATION • ELECTRONIC
DICTIONARIES • THE DICTIONARY AS A TOOL • ENGLISH
LEARNER DICTIONARIES
Supplying Corrective Feedback
Strategy Instruction 317
Teaching Preparational Strategies 320
284 PREVIEWING • ACTIVATING PRIOR KNOWLEDGE •
285 SETTING PURPOSES AND GOALS • PREDICTING
Teaching Organizational Strategies 323
287 COMPREHENDING THE MAIN IDEA • CLASSIFYING •
SELECTING OR CONSTRUCTING THE MAIN IDEA •
287
EXTENDING THE ABILITY TO CONSTRUCT THE MAIN IDEA •
287 DETERMINING THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF
288 INFORMATION • SEQUENCING • FOLLOWING
DIRECTIONS • SUMMARIZING • INTRODUCING
SUMMARIZING • PRESENTING SUMMARIZING SKILLS
289
Teaching Elaboration Strategies 333
289
MAKING INFERENCES
290
Providing Support for Inferences 335
290
USING QAR • DIFFICULTIES IN MAKING INFERENCES •
APPLYING THE SKILL • MAKING INFERENCES
WITH IT SAYS–I SAY–AND SO • MACRO-CLOZE •
DIFFICULTY DRAWING CONCLUSIONS • MYSTERY
PASSAGES • IMAGING • EMBODIED COMPREHENSION •
294 QUESTION GENERATION • REQUEST
Teaching Monitoring (Metacognitive) Strategies 344
KNOWING ONESELF AS A LEARNER • REGULATING •
CHECKING • REPAIRING • LOOKBACK • INTENSIVE
299 INSTRUCTION IN METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES • CLICK
AND CLUNK
Social–Constructivist Nature of Comprehension 349
Reciprocal Teaching 350
Questioning the Author (QTA) 353
MARKING • TURNING BACK • REVOICING •
304 MODELING • ANNOTATING • RECAPPING

Think-Alouds 304 Making Strategy Instruction Work 356

Creating a Program for Developing Vocabulary 304 Integration of Strategies 356
Vocabulary Development Programs 305 Explicit versus Nonexplicit Instruction
VOCABULARY A–Z • LEARN THAT WORD • WORDLY WISE
of Strategies 356
(EPS) • VOCABULARY WORKSHOP (SADLIER) Importance of Affective Factors 357
Assessing Vocabulary 306 Scheduling Strategy Instruction 357
Closing the Vocabulary Gap 306 Putting Strategies in Perspective 357
A Balanced Blend 307 Special Comprehension Strategies for Bilingual
Summary 308 Readers 357
Using Think-Alouds and Process Questions to
Extending and Applying 308
Assess Comprehension and Strategy Use 358
Professional Reflection 308 Importance of Prior Knowledge 358
Glossary 309 Making Connections 359
Summary 359
8 Comprehension: Theory Extending and Applying 360
and Strategies 310 Professional Reflection 360
Anticipation Guide 311 Glossary 360
Using What You Know
The Process of Comprehending
311
311
9 Comprehension: Text Structures
Schema Theory 311
and Teaching Procedures 362
Situation (Mental Model) Theory 312 Anticipation Guide 363
Standard of Coherence 314 Using What You Know 363
Role of Reasoning 314
Nature of the Text 363
Role of Attention and Interest 315
Narrative Text and Story Schema 363
Role of Surface Features 315 RETELLING • DEVELOPMENTAL RETELLING •
Developmental Nature of Comprehension 316 PRETELLING • REENACTMENTS • WRITING STORIES •
Approaches to Teaching Comprehension 316 COMPREHENSION OF NARRATIVES
 Contents xxiii

