Teimuraz vefxvaZe

analizuri geometria da umaRlesi algebra

Tbilisi
I nawili
veqtorebi da koordinatebi

§1. mimarTeba simravleze. eqvivalentobis mimarTeba.

eqvivalentobis klasebi

A da B simravleebis dekartuli namravli aris simravle, romelic gani-

sazRvreba tolobiT:

A × B = {( x , y), x ∈ A, y ∈ B}.

maSasadame, dekartuli namravli a da b elementebisagan Sedgenili dala-

gebuli wyvilebis simravlea. a da b-s ewodeba (a,b) wyvilis komponentebi.
Tu A = B, maSin gvaqvs dekartuli namravli: A × A = {( x , y), x ∈ A, y ∈ A} .
Tu A da B sasruli simravleebia, A Sedgeba m elementebisagan, B Sedgeba
n elementebisagan, maSin cxadia, A × B -sB elementebis raodeboba aris m ⋅ n .

mimarTeba simravleze. vityviT, rom A simravleze mocemulia R mimarTeba,

Tu miTiTebulia A × A simravlis R qvesimravle, R ⊂ A × A . Tu ( x , y) ∈ R , maSin
vityviT, rom x aris R mimarTebaSi y-Tan da vwerT: xRy. magaliTad, Tu A sim-
ravle sibrtyeze wrfeebis simravlea, maSin am simravleze paralelurobis mi-
marTeba paralelur wrfeTa wyvilebis mocemiT ganisazRvreba, romelic A × A
simravlis raRac qvesimravle iqneba.
raime A simravleze gansazRvrul R mimarTebas SeiZleba hqondes Semdegi
Tvisebebi:
1. refleqsurobis; yoveli x ∈ A elementisTvis gvaqvs: xRx
2. simetriulobis: Tu gvaqvs xRy, maSin aqedan gamomdinareobs yRx.
3. tranzitulobis: xRy da yRz-dan gamomdinareobs xRz.
Tu simravleze gansazRvrulia R mimarTeba, romelsac aqvs refleqsuro-
bis, simetriulobis da tranzitulobis Tvisebebi, maSin aseT R mimarTebas
ewodeba eqvivalentobis mimarTeba. am SemTxvevaSi simravle iyofa klasebad –
urTierTaragadamkveT qvesimravleebad, romelTa gaerTianeba mocemuli sim-
ravlea. am klasebs eqvivalentobis klasebi ewodeba.
magaliTi 1. Tu sibrtyeze mocemulia paralelobis mimarTeba, amasTanave,
miviCnevT, rom yoveli wrfe Tavisi Tavis paralelurad iTvleba, maSin para-
lelurobis mimarTeba eqvivalentobis mimarTebaa da wrfeebis simravle iyofa
paralelur wrfeTa klasebad.

magaliTi 2. mTel ricxvTa Z simravleze `Sedarebis~ (sadarobis) mimarTe-

ba ase ganvsazRvroT: mocemumulia raime m ricxvi. R mimarTeba ase ganvsazR-
vroT: xRy, Tu x ≡ y(mod m) , anu x da y-s m-ze gayofisas erTi da igive naSTebi
aqvs. maSin es mimarTeba eqvivalentobis mimarTebaa da mTel ricxvTa simravle
iyofa eqvivalentobis klasebad, anu naSTTa klasebad, gveqneba m klasi, ro-
melTa warmomadenlebia 0, 1, 2,..., m – 1.

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§2. veqtori. kolinearuli da komplanaruli veqtorebi

sivrcis ori P da Q wertilisgan Sedgenili dalagebuli wyvili gansazR-

vravs mimarTul monakveTs, romelsac ase CavwerT: PQ . P wertils vuwodoT

mimarTuli monakveTis saTave, Q-s – bolo. nulovani mimarTuli monakveTi vu-
wodoT iseT mimarTul monakveTs, romlis saTave da bolos erTmaneTs emTxve-
JJG G
va: PP = 0 (aq P nebismieri wertilia), AB monakveTis sigrZes vuwodoT AB mi-

marTuli monakveTis sigrZe da ase aRvniSnoT: | AB | .

mimarTul monakveTa simravleSi SemoviRoT mimarTeba: vityviT, rom PQ eq-

vivalenturia RS mimarTuli monakveTis, Tu sruldeba Semdegi sami pirobi-

dan erT-erTi:
1. P = R, Q = S.
2. Tu P ≠ R da R, S wertilebi ekuTvnis PQ wrfes,
maSin S wertili R wertilis imave mxaresaa, romel
S
mxaresac aris Q wertili P-s mimarT. amasTanave,
R
| PQ |=| RS | (sur. 1.).
Q
3. P, Q, R, S oTxi sxvadasxva wertilia, romelTagan
P
sur. 1 arcerTi 3 erT wrfes ar ekuTvnis; wrfeebi PQ da RS
paraleluri, amasTanave wrfeebic PR da QS paralelu-
ria.

mimarTul monakveTTa eqvivalentoba ase CavweroT: PQ ~ RS . am mimarTebas

aqvs Semdegi Tvisebebi:

1. refleqsurobis: PQ ~ PQ .

2. simetriulobis: Tu PQ ~ RS , maSin RS ~ PQ .

3. tranzitulobis: Tu PQ ~ RS da RS ~ TV , maSin PQ ~ RS .
masaSadame, es mimarTeba eqvivalentobis mimarTebaa, amitom mimarTul mo-
nakveTTa simravle daiyofa eqvivalentobis klasebad. TiToeuli eqvivalento-
bis klasi axali maTematikuri obieqtia. mas vuwodebT veqtors. Tu veqtors

ase aRvniSnavT: P , maSin Canaweri: P = AB niSnavs, rom AB mimarTuli monakve-

Ti P veqtoris klass ekuTvnis, am klasis erT-erTi warmomadgenilia. AB mi-

marTuli monakveTis miTiTeba niSnavs P veqtoriT gansazRvruli klasis erT-

erTi warmomadgenlis dasaxelebas. am faqts asec aRvniSnavT: P veqtori mode-

bulia A wertilze da vwerT: P = AB . Tu P = AB , maSin AB mimarTuli monakve-

Tis sigrZes ewodeba P veqtoris sigrZe. Tu | P |= 1 , maSin P veqtors ewodeba

erTeulovani veqtori.

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 nulovani veqtori aris nulovan mimarTul monakveTTa klasi, mas ase aR-

vniSnavT: 0 maSasadame, 0 = AA = BB = ... . misi sigrZe nulia, mimarTuleba ar

aris gansazRvuli.
kolinearuli veqtorebi. veqtorebs ewodeba kolinearuli, Tu isini erTi
da imave wrfeze mdebare mimarTuli monakveTebiT SeiZleba warmovadginoT.
komplanaruli veqtorebi. veqtorebs ewodeba komplanaruli, Tu isini er-
Ti da imave sibrtyeze mdebare mimarTuli monakveTebiT SeiZleba warmovadgi-
noT.

§3. veqtorebis Sekreba

vTqvaT, p = AB . movdoT B wertilSi q veqtori, B G

G q
p
q = BC , maSin z = AC -s ewodeba p da q -s jami. C
A G
z
z=p+q, AC = AB + BC .
/
B G
/ G q
Tu p veqtors movdebT sxva A wertilze, p = A / B / , p
JJJJJG C
/
q = B / C / , maSin A / C / mimarTuli monakveTi, cxadia, imave
/
A G
z
JJJG JJJJJG
z veqtors gansazRvravs ( AC da A / C / eqvivalenturi
mimarTuli monakveTebia).

vTqvaT, p = AB , maSin, cxadia, AB + BA = 0 , vwerT: BA = −p .

Sekrebis Tvisebebi:

1. nebismieri p da q veqtorebisTvis arsebobs erTaderTi z veqtori:

G G G
z =p+q.

2. p + q = q + p (Sekrebis komutaciuroba).

3. (p + q) + z = p + (q + z) (Sekrebis asociaciuroba).

4. p + 0 = 0 + p = p (Sekrebis neitraluri elementis arseboba).

G
5. yoveli p -sTvis arsebobs erTaderTi veqtori −p iseTi, rom

p + (−p) = 0 (mopirdapire veqtoris arseboba).

asociaciurobis Tviseba saSualebas gvaZlevs ganvsazRvroT sami da meti

veqtoris jami.
magaliTad,

p1 + p 2 + p 3 = p 1 + (p 2 + p 3 ) = (p1 + p 2 ) + p 3 .

veqtoris ricxvze gamravleba. p veqtoris λ ricxvze namravli ewodeba

G JJJG
z = λ p veqtors, romelic ase ganisazRvreba: Tu λ > 0 , p ≠ 0 , p = AB , maSin

5
 G JJJG
λ p = AC , sadac | AC |=| λ || p | da C da B wertilebi erTi da imave wrfeze A wer-
tilis erT mxaresaa. Tu λ < 0 , maSinc C da B wertilebi A wertilis sxvadas-

xva mxaresaa, | AC |= λ | AB | . Tu λ = 0 , maSin 0 ⋅ p = 0 , Tu p = 0 , maSin λ p = 0 .

ricxvze gamravlebis Tvisebebi

1. nebismieri p veqtorisTvis da nebismier λ ricxvisTvis arsebobs erTa-

derTi veqtori z iseTi, rom z = λ p .

2. nebismieri λ 1 da λ 2 ricxvebisa da p veqtorisTvis

(λ 1 + λ 2 ) p = λ 1 p + λ 2 p , (λ 1 λ 2 ) p = λ 1 (λ 2 p ) .

3. nebismieri p 1 da p 2 veqtorebisa da λ ricxvisTvis

λ( p1 + p 2 ) = λ p1 + λ p 2 .

4. 1 ⋅ p = p nebismieri p veqtorisTvis.
veqtorebze moqmedebebis Tvisebebis gamoyenebiT SeiZleba ganvsazRvroT
gamosaxuleba:

λ 1 p 1 + λ 2 p 2 + ... + λ k p k ,

romelsac p1 , p 2 ,...p k veqtorebis wrfivi kombinacia ewodeba.

veqtors p + (−q ) ewodeba p da q -s sxvaoba, mas ase aRvniSnavT: p − q .

Teorema 1 (veqtorTa kolinearobis piroba). P p veqtori kolinearulia q

veqtoris maSin da mxolod maSin, roca arsebobs λ ricxvi iseTi, rom p = λq .

damtkiceba. gansazRvrebis Tanaxmad, p = λq kolinearulia q veqtoris.

vTqvaT, p ≠ 0 da p kolinearulia q veqtoris. movdoT es veqtorebi erT

wertilSi, gansazRvrebis Tanaxmad, Tu q = AB , p = AC maSin A, B da C erT

wrfes ekuTvnis. cxadia, arsebobs λ ricxvi iseTi, rom AC = λ AB . sadac

| AC | | AC |
λ= , Tu AB da AC erT mxarezea mimarTuli A wertilidan da λ = − ,
| AB | | AB |
winaaRmdeg SemTxvevaSi.

Tu p = 0 , maSin λ = 0 da p = λq .
JG
Teorema 2. vTqvaT, sibrtyeze mocemulia ori arakolinearuli veqtori e1
JJG
da e 2 . maSin yoveli p veqtori maTi wrfivi kombinacia.
G JG JJG
p = λ1 e1 + λ 2 e2 , (1)

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arsebobs erTaderTi wyvili ( λ 1 , λ 2 ) ricxvebisa, romlisTvisac gvaqvs (1) to-
loba.
JG JJG
damtkiceba. Tu p aris e1 an e 2 veqtoris kolinearuli, maSin (1) toloba
aris Teorema 1-is Sedegi.
JG JJG
vTqvaT, p ar aris kolinearuli e1 an e 2 veqtors.
C D
movdoT samive veqtori erT wertilSi.
G
G p erT-erTi SemTxveva suraTze gamosaxuli. am SemTxve-
e1
vaSi gvaqvs:
A G B
e2 G JJJG JJJG JJJG JG JJG
p = AD = AB + AC = λ1 e1 + λ 2 e 2 .

yvela sxva SemTxvevaSic gvaqvs:

G JG JJG
p = λ1 e1 + λ 2 e2 . (2)

axla vaCvenoT, rom λ 1 , λ 2 ricxvebis wyvili erTaderTia.

davuSvaT sawinaaRmdego – gvaqvs sxva warmodgenac:
G JG JJG
p = k1 e1 + k 2 e2 . (3)
(2) da (3)-dan gvaqvs:
JG JJG
(λ1 − k1 )e1 = (k 2 − λ 2 )e2 . (4)
JG JJG
Tu λ 1 ≠ k 1 , maSin e1 kolinearuli iqneba e2 -is, rac SeuZlebelia. maSasada-
me, λ 1 = k 1 . (4)-dan λ 2 = k 2 .
JG
Teorema 3. vTqvaT, sivrceSi mocemulia sami arakomplanaruli veqtori e1 ,
JJG JJG
e 2 , e3 . maSin yoveli p veqtori aris am veqtorebis wrfivkombinacia, p veqto-
ri erTaderTi saxiT warmoidgineba am veqtorebiT:
G JG JJG JJG
p = x1 e1 + x 2 e2 + x 3 e3 . (2)

JG JJG JJG
damkiceba. Tu p veqtori aris e1 , e2 da e3 veqtorebidan romelime ori veq-
toris komplanaruli, maSin (2) toloba da warmodgenis erTaderToba Teorema
2-dan gamomdinareobs.
JG JJG JJG
vTqvaT, p veqtori e1 , e2 da e3 veqtorebidan ar-
JG
E cerTi 2-is komplanaruli ar aris. movdoT p , e1 ,
JJG JJG
G e2 da e3 A wertilSi. suraTis mixedviT, vwerT:
p
D JJG JJG
FE = λ 3 e3
G C
G JJJG JJG JG JJG JJG
e3
G p = AF + FE = λ1 e1 + λ 2 e2 + λ 3 e3 .
e2 F
A
G warmodgenis erTaderToba wina Teoremis analo-
e1
B giurad mtkicdeba.

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 damtkicebuli Teoremebic safuZvelze Semodis gansazRvrebebi: sibrtyeze
nebismier or arakolinearul veqtors sibrtyis bazisi ewodeba. sivrceSi ne-
bismier sam arakomplanarul veqtors sivrcis bazisi ewodeba.
JG JJG G JG JJG
Tu e1 , e2 sibrtyis bazisia da p = x1 e1 + x 2 e2 maSin x 1 , x 2 ricxvebs p koor-
JG JJG
dinatebi ewodeba e1 , e 2 bazisSi; vwerT p = ( x 1 , x 2 ) .
JG JJG JJG G JG JJG JJG
Tu e1 , e 2 , e3 sivrcis bazisia da p = x1 e1 + x 2 e2 + x 3 e3 , maSin x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ricx-

vebs p veqtoris koordinatebi ewodeba. vwerT: p = ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) .

advili dasamtkicebelia, rom veqtorebis Sekrebisas koordinarebi ikribe-
ba, veqtoris ricxvze gamravlebisas ricxvi mravldeba koordinatebze: Tu, ma-

galiTad, p1 = (x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) , p 2 = ( y1 , y 2 , y 3 ) maSin p1 + p 2 = (x 1 + y1 , x 2 + y 2 , x 3 + y 3 ) ,

λ p 1 = (λx 1 , λx 2 , λx 3 ) .

§4. koordinatebi sibrtyeze da sivrceSi

sibrtyeze afinuri sistema ganisazRvreba ori arakolinearuli A 1 da A 2

veqtorisa da 0 wertilis mocemiT. A 1 pirveli veqtoria, A 2 – meore. isini er-

Teulovani veqtorebia da TiToeuli maTgani gansazRvravs Sesabamis RerZs,
romlis mimarTuleba emTxveva veqtoris (ortis) mimarTulebas.
vTqvaT, M sibrtyis nebismieri wertilia.
JJJJG JG JJG
OM = x1 e1 + x 2 e 2 , maSin x da y-s ewodeba M wertili,
Y
afinuri koordinatebi: M = (x;y).
M
Tu A = (x1;y1), A = (x2;y2), maSin AB = OB − OA , maSa-
G
e2 sadame
O G X
e1 AB = ( x 2 − x 1 , y 2 − y 1 ) .

sivrceSi koordinatTa sistema ganisazRvreba

sami arakomplanaruli erTeulovani veqtorebisa
Z da O wertilis mocemiT. es veqtorebi gansazR-
vravs sami sakoordinaTo RerZs, Ox, Oy da Oz.
vTqvaT, M sivrcis nebismieri wertilia da
G JJJJG JG JJG JJG
e3 OM = xe1 + ye2 + ze3 , maSin (x,y,z) sameulis ricxvebs
G ewodeba M wertilis koordinatebi: x abscisaa, y –
Y
G e2
X e1 ordinati, z – aplikati.
marTkuTxa koordinatTa sistema afinuri sis-
temis kerZo SemTxvevaa.
moiTxoveba, rom erTeulovani sakoordinato veqtorebi (ortebi) wyvil-

wyvilad perpendikularulia. ortebs, rogorc wesi, i , j , k -Ti aRvniSnavT. Se-

8
 Z sabamisi RerZebi ori sxvadasxva wesiT SeiZleba Se-
M varCioT. suraTze e.w. marjvena sistemaa warmodgeni-
li: Oz RerZidan rom davakvirdeT, Ox RerZis SeTav-
G seba Oy RerZTan saaTis isris sawinaaRmdego mimar-
k
G
TulebiT moZraobiT xorcieldeba.
G
i
j Y
X Tu OM = x i + y j + z k , maSin M wertilis marTkuTxa
koordinatebia x, y da z, M = (x;y,z).
Tu M1 = (x1, y1, z1), M2 = (x2, y2, z2), maSin

M 1 M 2 = (x 2 − x 1 , y 2 − y1 , z 2 − z1 ) .

amasTanave

| M 1 M 2 |= ( x 2 − x 1 ) 2 + ( y 2 − y 1 ) 2 + (z 2 − z 1 ) 2 .

am formuliT vpoulobT M1(x1,y1,z1) da M2(x2,y2,z2) wertilebs Soris manZils.

sibrtyeze M1(x1,y1) da M2(x2,y2) wertilebs Soris manZili ase gamoiTvleba:

M 1 M 2 = (x 2 − x 1 ) 2 + ( y 2 − y1 ) 2 . .

polaruli, sferuli da cilindruli koordinatebi.

polari koordinatebis Semotana Semdegi pirobebis SesrulebiT xorciel-
deba: 1. moicema masStabi – sigrZis erTeuli; 2. fiqsirebulia wertili,
romelsac polusi an saTave ewodeba; 3. gansazRvrulia mobrunebis dadebiTi
(saaTis isris moZraobis sawinaaaRmdego mimarTuleba) da uaryofiTi
mimarTuleba; 4. gavlebulia naxevarwrfe (sxivi), romlis saTave polusia. mas

ewodeba polaruli RerZi. naxevarwrfeze mimarTuleba moicema masze OE veq-

toris mocemiT (E sxivis nebismieri wertilia).
Tu CamoTvlili wesebis mixedviT sibrtyeze mocemu-
lia polar-koordinatTa sistema, maSin yovel M wer-
0 E tils SevusabamebT or ricxvs ρ da ϕ -s.

