Anatomy & Physiology II

Urinary System
Outline:
I. Urinary System
1. Functions
2. Organs of the urinary system
• Kidneys
o Nephrons
o Urine formation and characteristics
• Ureters
• Urinary bladder
• Urethra
o micturition
Outline:
I. Urinary System
3. Fluid, electrolyte and acid-base balance
• Maintaining water balance of the blood
• Maintaining electrolyte balance
• Maintaining acid-base balance of the blood

II. Developmental aspect of the urinary system

III. Interrelation with other organ systems
Outline:
I. Urinary System
1. Functions
2. Organs of the urinary system
• Kidneys
o Nephrons
o Urine formation and characteristics
• Ureters
• Urinary bladder
• Urethra
o micturition
Functions
• Kidneys dispose of waste products in urine
o Nitrogenous wastes
o Toxins
o Drugs
o Excess ions
• Kidneys’ regulatory functions include:
o Production of renin to maintain blood pressure
o Production of erythropoietin to stimulate red blood
cell production
o Conversion of vitamin D to its active form
Just a recap from lecture 9 where
kidney produces renin and where the
mineralocorticoid producing layer of
the adrenal cortex of the adrenal
gland (found at the top of kidneys)
influence the secretion of aldosterone
to target the kidney tubules to
increase its absorption of Sodium ions
and water thereby increasing blood
pressure and volume.

This is one of the connection among

the endocrine, cardiovascular and
urinary systems
Outline:
I. Urinary System
1. Functions
2. Organs of the urinary system
• Kidneys
o Nephrons
o Urine formation and characteristics
• Ureters
• Urinary bladder
• Urethra
o micturition
Organs of the urinary system
• Kidneys
• Ureters
• Urinary bladder
• Urethra
Figure 14.1 shows the organs of the urinary system including the blood
vessels associated with these organs
Outline:
I. Urinary System
1. Functions
2. Organs of the urinary system
• Kidneys
o Nephrons
o Urine formation and characteristics
• Ureters
• Urinary bladder
• Urethra
o micturition
Kidneys
• Location and structure
o The kidneys are situated against the dorsal body
wall in a retroperitoneal position (behind the
parietal peritoneum)
o The kidneys are situated at the level of the T12 to L3
vertebrae
o The right kidney is slightly lower than the left
(because of position of the liver)
Figure 14.2 shows the location of the kidney in relation to the 12th rib
Kidneys
• Kidney structure
o An adult kidney is about 12 cm (5 in) long and 6 cm (2.5
in) wide
o Renal hilum
ü A medial indentation where several structures enter
or exit the kidney (ureters, renal blood vessels, and
nerves)
o An adrenal gland sits atop each kidney
Figure 14.1 shows the location of the renal hilum (notice the structures that
passes the hilum such as blood vessels and the ureter) and the adrenal gland
Kidneys
• Kidney structure
o Three protective layers enclose the kidney
ü Fibrous capsule encloses each kidney
ü Perirenal fat capsule surrounds the kidney and
cushions against blows
ü Renal fascia is the most superficial layer that
anchors the kidney and adrenal gland to
surrounding structures
Kidneys
• Kidney structure
o Three regions revealed in a longitudinal section
1. Renal cortex—outer region
2. Renal medulla—deeper region
ü Renal (medullary) pyramids—triangular regions of
tissue in the medulla
ü Renal columns—extensions of cortexlike material
that separate the pyramids
3. Renal pelvis—medial region that is a flat, funnel-shaped
tube
ü Calyces form cup-shaped “drains” that enclose the
renal pyramids
ü Calyces collect urine and send it to the renal pelvis, on
to the ureter, and to the urinary bladder for storage
Figure 14.3a shows the regions of the kidney: cortex, medulla which includes
the renal pyramid and renal columns, and the renal pelvis which includes the
calyces. The fibrous capsule that protects the kidney is also shown.
 Observe carefully the funnel-shaped calyx
running from the apex/tip of the renal
pyramid. In actual dissection this might be
hard to observe depending on the quality
of your specimen due to the tissue and fat
covering the medulla

Figure 14.3b shows the internal parts of a pig’s kidney. Read the descriptions
provided in the labels.
 Observe carefully the renal column and the
blood vessels running along it

Figure 14.3b shows the internal parts of a pig’s kidney. Read the descriptions
provided in the labels.
 As you can see in my specimen, there is kind of like a layer of fat
that is found in the tissue that covers the medulla. For some
specimen, like mine it is scarce so I was able to see the calyces
immediately. But for other specimen like the one in the right,
there is a lot of it that you have to remove carefully (if possible)
so that you can appreciate more the structures beneath (the
calyces, the pyramidal structure of the renal pyramids and the
vessels going to/from the renal column.

Figure 14.3b shows the internal parts of a pig’s kidney. Read the descriptions
provided in the labels.
 Observe closely the
renal pelvis, a funnel
shaped and flat
structure found at the
medial portion and is
connected to the
ureter (also pointed or
labeled in this
picture).

