Professional Documents
Culture Documents
8
organizations, such as BuildingGreen,
9
drivers are often difficult to distinguish,
as individuals cannot be separated from
outside influences. In fact, this mutual
reinforcement of internal and external
forces is intensifying, based on the
increased efficacy of the internet and
global telecommunications. For example,
a wood scientist’s inspiration to create a
successful , wood foam insulation may
come from adverse environmental reports
about the standard petroleum-based
product, coupled with news about advan-
ces in previously manufactured foamed
materials, such as metals and ceramics
(see “Wood Foam,” page 126). In this way,
new materials can develop out of diver-
gent influences, such as market concerns
and technology transfer methods.
According to economist Sanford
Moskowitz, there have been three distinct
periods of new-materials development
since the end of the nineteenth century.4
The first occurred between 1880 and 1930,
and focused on the mass production of
steel and other metals, in addition to the
development of coal-tar products. The
second transpired between 1930 and the
1970s, with the shift from coal to petro-
leum and the surge of oil-derived synthetic
materials. The third period, which emerged
in the 1980s and is now exerting a broad
impact, saw the introduction of advanced evaluate the correlative external and inter-
materials made from both hydrocarbon- nal drivers influencing material innovation
and carbohydrate-based resources. As de- according to four categories: science,
fined by the Versailles Project on Advanced technology, culture, and the environment.
Materials and Standards (VAMAS), which
was initiated within the framework of the science
1982 Economic Summit of the Heads of As much as the laboratory is a place of
State of the G7 countries, advanced mate- quiet, methodical concentration, it is also
rials invited a separate classification based a war room. Researchers are under intense
on their “special properties” and “novel or pressure to generate new knowledge and
advanced processing procedures.” 5 to publish it before their competition
In this book, I have interpreted VAMAS does. Scientific institutions also compete
criteria liberally to provide a broader fiercely for superior rankings, more
spectrum of the scientific and artistic grant funding, and better faculty and
innovation currently underway. We can students. All of this drive has led to what
10 Introduction
some scientists call the “golden age” for can be a matter of economic survival. Over
materials.6 The Latin motto citius, altius, time, technology and economic growth
fortius (faster, higher, stronger) embodies have become more tightly interconnected.
the competitive edge conferred by new According to Moskowitz, “Today, a new
laboratory-generated supermaterials, such generation of materials plays a far greater
as Aerographene or metallic microlattice, role in determining industrial competi-
which are two of the lightest substances tiveness than their counterparts did in the
ever made, or nanocellulose composites, past.” 8 This competitiveness results in a
wood fibers processed to exhibit the strong push toward automation in various
strength of Kevlar. Nanotechnology and forms. Robotics technologies continue
unexpected material mash-ups have deliv- to experience strong growth, and they
ered mutant materials, such as $ ceramic will increasingly be used to construct
paper, spinel-based transparent armor buildings, in addition to smaller products
windows, and bendable concrete—sub- and vehicles. Examples include robots
stances with properties previously found in that construct bridges out of steel, flying
two or more different materials. Multiple robots that build towers of lightweight
functions are also increasingly combined bricks, and ! Facadeprinter robots that
in material technologies with augmented paint building envelopes. 3D printing is
capacities, such as DysCrete, a power- similarly expanding in scope and scale,
harvesting concrete; or a switchable OLED adding capabilities to print materials such
(Organic Light Emitting Diode) panel that as transparent glass and to print earth at
can act as a transparent window or an the size of a building, respectively. Self-
illuminated plane. As BASF designer Alex assembly represents another frontier for
Horisberger claims, “Tomorrow’s materials automation, with time-based 4D printing
need to perform on multiple levels.” 7 structures and modular robots that build
their own stacking frameworks.
