MUSCLE TISSUE

**1. Types of Muscle Tissue:**

- Skeletal Muscle:

- Location: Associated with the skeleton

- Function: Facilitates body movement

- Cardiac Muscle:

- Location: Heart wall

- Function: Pumps blood through circulatory system

- Smooth Muscle:

- Location: Skin (hair follicles), internal organs, blood vessels, passageways

- Function: Assists in material movement

**2. Skeletal Muscle (10.2):**

- Layers of Connective Tissue: Epimysium, Perimysium, Endomysium

- Organization: Muscle fibers into fascicles

- Attachment: Directly to bones or through tendons/aponeuroses

- Functions: Maintains posture, stabilizes joints, controls internal movement, generates heat

- Muscle Fiber Structure: Sarcolemma (membrane), Sarcoplasm (cytoplasm), Myofibrils, Striations

(actin and myosin)

**3. Muscle Fiber Contraction and Relaxation (10.3):**

- Sarcomere: Smallest contractile unit

- Filaments: Thick (myosin) and thin (actin), regulated by troponin and tropomyosin

- Contraction: Sliding filament model, initiated by ACh, powered by ATP

- Result: Shortening of sarcomeres, myofibrils, and muscle fibers

**4. Nervous System Control of Muscle Tension (10.4):**

- Cross-Bridges: Determine muscle tension

- Sarcomere Length: Optimal zone of overlap between filaments

 - Motor Unit: Motor neuron and innervated muscle fibers

- Twitch: Single contraction with latent, contraction, and relaxation phases

- Recruitment: Increasing motor neurons for more activated motor units

- Muscle Tone: Constant low-level contractions for posture and stability

**5. Types of Muscle Fibers (10.5):**

- ATP Regeneration Mechanisms: Creatine phosphate, Anaerobic glycolysis, Aerobic metabolism

- Muscle Fiber Types:

- Slow Oxidative (SO): Aerobic, low power, slow to fatigue

- Fast Oxidative (FO): Aerobic, high power

- Fast Glycolytic (FG): Anaerobic, powerful but quick fatigue

**6. Exercise and Muscle Performance (10.6):**

- Hypertrophy: Increase in muscle mass due to structural protein addition

- Atrophy: Loss of muscle mass due to structural protein breakdown

- Endurance Exercise: Increases cellular components, myoglobin, and capillary networks

- Resistance Exercise: Causes hypertrophy, especially in power-producing muscles

- Muscle Cell Damage: Result of strenuous exercise, requiring healing time

- Muscle Fatigue: Inability to contract due to various contributing factors

**7. Cardiac Muscle Tissue (10.7):**

- Striated Muscle: Present only in the heart

- Fibers: Branched with a single nucleus, joined by intercalated discs

- Contraction: Triggered by Ca++ ions, coordinated by pacemaker cells

- Syncytium: Functional unit contracting as a single entity

**8. Smooth Muscle (10.8):**

- Distribution: Around organs and tracts

- Cell Characteristics: Spindle-shaped with a single nucleus

- Contraction Initiation: Ca++ ions, calmodulin, myosin kinase activation

- Stimulation: Pacesetter cells, autonomic nervous system, hormones, stretching

 - Latch-Bridges: Some fibers maintain low-level contractions without ATP

**9. Development and Regeneration of Muscle Tissue (10.9):**

- Origin: Arises from embryonic mesoderm

- Skeletal Muscle: Myoblasts form myotubes, satellite cells aid in repair

- Smooth Muscle: Regenerates from pericytes

- Cardiac Muscle: Dead tissue replaced by scar tissue

- Aging: Muscle mass decreases, replaced by noncontractile tissue (sarcopenia)

30. **Why is elasticity an important quality of muscle tissue?**

Elasticity is a critical quality of muscle tissue because it enables muscles to return to their original
shape and length after contraction or stretching. This property is essential for maintaining muscle
function during repetitive movements, providing the flexibility required for activities such as walking,
running, and joint movements. Without elasticity, muscles would remain in a contracted or stretched
state, leading to reduced range of motion and impaired function.

