RAMAT POLYTECHNIC MAIDUGURI

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

TECHNOLOGY

WELDING TECHNOLOGY AND PRACTICE

LECTURE NOTE

COURSE CODE: MEC 126

SECOND SEMESTER, 2023

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What is a Weld
A weld can be defined as a coalescence of metals produced by heating to a suitable temperature
with or without the application of pressure, and with or without the use of a filler material

Welding Terminologies
Alloy
A metal made from two or more combined elements.
Annealing
Annealing is the slow cooling of the metal to reduce internal stresses, make the material softer and
change ductility, among other things.
Arc Welding
A general term that applies to many kinds of welding. The common denominator is using an arc to
create heat. Arc welding may also use other filler materials or pressure to create a weld.
Base Metal
This has two meanings: 1) the metal that will be cut or welded; 2) in an alloy, it is the largest
proportion of the metal.
Bond
The point where the welding metal is joined with the base metal.
Brazing
This welding technique uses a filler metal to create a bond. The filler metal is nonferrous and has a
melting point below the melting point of the base metal.
Carbon-Arc Welding
A welding method that involves creating an arc between a carbon electrode and a metal.
Coated Electrode
The electrode is covered with flux through dipping or painting. When heat is applied, the flux
produces a gas that shields the arc.
Covered Electrode
The metal electrode is covered with asbestos, flux, paper or other materials to make the arc more
stable and improve the welding metal.
Critical Temperature
The temperature at which the material transitions from one crystalline form to another.
Current Density
The amount of amperes applied per square inch across a particular area.

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Cutting Torch
This welding tool controls gas for preheating the metal, as well as the oxygen for cutting the metal.
Electric Arc
An electrical current that forms in the gap between two electrodes creates an electric arc.
Electrode
There are many types of electrodes used in welding. An electrode conducts the electrical current
through a work piece to create the weld. Some electrodes are consumed in the welding process
while others are not.
Filler Material
This is the metal that is added when making a weld.
Groove Weld
Creating this weld requires filler material that goes in the groove between two metals to join them.
Hammer Welding
Hammering two pieces of heated metal together.
Inert Gas
Gas that doesn’t combine chemically with metal.
Joint
The area where materials are fused together.
Metal-Arc Welding
This arc welding method uses metal electrodes.
Non-Ferrous
These metals do not have any iron, such as titanium, nickel, lead, copper, bronze, brass and
aluminum.
Quenching
The rapid cooling of metal using water, air or oil.
Resistance Welding
Heat is generated through the resistance to the electric current flowing through the circuit of which

Types of Weld Joints

There are five basic welding joint types commonly used in the industry
Butt joint
A butt weld is one of the simplest and versatile types of weld joint designs. The joint is formed
simply by placing two pieces of metal end-to-end and then

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Tee joint
A T-joint is created when the edges of your two workpieces meet at approximately 90 degrees and
take the shape of a T. The edge of one workpiece is welded to the flat surface of another. T-joints
possess good mechanical strength, especially when welded from both sides. You will find these
joints in many fabrication applications, including structural steel, tubing and equipment
applications.

T-joints generally require little or no joint preparation and are easily welded when the correct
parameters and techniques are used. You can leave the edges of the joint unaltered, or you can prep
them by cutting, machining or grinding.

When welding a T-joint, it is important to place the weld on the same side of the joint that will be
subject to any type of stress. Impact or load from the opposite side of the joint could cause the weld
to fail. To avoid this, you can weld both sides to achieve maximum strength or when stress will be
applied from both directions.

T-joints are the most common joint design in all applications. You can weld them fairly easily in
the flat, horizontal, vertical or overhead position, while other joint designs can be more difficult to
weld out of position.

When welding a T-joint with a 90-degree angle, it’s best to split the difference using a 45-degree
work angle to ensure you will achieve proper penetration on both workpieces. If you’re welding
dissimilar metal thicknesses using a T-joint, focus more of your weld onto the thicker piece of
material.

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Corner joint
When pieces are joined at 90 degrees and take the shape of an L, they form a corner joint. These
joints are easy to assemble and require little if any edge preparation. They are often used for
projects or applications that require a square frame, such as fabricating a weld table.

The two types of corner joints are open corner and closed corner. When the edge of one piece lies
flush against the edge of another, it’s a closed corner joint. An open corner joint is when two edges
meet at their corners and there’s an opening where you can see the thickness of each metal.