technology
Technology migrates scientific compe-
tition to the marketplace. The arduous pro-
cess of developing ideas into commercial
products is fraught with complex chal-
lenges, and how effectively manufacturers
can deliver successful ideas to consumers
11
culture targeted at a particular opportunity or
In 2012 3D Robotics CEO Chris Anderson concern. For example, renewable energy
claimed that “The past ten years have been harvesting is becoming more deeply
about discovering new ways to create, integrated into the built environment,
invent, and work together on the Web. with technologies like transparent solar
The next ten years will be about applying windows and self-illuminating, electric
those lessons to the real world.” 9 The most
significant aspect of the maker movement
is not what is being made, but who is
making it. The proliferation of inexpen-
sive CAD software and digital fabrication
tools has enabled a large population to
design and manufacture its own products
and assemblies. This distributed creative
platform has inspired consumer audiences
who are weary of mass-produced goods
and who wish to support fresh creations
made by independent artists. According
to branding consultancy thefuturelabo-
ratory.com editor Jonathan Openshaw,
large manufacturers are beginning to
connect with cottage industries to gain
competitive advantage, thus indicating car–charging Solar Roadways. Embodied
that “materials innovations previously dis- energy reduction in manufacturing has
missed as art-school projects could be big motivated the development of products
business.” 10 This reconnection between like portland cement–free concrete block
craft and craftsperson has also entered the or flash-formed iron, a gas-reduction
realm of materials themselves, in the form process that bypasses the traditional coke
of DIY materials like vessels made from oven. Resource concerns have inspired the
flour, agricultural waste, and limestone; recapture of waste materials, such as dis-
or m a process that transforms salvaged posable plastic bags or marine plastic, for
rubble into new masonry units.11 Even for making new products. Furthermore, bio-
nonmakers, the DIY crusade promotes a receptive products like Biological Concrete
deeper connection between materials and and 12 Blocks encourage wildlife habitat
their applications, and invites designs and plant growth on buildings.
that encourage tactility and interactivity. Sustainability is closely aligned with
the concepts of resilience and regenera-
environment tive design, which often find inspiration
Manufacturers and consumers are increas- in biological and ecological models.
ingly privileging environmental consider- For example, self-diagnosing and self-
ations in their material choices. According repairing materials employ smart prop-
to Openshaw, “Sustainability is being erties to enhance longevity—such as a
taken to the heart of industry—not as a smart bandage that warns of infection or
publicity stunt but as a solid business self-healing polymer that can re-form into
strategy.” 12 Environmental priorities have a single object after being completely
inspired a variety of innovations, each divided in two. Researchers are creating
12 Introduction
adaptive, responsive technologies that the science of nex t
use simple material strategies to substi- Accelerating change and increased
tute for more complex mechanical systems, volatility in financial markets, weather
such as a wood window that opens and systems, and other large forces have
closes automatically based on relative encouraged the development of the pre-
humidity levels, or a fiber-reinforced com- dictive sciences. In 2008 the U.S. National
posite lamella that exhibits dynamic prop- Nuclear Security Administration launched
erties like nonautonomous mechanics in a multiyear predictive science program in
particular plants. As design innovator Eben collaboration with several universities
Bayer has said, “Biology represents the to apply “verified and validated computa-
world’s greatest technology.” 13 Inspira- tional simulations to predict properties
tion from nature has also motivated the of complex systems,” including biological
quickly expanding fields of biodesign and systems, climate modeling, and efficient
bioengineering, in which researchers manufacturing.15 From a resource perspec-
partner with natural organisms to create tive, complex computational analysis is
frequently employed by a variety of indus-
tries to analyze known material reserves
and make predictions about the future
resource base. With increased access to
material supply chain data, it is possible
to anticipate future quandaries, such as
resource criticality or resource exhaustion.
For example, geological engineers and
energy analysts continually monitor critical
indicators for mineral resources, such as
the rate of discovery, rate of production,
market price, and ore quality.