ρ aris OM veqtoris sigrZe, ϕ aris kuTxe OM da

M
ρ OE veqtorebs Soris – is kuTxe, romliTac unda
ϕ
0 E movabrunoT (dadebiTi mimarTulebiT) OE veqtori, rom
miiRoT OM -is mimarTuleba.
ϕ kuTxes ewodeba M wertilis polaruli kuTxe, ρ -s ewodeba M wertilis
polaruli radiusi, ρ da ϕ aris M wertilis polaruli koordinatebi da
vwerT: M = (ρ; ϕ) . cxadia 0 ≤ ϕ < 2π .
Tu polarul koordinatTa sistemasTan erTad marTkuTxa koordinate-
bicaa Semotanili ise, rom Ox RerZis mimarTuleba emTxveva polaruli RerZis
mimarTulebas da polusi emTxveva marTkuTxa sistemis saTaves. maSin, cxadia,

9
 x
M(ρ;ϕ) cos ϕ = x = ρ cos ϕ
x + y2
2

y
sin ϕ = y = ρ sin ϕ
x 2 + y2
0 E

sadac (x;y) aris M wertilis marTkuTxa koordinatTa wyvili.

cilindruli koordinatebi. mocemulia α sibrtye da masze gansazRvru-

lia polaruli koordinatebi. moicema agreTve raime

M erTeulovani k veqtoriT gansazRvruli ricxviTi

RerZi, romelic gadis polusze da marTobulia
sibrtyis.
G
ρ M/
k ϕ maSin sivrcis yovel M wertils SevusabamebT
0 ricxvTa sameuls: (ρ, ϕ, h ) , sadac ρ , ϕ aris M wer-
α
/
tilis α sibrtyeze M gegmilis polaruli koordi-
natebi.

h ricxvi ganisazRvreba tolobiT: M / M = h k . ρ , ϕ da h-s ewodeba M-is

cilindruli koordinati.
Tu sivrceSi aviRebT marTkuTxa koordinatTa sistemas, romlis Ox RerZis
mimarTuleba emTxveva polaruli RerZis mimarTu-
M lebas, saTave – poluss, Oz RerZs k veqtori gan-
sazRvravs, M wertilis cilindruli koordina-
Y tebia ρ , ϕ , h; M wertilis marTkuTxa koordina-
G ρ
k
ϕ tebia x, y, z, maSin, cxadia,
0 E X
x = ρ cos ϕ
y = ρ sin ϕ
z=h
sferuli koordinatebi. mocemulia α sibrtye, masze polaruli RerZi, α
sibrtyis marTobuli RerZi, romelic k veqtoriT ganisazRvreba es RerZi
gadis O polusze. M wertilis sferuli koordinatebi ewodeba ricxvTa sa-
/
meuls ρ , ϕ , α . sadac ρ =| OM | , ϕ aris M-is M
M gegmilis polaruli kuTxe ( 0 ≤ ϕ < 2π ) xolo α

aris kuTxe OM veqtorsa da OM / veqtors So-

G M /
π
k
ϕ
ris, amasTanave, 0 ≤ α < , roca M da k veqtoris
2
0 E
bolo erTi da imave naxevarsivrceSia da
π
−
≤ α ≤ 0 , roca M da k veqtoris bolo sxvada-
2
sxva naxevarsivrceSia. ρ , ϕ , h aris M-is sferuli koordinatebi. Tu cilin-
druli kordinatebis analogiurad aviRebT sivrceSi marTkuTxa koordinatTa

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 Z M sistemas da M = (x;y;z), maSin advilad davamyarebT
kavSirs sferul koordinatebTan:
Y x = ρ cos α cos ϕ
G α M/
k
ϕ y = ρ cos α sin ϕ
0 E X z = ρ sin α

§5. skalaruli namravli. veqtoruli namravli.

veqtorTa Sereuli namravli

vTqvaT, mocemulia aranulovani veqtorebi p da q , maTi skalaruli nam-

ravli ewodeba ricxvs:

p ⋅ q =| p | ⋅ | q | cos α ,

α aris am veqtorebs Soris kuTxe.

Tu p an q nulovani veqtoria, maSin p ⋅ q = 0 .

maSasadame, skalaruli namravli nulis tolia, roca veqtorebi urTierT-
marTobulia, an roca erT-erTi nulovania.
Tvisebebi:

1. p ⋅ q = q ⋅ p .

2. (p1 + p 2 ) ⋅ q = p1 ⋅ q + p 2 ⋅ q .

3. λ p ⋅ q = p ⋅ λ q = λ (p ⋅ q ) .

4. p ⋅ p =| p | 2 .
am Tvisebebis gamoyenebiT veqtorebis wrfivi kombinaciebi mravalwevrebis
gamravlebis msgavsad SeiZleba gavamravloT. magaliTad,

(λ 1 p1 + λ 2 p 2 + ... + λ k p k ) ⋅ (μ1 q 1 + μ 2 q 2 + ... + μ s q s ) =

= λ 1μ1 p1 ⋅ q 1 + λ 1μ 2 p1 ⋅ q 2 + ... + λ k μ s p k ⋅ q s .

Tu p = ( x 1 , y1 , z 1 ), q = ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ), maSin

p ⋅ q = x 1 x 2 + y1 y 2 + z 1 z 2 (skalaruli namravlis gamosaxva koordinatebSi).

veqtoruli namravli. vTqvaT, mocemulia ori aranulovani veqtori p da

q . maTi veqtoruli namravli ewodeba z veqtors, romelic Semdegi pirobebiT

moicema:

1. | z | = | p | | q | sin ϕ , ϕ aris kuTxe p da q veqtorebs Soris.

Tu p da q arakolinearuli veqtorebia maSin kidev ori piroba srul-

deba:

11
 2. z = p × q perpendikularulia TiToeuli veqtoris ( p da q veqtorebis):

G 3. p , q , p × q - marjvena sameuls qmnis.

z
G
G q
p Tu p an q nulovani veqtoria, maSin p × q = 0 .

veqtoruli namravlis Tvisebebi:

1. p × q = − q × p

2. (λ p) × q = p × (λ q) = λ ( p × q )

3. (p1 + p 2 ) × q = p1 × q + p 2 × q

4. p × q = 0 maSin da mxolod maSin, roca p da q kolinearulia, an erT-

erTi veqtori nulovani veqtoria.

Tu i , j , k sakoordinato RerZebis ortebia, maSin, cxadia,

i× j = k i× k = −j j× k = i

j × i = −k k×i = j k × j = −i
G G G G G G G G G
i×i = 0 k×k = 0 j× j = 0
am formulebidan da veqtoruli namravlis Tvisebebidan gamomdinareobs,
rom veqtoruli namravli koordinatebiT SeiZleba ase warmovadginoT: Tu

p = ( x 1 , y1 , z 1 ), q = ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ), maSin

i j k
p × q = x1 y1 z1
x2 y2 z2

veqtorTa Sereuli namravli. a , b da c veqtorebis Sereuli namravli

aris ricxvi, romelic Semdegi tolobiT moicema:

( a , b, c ) = ( a × b ) ⋅ c

vTqvaT, a , b , c marjvena sameulia,

G G G
z = a× b
G
c z =a × b
G
b

G z veqtoris sigrZe tolia a da b -ze agebuli

a
paralelogramis farTobis.

( a , b, c) = z ⋅ c =| z | ⋅ | c | cos α , radgan | c | cos α aris

a , b da c veqtorebze agebuli paralelipepedis simaRle, amitom ( a , b , c ) am

paralelipepedis moculobaa.

12
 Tu a , b , c marcxvena sameulia, maSin Sereuli namravli am moculobis
mopirdapire ricxvia.
radgan

i j k
a × b = x1 y1 z1 ,
x2 y2 z2

amitom skalaruli namravlis koordinatebiT warmodgenis formula mogvcems:

x1 xy1 z1
G G G y z1 x z1 x y1
(a, b,c) = 1 ⋅ x3 − 1 ⋅ y3 + 1 ⋅ z = x2 y2 z2 .
y2 z2 x2 z2 x2 y2 3
x3 y3 z3

G
maSasadame, Tu a = ( x 1 , y1 , z 1 ), b = (x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ), c = ( x 3 , y 3 , z 3 ), maSin Sereuli namra-
vli koordinatebiT ase Caiwereba:

x1 y1 z1
G G G
(a, b,c) = x 2 y2 z2
x3 y3 z3

§6. koordinatTa gardaqmna

JG JJG JJG
vTqvaT, afinur koordinatTa sistema moicema oTxeuliT (0, e1 , e 2 , e3 ) – 0
JG JJG JJG
wertiliTa da arakomplanaruli veqtorebiT – e1 , e 2 , e3 . amasTanave, vTqvaT,
JG JJG JJG JG JJG
mocemulia meore sistema (0, e1/ , e2/ , e3/ ), vuwodoT mas axali sistema, (0, e1 , e 2 ,
JJG
e3 ) ki, pirobiTad, iyos Zveli sistema. cxadia, axali sistema savsebiT ganisa-
zRvreba Tu mocemulia sabaziso veqtorebis koordinatebi:
JG JG JJG JJG
e1/ = a11 e1 + a 21 e2 + a 31 e3
JJG JG JJG JJG
e 2/ = a12 e1 + a 22 e2 + a 32 e3 (1)
JJG JG JJG JJG
e3/ = a13 e1 + a 23 e 2 + a 33 e3

⎛ a 11 a 13 ⎞
a 12
⎜ ⎟
A = ⎜ a 21 a 22
a 23 ⎟ matrica, cxadia aragadagvarebulia, (1) sistemas erTa-
⎜a a 33 ⎟⎠
a 32
⎝ 31
JG JJG JJG JG JJG JJG
derTi amonaxsni aqvs e1 , e 2 , e3 -s mimarT, radgan e1/ , e 2/ , e3/ wrfivad damouki-

debelia. vTqvaT, OM = ( x , y, z) Zvel sistemaSi da OM = ( x / , y / , z / ) – axal siste-

maSi. maSin, cxadia
JJJJG JG JJG JJG JG JJG JJG
OM = xe1 + ye 2 + ze3 = x / e1/ + y / e2/ + z / e3/ .

13
 (1)-is gaTvaliswinebiT gvaqvs:
JJJJG JG JJG JJG JG JJG JJG JG JJG JJG
OM = x / (a11 e1 + a 21 e 2 + a 31 e3 ) + y / (a12 e1 + a 22 e 2 + a 32 e3 ) + z / (a13 e1 + a 23 e 2 + a 33 e3 ) =
JG JJG JJG
= (a11 x / + a 21 y / + a 31z / )e1 + (a 21 x / + a 22 y / + a 23 z / )e2 + (a 31 x / + a 32 y / + a 33 z / )e3 .

maSasadame

x = a 11 x / + a 12 y / + a 13 z /
y = a 21 x / + a 22 y / + a 23 z /
z = a 31 x / + a 32 y / + a 33 z /

ase gmoisaxeba Zveli koordinatebi axali koordinatebiT, roca icvleba

bazisi da ar icvleba sistemis saTave.

Tu mxolod saTave icvleba da cnobilia, rom O / = (a , b, c) , anu OO / = (a , b, c) ,

maSin OM = OO / + O / M .
x = x/ + a
y = y/ + b
z = z/ + c
am SemTxvevaSi (roca bazisi ar icvleba) axali sistema miiReba Zvelisagan
paraleluri gadataniT.
JG JJG JJG JJG JJG JJG
Tu (0/ ,e1/ ,e 2/ ,e3/ ) miiReba (0,e1 ,e2 ,e3 ) sistemisgan bazisis cvlilebiTac da
paralleuri gadataniTac, maSin koordinatTa gardaqmnis formulebi miiRebs
saxes:
x = a 11 x / + a 12 y / + a 13 z / + a
y = a 21 x / + a 22 y / + a 23 z / + b
z = a 31 x / + a 32 y / + a 33 z / + c.

marTkuTxa koordinatTa sistemis gardaqmna

JJG JJG
ganvixiloT sibrtyis SemTxveva. vTqvaT, (O,e1 ,e2 ) Zveli marTkuTxa siste-
JJG JJG
maa, (O,e1 ,e 2 ) – axali. maSin raime α kuTxiT mobrunebiT pirveli sistemidan
JG JJG JG JJG
miiReba (O,e1/ ,e 2/ ) axali sistema, an (O,e1/ , −e 2/ ) sistema:

JJG G JJG G
e2 e1/ e2 e2/
G G
e2/ α e2/
G G
e2/ α e1/

suraTi 1

14
 anu axali sistema miiReba α kuTxiT mobrune-
JG
biT, an mobrunebisa da e1/ -is mimarT simetriis kom-
JJG G
e1/ poziciiT:
e2
G
e2/
JG JJG
marTlac, Tu α aris kuTxe e1/ da e1 veqtorebs
G JJG JJG
e2/ Soris; maSin (0,e1 ,e 2 ) sistemis mobrunebiT α kuT-
JJG JJG JG JJG JG JJG
xiT (0,e1 ,e 2 ) SeuTavsdeba (0,e1/ ,e2/ ) an (0,e1/ , −e 2/ ) -s.
JG JJG
maSasadame e1/ -is koordinatebia (cos α, sin α) , xolo e2/ -is

⎛ π π ⎞ JJG ⎛ π π ⎞
⎜ cos(α + ), sin(α + ) ⎟ an −e 2 = ⎜ cos(α + ), sin(α + ) ⎟
/

⎝ 2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 2 ⎠

anu
JJG JJG
e2/ = (− sin α, cos α) an e2/ = (sin α, − cos α)

e.i.
⎛ cos α − sin α ⎞
A = ⎜⎜ ⎟, detA = 1
⎝ sin α cos α ⎟⎠
an
⎛ cos α sin α ⎞
A = ⎜⎜ ⎟, detA = –1.
⎝ sin α − cos α ⎟⎠

JJG JJG JG JJG

e.i. roca (0,e1 ,e 2 ) da (0,e1/ ,e 2/ ) sistemebi erTnairi orientaciisaa koordi-
natTa gardaqmnis formulebi aseTia:

x = x / cos α − y / sin α
y = x / sin α + y / cos α .

roca orientacia sxvadasxvaa, maSin

x = x / cos α + y / sin α
y = x / sin α − y / cos α .

A matricas aqvs Tviseba:

A ⋅ AT = E , anu A = ( A T ) −1 ,

igi Tavisi transponirebulis Sebrunebulia. aseT matricas ewodeba orTogo-

naluri matrica.
⎛a a 12 ⎞
Tu A = ⎜⎜ 11 ⎟ . maSin misi orTogonaluroba tolfasia Semdegi tolo-
⎝ a 21 a 22 ⎟⎠
bebis:

a 112 + a 221 = 1
a 11a 12 + a 21a 22 = 0 .
a 122 + a 222 = 1

15
 JJG JJG JJG JG JJG JJG
analogiurad, (0,e1 ,e 2 ,e3 ) marTkuTxa sistemidan (0/ ,e1/ ,e2/ ,e3/ ) sistemaze gadas-
vlis A matria orTogonaluri matrica:

⎛ a 11 a 12 a 13 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
A = ⎜ a 21 a 22 a 23 ⎟
⎜a a 32 a 33 ⎟⎠
⎝ 31
sadac
JG JJG JJG JJG
e1/ = a11 e1 + a 21 e2 + a 31 e3
JJG JJG JJG JJG
e2/ = a13 e1 + a 23 e2 + a 33 e3
JJG JJG JJG JJG
e3/ = a13 e1 + a 23 e 2 + a 33 e3

am matricis yoveli svetis elementebis kvadratebis jami = 1 – es niSnavs, rom

JG JJG JJG
| e1/ |=| e 2/ |=| e3/ |= 1 . TiToeuli svetis elementebs sxva svetis elementebze namrav-
JG JJG JG JJG JJG JJG
lia jami = 0, rac niSnavs, rom skalaruli namravlebi: e1/ ⋅ e2/ = e1/ ⋅ e3/ = e2/ ⋅ e3/ = 0
(axali bazisic marTkuTxaa).
JG JJG
analogiuri Tvisebebisaa Sebrunebuli matrica, romelic iqneba e1/ , e2/ da
JJG JJG JJG JJG
e3/ -dan e1 , e2 , e3 bazisze gadasvlis matricaa. amitom igive Tvisebebi aqvs
striqonebs.
garda amisa sibrtyis SemTxvevaSi vaCveneT, rom arsebibs α kuTxe, rom

⎛ cos α sin α ⎞
A = ⎜⎜ ⎟, detA = 1
⎝ sin α − cos α ⎟⎠
an
⎛ cos α sin α ⎞
A = ⎜⎜ ⎟, detA = –1.
⎝ sin α − cos α ⎟⎠

algebruli wirebi da koordinatebi

§1. pirveli da meore rigis wirebi da zedapirebi

pirveli rigis wiri sibrtyeze ewodeba wertilTa simravles, romelTa

koordinatebi raime marTkuTxa sistemaSi akmayofilebs gantolebas:

Ax + By + C = 0 , A 2 + B 2 ≠ 0 (1)

am gansazRvrebaSi erTi niuansia – masSi monawileobs koordinatTa sis-

tema da ar Cans, koordinatTa sxva sistemaSic kvlav (1) saxis gantoleba gveq-
neba Tu ara.
gavixsenoT koordinatTa gardaqmnis formulebi axal sistemaze gadas-
vlis erT-erTi SemTxvevis dros:

16
 x = x / cos ϕ − y / sin ϕ + a
(2)
y = x / sin ϕ + y / cos ϕ + b

(1) gantoleba axal sistemaSi ase Caiwereba:

A / x / + B/ y / + / = 0 , (3)

sadac

A / = A cos ϕ + B sin ϕ , B / = −A sin ϕ + B cos ϕ , A / = Aa + Bb + C .

A / 2 + B / 2 = (A cos ϕ + B sin ϕ) 2 + (−A sin ϕ + B cos ϕ) 2 = A 2 + B 2 ≠ 0 .

maSasadame, am SemTxvevaSi axal koordinatebSic wrfivi orucnobiani

gantoleba gvaqvs. analogiurad ganixileba meore SemTxveva.
meore rigis wiri sibrtyeze ewodeba wertilTa simravles, romelTa koor-
dinatebi raRac sistemaSi akmayofilebs meore xarisxis orucnobiani ganto-
lebas:

Ax 2 + 2Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 , (4)

sadac A, B da C koeficientebidan erTi mainc nuli ar aris.

Tu gadavalT (2) formulebiT gansazRvrul axal koordinatebze, mivi-
RebT:

A / x / 2 + 2B / x / y / + C / y / 2 + D / x / + E / y / + F / = 0 ,

sadac

A / = A cos 2 ϕ + 2B cos ϕ sin ϕ + C sin 2 ϕ ,

B / = − A sin ϕ cos ϕ + B(cos 2 ϕ − sin ϕ) 2 + C sin ϕ cos ϕ ,
C / = A sin 2 ϕ − 2B sin ϕ cos ϕ + C cos 2 ϕ .

advili Sesamowmebelia, rom

A / 2 + 2 B / 2 + C / 2 = A 2 + 2B 2 + C 2 .
pirveli rigix zedapiri ewodeba wertilTa simravles, romelTa koordi-
natebi raRac sistemaSi akmayofilebs pirveli xarisxis samucnobian ganto-
lebas

Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 ,

A 2 + B2 + C2 ≠ 0 .
meore rigis zedapiri ki ewodeba wertilTa simravles, romelTa koordi-
natebi raRac sistemaSi akmayofilebs meore xarisxis samucnobian gantolebas.

Ax 2 + By 2 + Cz 2 + 2Dxy + 2Exz + 2Fyz + Gx + Hy + Kz + L = 0 ,

sadac A, B, C, D, E, F, koeficientebidan erTi mainc ar udris nuls.

am gansazrRvrebebis koreqtuloba iseve ganixileba, rogorc wirebis Sem-
TxvevaSi.