Informational Text 368 Before-Reading Techniques 404

TYPES OF INFORMATIONAL TEXT STRUCTURE • TEACHING ANTICIPATION GUIDES
INFORMATIONAL TEXT STRUCTURE • USING GRAPHIC During-Reading Techniques 406
ORGANIZERS • USING QUESTIONS TO MAKE CONNECTIONS
TEXTUAL FEATURES THAT FOSTER LEARNING • THINK-
Analyzing Text Complexity 372 ALOUDS • STRATEGY GUIDES • PATTERN GUIDES • OTHER
The Role of Questions in Comprehension 372 TYPES OF STRATEGY GUIDES • GLOSSES • WIRC (WRITING
INTENSIVE READING COMPREHENSION) THINKSHEETS
Planning Questions 372
Concept Sorts 410
Placement of Questions 373
After-Reading Techniques 411
Types of Questions 373
CREATING GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS • INFOGRAPHICS •
Using Wait Time 374 APPLYING AND EXTENDING
Classroom Atmosphere 375 KWL: A Technique for Before, During, and After
Techniques for Asking Questions 375 Reading 415
RESPONSIVE ELABORATION • DIFFICULTY MAKING
Using Content-Area/Disciplinary Texts 416
INFERENCES • MAKING COMPARISONS • INTEGRATING
INFORMATION • PROMPTING ELs • THINK-PAIR-SHARE Combining Text and Digital Features 417
Frameworks for Fostering Comprehension 379 Differentiating Instruction 418
Guided Reading 379 Scaffolding 418
Steps in a Guided Reading Lesson 380 Using Simple English Wikipedia 419
INTRODUCING THE TEXT • READING THE TEXT • Using Digital Aids 419
DISCUSSION • REVISITING • EXTENDING • GUIDED READING Using Differentiated Texts 419
FOR BEGINNING READERS • GUIDED READING FOR ELs • READORIUM • ROCKETLIT • NEWSELA • TWEENTRIBUNE
GUIDED READING WITH MORE ADVANCED STUDENTS •
Using Trade Books 420
PREPARING A GUIDED READING LESSON • GUIDED CLOSE
READING OF INFORMATIONAL TEXT • GUIDED READING Using the Steppingstone Approach 421
FOR FICTION Using e-Books and Online Texts 422
Directed Reading–Thinking Activity 389 Using e-Readers 423
The Cloze Procedure 390 Using Open Educational Resources 423
CLASSIC CLOZE • SCORING CLOZE • SUBSTITUTION Using a Language-Experience Approach to Provide
SCORING • DISCUSSION FOR COMPREHENSION •
Accessible Text 424
CONSTRUCTING CLOZE EXERCISES • VARIATIONS ON
CLOZE • WORD MASKING • MODIFIED CLOZE Using Periodicals 424
Analytical/Critical Reading 393 Using Databases of Texts 426
Uses of Language 394 Using Websites 426
Understanding Factual Statements and Opinions 395 Using Primary Sources 426
Recognizing the Author’s Purpose and Point Writing to Learn 427
of View 395 Learning Logs 429
Drawing Logical Conclusions 396 Brief Writing-to-Learn Activities 429
Finding Textual Evidence 396 Teaching Content to English Learners 430
Judging Sources 397 Systematic Vocabulary Instruction 432
SLANTED WRITING Reading to Remember 433
Reflective Reading 398 Fostering Retention 434
Summary 399 Principles for Improving Memory 434
Extending and Applying 399 Conceptual Understanding 435
Professional Reflection 399 Memory Devices 435
Glossary 400 REHEARSAL • MNEMONIC METHOD • MNEMONIC
RHYMES • ACRONYMS • ACROSTICS
Importance of Practice 436
10 Reading and Writing in the PROVIDING MORE EFFECTIVE PRACTICE •
DISTRIBUTED VERSUS MASSED PRACTICE
Content Areas and Study Skills 401 Providing Judicious Review 437
Anticipation Guide 402 SQ3R: A Theory-Based Study Strategy 438
Using What You Know 402 PRINCIPLES OF SQ3R • TEACHING SQ3R

Subject-Matter Literacy 402 Retrieval Practice 439

Content-Area/Disciplinary Literacy 402 Test-Taking Strategies 440
Instructional Techniques for Building Conceptual Provide Practice at Students’ Reading Level 442
Understanding 403 Preparing Students Who Are Reading
Three Principles for Building Conceptual Significantly Below Level 442
Understanding 403 Locate and Recall: An Essential Test-Taking Skill 443
Essential Questions 404 Practicing Test-Taking Skills 444
xxiv Contents

The Role of the Pretest 444 Changing Approaches to Teaching Reading 479
Metacognitive Study Strategies 445 Basal/Anthology Approach 480
Summary 446 Advantages of Basals 481
Extending and Applying 446 Disadvantages of Basals 481
Professional Reflection 447 PROBLEM OF PACING • PROBLEM WITH ORGANIZATIONAL
PATTERN • POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO THE BASAL DILEMMA
Glossary 447
Adapting Basals 483

11 Reading Literature 448

Literature-Based Approach
Core Literature
484
485
Anticipation Guide 449 Text Sets 486
Using What You Know 449 Thematic Units 486
Experiencing Literature 449 Self-Selection in a Literature Approach 488
The New Critics and Close Reading 449 Choosing Materials in a Literature Approach 489
Elements of a Close Reading 450 Advantages and Disadvantages of a Literature-Based
SELECTING THE TEXT • READING TO GET THE GIST • Approach 489
READING FOR A DEEPER UNDERSTANDING • Adapting a Literature-Based Approach 490
READING TO ANALYZE THE AUTHOR’S CRAFT •
Individualized Reading/Reading Workshop 490
Combining Close Reading and Reader Preparation Time 490
Response 451
Self-Selected Reading and Responding 491
Envisionments 451
CONFERENCES • GROUP CONFERENCES • USING
INITIAL UNDERSTANDINGS (GIST) • DEVELOPING
DIALOGUE JOURNALS
INTERPRETATIONS (DEEPER UNDERSTANDING) •
REFLECTING ON PERSONAL EXPERIENCE • EVALUATING Student Sharing 495
Close Responsive Reading of a Short Story 453 Organizing the Program 495
Questions to Guide Reading and Discussion 453 Advantages and Disadvantages of Reading Workshop 496
Using Annotations 455 Adapting Reading Workshop 496
Using Journals 456 Other Approaches 496
Other Forms of Response and Analysis 457 Leveled Readers 496
Using Discussion To Develop Analysis And Response 457 ADVANTAGES OF LEVELED READERS • DISADVANTAGES
OF LEVELED READERS • CLOSING THE GAP: PROVIDING
Quality Talk 457
BETTER REINFORCEMENT WITH LEVELED READERS
Literature Discussion Groups as Cooperative
Learning Groups 458 Language-Experience Approach 498
PERSONALIZING GROUP STORIES • INDIVIDUAL
STRATEGIC LITERATURE DISCUSSIONS
LANGUAGE-EXPERIENCE STORIES • OTHER USES
Discussion Moves 462 FOR THE LANGUAGE-EXPERIENCE APPROACH •
Types of Literature 462 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE
Folklore 462 LANGUAGE-EXPERIENCE APPROACH •
ADAPTING THE LANGUAGE-EXPERIENCE APPROACH
Poetry 464
Chapter Books and Novels 464 Guided Reading 501
LEARNING CENTERS • MORE THAN JUST A WAY OF GROUPING
CHARACTER ANALYSIS • PLOT ANALYSIS • THEME
STUDENTS • ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF GUIDED
ANALYSIS • MOOD AND TONE • POINT OF VIEW
READING
Drama 471
Digital Programs 504
DRAMATIZATIONS • STORY THEATER •
READER’S THEATER BLENDED LEARNING • ADAPTIVE PROGRAMS •
ACHIEVE 3000® • ISTATION • LEXIA LEARNING
Literary Nonfiction 473
BIOGRAPHIES
Project Approach 505
Reading Aloud to Students 474 An Integrated Approach 506
INTERACTIVE READ-ALOUDS Summary 507
Summary 476 Extending and Applying 508
Extending and Applying 476 Professional Reflection 508
Professional Reflection 476 Glossary 508
Glossary 476
13 Writing and Reading 510
12 Approaches to Teaching Reading 478 Anticipation Guide 511
Anticipation Guide 479 Using What You Know 511
Using What You Know 479 Introduction to Writing Instruction 511
 Contents xxv