When it comes to material innovation,
however, predictive science gets fuzzy. In
What Technology Wants, author Kevin Kelly
presents an evolutionary model of technol-
ogy as an exotropic system, or an ordered
force with sustained flow, that exhibits
new products. Examples include bricks long-term trajectories but is unpredictable
grown like coral using bacteria, bio- in the short term: “Technology’s imper-
engineered spider’s thread for making ative is not a tyrant ordering our lives in
high-performance textiles, and n a biolu- lock-step. Its inevitabilities are not sched-
minescent microbe-powered lightbulb. The uled prophecies. They are more like water
more intimate these cooperative partner- behind a wall, an incredibly strong urge
ships with nature become, the more human pent up and waiting to be released.” 16
technology will resemble biology itself. Within this long-term arc, innovation is
As designers Koert van Mensvoort and even harder to predict, in part because
Hendrik-Jan Grievink declare in a clever we still struggle to define it. “We have no
revision to Arthur C. Clarke’s familiar utter- shortage of theories to instruct us how to
ance, “Any sufficiently advanced technol- make our organizations more creative, or
ogy is indistinguishable from nature.” 14 explain why tropical rain forests engineer
13
so much molecular diversity,” author cooling and window technologies.” 20 Such
Steven Johnson explains. “What we lack predictions are based on technological
is a unified theory that describes the capacities—which include future improve-
common attributes shared by all those ments anticipated by researchers and
innovation systems.” 17 manufacturers—as well as their viability
Economist Clayton M. Christensen in the marketplace.
tracks innovation in terms of disruptive tech-
nology, whereby a sufficiently novel and about the book
advantageous technology unexpectedly Transmaterial Next presents, by definition,
displaces established models in the market- such a future-oriented focus. The book
place. Examples include the telephone, consists of more than a hundred materials
which displaced the telegraph; or the per- that have significant potential to trans-
sonal computer, which displaced the type- form future products, buildings, and cities.
writer. In Seeing What’s Next, Christensen In some cases this influence is specific
and co-authors Scott D. Anthony and Erik A. to a particular technology, such as solar-
Roth apply a customer-centered model for harvesting windows. However, in many
presaging future disruptive technologies, instances, the material entries represent
arguing that “predicting whether disruptive broader trends that are significant. For
innovations are taking root, and predict- example, the m Artichair, which is made
ing how they will affect the mainstream of of artichoke thistle fiber–reinforced
a market in the future, requires watching polymer, does not presage a commercial
the low end, new markets, and new con- run on artichoke thistles—but rather a
texts.” 18 Critics argue that disruptive inno- consequential trend toward incorporating
vation can equally originate at the top end more alternative biomaterials in furniture
of the market, as seen in products made design and manufacturing (see page 106).
by Apple, and that Christensen’s definition In any case, the anticipated influence is
is too narrowly focused.19 For our purposes identified under “Future Impact” for each
in anticipating potential changes in the material entry.
physical environment, we can apply the As with previous volumes of the
notion of disruption in general terms. For Transmaterial series, I have taken an inten-
example, one could argue that LED tech- tionally broad view of what constitutes
nology, which has rapidly overtaken incan- “material,” and I include a wide variety
descent and fluorescent lighting, is a dis- of material-based products, assemblies,
ruptive innovation. Other technologies, processes, and applications. I even pur-
such as electrochromic windows, are rela- posefully push the limits of the definition
tively recent entrants to the market and by including chapters on light and digital
would therefore not earn a disruptive label technologies, since they require mate-
for Christensen; however, industry analysts rials to function although they are com-
now generally use this lens to make future monly understood as having immaterial
predictions. For example, a recent McKin- properties. The rationale is that an overly
sey “disruptive technology” report on rigid focus on materials is better suited
compressorless air-conditioning and elec- to an engineering textbook, and that it
trochromic windows states, “Today, these would prevent the inclusion of signifi-
technologies are expensive, but by 2020, cant creative applications that represent
they could begin to cost only about half as unexpected material combinations and
much to install as current state-of-the-art methodologies for design. In this sense,
14 Introduction
economy, or enchanted systems of objects,
for example, address changes that have
far-flung temporal implications. These
will remain important forces for decades,
if not centuries, to come. Regardless of
timescale, all “next” materials meet three
primary criteria: they exhibit transforma-
tive potential over conventional versions,
they physically exist in some form (i.e.,
are not just renderings), and they are on
a path toward commercialization (or have
just recently been commercialized). It is
important that all of the examples have
some physical manifestation (i.e., not just
the book is not just about materials; it is renderings), although they can be not
about ideas. It is for this reason that I have yet widely available. Development is rep-
chosen to focus on the next generation resented by a commercial readiness scale,
of materials, which fires the imagination with a range between one and five (one
and invites rumination about the imminent represents an early prototype, while five
changes in design and architecture. indicates full-scale mass production for
Another reason for focusing on what’s the public market). Some authors do not
next is that the coming wave of mate- intend to commercialize their works; in
rial technologies promises unparalleled these cases, a rating is established based
change in terms of quantity and quality. on a commensurate level of development.