31. **What would happen to skeletal muscle if the epimysium were destroyed?**

If the epimysium, the connective tissue surrounding skeletal muscles, were destroyed, it would result
in a loss of structural support and organization. The epimysium plays a significant role in holding
muscle fibers together and providing a framework for blood vessels and nerves. Without this
protective layer, individual muscle fibers would be more susceptible to damage and injury.
Additionally, the loss of structural integrity could lead to a decrease in muscle strength and
coordination.

32. **Describe how tendons facilitate body movement.**

Tendons, tough connective tissues that attach muscles to bones, facilitate body movement by
transmitting the force generated by muscle contractions to the bones. When muscles contract,
tendons transmit this force to the skeleton, causing movement at the joints. Tendons act as efficient
levers, allowing the conversion of muscular contraction into precise and coordinated movement.

33. **What are the five primary functions of skeletal muscle?**

The five primary functions of skeletal muscles are: 1) Producing movement by contracting and pulling
on bones; 2) Maintaining posture and body position through sustained contractions; 3) Supporting
soft tissues and organs; 4) Guarding entrances and exits (e.g., sphincters); and 5) Generating heat
through muscle activity to maintain body temperature.

34. **What are the opposite roles of voltage-gated sodium channels and voltage-gated potassium
channels?**

Voltage-gated sodium channels play a crucial role in the initiation and propagation of action
potentials by allowing the influx of sodium ions into the cell, leading to depolarization. In contrast,
voltage-gated potassium channels contribute to repolarization by allowing the efflux of potassium
ions, restoring the cell's resting membrane potential. These opposite roles are essential for the
proper functioning of nerve and muscle cells during the generation and transmission of electrical
signals.

35. **How would muscle contractions be affected if skeletal muscle fibers did not have T-tubules?**

If muscle fibers did not have T-tubules, the efficient and synchronized contraction of muscle fibers
would be compromised. T-tubules, or transverse tubules, are invaginations of the sarcolemma
(muscle cell membrane) that allow for the rapid transmission of action potentials into the interior of
skeletal muscle fibers. Without T-tubules, action potentials would not propagate uniformly
throughout the muscle fiber, leading to uneven muscle contractions and decreased overall muscle
function.

36. **What causes the striated appearance of skeletal muscle tissue?**

The striated appearance of skeletal muscle tissue is caused by the arrangement of contractile
proteins within the muscle fibers. Actin and myosin filaments, organized in repeating units called
sarcomeres, create alternating dark (A bands) and light (I bands) striations. This striated pattern
reflects the precise organization of sarcomeres and is essential for the coordinated contraction of
muscle fibers.

37. **How would muscle contractions be affected if ATP was completely depleted in a muscle fiber?
**

If ATP were completely depleted in a muscle fiber, the cross-bridge cycling between actin and myosin
would cease, and the muscle would be unable to contract. This would result in muscle stiffness and
an inability to generate force. The absence of ATP would also hinder the processes involved in muscle
relaxation, leading to a sustained contracted state.

38. **Why does a motor unit of the eye have few muscle fibers compared to a motor unit of the leg?
**

The number of muscle fibers innervated by a single motor neuron defines a motor unit. In the eye,
precise and fine movements are required for vision, so motor units have fewer muscle fibers to
ensure fine control. In contrast, the leg requires more forceful and gross movements, leading to
motor units with a larger number of muscle fibers. This difference in motor unit size reflects the
specific functional requirements of each muscle group.

39. **What factors contribute to the amount of tension produced in an individual muscle fiber?**

The amount of tension produced in an individual muscle fiber is influenced by factors such as the
frequency of stimulation, the initial length of the muscle fiber, and the number of motor units
recruited. The overlap of actin and myosin filaments within sarcomeres, known as the sliding
filament theory, is also crucial for tension generation during muscle contraction.

40. **Why do muscle cells use creatine phosphate instead of glycolysis to supply ATP for the first few
seconds of muscle contraction?**

Muscle cells use creatine phosphate as an immediate source of ATP during the first few seconds of
muscle contraction because it provides a quick burst of energy without the need for oxygen. Creatine
phosphate donates a phosphate group to ADP, regenerating ATP rapidly. In contrast, glycolysis
requires more time and is less efficient for immediate ATP production.