17
§2. wrfis sxvadasxva saxis gantoleba sibrtyeze

yovel aranulovan veqtors, romelic mocemuli wrfis paraleluria am

wrfis mimmarTveli veqtori ewodeba.
Teorema. vTqvaT, sibrtyeze, mocemulia marTkuTxa koordinatTa sistema.
yoveli wrfis gantolebas aqvs saxe

ax + by + c = 0 , a 2 + b 2 ≠ 0 . (1)

da, piriqiT, gantoleba, romelsac aqvs (1) saxe da a 2 + b 2 ≠ 0 , aris wrfis

gantoleba. e.i. wrfe pirveli rigis wiria.
damtkiceba. vTqvaT, wrfe romelime sakoordinato RerZis paraleluria,
magaliTad, Oy RerZis da kveTs Ox RerZs wertilSi x = a, maSin am wrfis gan-
tolebaa x – a = 0, es ki (1) saxis gantolebaa. Tu wrfe Ox RerZis paraleluria
da kveTs Oy RerZs wertilSi, romlis ordinatia b, maSin am wrfis gantoleba
iqneba y – b = 0, romelic (1) saxisaa.
Ox RerZis gantolebaa y = 0, Oy RerZis gantolebaa x = 0.
vTqvaT, wrfe ordinatTa RerZis paraleluri ar aris, maSin misi mimmarT-

veli veqtoric P = (A, m) ar iqneba Oy RerZis para-

leluri (ar iqneba Ox RerZis marTobuli), amitom
G
p (A, m )
m
A ≠ 0 . amasTanave, mudmivi iqneba Tu P1 = (A 1 , m1 )
A
m m1 m
sxva mimmarTveli veqtroia, maSin cxadia, = .
A A1 A
ricxvs vuwodoT wrfis sakuTxo koeficienti da
aRvniSnoT igi k asoTi, maSasadame, mimmarTveli

veqtorad SeiZleba aviRoT P = (1; k ) veqtori. vTqvaT,

G
p (1; k )
wrfe kveTs Oy RerZs Q(0;b) wertilSi. M(x;y)
wertili mdebareobs wrfeze maSin da mxolod maSin,
M(x;y)
roca P = (1; k ) kolonearulia QM veqtoris, anu
Q(0;b)
x−0 y−b
= .
1 k
amrigad,
y = kx + b (2)
am gantolebas ewodeba wrfis gantoleba sakuTxo koeficientiT. (2),
cxadia, aris (1) saxis.
axla davamtkicoT Sebrunebuli debuleba. vTqvaT, mocemulia gantoelba:
ax + by + c = 0.
Tu aq b = 0, maSin miviRebT
ax = –c.
es ki an Oy RerZis gantolebaa, an Oy RerZis paraleluri wrfis.
Tu b ≠ 0 , maSin miviRebT:

18
 a c
y=− x− .
b b
a
es gantoleba ki gansazRvravs wrfes, romlis kuTxuri koeficientia −
b
⎛ c⎞
da kveTs Oy RerZs wertilSi Q⎜ 0;− ⎟ .
⎝ b⎠

cxadia, P(−b; a ) aris ax + by + c = 0 wrfis mimmarTveli veqtori (radgan

a
k=− ). cxadia, n (a; b) wrfis marTobuli veqtoria, radgan is marTobulia
b
P(−b; a ) veqtoris.

n (a; b) veqtors wrfis normaluri veqtori ewodeba.

wrfis veqtoruli gantoleba. cxadia, wrfe calsaxad ganisazRvreba mim-
marTveli veqtoriT da wertiliT, romelzec is gadis.
vTqvaT, es wertilia M 0 ( x 0 ; y 0 ) . M(x;y) wertili ma-
G
p (A, m ) Sin da mxolod maSin aris wrfeze, roca M 0 M veqto-

ri kolinearulia P veqtoris, anu moiZebneba t ricxvi,

M0(x0;y0)
romlisTvisac M 0 M = t p es gantoleba asec Caiwereba:

z − z0 = tp , z = z0 + tp , z = OM , z 0 = OM 0 .

aqedan miiReba wrfis parametruli gantoleba:

x = x 0 + tA ,
y = y 0 + tm ,

t nebismieri ricxvia.
Tu A ≠ 0 , m ≠ 0 , miviRebT kanonikur gantolebas

x − x 0 y − y0
= .
A m

Tu wrfe (x0,y0) wertilis garda gadis M1(x1,y1) wertilze da x1 ≠ x 0 ,

y1 ≠ y 0 , maSin mimmarTvel veqtorad aviRebT P( x 1 − x 0 , y 1 − y 0 ) veqtors (anu

M 0 M 1 veqtors) da am or wertilze gamavali wrfis gantoleba iqneba

x − x0 y − y0
Y = .
x 1 − x 0 y1 − y 0
Q(0;q)
Tu wrfe kveTs sakoordinato RerZebs P(P;0) da
Q(0;q) wertilebSi ( p ≠ 0 , q = 0 ), maSin, or wertilze
0 X
gamavali wrfis gantolebis mixedviT, gveqneba:
P(p;0)
x−p y−0 x−p y
= , + = 0.
0−p q−0 p q

19
 x y
+ = 1 – wrfis gantoleba RerZTa monakveTebSi.
p q

§3. wrfis da sibrtyis gantolebebi sivrceSi

cxadia, sibrtye calsaxad ganisazRvreba misi M0, M1 da M2 wertilebiT,

JJJJJG
anu M0 wertilisa da M 0 M 1 , M 0 M arakolinearuli veqtorebiT. vTqvaT,

M0 = (x0,y0,z0), M 0 M 1 = (a 1 , b1 , c1 ) , M 0 M 2 = (a 2 , b 2 , c 2 ) .

M(x,y,z) wertili am sibrtyeze Zevs maSin da mxolod maSin, roca M 0 M

veqtori komplanarulia M 0 M 1 da M 0 M 2 veqtorebis. maSin arsebobs t da s

ricxvebi iseTi, rom

M 0 M = sM 0 M1 + t ⋅ M 0 M 2 (1)

es sibrtyis veqtoruli gantolebaa. koordinatebSi (1) ase Caiwereba:

x − x 0 = sa 1 + ta 2
y − y 0 = sb1 + tb 2 (2)
z − z 0 = sc1 + tc 2

miviReT sibrtyis `gantoleba~ parametruli saxiT.

(2) tolobebi, cxadia, tolfasia gantolebis:

x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
a1 b1 c1 =0 (3)
a2 b2 c2

determinanti nulia maSin da mxolod maSin, roca misi erT-erTi striqoni

sxva striqonebis wrfivi kombinaciaa.
(3) SeiZleba ase Caiweros:

A( x − x 0 ) + B( y − y 0 ) + C(z − z 0 ) , (4)

b1 c1 a1 c1 a1 b1
sadac A = , B=− , C= .
b2 c2 a2 c2 a2 b2

(4) aris im sibrtyis gantoleba, romelic gadis (x0,y0,z0) wertilze. n (A, B, C)

am sibrtyis marTobuli veqtoria, igi marTobulia M 0 M ( x − x 0 , y − y 0 , z − z 0 ) veqto-

ris. n (A, B, C) veqtors ewodeba sibrtyis normali veqtori.

(4) SeiZleba asec CavweroT:
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 , (5)
sadac D = − Ax 0 − By 0 − Cz 0 .

20
 G (5)-s ewodeba sibrtyis zogadi gantoleba, yoveli
p (A, m , n )

M(x;y;t)
sibrtyis gantoleba (5) saxiT moicema da piriqiT, yo-
veli (5) saxis gantoleba raRac sibrtyis gantolebaa.
G
M0(x0;y0;t0) axla, vTqvaT, sivrceSi mocemulia wrfe, p(A, m, n)
misi mimmarTveli (paraleluri) veqtoria.
Tu wrfe gadis M0(x0,y0,z0) wertilze, maSin M(x,y,z) mdebareobs wrfeze

maSin da mxolod maSin, roca M 0 M kolinearulia p veqtoris, anu

M0M = tp , x − x 0 = At
y − y 0 = mt
z − z 0 = nt

es wrfis parametruli gantolebaa.

Tu A ≠ 0 , m ≠ 0 , n ≠ 0 , maSin aqedan miviRebT wrfis `kanonikur gantolebas~:

x − x 0 y − y0 z − z0
= =
A m n
Tu, magaliTad A = 0 , maSin gveqneba:

⎧x = x 0 ,
⎪
⎨ y − y0 z − z0
⎪ m = n .
⎩

§4. meore rigis wirebi

elifsi aris wertilTa simravle sibrtyeze, romelTa manZilebis jami or
mocemul wertilamde mudmivia da metia am wertilebs Soris manZilze. moce-
mul wertilebs elifsis fokusebi ewodeba.
fokusebi aRvniSnoT F1 da F2-Ti, maT Soris
manZili 2c-Ti, M wertili elifsze Zevs maSin da
M
mxolod maSin, roca MF1 + MF2 mudmivia, es mudmivi
aRvniSnoT 2a-Ti, MF1 + MF2 = 2a.
Ox RerZi gavataroT fokusebze, Oy RerZi maT
F1
F2 Soris Sua wertilze. M(x,y) wertili mdebareobs
elifsze maSin da mxolod maSin, roca

MF1 + MF2 = 2a. ( x + c ) 2 + y 2 + ( x − c ) 2 + y 2 = 2a (1)

am gantolebis gamartivebiT miviRebT:

M (a 2 − c 2 ) x 2 + a 2 y 2 = a 2 (a 2 − c 2 ) .

a 2 − c 2 > 0 SemovitanoT aRniSvna: a 2 − c 2 = b 2 , mivi-

RebT:
F1(–c;0) F2(c;0)
b2x 2 + a 2 y2 = a 2 y2 ,

21
 aqedan

x 2 y2
+ =1 (2)
a 2 b2
Cven gamoviyeneT elifsis gansazRvreba, rome-
lic eqvivalenturia (1) gantolebis. (2) ki (1)-is Se-
degia. unda vaCvenoT, rom (2) eqvivalenturia (1)-is,
anu elifsis gansazRvrebis, mxolod am SemTxvevaSi
SeiZleba vTqvaT, rom (2) elifsis gantolebaa. maSa-
sadame, unda vaCvenoT, rom (1) aris (2)-is Sedegi.
F1 F2 vTqvaT, M(x;y)-is koordinatebi akmayofilebs (2)-
⎛ x2 ⎞
s. anu y 2 = b 2 ⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟ , magram b 2 = a 2 − c 2 , anu
⎝ a ⎠

x2 c2
y 2 = a 2 − c 2 − (a 2 − c 2 ) 2
= a 2 − c2 − x 2 + 2 x 2 .
a a

amasTanave MF1 = ( x + c) 2 + y 2 , maSasadame,

c2 2
MF1 = x 2 + 2cx + c 2 + a 2 − c 2 − x 2 + x
a2

c2 2
MF1 = a 2 + 2cx + x
a2
2
⎛ c ⎞
MF1 = ⎜ a + x ⎟
⎝ a ⎠

c c
(2)-s mixedviT, | x |≤ a , amasTanave, < 1 amitom x <a
a a
amitom

c
MF1 = a + x (3)
a
analogiurad miviRebT, rom

c
MF2 = a − x
a

amitom MF1 + MF2 = 2a .

amrigad, (2)-is Sedegi aris (1).
amrigad, (2) elifsis gantolebaa. mas ewodeba, elifsis kanonikuri ganto-
leba. elifsi simetriulia sakoordinato RerZebis da koordinatTa saTavis
mimarT.
ganvixiloT wrewiri

x 2 + y2 = a 2 .

22
 vTqvaT, sibrtyis gardaqmna moicema formulebiT:

x = x/ x/ = x
a / anu b (4)
y= y y/ = y
b a
am gardaqmnas kumSva ewodeba. am gardaqmniT

x 2 + y2 = a 2 .
wrewiri aisaxeba

a2 / 2
(x / ) 2 + (y ) = a 2 elifsze, anu
b2
(x / ) 2 ( y / ) 2
+ 2 =1 elifsze.
a2 b
M(x;y)
e.i. elifsi miiReba wrewirisagan kumSviT:
/ / /
M (x ;y )
c
ricxvs e = ewodeba elifsis eqscentrisi-
a
teti. maSasadame, M(x;y) wertilidan
fokusebamde manZilebia:

MF1 = a + ex , MF2 = a − ex .

hiperbola ewodeba wertilTa simravles sibrtyeze, romelTa manZilebis

sxvaobis moduli or mocemul wertilamde mudmivi sididea. am wertilebs
hiperbolis fokusebi ewodeba. aRvniSnoT isini F1
da F2-iT, mudmivi sidide iyos 2a. maSasadame,
M
| MF1 − MF2 |= 2a , anu MF1 − MF2 = ±2a .
kordinaTta sistema iseve SevarCioT, rogorc
F1 F2 elifsis SemTxvevaSi. maSin gveqneba:

( x + c) 2 + y 2 − ( x − c) 2 + y 2 = ±2a . (1)

(1)-is gamartivebiT, miviRebT:

M(x;y)
(c 2 − a 2 ) x 2 − a 2 y 2 = a 2 (c 2 − a 2 ) .

SemovitanoT aRniSvna:
F1(–c;0) F2(c;0)

b2 = c2 − a 2 , (2)

miviRebT:

x 2 y2
− =1 (3)
a 2 b2
maSasadame, (3) aris (1)-is Sedegi: Tu M(x;y) wertili hiperbolozea, maSin
(x,y) akmayofilebs (3)-s. axla, vTqvaT, M wertilis koordinatebi akmayofilebs
(3)-s, vaCvenoT, rom es ricxvebi (1)-s akmayofilebs.

23
 marTlac,

MF1 = ( x + c) 2 + y 2 (3)-dan
b2 2 c2 − a 2 2 c2 2
y2 = ( x − a 2
) = ( x − a 2
) = x − x 2 − c2 + a 2
a2 a2 a2
2
c2 c2 2 ⎛c ⎞
MF1 = x + 2cx + c + 2 x 2 − x 2 − c 2 + a 2 =
2 2
2
x + 2cx + a 2 = ⎜ x + a ⎟
a a ⎝a ⎠

e.i.

⎛c ⎞
MF1 = ±⎜ x + a ⎟
⎝a ⎠
analogiurad

⎛c ⎞
MF2 = ±⎜ x + a ⎟ (4)
⎝a ⎠

x 2 y2
radgan 2
− 2 = 1 , amitom x 2 ≥ a 2 , x ≥ a an x ≤ −a .
a b
Tu x ≥ a , maSin (3) da (4) tolobebSi unfa aviRoT `+~ niSani, Tu x ≤ −a , ma-
Sin orivegan unda aviRoT `–~ niSani.
amitom orive SemTxvevaSi, gvaqvs.

c c
| MF1 − MF2 |= x + a − x + a = 2a .
a a
maSasadame, (1) aris (3)-is Sedegi – (3) hiporbolis kanonikuri gantolebaa.
hiperbola ori nawilisagan Sedgeba:

F1 F2

b b
hiperbolis asimptotebia wrfeebi: y = x da y = − x . isini sibrtyes oTx
a a
nawilad hyofs, romelTagan 2-Si hiperbolaa moTavse-
buli. hiperbolis wertilebsa da Sesabamis asimptotas
Soris manZili nulisaken miiswrafvis, roca wertilis
B
C A(x;y)
abscisa usasrulod izrdeba.
magaliTad, ganvixiloT hiporbolis marjvena Sto
b
da Sesabamiis asimptota, y = x wrfe.
a

24
 b
cxadia, Tu A(x;y) Zevs hiperbolaze, maSin y = x 2 − a 2 . Tu B wertilis ko-
a
ordinatebia (x,y), maSin, cxadia,
b
y1 = x.
a
maSasadame,
b b
AB = x− x2 − a2 .
a a

advili saCvenebelia, rom AB → 0 , roca x → ∞ , maSin, cxadia

AC → 0 , roca x → ∞ .

tolferda hiperbola da misi gantoleba. tolferda hiperbola ewodeba

hiperbolas, romlic naxevarRerZebi – a da b ricxvebi tolia.
tolferda hiperbolis gantolebaa:

x 2 y2
Y − = 1 , anu x 2 − y 2 = a 2
y
/
a2 a2

misi asimptotebia wrfebi: y = x da y = -x ganvixi-

loT koordinatTa sistema x/0y/, romelic miiReba x0y
0 x
⎛ π⎞
sistemisgan ⎜ − ⎟ kuTxiT mobrunebiT.
/ ⎝ 4⎠
x
maSin koordinatTa gardaqmnis formulebi miiRebs
saxes:

⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π⎞
x = x / cos⎜ − ⎟ − y / sin ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ 4⎠
⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π⎞
y = x / sin ⎜ − ⎟ − y / cos⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4⎠
maSin x 2 − y 2 = a 2 gantolebidan miviRebT

2 2
⎛ / 1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
⎜⎜ x + y/ ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜ − x / + y/ ⎟⎟ = a 2
⎝ 2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 2 ⎠

aqedan miviRebT:
a2
x / y/ =
2
anu
x / y/ = k .
Tu cvladebisTvis x, y aRniSvnebs davubrundebiT, miviRebT:

xy = k,
misTvis Ox da Oy RerZebi asimptotebia.

25
 parabola ewodeba im wertilTa simravles sibrtyeze, romelTagan TiToe-
uli toli manZiliTaa daSorebuli mocemuli wertilidan da mocemuli
wrfidan.
wrfes ewodeba parabolis direqtrisa, wer-
Y tils – fokusi.
M(x;y)
Ox RerZi gavataroT fokusze direqtrisis
K
marTobulad, Oy RerZi – maT Soris Sua wer-
tilze. fokusidan direqtrisamde manZili aR-
vniSnoT p-Ti. M(x;y) wertili mdebareobs para-
0 p X
F( ;0) bolaze maSin da mxolod maSin, roca M-dan
2
manZili direqtrisamde da fokusamde tolia:
MF = MK (1)
anu
2
⎛ p⎞ p
⎜x − ⎟ + y = x +
2

⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
aqedan miviRebT:
y 2 = 2px (2)
(2) aris (1)-is Sedegi.
Tu M(x;y)-is koordinatebi akmayofilebs (2) pirobas, maSin y 2 = 2px , xolo

2 2
⎛ p⎞ ⎛ p⎞ p p
MF = ⎜ x − ⎟ + y 2 = ⎜ x − ⎟ + 2px = x + = x + (x ≥ 0)
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 2

e.i. (1) aris (2)-is Sedegi.

Y
y 2 = 2px parabolis kanonikuri gantolebaa. am gan-
tolebis mixedviT SeiZleba vimsjeloT parabolis
formaze da mdebareobaze. magaliTad, cxadia x ≥ 0 . mi-
X si simetriis RerZi Ox RerZia (sur. 1).
Tu koordinatTa sistemas sxvanairad SevarCevT –
sur. 1 gantolebas sxva saxe eqneba.
magaliTad, Tu parabola isea ganlagebuli, ro-
Y gorc sur. 2-zea gamosaxuli, maSin misi gantoleba iq-
neba x 2 = 2py .
sur. 3-ze aq warmodgenilia parabola, romlis gan-
toleba ase Caiwereba: y 2 = −2px (p > 0).
X
sur. 4-ze gamosaxuli parabolis gantolebaa x 2 = −2px
sur. 2
(p > 0).
Y y = ax 2 + bx + c (a ≠ 0) gantolebiT moicema parabola,
b
romlis simetris RerZia x = − wrfe da romlis wve-
2a
⎛ b 4ac − b 2 ⎞
X roa O O / ⎜⎜ − ; ⎟⎟ .
⎝ 2a 4a ⎠
sur. 3

26
 Y marTlac,
2
⎛ b ⎞ 4ac − b 2
y = ax 2 + bx + c = a ⎜ x + ⎟ + .
⎝ 2a ⎠ 4a
X
ganvixiloT paraleluri gadatana:

b
x = x/ −
sur. 4 2a
4ac − b 2
y = y/ +
4a
maSin miviRebT:

y / = a (x / ) 2
1 /
(x / ) 2 = y
a
1
Tu = 2p , miviRebT
a
( x / ) 2 = 2py / .
es parabolis gantolebaa, misi simetriis RerZi axali Oy / RerZia.

elifsisa da hiperbolis direqtrisebi.

c
elifsis eqscentrisitetia ricxvi: e = , e < 1. hiperbolis eqscentriside-
a
c
tia ricxvi: e = , e > 1.
a
a a
direqtrisebis gantolebebia x = da x = − .
e e

a a
x = − x =
a a e e
x = − x =
e e

F1 F2 F1 F2

a a
x=− aris F1-is Sesabamisi direqtrisaa, x = aris F2-is Sesabamisi direq-
e e
trisa.
Teorema. elifsis an hiperbolis nebismieri wertilidan fokusamde da Se-
sabamis direqtrisamde manZilebis Sefardeba eqscentrisitetis tolia.

27
 ganvixiloT elifsis SemTxveva; aviRoT
marjvena fokusi: F2(c;0) da Sesabamisi direq-
M a
K trisa x = .
e
F2 Cven ukve viciT, rom

MF2 = a – ex.
axla vipovoT direqtrisamde manZili:
MK.
cxadia

a ex − a a − ex
MK = x − = = .
e e e

e.i.

MF2
= e.
MK
hiperbolis SemTxveva analogiurad ganixileba.

meore rigis wirTa gantolebebi polarul koordinatebSi

ganvixiloT polarul koordinatTa sistema,

romlis polusi erT-erT fokusSia (parabolis Sem-
N B M TxvevaSi fokusi erTaderTia). polaruli RerZi
K A iyos direqtrisis marTobuli da mimarTuli iyos
ρϕ
misgan Sesabamisi fokusisken. gavavloT fokusze,
F wrfe, romelic paraleluria direqtrisis. vTqvaT,
is kveTs wirs A wertilSi. aRvniSnoT: FA = p (para-
bolisTvis p emTxvevas mis parametrs).