Moskowitz states that “on a very funda- Like the other Transmaterial volumes, the
mental level, the sheer number and variety book addresses a wide range of creative
of new materials currently in play or on the production, from the arts to the sciences
horizon is unprecedented, even compared and from advanced laboratories to amateur
to the technically active post World War workshops. It is organized according
II decades” and that “over time, we note to familiar material categories, such as
an increasing flexibility and range of concrete, metal, and glass. These catego-
innovation.” 21 Furthermore, the current ries are intentionally general in nature,
third wave of material development offers based on how designers and specifiers
something entirely new based on flexible think about materials in simple terms.
inorganic-organic hybridization, “thus The motivation here is design application
adding a third dimension to materials inno- rather than scientific classification; thus,
vation not possible in earlier periods.” 22 I have purposefully kept concrete, glass,
Because a book has a longer anticipated and mineral as separate chapters, despite
shelf life than a news article, two timescale their shared material traits. I have also
considerations of “next” operate here. avoided a separate category for compos-
The first timescale literally addresses ites, since so many new materials fit this
material technologies that are predicted definition, thereby reducing this classifi-
to exert important influences by 2020. cation’s distinctiveness. The categories
By contrast, the second timescale has follow an order that is loosely based on the
a longer-term outlook. Discussions of MasterFormat system developed by the
bioengineered materials, the carbohydrate Construction Specifications Institute, and
15
the materials within each chapter are listed wide variety of materials for various uses,
alphabetically.23 Each chapter opens with ranging from fabrics to wall and ceiling
a broad overview of the transformations treatments. Greater depth allows thin
underway in each category, in addition to a materials to become more structurally
review of opportunities and challenges. stable, and materials with enhanced tex-
ture and richness are often more visually
trends impressive. Augmented dimensionality
As established in the first Transmaterial will likely continue to be a growing move-
volume, several broad categories serve ment, especially considering the tech-
to elucidate significant material transfor- nological trends toward miniaturization,
mations. These classifications highlight systems integration, and prefabrication.
important themes shared by dissimilar
products and make unexpected connec- repurposed
tions. For example, an aluminum floor Repurposed materials may be defined as
system and polypropylene chair are made surrogates, or materials that are used
of different substances, but they could in the place of materials conventionally
be similarly notable in their use of recycled used in an application. Repurposed
materials. The seven broad categories I materials provide several benefits, such
have used are as follows: as replacing precious raw materials with
less endangered, more plentiful ones;
ultr aperforming diverting products from the waste stream;
Throughout history, material innovation implementing less toxic manufacturing
has been defined by the persistent processes; and defying convention.
testing of limits. A lexical shortening of A subset of this group comprises objects
ultra-high-performing, ultraperforming considered repurposed in terms of
describes materials that are stronger, their functionality, such as tables that
lighter, more durable, and more flexible become light sources and art that
than their conventional counterparts. becomes furniture.
These materials are significant because As a trend, repurposing underscores the
they shatter known boundaries and desire for adaptability and an increasing
necessitate new thinking about the shap- awareness of our limited resources. While
ing of our physical environment. the performance of repurposed materials
The ongoing pursuit of thinner, more is not always identical to that of the prod-
porous, and less opaque products indi- ucts they replace, sometimes new and
cates a notable movement toward greater unexpected benefits arise from their use.
exposure and ephemerality. It is no sur-
prise that ultraperforming materials are recombinant
often expensive and difficult to obtain, Recombinant materials consist of two or
although many of these products eventu- more different materials that act in har-
ally reach a broad market. mony to create a product whose perfor-
mance is greater than the sum of its parts.