The Roots of Writing 511 Constructing a Literacy Program 550

Writing Proficiency in Elementary Setting Goals 551
and Middle School 512 Choosing Materials 551
The Process Approach to Writing 512 Selecting Techniques and Strategies 552
Prewriting 512 Building Motivation 553
TOPIC SELECTION • PLANNING • REHEARSING Building a Sense of Community 555
Composing (Drafting) 515 Managing, Assessing, and Improving a Literacy
CONSIDERING ONE’S AUDIENCE Program 555
Revising 517 Using Time Efficiently 555
Editing 520 Providing for Individual Differences 556
Publishing 521 WHOLE-CLASS GROUPING • READING ACHIEVEMENT
Conferences 522 GROUPS • TEMPORARY SKILLS GROUPS • STUDY
PEER CONFERENCES • AUTHORS' CIRCLE BUDDIES • INTEREST GROUPS • REGROUPING •
BALANCED GROUPING • EFFECTIVE, FLEXIBLE
Writing Workshop 524 GROUPING • ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Mini-lessons 524 OF GROUPING
Guided Writing (Strategic Writing) 525 Intervention Programs 559
Using Mentor or Model Texts 525 A FRAMEWORK BASED ON AN OVERVIEW OF
INTERVENTION PROGRAMS
Writing Objectives 527
INFORMATIONAL WRITING • NARRATIVE OR FICTIONAL Building Literacy: A Classroom Intervention
WRITING Program 559
Writing Time 528 Involving Parents 560
Group Sharing 529 Family Literacy Programs 561
AUTHOR’S CHAIR Working with Other Professionals 562
Management of the Writing Workshop 529 Evaluating and Improving the Literacy Program 562
Technology and Writing 531 Using Reading to Close the Gap 563
Helping ELs with Their Writing 531 Literacy and Technology 563
STEP 1 • STEP 2 • STEP 3 • STEP 4 • STEP 5 • Digital Devices as Electronic Learning Tools 564
STEP 6 • STEP 7 OBTAINING INFORMATION
Helping Struggling Writers and Achieving Selecting and Using Websites 564
Writers, Too 533
Using the Internet to Conduct Inquiries 564
Developing Foundational Writing Skills 533 WEBQUEST • PERSONAL DIGITAL INQUIRY (PDI)
Writing in Major Genres 534 Using Student-Friendly Databases 565
Composing Narratives 534 Producing and Sharing Information 566
Composing Explanatory/Informational Texts 534 BLOGGING • WIKIS • PODCASTS
Composing Explanatory Pieces 536 Issues of Safety 566
Composing Argumentation Texts 537 A Digital Workplace 567
Guiding the Writing of Reports 539 Teacher Tools 567
SHARPENING THE FOCUS OF REPORT WRITING • Digital Literacy in Today’s and Tomorrow’s
BUILDING UNDERSTANDING
Worlds 567
Assessing and Improving Writing 540 Professional Development 568
Evaluating Students’ Writing 541 Study Groups and Grade-Level Meetings 568
Portfolios 544 Professional Learning Communities 569
Reading and Writing 544 Professional Development Webinars, Blogs,
Writing Activities that Support Reading 545 and Podcasts 569
WRITTEN CONVERSATIONS • QUICKWRITES Other Sources of Professional Development 569
A Full Menu 545 Reflection and Setting Professional Goals 570
Summary 547 Summary 573
Extending and Applying 547 Extending and Applying 573
Professional Reflection 547 Professional Reflection 574
Glossary 548 Glossary 574

14 Creating and Managing a Literacy References 575

Program 549
Subject Index 608
Anticipation Guide 550
Name Index 618
Using What You Know 550
Another random document with
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were comparatively free, though the difference in the amount of
shelling of the two places was not noticeable.
Of great importance with all gases is the posting of a sufficient
number of sentries around men sleeping within the range of gas
shell. The worst projector gas attack against the Americans was one
where the projectors were landed among a group of dugouts
containing men asleep without sentries. The result was a very heavy
casualty list, coupled with a high death rate, the men being gassed in
their sleep before they were awakened.