MF = ρ
N B M
K manZili direqtrisamde:
A
F MN = MB + BN
B aris AF da MN-is gadakveTis wertili. cxadia,
AK = BN.
viciT, rom

AF p p
= e, anu =e, AK = .
AK AK e
maSasadame,

p
MN = ρ cos φ +
e

ρ
magram = e.
MN

28
 p
e.i. ρ = e(ρ cos ϕ + )
e
ρ − ρe cos φ = p
p
ρ= .
1 − e cos φ

es aris elifsis, hiperbolis da parabolis gantoleba polarul koordi-

natTa sistemaSi.

meore rigis wirebi da zedapirebi

meore rigis wiri vuwodeT wertilTa simravles, romelTa koordinatebi

garkveul sistemaSi akmayofilebs gantolebas:

Ax 2 + 2Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 (1)

amasTanave, aRvniSnoT, rom es cneba (meore rigis wiris) ar aris damokide-

buli sistemis SerCevaze.
ganvixiloT axali sistema, romelic miiReba Zvelisagan ϕ kuTxiT mobru-
nebis Sedegad:
x = x / cos ϕ − y / sin ϕ
y = x / sin ϕ + y / cos ϕ
/ /
CavsvaT (1)-Si, miviRebT gantolebas x da y -is mimarT:

( A / ) 2 + 2B / x / y / + C / ( y / ) 2 + D / x / + E / y / + F / = D (2)
amasTanave, gvaqvs

2B / = −2A cos ϕ sin ϕ + 2C cos ϕ sin ϕ − 2B(cos 2 ϕ − sin 2 ϕ)

meore rigis konusuri zedpiri ewodeba zedapirs, romelsac garkveul

Oxyz koordinatTa sistemaSi Seesabameba gantoleba:

x 2 y2 z2
+ − = 0. (2)
a 2 b2 c2
Tu a = b, maSin igi asec Caiwereba:
x 2 + y2 − k 2z2 = 0 (3)
es zedapiri miiReba Oz RerZis garSemo wrfis
brunviT.
z = h sibrtyiT kveTaSi miiReba wrewiri:
x 2 + y2 = k 2h 2
elifsoidi ewodeba zedapirs, romelsac garkveul marTkuTxa koordinat-
Ta sistemaSi Seesabameba gantoleba:

x 2 y2 z2
+ + = 1,
a 2 b2 c2
sadac a, b, c dadebiTi ricxvebia.

29
 ganvixiloT SemTxveva: a = b. maSin gvaqvs:

x 2 y2 z2
+ + = 1,
a 2 a 2 c2

x 2 + y2 z2
+ 2 = 1.
Z a2 c
igi miiReba

⎧ y2 z2
X ⎪ 2 + 2 =1
⎨a c
⎪x = 0
X ⎩

elifsis brunviT Oz RerZis garSemo.

axla zogadi SemTxveva ganvixiloT:

x 2 y2 z2
+ − = 0.
a 2 b2 c2

misi kveTa Oxy sibrtyiT (anu z = 0 sibrtyiT) aris elifsi:

⎧ x 2 y2
Z ⎪ 2 + 2 =1
⎨a b
⎪z = 0
⎩

analogiurad, x = 0 da y = 0 sibrtyeebiT kveTisas

X miviRebT elifsebs.
X axla ganvixiloT kveTa z = h sibrtyiT, romelic pa-
raleluria Oxy sibrtyis:

⎧ x 2 y2 h2
⎪ 2 + = 1 −
⎨a b2 c2
⎪ z = h.
⎩

h2
Tu | h |< c , maSin 1 − > 0 da kveTaSi miiReba elifsi:
c2

x2 y2
+ =1.
⎛ h2 ⎞ ⎛ h2 ⎞
a ⎜⎜1 − 2
2
⎟⎟ b ⎜⎜1 − 2
2
⎟⎟
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠

Tu | h |= c , kveTaSi wertilebi miiReba: (0,0,c) da (0,0,-c).

Tu | h |> c , maSin kveTaSi carieli simravle `miiReba~.
analogiurad ganixileba kveTebi x = h da y = h sibrtyeebiT.
a, b da c-s hqvia elifsoidis naxevarRerZebi. Tu a = b = c, miiReba sfero:

x2 + y2 + z2 = a 2 .

30
 hiperboloidebi

calkalTa hiperboloidi ewodeba zedapirs, romelsac garkveul koordi-

natTa sistemaSi Seesabameba gantoleba:

x 2 y2 z2
+ − = 1, (1)
a 2 b2 c2
sadac a, b, c dadebiTi ricxvebia.
ganvixiloT kerZo SemTxveva: a = b

x 2 y2 z2
+ − = 1.
a 2 a 2 c2
Z
am gantolebiT moicema zedapiri, romelic miiRe-
ba

⎧x2 z2
X ⎪ 2 − 2 =1
⎨a c
⎪y = 0
X ⎩

hiperbolis brunviT Oz RerZis garSemo.

axla ganvixiloT zogadi SemTxveva:

x 2 y2 z2
+ − = 1.
a 2 b2 c2
misi kveTa Oxy sibrtyiT aris elifsi:

⎧ x 2 y2
⎪ 2 + 2 =1
⎨a b
⎪z = 0
⎩

Oxy sibrtyis paraleluri sibrtyiT kveTaSi miiReba elifsi:

⎧ x2 y2
⎧x 2 y2 h2 ⎪ + =1
⎪ 2 + 2 = 1+ 2 ⎪ 2⎛ h ⎞ ⎛ h2 ⎞
2

⎨ a ⎜⎜1 + 2 ⎟⎟ b ⎜⎜1 + 2 ⎟⎟
2
⎨a b c anu
⎪z = h ⎪ ⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠
⎩ ⎪⎩z = 0.

Oxz sibrtyiT kveTaSi miiReba hiperbola

⎧ x 2 y2
⎪ 2 − 2 =1
⎨a c
⎪ y = 0.
⎩
Oyz sibrtyiT kveTaSi miiReba hiperbola:

⎧ y2 z2
⎪ 2 − 2 =1
⎨b c
⎪ x = 0.
⎩

31
 Z

0 Y

orkalTa hiperboloidi ewodeba zedapirs, romelsac garkveul sistemaSi

Seesabameba gantoleba
x 2 y2 z2
− − = 1,
a 2 b2 c2
a, b, c dadebiTi ricxvebia.
ganvixiloT am zedapiris kveTebi:
a) Oyz sibrtyiT (x = 0):

⎧ y2 z2
⎪− 2 − 2 = 1
⎨ b c
⎪x = 0.
⎩
am sistemas ara aqvs amonaxsni, kveTa ara gvaqvs.

b) Oyz sibrtyis paraleluri sibrtyiT:

⎧ y2 z2 h 2
⎪ 2 + 2 = 2 −1
⎨b c a
⎪ x = h.
⎩
kveTaSi miiReba elifsi, roca | h |> a .

g) Oxy sibrtyiT kveTaSi

⎧ x 2 y2
⎪ 2 − 2 =1
⎨a b
⎪ z = 0.
⎩
miiReba hiperbola.

d) Oxz sibrtyiT kveTa:

⎧x2 z2
⎪ 2 − 2 =1
⎨a c
⎪ y = 0.
⎩
miiReba hiperbola

32
 Z

x 2 y2 z2 x 2 y2 z2
SevniSnoT, rom + − = −1 , anu − − + = 1 gantolebiTac orka-
a 2 b2 c2 a 2 b2 c2
lTa hiperboloidi moicema.

elifsuri paraboloidi aris zedapiri, romelic garkveul koordinatTa

sistemaSi moicema gantolebiT:

x 2 y2
+ = 2z , p > 0, q > 0.
p q

Tu p = q, miviRebT

x 2 y2
+ = 2z ,
p q

igi miiReba

⎧x 2 = 2pz
⎨
⎩y = 0

parabolis brunviT Oz RerZis garSemo.

33
 axla, vTqvaT p ≠ q , gvaqvs,

x 2 y2
+ = 2z .
p q

am SemTxvevaSi ki Oxy sibrtyiT kveTaSi wertili miiReba. Tu z = h, maSin

gvaqvs:

⎧ x2 y2
⎪ + =1
⎨ 2ph 2qh
⎪ z = h.
⎩

Tu h < 0, maSin kveTa ar miiReba. Tu h > 0 kveTaSi elifsi miireba. h-is zrda-
sTan erTad elifsis naxevarRerzbie izrdeba.

0 Y

y = h sibrtyiT kveTaSi miiReba parabola:

⎧x2 h2
⎪ = 2z −
⎨p q
⎪ y = h.
⎩
igi miiReba

⎧x2
⎪ = 2z
⎨p
⎪y = 0
⎩

parabolisagan paraleluri gadataniT (Oxz-is paralelurad).

hiperboluri paraboloidi ewodeba zedapirs, romelic garkveul koordi-
natTa sistemaSi moicema gantolebiT:

x 2 y2
− = 2z , p > 0, q > 0.
p q

ganvixiloT kveTa z = h sibrtyiT:

⎧ x2 y2
⎪ − =1
⎨ 2hp 2hq ,
⎪z = h
⎩

34
 ⎧x 2 y2 ⎧ x y ⎧ x y
⎪ − =0 ⎪ − =0 ⎪ + =0
Tu h = 0 anu ⎨p q anu ⎨ p q an ⎨ p q
⎪z = 0 ⎪z = 0 ⎪z = 0
⎩ ⎩ ⎩

e.i. roca z = 0, kveTaSi urTierTgadamkveTi wrfeebi miiReba;

Tu h > 0, miiReba hiperbola:

⎧ x2 y2
− =1
⎪
(
⎨ 2hp ) (
2
2hq )
2

⎪
⎩z = h

hiperbolis namdvili naxevarRerZia 2ph .

Tu h < 0, kvlav hiperbola miiReba:

axla ganvixiloT Oxz-is paraleluri sibrtyeebiT kveTa: y = m sibrtyiT

kveTa.
Tu m = 0, miiReba parabola

⎧x 2 = 2pz
⎨
⎩y = 0
Tu m ≠ 0 , miiReba parabolebi:

⎛ m2 ⎞
x 2 = 2p⎜⎜ z + ⎟.
⎝ 2q ⎟⎠

xolo x = n sibrtyeebiT kveTisas miiReba parabolebi:

⎧ 2 ⎛ n2 ⎞
⎪ y = −2q ⎜ z + ⎟ ⎧ y 2 = −2qz
⎨ ⎝ 2p ⎠ , Tu n=0 ⎨
⎪x = n ⎩ x = 0.
⎩

35
 sabolood aseTi suraTi gveqneba:

Z
2
x = 2pz

X
2
y = – 2qz

36
II nawili

binaruli algebruli operacia G simravleze ewodeba asaxvas:

f :G×G → G ,

anu ( x , y) → z , SeiZleba davweroT: f (x, y) = z , an SeiZleba ase davweroT: xfy = z.

wyvils: < G; f > – ewodeba jgufi, Tu f operacias aqvs Semdegi Tvisebebi:
1. f asociaciuria, anu nebismieri a, b, c elementebisTvis G-dan

f (f (a , b), c ) = f (a , f (b, c) ) .

SeiZleba asec CavweroT:

(afb)fc = af (bfc)

2. arsebobs neitraluri elementi e, anu iseTi e elementi, rom G-s yoveli

a elementisTvis

f(e,a) = f(a,e) = a (efa = afe = a).

3. yoveli a elementisTvis G-dan arsebobs simetriuli (Sebrunebuli, mo-

pirdapire) elementi, anu iseTi b elementi, romlisTvisac

f(a,b) = f(b,a) = e.
f operacias ewodeba jgufis operacia, G simravlis elementebs ewodeba
jgufis elementebi.
maSasadame, jgufi aris wyvili, romelic Sedgeba G simravlisa da masze
gansazRvruli f operaciisgan, romelsac aqvs sami Tviseba (CamoTvlilia ze-
moT).
maSasadame, simravleze operaciis mocema niSnavs asaxvis mocemas, romelic
simravlis elementebis nebismier wyvils (dalagebul wyvils) usabamebs amave
simravlis elements.
jgufis operaciisTvis sxvadasxva aRniSvnebs iyeneben. es operacia aRvniS-
noT + an . simboloebiT. magaliTad, wyvili <Z; +> aris jgufi.
Tu P dadebiTi namdvili ricxvTa simravlea, maSin struqtura < P; . > aris
jgufi.
jgufis Tvisebebi. yovel jgufSi neitraluri elementi erTaderTia.
jgufis operaciisTvis gamravlebis simbolo gamoviyenoT (am simbolos,
rogorc wesi, arc ki CavwerT xolme) da vaCvenoT, rom neitraluri elementi
erTaderTia: vTqvaT, e da e / ori neitraluri elementia, maSin

e = e ⋅ e/ = e/ e.i. e = e/ .

jgufSi yoveli elementisTvis arsebobs erTaderTi simetriuli. a-s simet-

riuli aRvniSnoT a-iT. vTqvaT gvaqvs meore simetriulic – b. maSin

a ⋅ a −1 = a −1 ⋅ a = e ,
a ⋅b = b⋅a = e .

37
 amrigad,

a −1 = a −1 ⋅ e = a −1 (a ⋅ b) = (a −1 ⋅ a )b = e ⋅ b = b .

yovel jgufSi SeiZleba gayofis Sesruleba, anu nebismieri a da b-sTvis,

moiZebneba x da y iseTi, rom
ax = b da ya = b.
marTlac,
ax = b ⇒ a −1 (ax ) = a −1 b ⇒ e ⋅ x = a −1 b ⇒ x = a −1 b ,

meores mxriv a (a −1 ⋅ b) = (a ⋅ a −1 )b = b .
analogiurad, meore gantolebisTvisac miviRebT erTaderT y-s, y = ba −1 .
nebismier jgufSi SeiZleba ganvaxorcieloT Sekveca marcxnidan an mar-
jvnidan:
Tu a ⋅ u = a ⋅ v , maSin u = v
da
Tu z ⋅ a = s ⋅ a , maSin z = s .
nebismier jgufSi asociaciurobis Tvisebis ganzogadoebiT vRebulobT:
yovel namravlSi frCxilebis dasma nebismier adgilas SeiZleba.
sami Tanamamravlis SemTxveva asociaciurobis Tvisebaa:

a(bc) = (ab)c .

oTxi Tanamamravlis SemTxvevaSi gvaqvs:

a (b(cd) ) = a ((bc)d ) = (ab )(cd | = (a / bc) ) = ((a , b)c ) d .

SegviZlia ganvixiloT toli Tanamamravlebis namravli, anu xarisxi:

a n = a. a... a

n − xh

amasTanave,
a 1 = a , a 0 = e da a − n = (a −1 ) n .

SeiZleba SevamowmoT mTeli xarisxis Tvisebebi.

a elementis rigi ewodeba umcireses dadebiT d ricxvs, romlisTvisac

ad = e
Tu a-s yvela xarisxi gansxvavebulia, maSin aseTi d ar arsebobs da am a-s
ewodeba usasrulo rigis elementi.
qvejgufi. <H, h> struqturas ewodeba <G, g> jgufis qvejgufi, Tu H ⊂ G da
h da g operaciebi erTmaneTs emTxveva H simravleze.
<H, h>, aris qvejgufi maSin da mxolod maSin, roca H aris G-s qvesimrav-
le, romelzec Sesrulebulia jgufis sami piroba (asociaciuroba, neitralu-
ris arseboba, simetriulis arseboba).
magaliTebi. 1. ganvixiloT < Z, + > jgufi/mTel ricxvTa simravle Sekrebis
mimarT. qvejgufebia. a) luw ricxvTa simravle; b) simravle, romelic mxolod
nulisagan Sedgeba.

38
 2. racionalur ricxvTa simravle. Sekrebis mimarT qvejgufebia: a) < Z; + >,
b) mTel ricxvTa simravlis qvejgufebi, g) racionaluri ricxvebia, romlebic
warmoidgineba kentmniSvneliani wiladebiT.
3. nulisagan gansxvavebul namdvil ricxvTa simravle gamravlebis mimarT.
qvejgufebia: a) dadebiT namdvil ricxvTa simravle gamravlebis mimarT, b) nu-
lisagan gansxvavebul racionalur ricxvTa simravle gamravlebis mimarT,
g) simravle, romlis elementebia mxolod –1 da 1 (gamravlebis mimarT).

jgufis faqtor-jgufi

vTqvaT, G nebismieri jgufia, H – misi qvejgu-

fi. SevarCioT G-Si elementi a da SevadginoT yve-
G la SesaZlo namravli xa, x aris H-s nebismieri
Ha
elementi, am namravlebis simravles ase aRvniSnavT
H
xa Ha. mas ewodeba G jgufis marjvena mosazRvre kla-
x
e
sebi H qvejgufis mimarT.
a
ax elementebis simravles, sadac x aris H-s ne-
bismieri elementi, a aris G-s fiqsirebuli elemen-
ti, ewodeba marcxena mosazRvre klasi G jgufisa
H qvejgufis mimarT. jgufis yovel elementi ekuT-
vnis zustad erT marjvena mosazRvre (marcxena mo-
sazRvre) klass.
Tu jgufi komutaciuria, maSin xa da ax elementebi tolia – marcxena mosa-
zRvre klasebis simravle emTxveva, marjvena mosazRvre klasebis simravles.
ganvixiloT, magaliTad, mTel ricxvTa adiciuri jgufi (mTel ricxvTa
jgufi Sekrebis mimarT). qvejgufi H iyos luw ricxvTa simravle. H-s mimarT
mosazRvre klass miviRebT, roca ganvixilavT a + x saxis elementebis simrav-
les, a aris Z-is fiqsirebuli elementi, x aris nebismieri luwi ricxvi. ori
SemTxveva gvaqvs: a luwia, an a kentia. Tu a luwia maSin mosazRvre klasi Sei-
cavs yvela luw ricxvs, Tu a kentia, mosazRvre klasi Seicavs kent ricxvebs.
axla ganvixiloT < Z; + > jgufi, da qvejgufi – 3-is jeradebis simravle:
H = 3 ⋅ Z . mosazRvre klasi, romelic Seicavs 0-s emTxveva H qvejgufs. aRvniS-
noT igi 0 . is mosazRvre klasi, romelic Seicavs 1-s, Sedgeba ricxvebisgan,
romelic miiReba 1-isadmi 3-is jeradebis mimatebiT. aRvniSnoT igi 1 -Ti. mo-
sazRvre klasi, romelsac ekuTvnis 2, aris klasi, romelic 3-ze gayofisas iZ-
leva naSTs 2-s, 2 . maSasadame, im kiTxvaze pasuxis gasacemad, romel klass
ekuTvnis ori ricxvis jami, damokidebulia ara am ricxvebze, aramed im naS-
Tebze, romlebic miiReba maTi 3-ze gayofisas.
G jgufis H qvejgufs ewodeba normaluri gamyofi (invariantuli qvejgu-
fi), Tu nebismieri ori aH da bH mosazRvre klasisTvis a / b / namravli, sadac
a / ∈ aH , b / ∈ bH , yovelTvis ekuTvnis mosazRvre klass: abH.