Choosing between an open and closed corner joint often comes down to the material thickness and
the strength required for the application.

With open corner joints, you may need to increase you’re the travel speeds when welding on
thinner materials to prevent burn-through. Open corner joints create a V shape and may require
more weld deposit, depending on the material thickness.

If you are welding a closed corner joint, you can grind the weld face to create a smooth transition
from the weld to the base material.

It is important that you properly fit your workpieces when creating a corner joint. If your project
requires a 90-degree angle make sure it’s square and consider possible distortion during welding.
Depending on how you prepare the joint, the angle can change after welding and lead to distortion.
One way to prevent distortion is by creating a jig or fixture that holds the parts in place.

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Lap joint
A lap joint is formed when the surfaces of the two pieces overlap one another. The weld is
deposited in the joint where the two intersect. A lap joint exhibits good mechanical properties,
especially when you weld both sides of the overlapped pieces, which provides extra reinforcement.

Determine the amount of overlap needed in the joint by the thickness of the two workpieces. The
thicker the material, the more overlap needed.

Lap joints are very common for joining plates or sheet metal, such as when you are adding flooring
to a vehicle or patching a hole.

With lap joints, it’s important to make sure there are no gaps between the two workpieces. You
want them to be as flush as possible. When welding a lap joint on thinner materials like sheet metal,
reduce your amperage and use a faster travel speed to avoid distortion and burn-through.

When choosing between a butt joint or a lap joint, consider that a butt joint will result in a more
flush contour, leaving the workpieces in the same plane. Lap joints can provide more strength in
higher stressed areas, but the joints are more noticeable and do not result in a flush contour.

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Edge joint
An edge joint is created when fit-up of the workpieces leaves the edges parallel or nearly parallel to
one another. These joints are often used when the workpieces won’t be subjected to any added
stress. Do not use an edge joint if one or both of the pieces will be subject to impact or other types
of stress.

There are different types of edge joints depending on how you prepare the edges. You can leave
them square (square groove), or you can prep them by grinding, cutting or machining into a V-
groove, J-groove or U-groove (similar to preparing butt joints). These preparations improve the

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weldment by allowing adequate penetration or improving overall weld coverage when welding an
edge joint. You can also weld all sides of an edge joint for additional rigidity.

Edge joints and corner joints have many similarities. A corner joint is typically the outside of the
workpieces, while an edge joint can be on the inside of the workpiece. Choosing between an edge
joint and a corner joint often comes down to the application needs and material thickness.

Edge joints may require post-weld grinding to bring the weld flush with the base material if
aesthetics are important.

Advantages of Welding
1. Permanent joint is produced, which becomes an integral part of work piece.

2. Joints can be stronger than the base metal if good quality filler metal is used.

3. Economical method of joining.

4. It is not restricted to the factory environment.

Disadvantages or limitations of Welding

1. Labour cost is high as only skilled welder can produce sound and quality weld joint.

2. It produces a permanent joint which in turn creates the problem in dissembling if of sub-
component required.

3. Hazardous fumes and vapours are generated during welding. This demands proper
ventilation of welding area.

4. Weld joint itself is considered as a discontinuity owing to variation in its structure,

composition and mechanical properties; therefore, welding is not commonly recommended
for critical application where there is a danger of life.

General Safety Precautions in Welding

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1. To prevent injury to personnel, extreme caution should be exercised when using any types
of welding equipment. Injury can result from fire, explosions, electric shock, or harmful
agents. Both the general and specific safety precautions listed below must be strictly
observed by workers who weld or cut metals.

2. Do not permit unauthorized persons to use welding or cutting equipment.

3. Do not weld in a building with wooden floors, unless the floors are protected from hot metal
by means of fire resistant fabric, sand, or other fireproof material. Be sure that hot sparks or
hot metal will not fall on the operator or on any welding equipment components.

4. Remove all flammable material, such as cotton, oil, gasoline, etc., from the vicinity of
welding.

5. Before welding or cutting, warn those in close proximity who are not protected to wear
proper clothing or goggles.

6. Remove any assembled parts from the component being welded that may become warped or
otherwise damaged by the welding process.

7. Do not leave hot rejected electrode stubs, steel scrap, or tools on the floor or around the
welding equipment. Accidents and/or fires may occur.