Destruction of Mustard Gas

Prior to the introduction of mustard gas all that was necessary to
get rid of gas was to thoroughly ventilate the spot. Thus in trenches
and dugouts, fires were found to be very efficient, simply because
they produced a circulation of air. In the early days, among the
British, the Ayrton fan, a sort of canvas scoop, was used to throw the
gas out of the trenches. While this was taken up in the American
Service, it did not become very important, since it was found that,
under ordinary atmospheric conditions, natural ventilation soon
carried the gas out of the trench proper, while fires in dugouts were
far more efficient than the fans. Likewise the Ayrton fan smacked too
much of trench warfare which had reached a condition of
“stalemate”—a condition that never appealed to the Americans and a
condition that it is hoped never will.
With mustard gas, however, conditions were entirely changed.
This liquid having a very high boiling point and evaporating very
slowly, remains for days in the earth and on vegetation and other
material sprinkled with it. This was particularly true in shell holes
where the force of the explosion drove the gas into the earth around
the broken edges of the hole. While many substances were
experimented with, that which proved best and most practical under
all conditions, was chloride of lime. This was used to sprinkle in shell
holes, on floors of dugouts and any other places where the liquid
might be splashed from bursting shells. It was also found very
desirable to have a small box of this at the entrance to each dugout,
so that a person who had been exposed to mustard gas could
thoroughly coat his shoes with it and thus kill the mustard gas that
collected in the mud on the bottom and sides of his shoes.

Carrying Mustard Gas on Clothing

There are many instances where the occupants of dugouts were
gassed from the gas on the shoes and clothing of men entering the
dugout. Not only were occupants of dugouts thus gassed but a
number of nurses and doctors were gassed while working in closed
rooms over patients suffering from mustard gas poisoning. Even
under the conditions of warfare existing where the Americans were
generally in action, the quantity of chloride of lime required
amounted to several hundred tons per month which had to be
shipped from the United States. Chloride of lime was also very
convenient to have at hand around shell dumps for the purpose of
covering up leaky shells, though rules for handling mustard gas
shells usually prescribed that they be fired and where that was not
practicable to bury them at least five feet under the surface of the
ground. This depth was not so much for the purpose of getting rid of
the gas as it was to get the shell so deep into the ground that it
would not be a danger in any cultivation that might later take place.

Mustard Gas in Cold Weather

Much was learned toward the end of the war about ways of
getting through or around areas infected with mustard gas. For
instance, if mustard gas be fired when the weather is in the
neighborhood of freezing or somewhat below, it will remain on the
ground at night with so little evaporation as not to be dangerous. The
same will be true during the day time if the weather is cloudy as well
as cold. If, however, the days are bright and the nights cold, mustard
gassed areas can be safely crossed by troops at night provided care
is taken in brush and bushes to protect the feet and clothing from the
liquid splashed on bushes. If the sun comes out warm in the morning
such areas may be quite dangerous for three to four hours following
sun-up and indeed for the greater part of the day. Quite a large
number of casualties were ascribed to this fact in the heavy attack
on the British front west of Cambrai just prior to the great German
drive against Amiens, March 21, 1918.

Degassing Units
Since mustard gas has a greatly delayed action it was found that
if men who had been exposed to it could be given a thorough bath
with soap and water within a half hour or even a full hour, the
mustard gas burns would be prevented or very greatly reduced in
severity. Accordingly degassing units were developed consisting
essentially of a 5 ton truck with a 1200 gallon water tank, fitted with
an instantaneous heater and piping to connect it to portable shower
baths. Another truck was kept loaded with extra suits of
underclothing and uniforms. These degassing units were to be
provided at the rate of two per division. Then, in the event of a
mustard gas attack anywhere in the division, one of these units
would be rushed to that vicinity and the men brought out of the line
and given a bath and change of clothing as soon as possible. At the
same time they were given a drink of bicarbonate of soda water and
their eyes, ears, mouth and nasal passages washed with the same.

Protecting Food from Mustard Gas

It was very early learned that mustard gas, or minute particles of
the liquid gas settling on food, caused the stomach to be burned if
the food were eaten, just as the eyes, lungs and skin of the body are
burned from gas in the air. This made it necessary then to see that
all food liable to exposure to mustard gas attacks was protected, and
tarred paper for box linings or tops was found by the Gas Service to
furnish one of the cheapest and most available means of doing this.

Alarm Signals
 Numerous, indeed, were the devices invented at one time or
another with which to sound gas alarms. The English early devised
the Strombos horn, a sort of trumpet operated by compressed air
contained in cylinders carried for that purpose. Its note is penetrating
and can be heard, under good conditions, for three or four miles.
When cloud gas attacks, which occurred only at intervals of two to
four months, were the only gas attacks to be feared, it was easy
enough to provide for alarm signals by methods as cumbersome and
as technically delicate as the Strombos horn.
With the advent of shell gas in general, and mustard gas in
particular, the number of gas attacks increased enormously. This
made it not only impossible, but inadvisable also, to furnish sufficient
Strombos horns for all gas alarms, as gas shell attacks are
comparatively local. In such cases, if the Strombos horn is used to
give warning, it causes troops who are long distances out of the area
attacked to take precautions against gas with consequent
interference with their work or fighting.
To meet these local conditions metal shell cases were first hung
up and the alarm sounded on them. Later steel triangles were used
in the same way. At a still later date the large policeman’s rattle, well
known in Europe, was adopted and following that the Klaxon horn.
As the warfare of movement developed the portability of alarm
apparatus became of prime importance. For those reasons the
Klaxon horn and the police rattle were having a race for popularity
when the Armistice was signed.
A recent gas alarm invention that gives promise is a small siren-
like whistle fired into the air like a bomb. It is fitted with a parachute
which keeps it from falling too rapidly when the bomb explodes and
sets it free. Its tone is said to be very penetrating and to be quite
effective over an ample area. Since future gas alarm signals must be
efficient and must be portable, the lighter and more compact they
can be made the better; hence the desirability of parachute whistles
or similar small handy alarms.