39
 komutaciur jgufebSi, yoveli jgufi aris nor-
aH maluri gamyofi.
a a/
H qvejgufi, sazogadod, aris normaluri gamyo-
H
/
fi maSin da mxolod maSin, roca yoveli marcxena
ab a/b
mosazRvre klasi emTxveva, romelime marjvena mo-
sazRvre klass.
b b
/
anu G-s nebismieri a elementisTvis aH da Ha
klasebi erTmaneTs emTxveva (sxvas ver daemTxveva);
anu H-Si yvela x-sTvis unda arsebobdes iseTi z am
simravlidan, rom ax = za , anu z = axa −1 , anu H norma-
luri gamyofia maSin da mxolod maSin, roca nebismieri a-sTvis G-dan nebismie-
ri x-sTvis H-dan axa −1 ∈ H .
normalur qvejgufs aseTi ganmartebac SeiZleba mivceT:
H normaluri qvejgufia G-si maSin da mxolod maSin, roca aH-is da bH-is
elementebis namravlisagan Sedgenili simravle aris ab ⋅ H . maSasadame, marcxe-
na mosazRvre, klasebis simravleSi SeiZleba SemovitanoT operacia, aq aH-is
simetriuli iqneba a −1 H , neitraluri elementi iqneba H. (G, f) jgufis marcxena
mosazRvre klasebisgan Sedgenil jgufs H qvejgufis mimarT mocemuli jgu-
fis faqtor-jgufi ewodeba da ase aRiniSneba: G/H.

magaliTi: Z – mTel ricxvTa simravlea, H 3-is jeradebis simravlea. faq-

tor-jgufi arsebobs, radgan H normaluri gamyofia (Z aris komutaciuri
jgufi).
aq mosazRvre klasebia: 0 , 1 , 2 . aq SeiZleba ganvmartoT Sekrebis opera-
cia:
0+1 =1 1+2=0 2+2=1
0+2= 2 1+1 =0
es operacia komutaciuria.

jgufTa izomorfizmi
/ /
vityviT, rom < G; f > jgufi izomorfulia < G ; f > jgufis, Tu arsebobs
/
urTierTcalsaxa Sesabamisoba ϕ G-sa da G -s Soris iseTi, rom, Tu ϕ(a ) = a / ,
ϕ( b) = b / maSin

ϕ ( f (a;b) ) = f / (a / ;b / ) (ϕ(afb) = a / f / b / ) .

am SemTxvevaSi vwerT:

G ≅ G/
a a /
/ /
homomorfizmi (G,f) jgufis < G , f > jgufSi
/ /
f(a,b) ϕ f (a ,b ) /
ewodeba iseT ϕ asaxvas, romlisTvisac gvaqvs:
/

b
b
φ ( f (a, b) ) = f / (a / , b / ) ,

40
 sadac a / = ϕ(a ) , b / = ϕ(b) .
/
G G
ϕ Tu jgufis operaciebs orive jgufSi er-
a a/
Tnairad CavwerT, maSin SeiZleba mokleT ase
f(a,b) /
f (a/,b )
/ CavweroT:

b b
/
ϕ(ab) = ϕ(a )ϕ(b) .

vTqvaT H aris G-s normaluri qvejgufi. ma-

Sin G/H faqtor-jgufis elementebi mosazRvre
klasebia H qvejgufis mimarT. yovel elements SevusabamoT Sesabamisi mos-
azRvre klasi. gveqneba asaxva: ϕ : G → G / H , iseTi, rom ϕ(a ) = aH .
amasTanave,
ϕ(ab) = aH ⋅ bH = abH (H normaluri gamyofia).
es ϕ asaxva aris izomorfizmi.
mniSvnelovania homomorfizmis Semdegi ori Tviseba: Tu ϕ aris homomor-
/
fizmi G jgufia G jgufSi, maSin
/ /
ϕ(e) = e / (e aris G-s neitraluri, e aris G -is ne-
G
/
G itraluri elementi).
ϕ homomorfizmis dros yvela im elementis sim-
/
ravle G-dan, romlebic aisaxeba e -Si, qmnis jgufs.
maT Sorisaa e elementi radgan ϕ(e) = e / . es jgufi
e/
aris G-s normaluri qvejgufi da mas ewodeba ϕ ho-
momorfizmis birTvi: Kerϕ . G-s yvela saxeebis sim-
ravle (mniSvnelobaTa simravle) aRvniSnoT Im ϕ -Ti.
Teorema homomorfizmis Sesaxeb.
Tu ϕ : G → G / nebismieri homomorfizmia, maSin arsebobs izomorfizmi

ψ : (G / Kerϕ) ≅ Im ϕ ,

romlis drosac gvaqvs:

ψ(a ⋅ Kerϕ) = a .

rgoli. vTqvaT, K simravleze ori algebruli operaciaa gansazRvruli,

e.i. gvaqvs algebruli struqtura ori operaciiT: <K; +; ⋅ >. amasTanave, vTqvaT,
<K;+> struqtura komutaciuri jgufia, meore operacias ki aqvs distribuciu-
lobis Tviseba: nebismieri sami a, b da c-sTvis (a + b)c = ac + bc. Tu meore opera-
cias (`gamravlebis~ operacias) aqvs komutaciurobis Tviseba, maSin rgols
ewodeba komutaciuri rgoli.
magaliTi 1. mTel ricxvTa rgoli: {Z; +; ⋅ }.
magaliTi 2. luw ricxvTa rgoli, es rgoli, iseve, rogorc mTel ricxvTa
rgoli asociaciuri rgolia, gamravlebis operacias aqvs asociaciurobis
Tviseba. es rgoli komutaciuri rgolia.
magaliTi 3. racionalur ricxvTa rgoli komutaciuri rgolia.
magaliTi 4. mravalwevrTa rgoli mTeli koeficientebiT.

41
 gamosaxulebas

f ( x ) = a n x n + a n −1 x n −1 + ... + a 0 ,

sadac a 0 , a 1 ,...a n mTeli ricxvebia ewodeba mTelkoeficientebiani mravalwevri.

vityviT, rom f(x)=g(x), sadac g( x ) = b 0 + b1 x + b 2 x 21 + ... + b k x , Tu b 0 = a 0 , b1 = a1 , ...
es tolobebi sruldeba manam, sanam arsebobs koeficientebi a i da b i. Tu a i an
b i ar gvaqvs, maSin meore mravalwevris koeficienti imave nomriT an ar arse-
2
bobs an nulia. magaliTad, 2 + 3x da 2 + 3x + Ox mravalwevrebi tolia.
f(x) + g(x) = h(x) ewodeba mravalwevrs:

f ( x ) = (a 0 + b 0 ) + (a 1 + b 1 ) + ... + (a n + b n ) x n

vigulisxmeT, rom n ≥ k da g(x)-is koeficientebi, romelTa nomeri SeiZleba

iyos k-ze meti, nulia.
Sekrebis mimarT mravalwevrebi qmnis komutaciur jgufs.
namravli f ( x ) ⋅ g ( x ) = k ( x ) ewodeba mravalwevrs:

k ( x ) = a 0 b 0 + (a 0 b1 + a 1 b 0 ) x + (a 0 b 2 + a 1 b1 + a 2 b 2 ) x 2 ... + a n b k x n + k .

gamravlebis operacia asociaciuria da komutaciuria. amasTanave, gamrav-

lebisa da Sekrebis operaciebi erTmaneTTan dakavSirebulia distribuciulo-
bis wesiT. maSasadame, mravalwevrebi mTeli koeficientebiT komutaciuri rgo-
lia.
magaliTi 5. racionalurkoeficientebiani mravalwevrebis rgoli.
magaliTi 6. namdvilkoeficientebian mravalwevrTa rgoli.
magaliTi 7. mravalwevrebi kompleqsuri koeficientebiT qmnis rgols.
Sekrebis neitraluri elementi 0 imave Tvisebisaa nebismier rgolSi, ra
Tvisebac mas aqvs mTel ricxvTa rgolSi: nebismieri elementis namravlTa 0-
ze aris 0. marTlac b = b + 0, maSin ab = a(b + 0), ab = ab + a ⋅ 0 , aqedan a ⋅ 0 = 0 .
Tumca, nebismier rgols SeiZleba hqondes gansxvavebuli Tvisebebic. maga-
liTad, naSTTa klasebi moduliT 6, romelsac ase CavwerT: 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5
aris rgoli da aq gvaqvs:

2⋅3 = 0 .
e.i. aranulovani elementebis namravli nulovani elementia.
Tu rgolis ori aranulovani elementis namravli nulia, maSin am elemen-
tebs nulis gamyofebi ewodeba. Tu rgolSi ar aris nulis gamyofebi, aseT
rgols ewodeba unulgamyofo rgoli.
mTel ricxvTa rgoli, mravalwevrTa rgoli unulgamyofo rgolebia.
unulgamyofo komutaciur rgols ewodeba mTelobis are. Tu rgolSi arse-
bobs gamravlebis operaciis neitraluri elementi, aseT rgols ewodeba rgo-
li erTeuliT.
vTqvaT, gvaqvs asociaciuri rgoli erTeuliT da yoveli nulisagan gan-
sxvavebuli elementisTvis arsebobs misi Sebrunebuli, aseT rgols tani ewo-

42
deba. Tu tani komutaciuricaa, maSin aseT tans veli ewodeba. maSasadame, veli
aris komutaciuri, sociaciuri rgoli, erTeuliT, romlis yovel elements
aqvs Sebrunebuli. velSi ar arsebobs nulis gamyofebi.
magaliTebi: namdvil ricxvTa veli, kompleqsur ricxvTa veli.
naSTiani gayofa. jer ganvixiloT naSTiani gayofa mTel ricxvTa simrav-
leSi.

|b| |b| |b| 0 |b| |b| |b| |b|

vTqvaT, b ≠ 0 . gadavzomoT ricxvTa RerZze marjvniv da marcxniv b-s jera-

di ricxvebi. a ricxvis Sesabamisi wertili romeliRac monakveTSi moxvdeba
(sigrZiT |b|). vTqvaT, qb udidesia b-s jeradebs Soris, romelic ar aRemateba
a-s (q SeiZleba uaryofiTac iyos). maSin a – bq an nulia, an dadebiTi ricxvia
da naklebia |b|-ze.
aRvniSnoT: a – bq = r.
maSasadame, yoveli a da b-sTvis ( b ≠ 0 ) arsebobs wyvili q da r ricxvebisa,
rom

a = bq + r, sadac 0 ≤ r <| b | .

amasTanave, SeiZleba Cveneba, rom q da r wyvili erTaderTia.

ganvixiloT axla mravalwevrebi. mravalwevris koeficientebi iyos raime
velis elementebi.
vTqvaT, mocemulia ori mravalwevri:

f ( x ) = 3x 5 − 2 x 4 + x 3 − x 2 + 5 da g ( x |= x 3 − 3 x 2 + + 2 x − 3

vipovoT ganayofi: 3x 5 : x 3 = 3x 2 .
avagoT axali mravalwevri:

f 1 ( x ) = f ( x ) − 3x 2 g ( x ) = x 4 − 5 x 3 + 8 x 2 + 5 .

gavimeoroT igive f1 (x) da g(x)-sTvis da avagoT f 2 ( x ) ; x 4 : x 3 = x 2 .

f 2 ( x ) = f 1 ( x ) − xg ( x ) = −4 x 3 + 6x 2 + 3x + 5 .

gavagrZeloT procesi: − 4 x 3 : x 3 = −4

f 3 ( x ) = f 2 ( x ) − (−4)g( x ) = 10 x 2 + 11x − 7 .

maSin gvaqvs:

10 x 2 + 11x − 7 = f 2 ( x ) − (−4)g ( x ) = f 1 ( x ) − xg ( x ) − (−4)g ( x ) = f 1 ( x ) − ( x − 4)g ( x ) =

= f ( x ) − 3x 2 g ( x ) − ( x − 4)g ( x ) = f ( x ) − (3x 2 + x − 4)g ( x )

anu

f ( x ) = (3x 2 + x − 4)g( x )+ )(10 x 2 + 11x − 7) .

43
 maSasadame,

f (x) = q(x)g(x) + r(x) ,

sadac r(x)-is xarisxi naklebia g(x)-is xarisxze.

maSasadame, gayofas vagrZelebT manam, sanam ar miviRebT mravalwevrs, rom-
lis xarisxi naklebia g(x)-is xarisxze, an nulis tol mravalwevrs miviRebT.

Teorema naSTiani gayofis Sesaxeb. Tu mocemulia ori mravalwevri f(x) da

g(x), maSin arsebobs erTaderTi wyvili q(x) da r(x) mravalwevrebisa, romel-
TaTvisac gvaqvs:

f (x) = g(x)q(x) + r(x) (1)

sadac r(x)-is xarisxi naklebia g(x)-is xarisxze, an r(x) = 0.

damtkiceba. vTqvaT

f ( x ) = a n x n + a n −1 x n −1 + ... + a s , g( x ) = b s x s + b s −1 x s −1 + ... + b .

Tu n < s, maSin SeiZleba davweroT:

f (x ) = g(x ) ⋅ 0 + f (x ) ,

sadac f(x)-is xarisxi n naklebia g(x)-is s xarisxze.

axla, vTqvaT, n ≥ s . ganvixiloT mravalwevri

an
f1 ( x ) = f (x ) − g ( x ) ⋅ x n −s .
bn

misi xarisxi aRvniSnoT n1-iT. cxadia, n1 < n. misi ufrosi wevris koeficien-
ti iyos a n1 . Tu n 1 ≥ s , maSin ganvixiloT mravalwevri:

a n1
f 2 ( x ) = f1 (x ) − g ( x ) ⋅ x n1 − s .
bn

am mravalwevris xarisxi iyos n2. maSin n2 < n. Tu n 2 ≥ s vixilavT mraval-

wevrs:

a n2
f 3 (x) = f 2 (x) − g ( x ) ⋅ x n 2 −s ,
bn

sadac a n 2 aris f 2 ( x ) -is ufrosi wevris koeficienti.

cxadia, n > n 1 > n 2 > n 3 , sadac n3 aris f 3 ( x ) -is xarisxi. Tu am process gavag-
rZelebT, aucileblad miviRebT f k ( x ) mravalwevrs, romlis nk xarisxi nakle-
bi iqneba s-ze:

a n k −1
f k ( x ) = f k −1 ( x ) − g ( x ) ⋅ x n k −1 −s ,
bs

44
 miRebuli tolobebis SekrebiT miviRebT:

⎡a an an ⎤
f ( x ) − ⎢ n x n −s + 1 x n1 −s + ... + k−1 x n k−1 −s ⎥ g ( x ) = f k ( x ) ;
⎣ bs bs bs ⎦

maSasadame

f (x) = g(x)q(x) + r(x) , sadac

a n n − s a n1 n1 − s an
q( x ) = x + x + ... + k −1 x n k −1 −s , r(x) = f k (x) ;
bs bs bs

maSasadame, r(x)-is xarisxi naklebia s-ze.

axla davamtkicoT erTaderToba. vTqvaT, kidev gvaqvs mravalwevrTa wyvi-

li q ( x ) da r(x) , romelTaTvisac

f ( x ) = g ( x )q ( x ) + z ( x ) (2)

(1) da (2)-dan

g(x) ⎡⎣q(x) − q(x) ⎤⎦ = r(x) − r(x) .

Tu q( x ) − q ( x ) ≠ 0 , maSin r(x) − r(x) -is xarisxi naklebia s-ze, tolobis marcxe-

na mxareSi mdgomi mravalwevris xarisxi ki ar aris naklebi s-ze. amitom

q ( x ) = q ( x ) . aqedan r(x) = r(x) .

advili dasamtkicebelia gayofadobis Tvisebebi:
1) Tu h(x) aris g(x)-is gamyofi, g(x) aris f(x)-is gamyofi, maSin h(x) aris
f(x)-is gamyofi.
2) Tu ϕ( x ) aris f(x) da g(x)-is gamyofi, maSin ϕ( x ) aris f ( x ) ± g( x ) mravawev-
ris gamyofi.
3) Tu ϕ( x ) aris f(x)-is gamyofi, g(x) nebismieri mravalwevria, maSin ϕ( x )
aris f ( x ) ⋅ g( x ) -is gamyofi.
4) nuli xarisxis mravalwevri nebismieri mravalwevris gamyofia.
5) Tu ϕ( x ) aris f(x)-is gamyofi, c ≠ 0 , maSin cϕ( x ) aris f(x)-is gamyofi.
6) Tu c ≠ 0 , maSin f(x)-is gamyofi, romelsac igive xarisxi aqvs, rac f(x)-s,
aris cf(x).

ori mravalwevris udidesi saerTo gamyofi

f(x) da g(x) mravalwevrebis udidesi saerTo gamyofi ewodeba mravalwevrs,
romelic aris am mravalwevrebis saerTo gamyofi da nebismieri saerTo gamyo-
fi misi gamyofia.

45
 udidesi saerTo gamyofis povnis evklides algoriTmi: vTqvaT, mocemulia
ori mravalwevri f(x) da g(x), maSin naSTiani gayofis Sesaxeb Teoremis Tanax-
mad, arsebobs erTaderTi wyvili q1(x) da r1(x) mravalwevrebisa, romelTaTvi-
sac gvaqvs:

f (x) = g(x) ⋅ q1 (x) + r1 (x) ,

sadac z1(x)-is xarisxi naklebia g(x)-is xarisxze.

kvlav naSTiani gayofis Sesaxeb Teoremis Tanaxmad, g(x) da r1(x) mravalwev-
rebisTvis arsebobs mravalwevrTa wyvili q2(x) da r2(x), romelTaTvisac

g(x) = r1 (x)q 2 (x) + r2 (x) ,

sadac r2(x)-s xarisxi naklebia r1(x)-is xarisxze.

Tu am process gavagrZelebT, maSin miviRebT mravalwevrebs

r1(x), r2(x), r3(x)...

romelTa xarisxebi klebulobs. amitom am mimdevrobaSi aucileblad iqneba
nuli mravalwevri. vTqvaT, is aris rk+1(x). maSasadame, gvaqvs tolobebi:

f (x) = g(x)q1 (x) + r1 (x),

g(x) = r1 (x)q 2 (x) + r2 (x),
. . . . . .. . . . .. .
rk − 2 (x) = rk −1 (x)q k (x) + rk (x),
rk −1 (x) = rk (x)q k +1 (x),

cxadia, rk(x) aris rk–1(x), rk–2(x), ... g(x), f(x) mravalwevrebis saerTo gamyofi.
amasTanave, f(x) da g(x)-is yoveli gamyofi aris rk(x)-is gamyofi. amitom rk(x)
aris f(x) da g(x) mravalwevrebis udidesi saerTo gamyofi.
Tu d(x) aris f(x) da g(x) mravalwevrebis udidesi saerTo gamyofi, maSin
cd(x) (c ≠ 0) agreTve aris udidesi saerTo gamyofi. amitom ori mravalwevris
udidess saerTo gamyofs, rogorc wesi, am mravalwevrebs Soris uwodeben im
mravalwevrs, romlis ufrosi wevris koeficienti aris 1-is toli.

Teorema. Tu d(x) aris f(x) da g(x) mravalwevrebs udidesi saerTo gamyofi,

maSin moiZebneba mravalwevrebi u(x) da v(x), romelTaTvisac gvaqvs:

d ( x ) = f ( x ) u ( x ) + g ( x ) v( x ) .

evklides algoriTmis Tanaxmad, d(x) = rk (x) . magram

rk (x) = rk − 2 (x) − rk −1 (x)q k (x) ,

anu
d(x) = rk −1 (x | u1 (x) + rk − 2 (x)v1 (x) , sadac u 1 ( x ) = −q k ( x ) , v1 ( x ) = 1 .

Tu am tolobaSi CavsvamT rk −1 (x) -is gamosaxvis rk − 2 (x) da rk −3 (x) mravalwev-

rebiT, maSin miviRebT

d(x) = rk − 2 (x)u 2 (x) + rk −3 (x)v 2 (x) .

46
 Tu am process gavagrZelebT, miviRebT dasamtkicebel tolobas.

d ( x ) = f ( x ) u ( x ) + g ( x ) v( x ) .

Tu am tolobaSi u(x)-is xarisxi meti iqneba g(x)-is xarisxze, maSin gamovi-

yenebT naSTian gayofas:

u(x) = g(x)q(x) + r(x) ,

sadac r(x)-is xarisxi naklebia g(x)-is xarisxze.

amrigad,

d(x) = f (x)r(x) + g(x)(v(x) + f (x)q(x)) .

aq v( x ) + f ( x )q ( x ) mravalwevris xarisxi naklebia f(x)-is xarisxze, winaaR-

mdeg SemTxvevaSi d(x)-is xarisxi meti iqneba (an toli) f(x)g(x)-is xarisxze, rac
SeuZlebelia.
f(x) da g(x) mravalwevrebs ewodeba urTierTmartivi, Tu maTi udidesi saer-
To gamyofi 1-is tolia
f(x) da g(x) urTierTmartivia, maSin da mxolod maSin, roca arsebobs u(x)
da v(x) mravalwevrebi, romelTaTvisac

f(x)u(x) + g(x)v(x) = 1.
Tu ϕ( x ) aris f(x)g(x)-is gamyofi da ϕ( x ) Tanamartivia f(x)-Tan, maSin g(x)
iyofa ϕ( x ) -ze.
marTlac

ϕ( x ) ⋅ u ( x ) + f ( x ) v( x ) = 1
ϕ( x )u ( x )g ( x ) + f ( x ) ⋅ g( x ) v( x ) = g( x ) .

aqedan Cans, rom ϕ( x ) aris g(x)-is gamyofi.

mravalwevris daSla dauyvanad mravalwevrebis namravlad

vTqvaT, p(x) aris n-uri xarisxis mravalwevri, misi koeficientebi P velis

elementebia. p(x)-s ewodeba P velze dauyvanadi mravalwevri, Tu p(x)-is gamyo-
fia mxolod P velis nebismieri nulovanisgan gansxvavebuli elementi, an
TviT f(x) mravalwevris namravli aseT elementze. sxva mravalwevri, romlis
koeficientebi P velidanaa, ar aris gamyofi p(x)-is.

magaliTi. x 2 − 2 mravalwevri racionalur ricxvTa velze dauyvanadi mra-

valwevria. magram igi dayvanadi mravalwevria namdvil ricxvTa velze:

x 2 − 2 = ( x − 2 )( x + 2 ) .

yoveli pirveli xarisxis mravalwevri, cxadia, dauyvanadi mravalwevria.