8. Keep a suitable fire extinguisher nearby at all times. Ensure the fire extinguisher is in
operable condition.

9. Mark all hot metal after welding operations are completed. Soapstone is commonly used for
this purpose.

Welding Positions

To help operators understand the type of weld joint (fillet or groove) and the weld position, each
weld is given a number and a letter: 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G or 1F, 2F, 3F, 4F to indicate the position and
the type of weld required. Welds with a 1 are flat position, 2 is horizontal, 3 is vertical and 4 is
overhead. F stands for fillet weld, while G is a groove weld. A fillet weld joins together two pieces
of metal that are perpendicular or at an angle. A groove weld is made in a groove between
workpieces or between workpiece edges. Using this system, a 2G weld is a groove weld in the
horizontal position.

Welders are likely to see these designations in a welding procedure specification (WPS). They are
also found on filler metal data sheets, which call out the positional capabilities of specific filler
metals.

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Flat Welding Position

Generally, flat is an easier position to weld in since you are not fighting gravity. The weld puddle
stays fluid and wets into the joint evenly. As a result, operators can typically run hotter with higher
deposition rates.

You can use any welding process to weld in the flat position. Just be sure to use the recommended
techniques for whichever process you’re using. For example, the stick process produces slag, so
consider using a drag technique rather than a push technique.

The proper work angle for a flat position weld will change depending on whether the weldment is a
1G or a 1F. If the wire or electrode is off to one side or the other, the heat won’t be focused where
the two pieces come together, and you may get incomplete fusion.

Horizontal Welding Position

In a horizontal weld, the weld axis is roughly horizontal. Welds in the horizontal position share
many similarities with flat position welds.

A 2G weld is slightly more difficult than a 2F weld. The 2F provides a bottom shelf to ensure the
weld puddle doesn’t get out of control or sag too much. To combat the effect of gravity on the weld
puddle in a horizontal groove weld, favor the top edge of the joint slightly with the work angle,
knowing the puddle may sag a bit. In a horizontal fillet weld, keep a 45-degree angle to the joint to
focus the heat where the two pieces come together.

Don't run too hot in horizontal welds since a puddle that’s too fluid can fall victim to gravity.

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Vertical Welding Position

Operators can complete vertical welds in either vertical up (moving bottom to top in the weld joint)
or vertical down (moving top to bottom in the weld joint). Vertical up is typically more common,
especially on thicker materials. You may need to use this when working on a large weldment that
you can't easily move into the flat or horizontal position.

Moving up the plate for a vertical weld, the weld puddle will naturally want to sag out of the joint.
If you use the same techniques and parameters ideal for flat and horizontal welds on a vertical
weld, it likely won’t produce a quality weld.

Adjust the weld parameters to achieve the best results in vertical welds. Use a reduced wire feed
speed and voltage to ensure the puddle does not fall out of the joint. If you are using a welding
power source with Auto-Set technology, be sure to use the parameters designed for a thinner
material, even if you’re welding thicker base metal. This helps keep the heat input lower to fight
gravity.

Use a 90-degree travel angle for a 3G weld, and a 45-degree angle for a 3F weld.

Slowly manipulate the puddle in a way that washes it to each edge of the joint. Going straight up
with a vertical weld will typically result in a ropey bead that doesn’t wash into the edges well.
Instead, hold the toes of the weld longer and quickly move across the middle of the puddle as you
travel up. Welders can use several common techniques for this puddle manipulation — including a
zigzag motion, an upside-down T or repeated triangles stacked on top of each other — depending
on the operator's preference.

In vertical welding, it’s important to make sure you’re in a comfortable position before starting to
weld. Practice first on scrap material to make sure the parameters and technique you’re using
produce the results you want. That way you can make adjustments before welding your workpiece.

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Overhead Welding Position

Overhead welds may be required when you’re working on a fixed piece of equipment or metal that
cannot be moved. Operators may find themselves lying on the ground or floor of their shop for
overhead welding, so it’s important to find the most comfortable position with a range of motion.

The same techniques used for vertical welding often apply to overhead welding. A 4G weld will
require a slight weave or manipulation of the weld puddle to wash in at the toes better, just as with
a vertical weld. You'll also want to dial back parameters to run cooler with overhead welds, since
you don’t want a weld puddle that is too fluid that will fall out of the weld joint and onto you.

When welding in the overhead position, sparks will drop down. You may want extra protection on
the top of your head, such as a bandana under your welding helmet. Use a fully leather welding
jacket, especially with a process like stick welding, which produces more sparks and spatter.

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