Issuing New Masks

 One of the problems that remained unsolved at the end of the
war was how to determine when to issue new boxes, or canisters, for
masks. One of the first questions asked by the soldier is how long
his mask is good in gas, and how long when worn in drill where there
is no gas. This information is of course decidedly important.
Obviously, however, it is impossible to tell how long a canister will
last in a gas attack, unless the concentration of gas is known—that
is, the life of the box is longer or shorter as the concentration of gas
is weak or heavy.
A realization of this need led mask designers to work very hard,
long before the necessity for comfort in a mask was as fully realized
as it was at the end of the war, to increase the length of life of the
canister. To get longer life they increased the chemicals and this in
turn increased the breathing resistance, thereby adding to the
discomfort of the soldier when wearing the mask. Finally, however, it
was found that in the concentration of gas encountered on an
average in the field, the life of the comparatively small American
boxes was sufficient to last from fifty to one hundred hours, which is
longer than any gas attack or at least gives time to get out of the
gassed area.
The British early appreciated the necessity of knowing when
boxes should be replaced. They accordingly devised the scheme of
furnishing with each mask a very small booklet tied to the carrying
case in which the soldier could not only enter a complete statement
of the time he had worn the mask but also the statement as to
whether it was in gas or for drill purposes only. The soldier was then
taught that if he had worn the mask, say for forty hours, he should
get a new box. But the scheme didn’t work. In fact, it was one of
those things which foresight might have shown wouldn’t work.
Indeed, any man who in the hell of battle can keep such a record
completely, should be at once awarded a Distinguished Service
Medal.
As gas warfare developed not only were all kinds of gas shells
sent over in a bunch but they were accompanied by high explosive,
shrapnel and anything else in the way of trouble that the enemy
possessed. A man near the front line, under those conditions, had all
he could do and frequently more than he could do, to get his mask
on and keep it on while doing his bit. Consequently he had no time,
even if he had the inclination, to record how long he had the mask in
the various gases.
In this connection, after the Armistice was signed we in the field
were requested to obtain for experimental purposes 10,000 canisters
that had been used in battle. Each was to be labeled with the length
of time it had been worn in or out of gas, and if in gas, the name of
each gas and the time the mask was worn in it. This request is just a
sample of what is asked by those who do not realize field conditions.
One trip to the front would have convinced the one making the
request of the utter impossibility of complying with it, for really no
man knows how long he wears a mask in gas. With gas as common
and as difficult to detect (when intermingled with high explosive
gases and other smells of the battle field) as it was at the end of the
war, each man wore the mask just as long as he could, simply as a
matter of precaution.
Before hostilities ceased we were trying out a method of calling in
say fifty canisters per division once a week for test in the laboratory.
If the tests showed the life of the canisters to be short new canisters
would be issued. While we did not have opportunity to try out this
plan, it gave promise of being the best that could be done. With gas
becoming an every day affair, the only other alternative would seem
to be to make issues of new boxes at stated intervals. On the other
hand there are no definite records of casualties occurring from the
exhaustion of the chemicals in the box. Undoubtedly some did occur,
but they were very, very few. In nearly all cases the masks got
injured, or the box became rusted through before the chemicals gave
out.

Tonnage and Number of Masks Required

It will probably be a shock to most people to learn that with more
than two million men in France we required nearly 1500 tons of gas
material per month. This tonnage was increasing, rather than
decreasing, to cover protective suits, gloves, pastes, and chloride of
lime, as well as masks. The British type respirator was estimated to
last from four to six months. The active part of the war, in which the
Americans took part, was too short to determine whether this was
correct or not. The indications were, however, that it was about right,
considering rest periods and fighting periods.
With the new American mask, with its much stronger and stiffer
face material, the chances are that the life will be considerably
increased although the more constant use of the mask will probably
offset its greater durability. A longer life of mask would of course be a
decided advantage as it would not only reduce tonnage, but would
reduce manufacturing and distribution as well. The estimates on
which we were working at the end looked forward to requiring from
the United States about one-third pound per man per day for all
troops in France, in order to keep them supplied with gas defense
material and with the gases used offensively by gas troops. All gas
shell, hand grenades, etc., used by other than gas troops required
tonnage in addition to the above.