Tu p(x) dauyvanadia, maSin, cxadia, cp(x) (c ≠ 0) dauyvanadia. SevTanxmdeT: da-
uyvanadi mravalwevris ufrosi wevris koeficienti iyos 1-is toli.

47
 Teorema. vTqvaT, f(x) nebismieri mravalwevria P velze, p(x) dauyvanadi mra-
valwevria. Tu p(x) ar aris f(x)-is gamyofi, maSin f(x) da p(x) urTierTmartivi
mravalwevrebia.
damtkiceba. vTqvaT, usg (f(x), p(x)) = d(x). d(x) gamyofia p(x)-is, p(x) dauyvana-
dia, amitom d(x) = cp(x), an d(x) = c. pirvel SemTxvevaSi f(x) iyofa p(x)-ze, meore
SemTxvevaSi f(x) da p(x) urTierTmartivia.
mTel ricxvTa rgolis analogiurad, mravalwevrTa rgolSi gvaqvs mra-
valwevris daSla dauyvanad mravalwevrebad, romlebic martivi ricxvebis
rols TamaSobs:
yoveli f(x) mravalwevri SeiZleba erTaderTi saxiT warmovadginoT, Semde-
gi saxiT:

f ( x ) = p1 ( x )p 2 ( x )...p s ( x ) ,

sadac p 2 ( x )...p s ( x ) dauyvanadi mravalwevrebia. erTaderToba ase gvesmis: Tu

gvaqvs meore daSla:

f ( x ) = q 1 ( x )q 2 ( x )...q t ( x ) ,

maSin SeiZleba indeqsebi ise SevcvaloT (Tu aris amis saWiroeba), rom

s = t da p1 ( x ) = q 1 ( x ) , p 2 ( x ) = q 2 ( x ) , . . ., p s ( x ) = q t ( x ) .

debuleba advilad mtkicdeba maTematikuri induqciis meTodis gamoyenebiT.

f(x)-s gaSlaSi raime dauyvanadi mravalwevri SeiZleba ramdenjerme Segv-
xvdes, amitom gaSla SeiZleba ase Caiweros:

f (x) = a n q1n1 (x)q 2n 2 (x)...q sns (x) ,

sadac a n f(x)-is ufrosi wevris koeficientia, q 1 ( x ) , q 2 ( x ) ,..., q s ( x ) gansxvavebu-

li dauyvanadi mravalwevrebia.

mravalwevris fesvi

vTqvaT, f (x) = a n x n + a n −1 x n −1 + ... + a 0 aris n-uri xarisxi mravalwevri P velze.

f(x) mravalwevris mniSvneloba, roca x = c ( c ∈ P ) ewodeba P velis elements:

a n c n + a n −1c n −1 + ... + a 0 .

Tu f (c) = 0 , maSin c-s ewodeba mravalwevris nuli.

bezus Teorema. f(x) mravalwevri iyofa ( x − α) -ze maSin da mxolod maSin,

roca α aris f(x)-is nuli.
damtkiceba. cxadia,

f (x) = (x − α)q(x) + r ,

r ar aris damokidebuli x-ze.

aqedan

r = f (α ) .

48
 maSasadame, Tu f(x) iyofa ( x − α ) -ze, anu r = 0, maSin f (α) = 0 da α aris f(x)-
is nuli. Tu α aris f(x)-is nuli, maSin f (α) = 0 da r = f (α) = 0 , e.i. f(x) iyofa
( x − α ) -ze.

algebris ZiriTadi Teorema. yovel mravalwevrs, romlis xarisxi ar aris

naklebi 1-ze, kompleqsur ricxvTa velze aqvs erTi mainc nuli.

Sedegi. Tu f(x) aris n-uri xarisxi mravalwevri kompleqsur ricxvTa vel-

ze, maSin arsebobs ricxvebi α 1 , α 2 , . . . α n (romelTagan zogierTi SeiZleba to-
li iyos), rom

f (x) = a n (x − α1 )(x − α 2 )....(x − α n ) .

damtkiceba. algebris ZiriTadi Teoremis Tanaxmad, f(x)-s aqvs nuli,

vTqvaT, is aris α 1 , maSin

f ( x ) = ( x − α 1 )f 1 ( x ) .

Tu f1 ( x ) -is xarisxi ar aris naklebi 1-ze, mas eqneba nuli. maSasadame

f ( x ) = ( x − α 1 )( x − α 2 )f 2 ( x ) .

Tu am process gavagrZelebT, miviRebT dasamtkicebels.

toli Tanamamravlebis xarisxis saxiT Caweris Semdeg miviRebT tolobas:

f (x) = a n (x − α1 ) k1 (x − α 2 ) k 2 ...(x − α s ) ks .

am CanawereSi α 1 , α 2 , . . . α s gansxvavebuli ricxvebia.

f(x) iyofa ( x − α i ) -ze da ar iyofa ( x − α i ) k i +1 -ze (i = 1,2,...s). ki ricxvs hqvia
ki

α i nulis jeradoba.

49
III nawili

matricTa namravlis determinanti

ori kvadratuli matricis namravlis determinanti am matricebis determi-

nantebis namravlis tolia.
davamtkicoT debuleba meore rigis matricebis SemTxvevaSi. vTqvaT

⎛a a 12 ⎞ ⎛b b 12 ⎞
A = ⎜⎜ 11 ⎟, B = ⎜⎜ 11 ⎟ , maSin
⎝ a 21 a 22 ⎟⎠ ⎝ b 21 b 22 ⎟⎠

⎛ a b + a 12 b 21 a 11 b12 + a 12 b 22 ⎞
A ⋅ B = ⎜⎜ 11 11 ⎟
⎝ a 21 b11 + a 22 b 21 a 21 b12 + a 22 b 22 ⎟⎠

ganvixiloT matrica:

⎛ a 11 a 12 0 0 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜a a 22 0 0 ⎟
C = ⎜ 21
−1 0 b11 b12 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 0 −1 b 21 b 22 ⎟⎠
⎝
maSin

a 22 0 0 a 21 0 0
det C = a 11 ⋅ 0 b11 b12 − a 11 ⋅ − 1 b11 b12 =
−1 b 21 b 22 0 b 21 b 22
= a 12 ⋅ a 22 ⋅ det B − a 12 ⋅ a 21 ⋅ det B = det B ⋅ det A.

axla sxva xerxiT gamovTvaloT detC. amisTvis mesame svets mivumatoT pir-
veli, gamravlebuli b11-ze da meore, gamravlebuli b21-ze, meoTxe svets mivuma-
toT pirveli, gamravlebuli b12-ze da meore, gamravlebuli b22-ze, miviRebT

⎛ a 11 a 12 a 11 b11 + a 12 b 21 a 11 b12 + a 12 b 22 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ a 21 a 22 a 21 b11 + a 22 b 21 a 21 b12 + a 22 b 22 ⎟
det C = ⎜ ⎟=
−1 0 0 0
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 0 −1 0 0 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
a 12 a 11 b 11 + a 12 b 21 a 11 b12 + a 12 b 22
a b + a 12 b 21 a 11 b12 + a 12 b 22
= (−1) ⋅ a 22 a 21 b11 + a 22 b 21 a 21 b12 + a 22 b 22 = 11 11 = det(AB)
a 21 b11 + a 22 b 21 a 21 b12 + a 22 b 22
−1 0 0

e.i. det(AB) = det A ⋅ det B

Sebrunebuli matrica
kvadratul matricas ewodeba aragadagvarebuli, Tu misi determinanti ar
udris nuls. Tu kvadratuli matricis determinanti nulia, maSin aseT matri-
cas ewodeba gadagvarebuli.

50
 A matricis Sebrunebuli ewodeba, iseT B matricas, romelic akmayofi-
lebs pirobas.

A⋅B = B⋅A = E ,
sadac E erTeulovani matricaa:

⎛1 0 0 0⎞
..
⎜ ⎟
⎜0 1 0 ... 0 ⎟
E=⎜. ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜. ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝0 0 0 ... 1 ⎠

imisaTvis, rom A matricas hqondes Sebrunebuli, aucilebelia da sakmari-

si, rom is iyos aragadagvarebuli.
damtkiceba: vTqvaT, arsebobs A matricis Sebrunebuli B matrica, maSin

A⋅B = E .
aqedan

det(A ⋅ B) = det E
det A ⋅ det B = 1
e.i. det A ≠ 0
vTqvaT, A matrica aragadagvarebuli matricaa. avagoT matrica:

⎛ A 11 A 21 ... A n1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
1 ⎜ A 12 A 22 ... A n 2 ⎟
det A ⎜ . . . . ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜A A 2n ... A nn ⎟⎠
⎝ 1n
sadac A11, A21 ... Ann aris A matricaSi a11, a21 ... ann elementebis algebruli damate-
bebi.
matricas
⎛ A 11 A 21 ... A n1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜A A 22 ... A n 2 ⎟
C = ⎜ 12
. . . . ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜A A 2n ... A nn ⎟⎠
⎝ 1n

ewodeba A matricis mikavSirebuli matrica. vaCvenoT, rom A matricis Sebru-

nebuli ase moicema:
1
A −1 = ⋅C,
det A
sadac C aris A-s mikavSirebuli matrica.
marTlac,
⎛ a 11 a 12 ... a 1n ⎞ ⎛ A11 A 21 ... A n1 ⎞
1 ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
A⋅A =
−1
⋅⎜ . . . . ⎟⎜ . . . . ⎟=
det A ⎜
⎝ a n1 a n2 ... a nn ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ A1n A 2n ... A nn ⎟⎠

51
 ⎛ det A 0 ... 0 ⎞ ⎛1 0 0 ... 0 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
1 ⎜ 0 det A ... 0 ⎟ ⎜0 1 0 ... 0 ⎟
= ⋅ = = E.
det A ⎜ . . . . ⎟ ⎜. . . . .⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 0 0 ... det A ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 0 0 0 ... 1 ⎟⎠
⎝

axla vaCvenoT, rom Sebrunebuli erTaderTia. vTqvaT, B sxva Sebrunebu-

lia, maSin A ⋅ B = E , aqedan (A −1 A) ⋅ B = A −1 E , B = A −1 E e.i. B = A −1 .

matricis rangi. vTqvaT mocemulia m × n matrica

⎛ a 11 a 12 ... a 1n ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜a a 22 ... a 2 n ⎟
A = ⎜ 21
. . . . ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜a a n2 ... a nn ⎟⎠
⎝ n1

vityviT, rom A matricis rangi aris r ricxvi, Tu arsebobs A matricaSi r

rigis minori, romelic nuli ar aris, xolo yvela ufro maRali rigis mino-
ri nulis tolia. cxadia,
a) 0 ≤ r ≤ min(m, n )
b) r = 0 maSin da mxolod maSin, roca A nulovania.
g) Tu A aris n-uri rigis kvadratuli matrica, maSin r = n maSin da mxo-
lod maSin, roca det A ≠ 0 .
rangis ganmartebidan uSualod gamomdinareobs: Tu matricaSi k-uri rigis
minorebidan erTi mainc nuli ar aris da k + 1 rigis minorebi yvela nulia,
maSin ufro maRali rigis minorebli nulia da matricis rangi aris k.
matricis elementaruli gardaqmnebi vuwodoT Semdeg operaciebs:
1) transponirebas; 2) ori striqonis, an ori svetis transpozicias; 3) rome-
lime striqonis an svetis yvela elementis erTi da imave nulisagan gansxvavebul
ricxvze gamravlebas; 4) romelime striqonis an svetis elementebisadmi sxva stri-
qoni an svetis elementebis erTi da imave ricxvze namravlebis mimateba.
advili saCvenebelia, rom pirvelia sami elementaruli gardaqmniT matri-
cis rangi ar icvleba. axla vaCvenoT, rom meoTxe operaciiTac ar icvleba
rangi. vTqvaT,

⎛ a 11 a 12 ... a 1i ... a 1k ... a 1n ⎞

⎜ ⎟
⎜a a 22 ... a 2i ... a 2 k ... a 2 n ⎟
A = ⎜ 21
. . . . . . . . ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜a a m2 ... a mi ... a mk ... a mn ⎟⎠
⎝ m1

gamoyofilia ori sveti (i-uri da k-uri). me-4 elementaruli ggardaqmniT

miiReba matrica

⎛ a 11 a 12 ... a 1i + ca 1k ... a 1k ... a 1n ⎞

⎜ ⎟
⎜a a 22 ... a 2i + ca 2 k ... a 2 k ... a 2 n ⎟
B = ⎜ 21
. . . . . . . . ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜a a m2 ... a mi + ca mk ... a mk ... a mn ⎟⎠
⎝ m1

52
 vTqvaT, A matricis rangi aris r, vaCvnoT, rom B-s rangi ≤ r . e.i. B-Si r-ze
meti rigis minori yvela nulia. cxadia, B-s is minori, romlis rigi r-ze metia
da ar Seicavs i-ur svets, maSin iს igivea, rac Sesabamisi minori A-Si, e.i. nu-
lis tolia. B-s is minoric, romlis rigi r-ze metia Seicavs i-ur svetsac da
k-ur svetsac, nulia. Tu B-s minori, romlis rigi r-ze metia Seicavs i-ur
svets da ar Seicavs k-ur svets, maSin mas ase warmovadgenT: D1 + D 2 , sadac D1
tolia A matricis Sesabamisi minoris da is nulia, D 2 ki gansxvavdeba A mat-
ricis Sesabamisi minorisgan ricxviTi mamravliT da isic nulia.
amrigad, B matricis rangi ar aRemateba A matricis rangs r(B) ≤ r(A) .
magram A matricac miiReba B-sgan analogiuri elementaruli gardaqmniT,
amitom

r (B) ≤ r (A)
e.i.
r (B) = r (A) .

ZiriTadi Teorema matricis rangis Sesaxeb Tu matricis rangi aris r, ma-

Sin am matricSi arsebobs r striqoni (veqtor-striqoni) an r sveti (veqtor-sve-
ti), romelic wrfivad damoukidebelia da yoveli striqoni an sveti maTi
wrfivi kombinaciaa.
damtkiceba. vTqvaT, A matricis rangi aris r. maSin arsebobs r rigis mino-
ri, romelic nuli ar aris da yvela ufro maRali rigis minori nulia. SeiZ-
leba vigulisxmoT, rom es r rigis minori A matricis marcxena zemo kuTxe-
Sia. vaCvenoT, rom pirveli r striqoni wrfivad damoukidebulia, xolo yvela
sxva striqoni maTi wrfivi kombinaciaa.
davuSvaT, rom pirveli r striqoni wrfivad damokidebulia, maSin maTgan
erT-erTi sxvebis wrfivi kombinaciaa, vTqvaT es erT-erTi aris r-striqoni,
G
x r = λ 1 x 1 + λ 2 x 2 + ... + λ r −1 x r −1 .
Tu am r rigis minorSi, romelic nuli ar aris bolo striqons gamovak-
lebT pirvels, gamravlebuls λ 1 -ze, meore striqons, gamravlebuls λ 2 -ze da
a.S. wina striqons gamravlebuls λ r −1 -ze, maSin am striqonSi yvela elementi
nuli iqneba, minori ar Seicvleba da igi nuli iqneba, rac SeuZlebelia.
axla vaCveniT, rom yvela sxva striqoni pirveli r striqonis wrfivi kom-
binacia.
ganvixiloT r + 1 rigis determinanti.

a 11 a 12 ... a 1r a 1A
a 21 a 22 ... a 2 r a 2A
. . . . .
a r1 a r2 ... a rr a rA
a k1 a k2 ... a kr a kA

Tu A ≤ r , cxadia, igi nulia.

53
 Tu A > r , maSin igi ( r + 1 ) rigis minoria da maSinac nulia. e.i. misi gaSla
bolo svetis mixedviT = 0.

a 1A A 1 + a 2 A A 2 + ... + a rA A r + a kA A r +1 = 0

cxadia, A r +1 ≠ 0 , radgan emTxveva r rigis minors, amitom aqedan

a kA = λ 1a 1A + λ 2 a 2 A + ... + λ r a rA , A = 1,...n .

anu

a k1 = λ 1a 11 + λ 2 a 21 + ... + λ r a r1
a k 2 = λ 1a 12 + λ 2 a 22 + ... + λ r a r 2
. . . . . . . . . . .
a kn = λ 1a 1n + λ 2 a 2 n + ... + λ r a rn

es niSnavs, rom k-uri striqoni aris pirveli r striqonis wrfivi kombina-

cia,

wrfiv algebrul gantolebaTa sistema. kroneker-kapelis Teorema

ganvixiloT wrfiv algebrul gantolebaTa sistema, romelic Seicavs m
gantolebas, ucnobebis ricxvi aris n.

a 11 x 1 + a 12 x 2 + ... + a 1n x n = b1
a 21 x 1 + a 22 x 2 + ... + a 2 n x n = b 2
. . . . . . . . . . .
a m1 x 1 + a m 2 x 2 + ... + a mn x n = b m

Tu x 1 = c1 , x 2 = c 2 , ..., x n = c n Casmis Semdeg miviRebT WeSmarit tolobebs, ma-

Sin (c1,c2, ..., cn)-s ewodeba sistemas amonaxsni.
Tu sistemas erTi mainc amonaxsni aqvs, maSin mas ewodeba Tavsebadi, Tu
ara aqvs amonaxsni, maSin mas ewodeba araTavsebadi. sistemas ewodeba gansazR-
vruli, Tu mas aqvs erTaderTi amonaxsni, ewodeba ganuzRvreli, Tu mas aqvs
uamravi amonaxsni.
sistemis matrica ewodeba matricas:

⎛ a 11 a 12 ... a 1n ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜a a 22 ... a 2 n ⎟
A = ⎜ 21
. . . . ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜a a n2 ... a nn ⎟⎠
⎝ n1

sistemis gafarToebuli matrica ewodeba matricas:

⎛ a 11 a 12 ... a 1n b1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜a a 22 ... a 2 n b 2 ⎟
B = ⎜ 21
. . . . ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜a a mn 2 ... a mn b m ⎟⎠
⎝ m1

54
 kroneker-kapelis Teorema. n-ucnobian m gantolebaTa sistemis Tavsebado-
bisaTvis aucilebelia da sakmarisia, rom misi matricis rangi toli iyos ga-
farToebuli maricis rangis. Tavsebadobis SemTxvevaSi sistemas aqvs erTader-
Ti amonaxsni roca rangi udris ucnobTa ricxvs da aqvs uamravi amonaxsni,
roca rangi naklebia ucnobTa ricxvze.
damtkiceba. aucilebloba. vTqvaT sistema Tavsebadia da amonaxsnia (c1,c2,...,cn).
maSin WeSmaritia tolobebi.

a 11c1 + a 12 c 2 + ... + a 1n c n = b1
a 21c1 + a 22 c 2 + ... + a 2 n c n = b 2
. . . . . . . . . . .
a m1c1 + a m 2 c 2 + ... + a mn c n = b m

B matricis bolo svets gamovakloT pirveli sveti, gamravlebuli c1-ze,

Sedeg gamovakloT meore sveti, gamravlebuli c2-ze da a.S. – wina sveti, gam-
ravlebuli cn-ze. es operaciebi ar cvlis matricis rangs. Sedegad ki miiReba
matrica

⎛ a 11 a 12 ... a 1n 0 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ a 21 a 22 ... a 2 n 0 ⎟
⎜ . . . . 0⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜a a mn 2 ... a mn 0 ⎟⎠
⎝ m1

misi rangi ki tolia A matricis rangis, maSasadame, r(A) = r(B).

vTqvaT, r(A) = r(B) = r. maSasadame, A matricaSi arsebobs r rigis minori, ro-
melic ar udris nuls da yvela masze maRali rigis minori nulis tolia.
igive r rigis minori nulisagan gansxvavebulia B matricaSic da B matricis
yvela r + 1 rigis minori nulis tolia. SegviZlia vigulisxmoT, rom r rigis
minori romelic nulisgan gansxvavebulai B matricis zeda marcxena kuTxeSi-
a. matricis rangis Sesaxeb ZiriTad Teoremis Tanaxmad, B matricis pirveli r
striqoni wrfivad damoukidebelia da yvela sxva striqoni maTi wrfivi kombi-
naciaa. amitom mocemuli sistema tolfasia pirveli r gantolebis – pirveli r
gantolebis yoveli amonaxsni mocemuli sistemis amonaxsnia da piriqiT.
ganvixiloT ori SemTxveva
1) r = n maSin pirveli r gantoleba miiRebs saxes:

a 11 x 1 + a 12 x 2 + ... + a 1r x r = b1
a 21 x 1 + a 22 x 2 + ... + a 2 r x r = b 2
. . . . . . . . . . .
a r1 x 1 + a r 2 x 2 + ... + a rr x r = b r

am sistemas determinanti ar udris nols. krameris Teoremis Tanaxmad mas

erTaderTi amonaxsni aqvs.
maSasadame am SemTxvevaSi mocemul sistemas erTaderTi amonaxsni aqvs.