multidimensional Such hybrids are created when inexpen-
Materials are physically defined by three sive or recyclable products are used as
dimensions, but many products have long filler, when a combination allows for the
been conceived as flat surfaces. One trend achievement of multiple functions, when
exploits the z axis in the manufacture of a a precious resource may be emulated by
16 Introduction
combining less-precious materials, or when Like intelligent materials, transfor-
performing
different materials act in symbiosis to mational materials provide a variety of
ultr a-
exhibit high-performance characteristics. benefits, including waste reduction,
Recombinant materials have long proved enhanced ergonomics, solar control, and
their performance in the construction illumination, as well as unique phenom-
industry. Reinforced concrete, which bene- enological effects. Transformational
fits from the compressive strength and products offer multiple functions rather
dimensional
fireproof qualities of concrete and the than a single use, provide benefits
tensile strength of steel, is a classic recom- that few might have imagined, and help
multi-
bination. These materials often consist of us view the world differently.
downcycled components, which may be
difficult if not impossible to reextract, and interfacial
the success of recombinant materials is The interface has been a popular design
based on their reliable integration, which focus since the birth of the digital age.
is not always predictable. However, the Interfacial materials, products, and
repurposed
continued value exhibited by many such systems navigate between the physical
hybrids is reason for recombinant materi- and virtual realms. As we spend greater
als’ growing popularity. amounts of time interacting with
computer-based tools and environments,
intelligent the bridges that facilitate the interac-
Intelligent is a catchall term for materials tion between the two worlds are subject
recombinant
that are designed to improve their environ- to further scrutiny.
ment and that often take inspiration from So-called interfacial products may be
biological systems. They can act actively virtual instruments that control material
or passively and can be high- or low-tech in manufacture or physical manifestations
character. Many materials in this category of digital fabrications. These tools pro-
indicate a focus on the manipulation of the vide novel capabilities such as enhanced
microscopic scale. technology-infused work environments,
Intelligence is not used here to describe rapid prototyping of complex shapes,
intelligent
products that have sentient capabilities integration of digital imagery within
but rather products that are inherently physical objects, and making the invisi-
smart by design. The varied list of benefits ble visible.
provided by these materials includes pollu- Interfacial materials employ the latest
tion reduction, water purification, solar- computing and communications tech-
radiation control, natural ventilation, and nologies and suggest future trajectories
power generation. An intelligent product for society. Interfacial materials are not formational
tr ans-
may simply be a flexible or modular system infallible, but they expand our capabili-
that adds value throughout its life cycle. ties into uncharted territory.
occur automatically based on the inherent passionate about materials and the new
properties of the material, or it may be opportunities they create within our
user driven. physical environment—as well as design
17
name summary additional data
The trademarked or colloquial A basic text The following information is also used
name of the particular entry description of to describe product entries: contents,
being featured each entry applications, types or sizes, environmental
benefits, industry tests or examinations,
description limitations, and manufacturer contact
A brief, generic explanation information.
of each entry
(new)
future impact
Description of the transformative influence
anticipated for each entry
(new)
commercial readiness
A five-point rating system that quantifies
the level of product development:
1 = early prototype, 5 = fully commercialized
repurposed
Watershed Materials initially reduced
environmental
the cement by 50 percent, but further
Cement reductions between 50 percent
materials and manufacturing refinements
and 100 percent compared with
enabled the complete elimination of
traditional CMU, reductions in material
cement. The manufacturer accomplishes
transportation and water consumption
the removal of cement with several mix
designs that explore the geopolymeriza- tests / ex aminations
product
future impact
Reduction or elimination of energy-
intensive cement from the ubiquitous
concrete block
commercial readiness
contact
Watershed Materials
11 Basalt Road, Napa, CA 94558
707-224-2532
www.watershedmaterials.com
info@watershedmaterials.com
46 Concrete 042223-003 47
18 Introduction
students and material enthusiasts who quantitative, return-on-investment-
would like to learn more about new mate- focused solutions to contemporary prob-
rial technologies and opportunities for lems, the thoughtful consideration
innovation. The book invites consideration of the ways in which we evaluate, design,
of next-generation materials not only from construct, and transform the physical
a mechanical point of view, but also from environment is more important than ever.