Summing Up
In summing up then, it is noted that there are several important
things in defense against gas. First, the mask which protects the
eyes and the lungs. Second, the training that teaches the man how
to utilize to best advantage the means of protection at his disposal,
whether he be alone or among others. Third, protective clothing that
protects hands and feet and the skin in general. Fourth, a knowledge
of gases and their tactical use that will enable commanders,
whenever possible, to move men out of gas infected areas. Fifth,
training in the offensive use of gas, as well as in defensive methods,
to teach the man that gas has no uncanny power and that it is simply
one element of war that must be reckoned with, thus preventing
stampedes when there is really no danger.
While these are the salient points in defense against gas, above
them and beyond them lies the vigorous offensive use of gas. This
involves not only the research, development and manufacture of
necessary gases in peace time, but also the necessary training to
enable our nation to hurl upon the enemy on the field of battle
chemical warfare materials in quantities he cannot hope to attain.
 CHAPTER XXV
PEACE TIME USES OF GAS

“Peace hath her victories no less renowned than war.” Thus runs
the old proverb. In ancient times war profited by peace far more than
peace profited by war if indeed the latter ever actually occurred. The
implements developed for the chase in peace became the weapons
of war. This was true of David’s sling-shot, of the spear and of the
bow. Even powder itself was probably intended and used for scores
of years for celebrations and other peaceful events.
The World War reversed this story, especially in its later phases.
The greater part of the war was fought with implements and
machines prepared in peace either for war or for peaceful purposes.
Such implements were the aeroplane, submarine, truck, automobile
and gasoline motors in general. The first gas attack, which was
simply an adaptation of the peacetime use of the chemical chlorine,
inaugurated the change. Gas was so new and instantly recognized
as so powerful that the best brains in research among all the first
class powers were put to work to develop other gases and other
means of projecting them upon the enemy. The result was that in the
short space of three and one-half years a number of substances
were discovered, or experimented with anew, that are aiding today
and will continue to aid in the future in the peaceful life of every
nation.
Chlorine is even more valuable than ever as a disinfectant and
water purifier. It is the greatest bleaching material in the world, and
has innumerable other uses in the laboratory. Chloropicrin, cyanogen
chloride and cyanogen bromide are found to be very well adapted to
the killing of weevil and other similar insect destroyers of grain.
Hydrocyanic acid gas is the greatest destroyer today of insect pests
that otherwise would ruin the beautiful orange and lemon groves of
California and the South.
 Fig. 120.

Phosgene, so extensively used in the war both in cloud gas and

in shell, is finding an ever increasing use in the making of brilliant
dyes—pinks, greens, blues and violets. On account of its cheapness
and simplicity of manufacture, it has great possibilities in the
destruction of rodents such as rats around wharves, warehouses
and similar places that are inaccessible to any other means of
reaching those pests. Since phosgene is highly corrosive of steel,
iron, copper and brass, it cannot be used successfully in places
where those metals are present.
 Instead of phosgene for killing rodents and the like in
storehouses and warehouses, cyanogen bromide has been
developed. This is a solid and can be burned like an ordinary sulphur
candle. It is much safer for the purpose of fumigating rooms and
buildings than is hydrocyanic acid gas when so used. This is for the
reason that cyanogen bromide is an excellent lachrymator in
quantities too minute to cause any injury to the lungs. It will thus give
warning to anyone attempting to enter a place where some of the
gas may still linger.
Among tear gases, the new chloracetophenone, a solid, is
perhaps the greatest of all. When driven off by heat it first appears
as a light bluish colored cloud. This cloud is instantly so irritating to
the eyes that within a second anyone in the path of the cloud is
temporarily blinded. It causes considerable smarting and very
profuse tears which even in the smallest amount continue for two to
five minutes. In greater quantities it would continue longer. So far as
can be ascertained, it is absolutely harmless so far as any
permanent injuries are concerned.
Considering that it is instantly effective, that minute quantities are
unbearable to the eyes, that it can be put in hand grenades or other
small containers and driven off by a heating mixture which will not
ignite even a pile of papers, and that it needs no explosion to burst
the grenade (all that is used is a light cap, set off by the action of the
spring, sufficient to ignite the burning charge), the future will see
every police department in the land outfitted with chloracetophenone
or other similar grenades. Every sheriff’s office, every jail and every
penitentiary will have a supply of them. No jail breaking, no lynching,
no rioting can succeed where these grenades are available. Huge
crowds can be set to weeping instantly so that no man can see and
no mob will continue once it is blinded with irritating tears. More than
that, it is an extremely difficult gas to keep out of masks, ordinary
masks of the World War being entirely useless against it.
The same is true of diphenylaminechlorarsine. This is not a tear
gas but it is extraordinarily irritating to the lungs, throat and nose,
where it causes pains and burning sensations, and in higher
concentrations vomiting. It is hardly poisonous at all so that it is
extremely difficult to get enough to cause danger to life. This is
mentioned because of its possible use for the protection of bank
vaults, safes, and strong rooms generally.
There are many other gases that can be used for this same
purpose. It is presumed that gases that are not powerful enough to
kill are the ones desired, and there are half a dozen at least that can
be so used. If desired deadly gases can just as readily be used.
Already a number of inventors are at work on the problem, with
some plans practically completely worked out and models made.
It has been suggested that one of these gases could be used by
trappers in trapping wild animals. Hydrocyanic acid gas may be so
used. It acts quickly and is very rapidly dissipated. An animal
exposed to the fumes would die quickly and the trap be safe to
approach within two minutes after it was sprung. It is said that the
loss from animals working their way out of traps by one means or
another is nearly 20 per cent. More than this, it would meet the
objections of the S. P. C. A. in that the animal would not suffer from
having its limbs torn and lacerated by the trap.
Attempts are being made to attack the locust of the Philippines
and the far west and the boll weevil of the cotton states of the South.
So far these tests have not proven more successful than other
methods, but inasmuch as the number of gases available for trial are
so great and the value of success of so much importance, this
research should be continued on a large scale to definitely determine
whether poisonous gas can be used to eradicate these pests—
especially the boll weevil.
As an interesting application of war materials to peaceful uses,
we may consider the case of cellulose-acetate, known during the war
as “aeroplane dope,” the material used to coat the linen covering
aeroplane wings. With a little further manipulation, this cellulose-
acetate, or aeroplane dope, becomes artificial silk—a silk that today
is generally equal to the best natural silk—and which promises in the
future to become a standard product better in every way than that
from the silk worm.
 Fig. 121.