55
 2) r < n am SemTxvevaSi pirveli r gantoleba ase gadavweroT:

a 11 x 1 + a 12 x 2 + ... + a 1r x r = b1 − a 1r +1 x r +1 − ... − a 1n x n
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a r1 x 1 + a r 2 x 2 + ... + a rr x r = b r − a rr +1 x r +1 − ... − a rn x n

x r +1 , x r + 2 , ..., x n ucnobebs vuwodoT Tavisufali ucnobebi. Tu maT mivaniWebT

raime mniSvnelobebs da sistemas amovxsniT krameris wesiT, miviRebT mocemu-
li sistemis amonaxsns.
Tavisufal ucnobebs SegviZlia mivaniWoT nebismieri mniSvnelobebi. amri-
gad, am SemTxvevaSi sistema Tavsebadia da aqvs uamravi amonaxsni (ganusazR-
vrelia).

Sedegi. Tu n-ucnobian n gantolebaTa sistemis determinanti nulis to-

lia, maSin is an araTavsebadia, an ganusazRvrelia.

erTgvarovan gantolebaTa sistema.

erTgvarovan gantolebaTa sistema ewodeba Semdeg sistemas:

a 11 x 1 + a 12 x 2 + ... + a 1n x n = 0
a 21 x 1 + a 22 x 2 + ... + a 2 n x n = 0
. . . . . . . . . .
a m1 x 1 + a m 2 x 2 + ... + a mn x n = 0

cxadia, es sistema Tavsebadia, mas akmayofilebs nulovani amonaxsni:

(0,0,...,0). x 1 = 0 , x 2 = 0 , . . . , x n = 0 Casmis Semdeg miiReba WeSmariti tolobebi. am
amonaxsnisgan gansxvavebul amonaxsns ewodeba aranulovani amonaxsni.
Teorema. imisaTvis, rom erTgvarovan gantolebaTa sistemas hqondes aranu-
lovani amonaxsni, aucilebelia da sakmarisia, rom sistemis matricis rangi
naklebi iyos ucnobTa ricxvze.
es Teorema kroneker-kapelis Teoremis Sedegia. kerZod, Tu sistema kvadra-
tulia, maSin aranulovani amoanxsnis arsebobis aucilebeli da sakmarisi pi-
roba iqneba Sesabamisi matricis determinantis nulTan toloba.

Teorema. Tu erTgvarovan gantolebaTa sistemis rangi r naklebia ucnobTa

ricxvze n-ze, maSin arsebobs sistemis n – r amonaxsni, romelic wrfivad damou-
kidebelia da maTi saSualebiT wrfivad gamoisaxeba nebismieri amonaxsni.
am n – r amonaxsns ewodeba amonaxsnTa fundamenturi sistema.
damtkiceba. vTqvaT, sistemis matricis rangi aris r da r rigis minori, ro-
melic nulis toli ar aris marcxena zemo kuTxeSia. maSin sistema tolfasia
pirveli r gantolebis:

a 11 x 1 + a 12 x 2 + ... + a 1r x r = −a 1r +1 x r +1 − ... − a 1n x n
a 21 x 1 + a 22 x 2 + ... + a 2 r x r = −a 2 r +1 x r +1 − ... − a 2 n x n
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a r1 x 1 + a r 2 x 2 + ... + a rr x r = −a rr +1 x r +1 − ... − a rn x n

56
 aq x r +1 , x r + 2 , ..., x n Tavisufali ucnobebia. mivaniWoT maT mniSvnelobebi:

x r +1 = 1 , x r + 2 = 0 , ..., x n = 0 ,
x r +1 = 0 , x r + 2 = 1 , ..., x n = 0 ,
. . . . . . . . . . .
x r +1 = 0 , x r + 2 = 0 , ..., x n = 1 ,

am mniSvnelobebisgan Sedgenili determinanti aris 1-is toli:

1 0 ... 0
0 1 ... 0
=0
. . . .
0 0 ... 1

es determinanti n – r rigis nulisgan gansxvavebuli determinantia. am mniS-

vnelobebis Casmisa da sistemis amonaxsns Semdeg miviRebT n – r amonaxsns:
G
e1 = (α 1 α 2 ... α r 1 0 ... 0)
G
e 2 = (β1 β 2 ... β r 0 1 ... 0)
. ........ . . . . . .
G
e n − r = ( γ 1 γ 2 ... γ r 0 0 ... 1).

cxadia, es amonaxsnebi wrfivad damoukidebelia, radgan Sesabamisi matri-

cis rangi (n – r)-is tolia. axla aviRoT, raime amonaxsni:
G
x = (δ1 δ 2 ... δ r δ r +1 ... δ n )

ganvixiloT veqtori:
G G G G G
y = x − δr +1e1 − δ r + 2 e2 − δ n en − r = (ρ1 , ρ2 ...ρr ,0,0,...0) .

es iqneba sistemis amonaxsni. masSi Tavisufali ucnobebis mniSvnelobebi nu-

lebia, amitom

ρ1 = ρ 2 = ... = ρ r = 0 .
G G G G
e.i. x aris e1 , e 2 ,..., e n − r veqtorebis wrfivi kombinacia.

veqtorul sivrceTa izomorfizmi

/
vTqvaT, M aris veqtoruli sivrce P velze, M aris veqtoruli sivrce P
/
velze. vityviT, rom M izomorfulia M -is, Tu arsebobs bieqciuri asaxva:
f : M → M / iseTi, rom
G G G G G G
1) f ( x + y) = f ( x ) + f ( y) , x ∈ M , y ∈ M .
G G
2) f (αx ) = αf ( x ) , x ∈ M , α ∈ P .
/ / /
cxadia, Tu M izomorfulia M -is, maSin M izomorfulia M-is, M aisaxeba
-–1
M-ze f asaxviT.

57
 da
G G G G G G
1) f −1 ( x / + y / ) = f −1 ( x / ) + f −1 ( y / ) , x / ∈ M / , y / ∈ M / .
G G
2) f −1 (αx / ) = αf −1 ( x / ) , x / ∈ M / .
/
Teorema izomorfizmis Sesaxeb. M veqtoruli sivrce izomorfulia M -is
/
maSin da mxolod maSin, roca M da M -is ganzomilebebi tolia.
/
damtkiceba. vTqvaT, n aris M da M -s ganzomileba. maTi bazisebi iyos:
G G G G G G
e1 , e 2 ,..., e n da e1/ , e 2/ ,..., e n/ .
vTqvaT,
G G G G
x = λ 1 e1 + λ 2 e 2 + ... + λ n e n ∈ M
G G G G G G
ganvixiloT asaxva: f : x → x / , sadac x / = λ 1 e1/ + λ 2 e 2/ + ... + λ n e n/ .
G G G G
cxadia, f ( x + y) = f ( x ) + f ( y)
G G
f (αx ) = αf ( x ) .
/
e.i. M izomorfulia M -is.
/
axla, vTqvaT M izomorfulia M -is. vaCvenoT, rom maSin maTi ganzomilebe-
bi tolia.
/
davuSvaT sawinaaRmdego, M-is ganzomilebaa n, M -is – m da m ≠ n . SevniS-
/
noT, rom M-is nulovan veqtors Seesabameba M -is nulovani veqtori, radgan
G G G G G
f ( x + 0) = f ( x ) + f ( 0) = f ( x )
G G
e.i. f (0) = 0 / .
garda amisa, cxadia
G G G G G G
f (λ 1 x 1 + λ 2 x 2 + ... + λ k x k ) = λ 1f ( x 1 ) + λ 2 f ( x 2 ) + ... + λ k f ( x k ) .
G G G G G G
amitom, Tu e1 , e 2 ,..., e n bazisia M-Si, maSin Tu k > n , x1 , x 2 ,..., x k wrfivad damo-
kidebulia, e.i. arsebobs λ 1 , λ 2 ,..., λ k romelTagan erTi mainc ar udris nuls,
rom gvaqvs
G G G G
λ1 x1 + λ 2 x 2 + ... + λ k x k = 0
aqedan
G G G G G
λ 1f ( x 1 ) + λ 2 f ( x 2 ) + ... + λ k f ( x k ) = f (0) = 0 / ∈ M.
G G G / /
e.i. f ( x 1 ) , f ( x 2 ) , ... f ( x k ) wrfivad damokidebulia M -Si. amitom M -s ganzomi-
leba m ≤ n . analogiurad miviRebT: n ≤ m . e.i. n = m .

afinuri sivrce
vTqvaT, mocemulia M veqtoruli sivrce P velze da T simravle, romlis
elementebs vuwodoT wertilebi. T simravlis yovel or P da Q wertils Se-
G
vusabamoT – erTaderTi veqtori x ∈ M . am faqts ase CavwerT: x = PQ . vTqvaT,
am Sesabamisobas aqvs Tvisebebi:

58
 G
1) yoveli P wertilisa da x veqtorisTvis arsebobs, erTaderTi Q werti-
G
li iseTi, rom (P,Q) wyvils Seesabameba x veqtori: x = PQ
2) nebismieri sami P, Q da S wertilisTvis gvaqvs:

PQ + QS = PS .

maSin vityviT, rom mocemulia A afinuri sivrce. A-s elementi aris sim-
ravle M-is veqtorebisa da T-s wertilebisa.
A afinur sivrces ewodeba n-ganzomilebani, Tu M veqtoruli sivrce aris
n-ganzomilebani.
amrigad, A afinuri sivrce aris veqtorebisa da wertilebis simravle. ne-
G
bismieri x veqtori SeiZleba `movdoT~ nebismier P wertilSi, rac imas niS-

navs, rom yoveli P wertilisTvis arsebobs erTaderTi Q, rom PQ = x .

advili dasamtkicebelia, rom

1) Tu MN = QP , maSin MQ = NP . marTlac,

MN + NP = MP = MQ + QP

2) MM = NN , marTlac

MN + NN = MN = MM + MN

MM = NN nulovani veqtoria.
3) MN -is mopirdapire aris NM , marTlac MN + NM = MM .
afinur sivrceSi SeiZleba SemoviRoT koordinatebi. vTqvaT, 0 ∈ A . 0 aris
afinuri sivrcis raime wertili. vuwodoT mas koordinatTa saTave. maSin yo-
G
veli x veqtorisTvis arsebobs erTaderTi X wertili, romlisTvisac gvaqvs:
G
OX = x .
G G G
vTqvaT, A-s veqtorebi e1 , e 2 ,..., e n Sesabamisi veqtoruli sivrcis bazisia. ma-
G
Sin x veqtors Seesabameba koordinatebi mocemul bazisSi:
G
OX = x = ( x 1 , x 2 ,...x n ) .

maSin vityviT, rom X wertilis koordinatebi aris x1, x2,... xn da vwerT:

X = ( x1, x2,... xn)

G G G
amasTanave, koordinatTa sistema vuwodoT erTobliobas: (0, e1 , e 2 ,..., e n ) .
vTqvaT, X = ( x1, x2,... xn), Y = ( y1, y2,... yn), maSin

OX + XY = OY .
anu

XY = OY − OX = ( y1 − x 1 , y 2 − x 2 ,...y n − x n ).

59
 veqtorul sivrceTa wrfivi asaxva
vTqvaT, L da M ori veqtoruli sivrcea. asaxavs

f :L →M.

ewodeba wrfivi asaxva, Tu

G G G G G G
1) f (αa ) = αf (a ) ; 2) f (a 1 + a 2 ) = f (a 1 ) + f (a 2 ) .
aqedan miiReba, rom

⎛ k
G ⎞ k JG
f⎜
⎝
∑
i =1
αi a i ⎟ =
⎠
∑ α f (a )
i =1
i i

asaxvas f : L → L ewodeba L-ze gansazRvruli wrfivi operatori.

G G G
magaliTi 1. nulovani asaxva: f : L → M , roca f (a ) = 0 + M , yoveli a ∈ L .
magaliTi 2. igivuri asaxva:
G G G
f : L → L , f (a ) = a , yoveli a ∈ L .

magaliTi 3. homoTetia:
G G G
f : L → L , f (a ) = αa yoveli a ∈ L .

Tu α = 0 , miiReba nulovani asaxva.

Tu α = 1 , miiReba igivuri asaxva.

wrfivi asaxvis matrica

vTqvaT mocemulia wrfivi asaxva: R n → R m

G G G
R n -is bazisi iyos e1 , e 2 ,..., e n ,
G G G
R m -is bazisi iyos e1/ , e 2/ ,..., e m/ .
G G G
vTqvaT, cnobilia f (e1 ) , f (e 2 ) , ... f (e n ) -s kordinatebi R m -Si.
G G G G
f (e1 ) = α 11 e1/ + α 21 e 2/ + ... + α m1 e m/
G G G G
f (e 2 ) = α 12 e1/ + α 22 e 2/ + ... + α m 2 e m/
(1)
. . . . . . . . . . . .
G G G G
f (e n ) = α 1n e1/ + α 2 n e 2/ + ... + α mn e m/

ganvixiloT matrica

⎛ α 11 α 12 ... α 1n ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜α α 22 ... α 2 n ⎟
A = ⎜ 21
. . . . ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜α ... α mn ⎟⎠
⎝ m1 α m 2
G G G
am matricis svetebiT f (e1 ) , f (e 2 ) , . . . , f (e n ) veqtorebia warmodgenili.

60
 Tu
G G G G
x = x 1 e1 + x 2 e 2 + ... + x n e n
maSin
G G G G
f ( x ) = x 1f (e1 ) + x 2 f (e 2 ) + ... + x n f (e n )

G G G G
Tu f ( x ) = x 1/ e1/ + x 2/ e 2/ + ... + x n/ e m/
maSin (1) tolobebis gaTvaliswinebiT, gveqneba:

x 1/ = α 11 x 1 + α 12 x 2 + ... + α 1n x n
x 2/ = α 21 x 1 + α 22 x 2 + ... + α 2 n x n
(2)
. . . . . . . . . . .
x m/ = α m1 x 1 + α m 2 x 2 + ... + α mn x n

G
maSasadame, Tu cnobilia A matrica, maSin asaxva x → f ( x ) Caiwereba (2)
formulebiT.
advili saCvenebelia rom Tu asaxvas (2) tolobebiT ganvsazRvravT, maSin
igi wrfivi asaxva iqneba.
Tu gvaqvs wrfivi asaxva f : R n → R m , maSin mas Seesabameba matrica

⎛ a 11 a 12 ... a 1n ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜a a ... a 2 n ⎟
A = ⎜ 21 22 (1)
. . . . ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜a ... a mn ⎟⎠
⎝ m1 a m 2
G G G G G G
romlis svetebi f (e1 ) , f (e 2 ) , . . . , f (e n ) veqtorebia, e1 , e 2 ,..., e n aris R n -is bazisi.
G G G G
Tu x ∈ R n da x / = f ( x ) , maSin x / -is koordinatebi moicema Semdegi saxiT:

x 1/ = a 11 x 1 + a 12 x 2 + ... + a 1n x n
x 2/ = a 21 x 1 + a 22 x 2 + ... + a 2 n x n
(2)
. . . . . . . . . . .
x m/ = a m1 x 1 + a m 2 x 2 + ... + a mn x n

advili saCvenebelia, rom asaxva, romelic ganisazRvreba (2) formulebiT,

aris wrfivi asaxva.
maSasadame, damyarebulia urTierTcalsaxa Sesabamisoba wrfiv asaxvebsa
da matricebs Soris. Tu gvaqvs, kerZod, wrfivi operatori f : R n → R n , maSin
misi matrica n-uri rigis kvadratuli matricaa.
G G G G
f wrfiv operators ewodeba aragadagvarebuli, TuU f ( x ) = 0 ⇒ x = 0 .
f wrfivi operatori aragadagvarebulia maSin da mxolod maSin, roca misi
A matrica aragadagvarebulia.

61
 G G
damtkiceba. vTqvaT, f aragadagvarebulia, toloba f ( x ) = 0 ase Caiwereba

a 11 x 1 + a 12 x 2 + ... + a 1n x n = 0
a 21 x 1 + a 22 x 2 + ... + a 2 n x n = 0
. . . . . . . . . . .
a n1 x 1 + a n 2 x 2 + ... + a nn x n = 0

am sistemas aqvs mxolod nulovani amonaxsni maSin da mxolod maSin, ro-

ca misi determinanti nuli ar aris, e.i. roca A matrica aragadagvarebulia.

moqmedebebi wrfiv asaxvebze

vTqvaT, f 1 : R n → R m , f 2 : R n → R m , maSin maTi jami ewodeba f asaxvas:

G G G G
f = f 1 + f 2 , Tu yoveli x ∈ R n , f ( x ) = f 1 ( x ) + f 2 ( x ) advili saCvenebelia, rom Tu f1-is
matrica aris A, f2-s matrica aris B, maSin f-is matrica iqneba A + B, radgan
G G G
f (e i ) = f 1 (e i ) + f 2 (e i ) .
vTqvaT, mocemulia wrfivi asaxva: f : R n → R m , misi matricaa A. α ricxvis
namravli f-ze ase ganisazRvreba:
G G G
yoveli x -sTvis, (αf )( x ) = α(f ( x ) . αf -is matrica, cxadia, iqneba αA matrica.
vTqvaT, mocemulia ori wrfivi asaxva: f : R m → R A , g : R n → R m . maTi namrav-
G
li (kompozicia) ewodeba asaxvas h = f ⋅ g , Tu yoveli x ∈ R n ,
G G
(f ⋅ g )( x ) = f (g ( x ) .

Tu f-is matrica aris A (mas aqvs A striqoni da m sveti), g-s matrica

aris B (m striqoni da n sveti), maSin

f ⋅ g -s matrica

aris A ⋅ B ( A striqoniTa da m svetiT). SeiZleba asec davweroT

A A⋅m ⋅ Bm⋅n = CA⋅n , C = AB

kerZod, Tu f wrfivi operatoria da misi matricaa A, g wrfivi operatoria

da misi matricaa B, e.i.
f : R n → R n , g : R n → R n , maSin
f ⋅ g wrfivi operatoria da mis matrica A ⋅ B .
vTqvaT, f aragadagvaarebuli wrfivi operatoria, maSin rogorc davamtki-
ceT, misi matrica aragadagvarebuli matricaa. aseTi f wrfivi operatoris-
Tvis arsebobs Sebrunebuli wrfivi operatori f −1 iseTi, rom f −1 ⋅ f = f ⋅ f −1
igivuri asaxvaa. f −1 -is matrica ki A matricis Sebrunebulia ( f ⋅ f −1 -is matrica
erTeulovani matricaa).
G G G
axal bazisze gadasvla. vTqvaT, f wrfivi operatoris matrica e1 , e 2 ,..., e n
G G G G G G G G G
bazisSi aris A. xolo e1/ , e 2/ ,..., e n/ bazisSi aris B. e1 , e 2 ,..., e n bazisi da e1/ , e 2/ ,..., e n/
bazisze gadasvlis matrica iyos C, anu

62
 G G G G
e1/ = c11 e1 + c 21 e 2 + ... + c n1 e n
. . . . . . . . . .
G G G G
e n/ = c1n e1 + c 2 n e 2 + ... + c nn e n

cxadia, C matrica aragadagvarebuli matricaa. vaCvenoT, rom B = C −1 AC .