a broader theoretical perspective. In the The change is too swift, and the conse-
creativity-focused blog brainpickings.org, quences too great, to merely maintain
author Maria Popova states, “In an age status quo practices without deeper con-
obsessed with practicality, productivity, sideration of their broader implications
and efficiency, I frequently worry that we and possibilities. It is my hope that this
are leaving little room for abstract knowl- book will enable you to engage these
edge and for the kind of curiosity that implications and opportunities in a new
invites just enough serendipity to allow way, and that it will inspire your own
for the discovery of ideas we didn’t know creative endeavors.
we were interested in until we are, ideas For more information, I invite you to
that we may later transform into new com- peruse the website transmaterial.net,
binations with applications both practical where I will continue to share materials and
and metaphysical.” 24 At a time when soci- applications that exhibit the potential to
ety is increasingly turning to expedient, transform the future physical environment.
1 Sanford L. Moskowitz, The Advanced Materials Revolu- 15 National Nuclear Security Administration, “Program
tion: Technology and Economic Growth in the Age of Statement of the Advanced Simulation and Computing
Globalization (New York: Wiley, 2009), 3. (ASC) Predictive Science Academic Alliance Program
2 Tom Forester, ed., The Materials Revolution: Supercon- (PSAAP),” accessed January 24, 2016, http://nnsa.energy
ductors, New Materials, and the Japanese Challenge .gov/sites/default/files/nnsa/inlinefiles/program_
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988). statement.pdf.
3 See accessed January 24, 2016, http://www.usgs.gov, 16 Kevin Kelly, What Technology Wants (New York: Viking,
http://www2.buildinggreen.com, and http://www 2010), 273.
.materialsviews.com. 17 Steven Johnson, Where Good Ideas Come From: The
4 Moskowitz, Advanced Materials Revolution, 11. Natural History of Innovation (New York: Riverhead Books,
5 James G. Early and Harry L. Rook, “Versailles Project 2010), 19.
on Advanced Materials and Standards (VAMAS),” 18 Clayton M. Christensen, Scott D. Anthony, and Erik A.
Advanced Materials 8, no. 1 (1996): 9–10. Roth, Seeing What’s Next: Using the Theories of Innovation
6 “Material Difference,” Economist Technology Quarterly to Predict Industry Change (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
(December 5, 2015): 3. Business Review Press, 2004), 5.
7 Alex Horisberger, “Make Matter Match,” Frame 107 19 Schumpeter, “Disrupting Mr. Disrupter,” Economist,
(November 2, 2015): 170. November 28, 2015, http://www.economist.com/news/
8 Moskowitz, Advanced Materials Revolution, 18. business/21679179-clay-christensen-should-not-be-
9 Chris Anderson, Makers: The New Industrial Revolution given-last-word-disruptive-innovation-disrupting-mr.
(New York: Crown Business, 2012), 17. 20 Matt Rogers, “Energy = innovation: 10 disruptive
10 Jonathan Openshaw, “Touchy Subject,” Frame 107 technologies,” McKinsey on Sustainability & Resource
(November 2, 2015): 160. Productivity, no. 1 (Summer 2012): 14.
11 Valentina Rognoli, Massimo Bianchini, Stefano Maffei, 21 Moskowitz, Advanced Materials Revolution, 15.
and Elvin Karana, “DIY Materials,” Materials and Design 22 Ibid., 18.
86 (2015): 693–95. 23 See accessed January 24, 2016, http://www.csinet.org/
12 Openshaw, “Touchy Subject,” 161. masterformat for more information.
13 Eben Bayer quoted in Openshaw, “Touchy Subject,” 24 Maria Popova, “The Usefulness of Useless Knowledge,”
161. Brain Pickings, accessed January 24, 2016, http://
14 Koert van Mensvoort and Hendrik-Jan Grievink, Next www.brainpickings.org/index.php/2012/07/27/the-
Nature: Nature Changes Along With Us (Barcelona: Actar, usefulness-of-useless-knowledge/.