These few examples of the peacetime value of gas are worthy of

thought from another standpoint. Being so valuable, their use in
peace will not be stopped. If they are thus manufactured and used in
peace, they will always be available for use in war, and as the
experience of the World War proved, they certainly will be so used
even should anybody be foolish enough to try to abolish their use. As
for this latter idea, the world might as well recognize at once that
half-way measures in war simply invite disaster.
 This chapter would not be complete without a brief statement of
the necessity of a thoroughly developed chemical industry in the
United States as a vital national necessity if the United States is to
have real preparedness for a future struggle. As will be indicated a
little later, no one branch of the chemical industry can be allowed to
go out of existence without endangering some part of the scheme of
preparedness.
Let us consider first the coal tar industry. Coal tar is a by-product
of coke ovens or the manufacture of artificial gas from coal. The coal
tar industry is of the utmost importance because in the coal tars are
the bases of nearly all of the modern dyes, a large percentage of the
modern medicines, most of the modern high explosives, a large
proportion of poisonous gases, modern perfumes, and photographic
materials.
A consideration of these titles alone shows how vital the coal tar
industry is. The coal tar as it comes to us as a by-product is distilled,
giving off at different temperatures a series of compounds called
crudes. Ten of these are of very great importance. The first five are
benzene, toluene, naphthalene, anthracene and phenol (carbolic
acid). The second group comprises xylene, methylanthracene,
cresol, carbazol and phenanthrene.
These, when treated with other chemicals, produce a series of
compounds called intermediates, of which there are some 300 now
known. From these intermediates by different steps are produced
either dyes, high explosives, poisonous gases, pharmaceuticals,
perfumes or photographic materials.
We have all heard that Germany controlled the dye industry of
the world prior to the World War. A little study of the above brief
statement of what is contained in the coal tar industry along with
dyes will show in a measure one of the reasons why Germany felt
that she could win a war against the world. That she came so
desperately close to winning that war is proof of the soundness of
her view.
In many of the processes are needed the heavy chemicals such
as chlorine, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, hydrochloric acid and the like.
The alcohol industry is also of very great importance. Grain alcohol
is used extensively in nearly all research problems and in very great
quantities in many commercial processes such as the manufacture
of artificial silk and for gasoline engines in addition to its use in
compounding medicines. It is of very great importance to the
Chemical Warfare Service in that from grain alcohol is obtained
ethylene gas, one of the three essentials in the manufacture of
mustard gas. While this ethylene may be obtained from many
sources, the most available source, considering ease of
transportation and keeping qualities, is in the form of grain alcohol.
Allied to the chemical industries just mentioned is the nitrate
industry for making nitric acid from the nitrogen of the air. Nitrates
are used in many processes of chemical manufacture and
particularly in those for the production of smokeless powders. The
fertilizer industry is of large importance because it deals with
phosphorus, white phosphorus being not only one of the best smoke
producing materials but a material that is, as stated elsewhere, of
great use against men through its powerful burning qualities.
Another point not mentioned above in connection with these
industries is the training of chemists, chemical engineers and the
building up of plants for the manufacture of chemicals, all of which
are necessary sources of supply for wartime needs. Chemists are
needed in the field, in the laboratory and in manufacturing plants.
The greater their number, the more efficiently can these materials be
handled, and since chemicals as such will probably cause more than
50 per cent of all casualties in future wars, their value is almost
unlimited.
Instead of trying to ameliorate the ravages of war, let us turn
every endeavor towards abolishing all war, remembering that the
most scientific nations should be the most highly civilized, and the
ones most desirous of abolishing war. If those nations will push
every scientific development to the point where by the aid of their
scientific achievements they can overcome any lesser scientific
peoples, the end of war should be in sight.
 However, we can never be certain that war is abolished until we
convince at least a majority of the world that war is disastrous to the
conqueror as well as to the conquered, and that any dispute can be
settled peacefully if both parties will meet on the common ground of
justice and a square deal.
 CHAPTER XXVI
THE FUTURE OF CHEMICAL WARFARE