G G G
ganvixiloT h wrfivi operatori, romlis matrica e1 , e 2 ,..., e n bazisSi aris
C. maSin gvaqvs:
G G G G G
h (e1 ) = c11 e1 + c 21 e 2 + ... + c n1 e n = e1/
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
G G G G G
h (e n ) = c1n e1 + c 2 n e 2 + ... + c nn e n = e n/

maSasadame,
G G G G G G
h −1 (e1/ ) = e1 , h −1 (e 2/ ) = e 2 , ... h −1 (e n/ ) = e n

amasTanave,
G G G G
f (e1/ ) = b11 e1/ + b 21 e 2/ + ... + b n1 e n/
. . . . . . . . . . . .
G G G G
f (e n/ ) = b1n e1/ + b 2 n e 2/ + ... + b nn e n/

e.i.
G G G G
h −1 D f (e1/ ) = b11 e1 + b 21 e 2 + ... + b n1 e n
. . . . . . . . . .
G G G G
h −1 ⋅ f (e n/ ) = b1n e1 + b 2 n e 2 + ... + b nn e n
aqedan
G G G G
h −1 ⋅ f ⋅ h (e1 ) = b11 e1 + b 21 e 2 + ... + b n1 e n
. . . . . . . . . .
G G G G
h −1 ⋅ f ⋅ h (e n ) = b1n e1 + b 2 n e 2 + ... + b nn e n

amrigad, B = CA −1C .

gansazRvreba. vityviT, rom A matrica B matricis msgavsia, Tu arsebobs

iseTi aragadagvarebuli matrica C, rom AC = CB, anu

C −1 AC = B .

cxadia, Tu A msgavsia B matricis, maSin B aris msgavsi A matricis,

radgan
(C −1 ) −1 BC −1 = A .

A msgavsia A matricis.
msgavsebis mimarTebas tranzitulobis Tvisebac aqvs.
amasTanave, Tu A matrica msgavsia B matricis, maSin

det(B) = det(A), radgan

det(C −1 AC) = det C −1 ⋅ det A ⋅ det C = det A .

63
 amasTanave, Tu A da B msgavsi matricebia, maSin maTi rangebi tolia.
amrigad, wrfivi operatoris matricis determinanti ar aris damokidebuli
bazisze.

invariantuli qvesivrce. wrfivi operatoris sakuTrivi veqtori

da sakuTrivi mniSvneloba
TqvaT, L aris n-ganzomielbiani veqtoruli sivrce. L1 qvesivrces ewodeba
G G
invariantuli f wrfivi operatoris mimarT, Tu yoveli x ∈ L1 -isTvis, f ( x ) ∈ L1 .
Tu f aris aragadagvarebuli wrfivi operatori L-ze da L1 aris misi inva-
–1
riantuli qvesivrce, maSin L1 aris f -is mimarTac invariantuli qvesivrce.
G G G G G G
damtkiceba. vTqvaT, e1 , e 2 ,..., e n aris L1-s bazisi, maSin f (e1 ) , f (e 2 ) , . . . , f (e n )
G
sistemac bazisia, maSasadame yoveli x ∈ L1 -sTvis
G G G G
x = α1f (e1 ) + α 2 f (e 2 ) + ... + α n f (e n ) .

aqedan
G G G G
f −1 ( x ) = α 1 e1 + α 2 e 2 + ... + α n e n .
G
aranulovan x veqtors ewodeba f wrfivi operatoris sakuTrivi veqtori,
Tu arsebobs iseTi ricxvi λ , rom
G G
f ( x ) = λx .

λ -s ewodeba f wrfivi operatois sakuTrivi mniSvneloba.

Tu L1 aris f wrfivi operatoris mimarT invariantuli qvesivrce da misi
ganzomileba erTis tolia, maSin L1-is yoveli aranulovani veqtori sakuTrivi
veqtoria. es aranulovani veqtori SeiZleba miviCnioT L1-is bazisad. Tu L1 in-
G G G
variantuli qvesivrcea, maSin f ( x ) ∈ L1 da maSasadame f ( x ) = λx .
G
vTqvaT x aris f wrfivi operatoris sakuTrivi veqtori, λ – misi sakuTri-
G G G G G
vi mniSvnelobaa, maSin f ( x ) = λx . Tu e1 , e 2 ,..., e n bazisia, maSin
G G G G
x = x 1 e1 + x 2 e 2 + ... + x n e n .

vTqvaT, f-is matrica aris

⎛ a 11 a 12 ... a 1n ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜a a ... a 2 n ⎟
A = ⎜ 21 22 ,
. . . . ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜a a ... a nn ⎟⎠
⎝ n1 n 2
maSin
G G G G
f (e1 ) = a 11 e1 + a 21 e 2 + ... + a n1 e n
. . . . . . . . . .
G G G G
f (e n ) = a 1n e1 + a 2 n e 2 + ... + a nn e n .

64
 maSin cxadia,
G G
f ( x ) = (a 11 x 1 + a 12 x 2 + ... + a 1n x n )e1 +
G
+ (a 21 x 1 + a 22 x 2 + ... + a 2 n x n )e 2 + ....
G
+ (a n1 x 1 + a n 2 x 2 + ... + a nn x n )e n .
G G G G G
radgan f ( x ) = λx = λx 1 e1 + λx 1 e 2 + ... + λx n e n .
amitom

(a 11 − λ) x 1 + a 12 x 2 + ... + a 1n x n = 0
a 21 x 1 + (a 22 − λ ) x 2 + ... + a 2 n x n = 0
. . . . . . . . . . .
a n1 x 1 + a n 2 x 2 + ... + (a nn − λ) x n = 0

am sistemas aqvs uamravi amonaxsni, maSin da mxolod maSin, roca

a 11 − λ a 12 ... a 1n
a 21 a 22 − λ ... a 2 n
=0 (1)
. . . .
a n1 a n2 ... a nn − λ

es aris n-uri xarisxis algebruli gantoleba, misi marcxena mxare n-uri

xarisxis mravalwevria λ -s mimarT. mas ewodeba A matricis maxasiaTebeli
mravalwevri. vaCvenoT, rom igi damokidebuli ar aris bazisze. sxva bazisSi f
wrfivi operatoris matrica, vTqvaT, aris B, maSin A da B msgavsi matricebia
da B = C −1 AC .
Tu (1)-is marcxenaa mxares ase CavweroT:
| A − λE | , maSin B matricis maxasiaTebeli mravalwevri ase Caiwereba

| B − λE |=| C −1 AC − λE |=| C −1 AC − C −1λEC |=| C −1 (A − λE)C |=| C −1 || (A − λE) || C |=| A − λE |

maSasadame, f wrfivi operatoris A matricis maxasiaTebel mravalwevrs Se-

iZleba vuwodoT f wrfivi operatoris maxasiaTebeli mravalwevri. maSasadame,
f wrfivi operatoris yvela sakuTrivi mniSvneloba aris misi maxasiaTebeli
mravalwevris fesvi.
f wrfivi operatoris maxasiaTebeli mravalwevri SeiZleba ase CavweroT:

φ(λ ) = (−1) n λ n + (−1) n −1 α1λ n −1 + ... + α n .

advili saCvenebelia, rom

α1 = a11 + a 22 + ... + a nn .

am jams ewodeba A matricis kvali.

cxadia ϕ(0) = α n =| A | . maSasadame, f wrfivi operatori gadagvarebulia maSin
da mxolod maSin, roca misi maxasiaTebeli mravalwevri ϕ(λ) nulis tolia,
roca λ = 0 .

65
 Tu f wrfiv operators aqvs n wrfivi damoukidebeli sakuTari veqtori, ma-
Sin es veqtorebi SeiZleba bazisad aviRoT. cxadia, maSin
G G G G G G
f (e1 ) = λ 1 e1 , f (e 2 ) = λ 2 e 2 , ... f (e n ) = λ n e n .

amitom am bazisSi f-is matrica diagonaluria:

⎛ λ1 0 ... 0 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 0 λ2 ... 0 ⎟
A=⎜
. . . . ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜0 0 ... λ n ⎟⎠
⎝

ra SemTxvevaSia sakuTrivi veqtorebi wrfivad damoukidebeli: mtkicdeba,

rom, roca maxasiaTebel gantolebas n gansxvavebuli fesvi aqvs, maSin Sesaba-
misi sakuTrivi veqtorebi wrfivad damoukidebelia.

evkliduri veqtoruli sivrce

G
M veqtorul sivrceze skalaruli namravli ewodeba asaxvas: M × M → R , x
G G G
da y veqtorebis skalarul namravls ase aRvniSnavT: x ⋅ y da moviTxovT Sem-
degi pirobebis Sesrulebas:
G G G G
1) x ⋅ y = y ⋅ x
G G G G
2) (αx ) ⋅ y⋅ = α( x ⋅ y)
G G G G G G G
3) x + y ⋅ z = x ⋅ z + y ⋅ z
M veqtorul sivrces ewodeba evkliduri veqtoruli sivrce, Tu SemoRebu-
G G
lia skalaruli namravli x ⋅ y , romelsac aqvs Tviseba:

G G G G G
x⋅x ≥ 0 da x⋅x = 0⇒ x = 0.
G G G G
magaliTi 1. vTqvaT, x = (α 1 , α 2 ,..., α n ) , anu x = α1 e1 + ... + α n e n
G
y = (β1 , β 2 ,..., β n ) , maSin skalaruli namravli SeiZleba ase ganvsazRvroT:

G G
x ⋅ y = α 1β1 + α 2 β 2 + ... + α n β n .

SeiZleba SemoviRoT veqtoris sigrZe da kuTxe veqtorebs Soris:

G G
G G G x⋅y
| x |= x ⋅ x , cos α = G G .
| x |⋅| y|

aCveneT, rom es ganmarteba koreqtulia, anu

G G
x⋅y
G G ≤ 1.
| x |⋅| y |

66
 G G G
M vqtoruli evkliduri sivrcis e1 , e 2 ,..., e n baziss ewodeba orTogonaluri,
G G G G
Tu e i ⋅ e j = 0 , Tu i ≠ j . Tu garda amisa e i ⋅ e i = 1 (i = 1,2,..n), maSin baziss ewodeba
orTonormirebuli.
SeiZleba vaCveniT, rom yovel evklidur veqtorul sivrceSi arsebobs or-
Tonormirebuli bazisi; yoveli bazisidan SeiZleba miviRoT orTonormirebu-
li bazisi.
G G G
marTlac, vTqvaT e1 , e 2 ,..., e n bazisia, SevarCioT α ricxvi ise rom
G G G G G G
g 2 = e 2 + α e1 orTogonaluri iyos e1 -Tan – g 2 ⋅ e1 = 0 ,
G G
G G G G e1 ⋅ e 2
e i ⋅ e 2 + α ⋅ e i ⋅ e1 = 0 ⇒ α = − G G , Tu am process gavagrZelebT, miviRebT orTogo-
e1 ⋅ e1
G G G
G G G g1 g 2 gn
nalur baziss. vTqvaT, g 1 , g 2 ,...g n orTogonaluri bazisia, maSin G , G ,... G
| g1 | | g 2 | | g n |
iqneba orTonormirebuli bazisi.

orTogonaluri operatori. orTogonaluri matrica

f wrfiv operators ewodeba orTogonaluri operatori M veqtorul siv-
G G G G G G
rceze, Tu f ( x ) ⋅ f ( y) = x ⋅ y , yoveli x ∈ M y ∈ M .
G G
Teorema. Tu | f ( x ) |=| x | , maSin f orTogonaluri operatoria.
damtkiceba. pirobis Tanaxmad,
G G G G
| f ( x + y) |=| x + y |

maSasadame,
G G G G G G G G
f ( x + y) ⋅ f ( x + y) = (f ( x ) + f ( y)) ⋅ (f ( x ) + f ( y)) =
G G G G G G
= f ( x ) ⋅ f ( y ) + 2f ( x ) ⋅ f ( y ) + f ( y ) ⋅ f ( y ) = (1)
G G G G G G
= x ⋅ x + 2f ( x )f ( y) + y ⋅ y.

magram
G G G G G G G G G G
( x + y) ⋅ ( x + y) = x ⋅ x + 2 x ⋅ y + y ⋅ y. (2)

(1) da (2)-dan gvaqvs:

G G G G
f ( x ) ⋅ f ( y) = x ⋅ y ,

e.i. f orTogonaluri operatoria.

G G G
vTqvaT e1 , e 2 ,..., e n orTonormirebuli bazisia; A aris f wrfivi operatoris
matrica am bazisSi, Tu

⎛ a 11 a 12 ... a 1n ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜a a ... a 2 n ⎟
A = ⎜ 21 22 ,
. . . . ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜a a ... a nn ⎟⎠
⎝ n1 n 2

67
 maSin
G G G G
f (e1 ) = a 11 e1 + a 21 e 2 + ... + a n1 e n
G G G G
f (e 2 ) = a 12 e1 + a 22 e 2 + ... + a n 2 e n
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G G G G
f (e n ) = a 1n e1 + a 2 n e 2 + ... + a nn e n

Tu f orTogonaluri operatoria, maSin

G G G G
f (e i ) ⋅ f (e k ) = e i ⋅ e k = 0 i≠k
G G G G
f (e i ) ⋅ f (e i ) = e i ⋅ e i = 1

maSasadame

a 1i a 1k + a 2i a 2 k + ... + a ni a nk = 0 i≠k
(3)
a + a + ... + a = 0
2
1i
2
2i
2
ni

maSasadame, orTogonaluri operatoris matrica akmayofilebs (3) pirobebs.

advili saCvenebelia, rom, Tu matrica akmayofilebs (3) pirobebs, maSin is or-
Togonaluri operatoris matricaa. matricas, romelic akmayofilebs (3) piro-
bebs ewodeba orTogonaluri matrica. A matrica orTogonaluria maSin da
mxolod maSin, roca sruldeba (3) pirobebi, anu A ⋅ A T = E ( A T aris A-s tran-
sponirebulia, E – erTeulovani matrica).
aqedan gvaqvs, rom

| A |= ±1 .

Tu A aris n-ganzomilebiani afinuri sivrce, M misi Sesabamisi veqtoruli

sivrcea, romelSic SemoRebulia skalaruli namravli, anu M evkliduri veq-
toruli sivrce, maSin A-s ewodeba evkliduri sivrce, misi obieqtebi werti-
lebi da veqtorebia. aq SeiZleba ganvsazRvroT or wertils Soris manZili,

magaliTad, P da Q wertilebs Soris manZili vuwodoT | PQ | -s.

G G G G G G
Tu (0, e1 , e 2 ,..., e n ) kordinatTa sistemaa, sadac e1 , e 2 ,..., e n orTonormirebuli
bazisia, maSin M ( x 1 , x 2 ,..., x n ) da N( y1 , y 2 ,..., y n ) wertilebs Soris manZili moice-
ma formuliT:
n
| MN |= ∑ (y
i =1
i − xi )2 .

kvadratuli froma vuwodoT x 1 , x 2 ,..., x n cvladebis funqcias

n
L( x 1 , x 2 ,..., x n ) = ∑a
i , j=1
ij , xix j , sadac a ij = a ji .

a ij namdvili ricxvebia. A = (a ij ) matricas ewodeba kvadratuli formis mat-

rica. igi simetriuli matricaa. maSasadame, A T = A .

68
kvadratuli forma SeiZleba asec CavweroT

⎛ x1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜x2 ⎟
⎜ . ⎟
L( x 1 , x 2 ,..., x n ) = X T AX , sadac X =⎜ ⎟.
⎜ . ⎟
⎜ . ⎟
⎜x ⎟
⎝ n⎠

vTqvaT, kvadratul formaSi movaxdineT cvladTa gardaqmna:

⎛ x1 ⎞ ⎛ y1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜x2 ⎟ ⎜ y2 ⎟ ⎛ b11 b12 ... b1n ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ . ⎟ ⎜ . ⎟ ⎜b b ... b 2 n ⎟
⎜ ⎟ = B⎜ ⎟ , sadac B = ⎜ 21 22 .
⎜ . ⎟ ⎜ . ⎟ . . . . ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ . ⎟ ⎜ . ⎟ ⎜b b ... b nn ⎟⎠
⎜x ⎟ ⎜y ⎟ ⎝ n1 n 2
⎝ n⎠ ⎝ n⎠

maSin miiReba kvadratuli forma:

T
⎡ ⎛ y1 ⎞ ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ y1 ⎞ ⎤
⎢ ⎜ ⎟⎥ ⎢ ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎢ ⎜ y2 ⎟⎥ ⎢ ⎜ y2 ⎟⎥
⎢ ⎜ . ⎟⎥ ⎢ ⎜ . ⎟⎥
L1 (y1 , y 2 ,..., y n ) = ⎢ B ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ A ⎢ B ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢ ⎜ . ⎟⎥ ⎢ ⎜ . ⎟⎥
⎢ ⎜ . ⎟⎥ ⎢ ⎜ . ⎟⎥
⎢ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ ⎢ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ y n ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎝ y n ⎠ ⎥⎦

SeiZleba Cveneba, rom

T T
⎡ ⎛ y1 ⎞⎤ ⎛ y1 ⎞
⎢ ⎜ ⎟⎥ ⎜ ⎟
⎢ ⎜ y 2 ⎟⎥ ⎜ y2 ⎟
⎢ ⎜ . ⎟ ⎥ ⎜ . ⎟ T
⎢B⎜ . ⎟⎥ = ⎜ . ⎟ B
⎢ ⎜ ⎟⎥ ⎜ ⎟
⎢ ⎜ . ⎥ ⎟ ⎜ . ⎟
⎢ ⎜⎝ y n ⎟⎠⎥ ⎜y ⎟
⎝ n⎠
⎣ ⎦
maSasadame,

⎛ y1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ y2 ⎟
⎜ . ⎟
L1 ( y1 , y 2 ,..., y n ) = Y T (B T AB)Y , Y=⎜ ⎟
⎜ . ⎟
⎜ . ⎟
⎜y ⎟
⎝ n⎠

Tu SemovitanT aRniSvnas C = B T AB , gveqneba

L1 ( y 1 , y 2 ,..., y n ) = Y T CY ,

69
misi matrica aris BT AB .
Tu B aragadagvarebuli matricaa, maSin L da L1, kvadratul formebs ewo-
deba eqvivalenturi. cxadia, maTi matricebis determinantebs erTnairi niSani
aqvs, radgan

| C |=| A || B | 2 .

kanonikuri kvadratuli forma ewodeba kvadratul formas:

n
a11 x12 + a 22 x 22 + ...a nn x n2 = ∑a x
i =1
ii
2
i

yoveli kvadratuli formisTvis arsebobs misi eqvivalenturi kanonikuri

kvadratuli forma.
es debuleba SeiZleba davamtkicoT maTematikuri induqciix meTodiT.
amasTanave, yoveli kvadratuli forma SeiZleba eqvivalenturi iyos sxva-
dasxva kanonikuri formis, magram yvela am formaSi dadebiTi wevrebis raode-
noba tolia, nulis toli wevrebis raodenoba toli da uaryofiT koeficien-
tebiani wevrebis raodenoba tolia.
kvadratul formas ewodeba dadebiTad gansazRvruli, Tu cvladebis ne-
bismieri mniSvnelobisTvis (romelTagan erTi mainc nuli ar aris), igi Rebu-
loba dadebiT mniSvnelobas.
Tu kvadratuli forma dadebiTad gansazRvrulia, maSin misi eqvivalentu-
ri nebismieri kvadratuli forma dadebiTad gansazRvrulia.
kvadratuli formis dadebiTad gansazRvrulobisaTvis aucilebelia da
sakmarisi yvela misi mTavari minori dadebiTi iyos:

a 11 a 12 ... q 1n
a 11 a 12 a 13
a 11 a 12 a 21 a 22 ... a 2 n
a 11 > 0 , > 0, a 21 a 22 a 23 > 0 , > 0.
a 21 a 22 . . . .
a 31 a 32 a 33
a n1 a n 2 ... a nn

70