2011), 460–61.
19
20 Concrete
1
Concrete
21
> Concrete Remixed
22 Concrete
According to Chicago-based Klein and After Rome’s decline, concrete fell into
Hoffman Senior Principal and structural disuse for centuries, until the cultivation
engineer Jay Paul, “The extent of dete- of portland cement and reinforced con-
rioration to concrete structures globally crete resulted in the material’s resurrec-
is occurring at an alarming rate, which tion by the mid-nineteenth century.5 Since
challenges engineers on this continent and then, so-called liquid stone has come to
throughout the world on a daily basis.” 3 represent—both conceptually and liter-
Realizations of concrete’s environmental ally—the making of our modern physical
impact and premature technical obsoles- environment. As historian Antoine Picon
cence have motivated scientists, manu- states, “No material has been more closely
facturers, and the building community associated with the origins and develop-
to rethink this ubiquitous substance. As ment of modern architecture than con-
a result, next-generation concrete offers crete.” 6 For all its advantages—strength,
multiple approaches to solving these manipulability, and practically omnipres-
problems and contributes compelling new ent ingredients—contemporary reinforced
ideas for concrete applications. concrete proliferated too quickly without
Concrete’s popularity began with the a serious assessment of its drawbacks.
realization that humans could manipulate Specifically, portland cement and steel
a fluid, plastic material that would quickly reinforcing are problematic elements from
assume a stone-like permanence. Roman ecological and durability standpoints,
engineers made famous use of hydraulic respectively.
concrete to create a wealth of ambitious Portland cement is responsible for
civic and infrastructural projects before 94 percent of concrete’s CO2 emissions
the empire’s fall in the fifth century. but occupies only 10 to 20 percent of its
Remarkably, we still use many of these volume.7 Humanity’s insatiable demand
structures today: buildings, bridges, for concrete, which continues unabated,
roads, and aqueducts that have survived caused cement plant emissions to nearly
roughly two millennia of wear and tear. triple between 1990 and 2006 due to
The Pantheon, for example, which exhib- increased production, with an estimated
ited the longest structural span for over CO2 contribution of 2.34 billion tons by
seventeen centuries, today remains a pop- 2050.8 As a result, the concrete industry
ular tourist destination with only minimal is actively seeking ways to reduce the
cracking evident in its dome.4 material’s hefty ecological footprint.
$ One method entails replacing some or
all of the portland cement with alternative
cementitious materials, such as fly ash
or slag, which are byproducts of coal com-
bustion and metal production, respectively
(see page 46). According to one study,
slag cement mixtures can reduce CO2
emissions by up to 46 percent.9 Another
strategy involves capturing industrially
emitted CO2 for use in manufacturing
calcium carbonate–based cement—effec-
tively sequestering the greenhouse gas.10
Improvements may also be made at the
23
other end of the life cycle, with enhance- In addition to improving environmental
ments to concrete recycling (see page 42). and mechanical performance, designers
Steel inherently oxidizes over time, due of next-generation concrete seek to over-
to the extremely reactive nature of iron, come the material’s negative reputation
which comprises 88 to 98 percent of steel. as a drab, lifeless substance by exploring
Thus, steel-reinforced concrete is an intrin- enhanced functionality and aesthetic
sically temporary solution, as the steel potential. For example, , 12 Blocks is
eventually comes into contact with water, a collection of concrete masonry units
air, and chemicals once its protective designed to provide hospitable microen-
concrete covering begins to wear. Because vironments for habitation by small plants
steel oxidation often occurs unnoticed, and animals.14 , Biological Concrete
this condition can lead to surprising and panels offer a similarly biocompatible
calamitous results. One preventative surface conducive to the growth of lichens
measure involves the use of alternative and mosses (see page 32). Additional
reinforcing materials that delay or elimi- enhancements include concrete with sun-
nate the process of ferrous corrosion, such activated photocatalytic cement that
as galvanized steel, epoxy-coated steel, reduces local air pollution, or BlingCrete,
stainless steel, or glass fiber-reinforced a textile-reinforced concrete (TRC) with
polymers. Norway-based ReforceTech retroreflective glass microspheres that
manufactures reinforcing bars made of enhance nocturnal vision (see page 34).