The pioneer, no matter what the line of endeavor, encounters

difficulties caused by his fellow-men just in proportion as the thing
pioneered promises results. If the promise be small, the difficulties
usually encountered are only those necessary to make the venture a
success. If, however, the results promise to be great, and especially
if the rewards to the inventor and those working with him promise to
be considerable, the difficulties thrown in the way of the venture
become greater and greater. Indeed whenever great results are
promised, envy is engendered in those in other lines whose
importance may be diminished, or who are so short-sighted as to be
always opposed to progress.
Chemical warfare has had, and is still having, its full share of
these difficulties. From the very day when chlorine, known to the
world as a benign substance highly useful in sanitation, water
purification, gold mining and bleaching was put into use as a
poisonous gas, chemical warfare has loomed larger and larger as a
factor to be considered in all future wars. Chlorine was first used in
the cylinders designed for shipping it. These cylinders were poorly
adapted for warfare, and made methods of preparing gas attacks
extremely laborious, cumbersome and time-consuming.
It was not many months, however, until different gases began to
appear in large quantities in shells and bombs, while the close of the
war, 3½ years later, saw the development of gas in solid form
whereby it could be carried with the utmost safety under all
conditions—a solid which could become dangerous only when the
heating mixture, that freed the gas, was properly ignited.
While some of the chemicals developed for use in war prior to the
Armistice have been made known to the world, a number of others
have not. More than this, every nation of first class importance has
continued to pursue more or less energetically studies into chemical
warfare. These studies will continue, and we must expect that new
gases, new methods of turning them loose, and new tactical uses
will be developed.
Already it is clearly foreseen that these gases will be used by
every branch of the Army and the Navy. While chemicals were not
used by the Air Service in the last war, it was even then realized that
there was no material reason why they should not have been so
used. That they will be used in the future by the Air Service, and
probably on a large scale, is certain. The Navy, too, will use gases,
and probably on a considerable scale. Thus chemical materials as
such become the most universal of all weapons of war.
Some of the poisonous gases are so powerful in minute
quantities and evaporate so slowly that their liberation does not
produce sufficient condensation to cause a cloud. Consequently, we
have gases that cannot be seen. Others form clouds by themselves,
such, for instance, as the toxic smoke candle, where the solid is
driven off by heating, while still others cause clouds of condensed
vapor. This brings the discussion into the realm of ordinary smokes
that have no irritating and no poisonous effects.
These smokes are extremely valuable where the purpose is to
form a screen, whether it be to hide the advance of troops or to cut
off the view of observers. These smokes are equally useful on land
and on sea. So great is the decrease in efficiency of the rifle or
machine gun, and of artillery even when firing at troops that cannot
be seen, that smoke for screening purposes will be used on every
future field of battle. When firing through a screen of smoke, a man
has certainly less than one-quarter the chance to hit his target that
he would have were the target in plain view. Since smoke clouds
may or may not be poisonous and since smoke will be used in every
battle, there is opened up an unlimited field for the exercise of
ingenuity in making these smoke clouds poisonous or non-poisonous
at will. It also opens up an unlimited field for the well-trained
chemical warfare officer who can tell in any smoke cloud whether
gas be present and whether, if present, it is in sufficient
concentration to be dangerous.
At the risk of repetition, it is again stated that there is no gas that
will kill or even permanently injure in any quantity that cannot be
detected. For every gas, there is a certain minimum amount in each
cubic foot of air that is necessary to cause any injury. In nearly all
gases, this minimum amount is sufficient to be readily noticeable by
a trained chemical warfare officer through the sense of smell.
It would be idle to attempt to enumerate the ways and means by
which chemicals will be used in the future. In fact, one can hardly
conceive of a situation where gas or smoke will not be employed, for
these materials may be liquids or solids that either automatically,
upon exposure to the air, turn into gas, or which are pulverized by
high explosive, or driven off by heat. This varied character of the
materials enables them to be used in every sort of artillery shell,
bomb or other container carried to the field of battle.
Some of the gases are extremely powerful as irritants to the nose
and throat in very minute quantities, while at the same time being
highly poisonous in high concentrations. Diphenylchloroarsine, used
extensively by the Germans in high explosive shell, is more
poisonous than phosgene, the most deadly gas in general use in the
past war. In addition, it has the quality of causing an intolerable
burning sensation in the nose, throat, and lungs, in extremely minute
quantities. This material can be kept out of masks only by filters,
whereas true gases are taken out by charcoal and chemical
granules.
There is still another quality which helps make chemical warfare
the most powerful weapon of war. Gas is the only substance used in
war which can be counted on to do its work as efficiently at night as
in the daytime. Indeed, it is often more effective at night than in the
daytime, because the man who goes to sleep without his mask on,
who is careless, who loses his mask, or who becomes excited in the
darkness of night, becomes a casualty, and the past war showed
that these casualties were decidedly numerous even when the
troops knew almost to the minute the time the gas would arrive.
 Accordingly, chemical warfare is an agency that must not only be
reckoned with by every civilized nation in the future, but is one which
civilized nations should not hesitate to use. When properly safe-
guarded with masks and other safety devices, it gives to the most
scientific and most ingenious people a great advantage over the less
scientific and less ingenious. Then why should the United States or
any other highly civilized country consider giving up chemical
warfare? To say that its use against savages is not a fair method of
fighting, because the savages are not equipped with it, is arrant
nonsense. No nation considers such things today. If they had, our
American troops, when fighting the Moros in the Philippine Islands,
would have had to wear the breechclout and use only swords and
spears.
Notwithstanding the opposition of certain people who, through
ignorance or for other reasons, have fought it, chemical warfare has
come to stay, and just in proportion as the United States gives
chemical warfare its proper place in its military establishment, just in
that proportion will the United States be ready to meet any or all
comers in the future, for the United States has incomparable
resources in the shape of the crude materials—power, salt, sulfur
and the like—that are necessary in the manufacture of gases.
If, then, there be developed industries for manufacturing these
gases in time of war, and if the training of the army in chemical
warfare be thorough and extensive, the United States will have more
than an equal chance with any other nation or combination of nations
in any future war.
It is just as sportsman-like to fight with chemical warfare materials
as it is to fight with machine guns. The enemy will know more or less
accurately our chemical warfare materials and our methods, and we
will have the same information about the enemy. It is thus a
matching of wits just as much as in the days when the Knights of the
Round Table fought with swords or with spears on horseback. The
American is a pure sportsman and asks odds of no man. He does
ask, though, that he be given a square deal. He is unwilling to agree
not to use a powerful weapon of war when he knows that an outlaw
nation would use it against him if that outlaw nation could achieve