41. **Is aerobic respiration more or less efficient than glycolysis? Explain your answer.**

Aerobic respiration is generally more efficient than glycolysis because it produces a higher yield of
ATP per glucose molecule. While glycolysis yields two ATP molecules, aerobic respiration in the
presence of oxygen can generate up to 36 ATP molecules per glucose molecule. Aerobic respiration
occurs in the mitochondria and involves the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation, providing
a more sustained and efficient energy production process.

42. **What changes occur at the cellular level in response to endurance training?**
Endurance training induces cellular adaptations that enhance the efficiency of aerobic respiration.
This includes increased mitochondrial density, improved oxygen delivery to muscles, and enhanced
oxidative enzyme activity. These changes allow muscles to utilize oxygen more effectively, resulting in
improved endurance and reduced fatigue during prolonged physical activity.

43. **What changes occur at the cellular level in response to resistance training?**

Resistance training induces cellular adaptations focused on muscle hypertrophy and increased
strength. This includes the enlargement of individual muscle fibers, increased myofibril density, and
changes in neuromuscular activation. Resistance training also leads to increased protein synthesis,
particularly in the contractile proteins, contributing to muscle growth and improved strength.

44. **What would be the drawback of cardiac contractions being the same duration as skeletal
muscle contractions?**

The drawback of cardiac contractions having the same duration as skeletal muscle contractions
would be the inability to sustain continuous, rhythmic pumping of the heart. The heart needs to
contract and relax in a coordinated manner to efficiently pump blood. If cardiac contractions were as
brief as skeletal muscle contractions, the heart would struggle to maintain a steady flow of blood,
leading to impaired circulation and potential cardiovascular complications.

45. **How are cardiac muscle cells similar to and different from skeletal muscle cells?**

Cardiac muscle cells are similar to skeletal muscle cells in that they are striated, indicating the
presence of sarcomeres and organized contractile proteins. However, cardiac muscle cells differ in
that they are involuntarily controlled, interconnected by intercalated discs, and possess a unique
ability to generate and conduct action potentials independently.

46. **Why can smooth muscles contract over a wider range of resting

lengths than skeletal and cardiac muscle?**

Smooth muscles can contract over a wider range of resting lengths compared to skeletal and cardiac
muscle due to their spindle-shaped cells and lack of organized sarcomeres. This allows smooth
muscles to generate force and contract effectively even when stretched, making them well-suited for
functions such as peristalsis in the digestive tract.
47. **Describe the differences between single-unit smooth muscle and multiunit smooth muscle.**

Single-unit smooth muscle consists of interconnected cells with gap junctions, allowing for
coordinated contractions. Multiunit smooth muscle, on the other hand, consists of individual cells
with less direct communication. Single-unit smooth muscle is found in organs like the digestive and
reproductive systems, while multiunit smooth muscle is present in structures like blood vessels and
the iris of the eye.

48. **Why is muscle that has sustained significant damage unable to produce the same amount of
power as it could before being damaged?**

Muscle that has sustained significant damage may experience scar tissue formation, which lacks the
contractile properties of normal muscle tissue. Scar tissue is less elastic and cannot generate the
same force as healthy muscle fibers. Additionally, damage to blood vessels and nerves associated
with the muscle can further impair its function. The loss of structural integrity and cellular damage
contribute to reduced power production in damaged muscle.

49. **Which muscle type(s) (skeletal, smooth, or cardiac) can regenerate new muscle cells/fibers?
Explain your answer.**

Skeletal muscle has the ability to regenerate new muscle cells/fibers to some extent, primarily
through the activation of satellite cells. These cells can differentiate and fuse with existing muscle
fibers or form new muscle fibers. In contrast, smooth and cardiac muscle have limited regenerative
capacity. Smooth muscle can undergo hyperplasia (increased cell numbers) under certain conditions,
while cardiac muscle has minimal ability to regenerate after significant injury. The regenerative
potential of each muscle type is influenced by factors such as age, overall health, and the extent of
damage.