continuous basalt fiber (CBF), a noncor- Concrete’s ubiquity is both an asset
roding material formed into helical shapes and a pitfall. Because so many concrete
with a polymer resin finish.11 Singapore- structures already exist, we can reuse them
based Future Cities Laboratory is exper- adaptively without incurring the environ-
imenting with reinforcing made from mental costs of producing new concrete.
woven-strand bamboo (WSB), consisting Yet this material foundation is inherently
of decay-resistant carbonized bamboo flawed. As Concrete Planet author Robert
coated in a water-based adhesive.12 Courland states, “Virtually all the concrete
. Another response is to prolong con-
crete’s useful life, either by maintaining
existing concrete structures or creating
novel iterations with self-healing
properties (see page 28). Several self-
maintaining concrete technologies are
currently being tested in real-world appli-
cations. These include shape-memory
polymers, inorganic healing agents, and
capsules containing bacterial healing
agents. According to Cardiff University
engineering professor Bob Lark, “These
self-healing materials and intelligent
structures will significantly enhance
durability, improve safety, and reduce
the extremely high maintenance costs
that are spent each year.” 13
24 Concrete
structures one sees today will eventually
need to be replaced, costing us trillions
of dollars . . . in the process.” 15 As a result,
the next concrete technologies repre-
sent clear departures from the material
we have come to know so well. With a
reduced carbon footprint, enhanced
longevity, and augmented functionality,
next-generation concrete bears little
resemblance to today’s material.
1 National Science Foundation, The Cement Sustainability 8 Emad Benhelal et al., “Global strategies and potentials
Initiative, Recycling Concrete (Conches-Geneva, to curb CO2 emissions in cement industry,” Journal of
Switzerland: World Business Council for Sustainable Cleaner Production 51 (July 15, 2013): 145.
Development, 2009), 3; “How Solid Is Concrete’s Carbon 9 Prusinski et al., “Life Cycle Inventory,” 13.
Footprint?” May 24, 2009, http://www.sciencedaily 10 More about Calera Corporation’s novel process may
.com/releases/2009/05/090518121000.htm. be found here: accessed January 15, 2016, http://www
2 Portland Cement Association, “Global Cement .calera.com/beneficial-reuse-of-co2/process.html.
Consumption on the Rise,” June 3, 2015, http://www 11 See accessed January 15, 2016, http://reforcetech.com.
.cement.org/newsroom/2015/06/03/global-cement- 12 See accessed January 15, 2016, http://www.fcl.ethz.ch/
consumption-on-the-rise. project/bamboo/.
3 Jay H. Paul, “Repair, Renovation and Strengthening of 13 “UK’s first trial of self-healing concrete,” Cardiff
Concrete Structures” (white paper based on a lecture), University News, October 28, 2015, http://www.cardiff
Evaluation and Rehabilitation of Concrete Structures, .ac.uk/news/view/152733-uks-first-trial-of-self-
Mexico City, September 11–13, 2002. healing-concrete.
4 Bill Addis, Building: 3,000 Years of Design, Engineering and 14 Blaine Brownell, Transmaterial 3: A Catalog of Materials
Construction (New York: Phaidon Press, 2007), 51. that Redefine Our Physical Environment (New York:
5 Ibid., 346. Princeton Architectural Press, 2010), 16.
6 Antoine Picon, “Architecture and Technology: Two 15 Robert Courland, Concrete Planet: The Strange and
Centuries of Creative Tension,” in Liquid Stone: New Fascinating Story of the World’s Most Common Man-Made
Architecture in Concrete, ed. Jean-Louis Cohen and Material (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2011), 135.
G. Martin Moeller Jr. (New York: Princeton Architectural
Press, 2006), 8.
7 Jan R. Prusinski et al., “Life Cycle Inventory of Slag
Cement Concrete,” 10, paper presented at the CANMET/
ACI Eighth International Conference on Fly Ash, Silica
Fume, Slag and Natural Pozzolans in Concrete, Las Vegas,
NV, May 2004.
25
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