Figure 14.3c shows the internal parts of a pig’s kidney. Read the descriptions
provided in the labels.
Figure 14.3d shows the external parts of a pig’s kidney. Read the descriptions
provided in the labels.
Kidneys
• Blood supply
o One-quarter of the total blood supply of the body
passes through the kidneys each minute
o Renal artery provides each kidney with arterial blood
supply
o Renal artery divides into segmental arteries →
interlobar arteries → arcuate arteries → cortical
radiate arteries
Kidneys
• Venous blood flow
o Cortical radiate veins → arcuate veins → interlobar
veins → renal vein
o There are no segmental veins
o Renal vein returns blood to the inferior vena cava
Renal artery—>
Segmental
arteries—>
interlobar arteries
Arcuate artery—>
Cortical radiate
artery

Cortical radiate
veins—>
Arcuate veins—>
Interlobar veins—>
Renal vein

Figure 14.3 shows the blood vessels associated with the kidneys. Renal artery
divides to segmental arteries to arcuate artery and cortical radiate artery (see green
arrow). On the other hand, for veins, deoxygenated blood flows from the cortical
radiate veins to arcuate veins to interlobar veins and renal vein (see orange arrow),
Outline:
I. Urinary System
1. Functions
2. Organs of the urinary system
• Kidneys
o Nephrons
o Urine formation and characteristics
• Ureters
• Urinary bladder
• Urethra
o micturition
Nephron
• Structural and functional units of the kidneys
• Each kidney contains over a million nephrons
• Each nephron consists of two main structures
1. Renal corpuscle
2. Renal tubule
Figure 14.4 shows the nephron found in the kidney. Focus on the location of the
glomerulus, which is a part of the corpuscle as this will be discussed in the next
slide.
Nephron
• Renal corpuscle consists of:
1. Glomerulus, a knot of capillaries made of podocytes
o Podocytes make up the inner (visceral) layer of the
glomerular capsule
ü Foot processes cling to the glomerulus
ü Filtration slits create a porous membrane—
ideal for filtration
2. Glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule is a cup-shaped
structure that surrounds the glomerulus
o First part of the renal tubule
Figure 14.5 shows the glomerulus including the podocytes
Figure 14.6 shows the structures of the podocytes such as the filtration slits and foot
processes.
Nephron
• Renal tubule
o Extends from glomerular capsule and ends when it
empties into the collecting duct
o From the glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule, the
subdivisions of the renal tubule are:
1. Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
2. Nephron loop (loop of Henle)
3. Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
Figure 14.7 shows the subdivisions of the renal tubule in the nephron. PCT is
proximal to the glomerulus while DCT is distal to it.
Nephron
• Cortical nephrons
o Located entirely in the cortex
o Include most nephrons
• Juxtamedullary nephrons
o Found at the cortex-medulla junction
o Nephron loop dips deep into the medulla
o Collecting ducts collect urine from both types of
nephrons (either cortical or juxtamedullary), through
the renal pyramids, to the calyces, and then to the
renal pelvis
Figure 14.4 shows a cortical nephron (green circle) and a juxtamedullary nephron
(orange circle)
Nephron
• Two capillary beds associated with each nephron
1. Glomerulus
2. Peritubular capillary bed
Nephron
• Glomerulus
o Fed and drained by arterioles
ü Afferent arteriole—arises from a cortical radiate
artery and feeds the glomerulus
ü Efferent arteriole—receives blood that has passed
through the glomerulus
o Specialized for filtration
o High pressure forces fluid and solutes out of blood and
into the glomerular capsule
Figure 14.8 shows the glomerulus and the afferent arteriole which arises from the
cortical radiate artery and the efferent arteriole which receives blood that has
passed the glomerulus (see pink arrow)
Nephron
• Peritubular capillary beds
o Arise from the efferent arteriole of the glomerulus
o Low-pressure, porous capillaries
o Adapted for absorption instead of filtration
o Cling close to the renal tubule to receive solutes and
water from tubule cells
o Drain into the interlobar veins
Figure 14.8 shows the peritubular capillaries and how it weaves through the tubules
of the nephron, it is adapted for absorption of water and solutes (this is important
during urine formation as will be discussed next)
Outline:
I. Urinary System
1. Functions
2. Organs of the urinary system
• Kidneys
o Nephrons
o Urine formation and characteristics
• Ureters
• Urinary bladder
• Urethra
o micturition
Urine formation and characteristics
• Urine formation is the result of three processes
1. Glomerular filtration
2. Tubular reabsorption
3. Tubular secretion
Figure 14.9 shows a summary of the events that occur in each of the major renal
processes
Urine formation and characteristics
1. Glomerular filtration
• The glomerulus is a filter
• Filtration is a nonselective passive process
o Water and solutes smaller than proteins are forced
through glomerular capillary walls
o Proteins and blood cells are normally too large to pass
through the filtration membrane
o Once in the capsule, fluid is called filtrate
o Filtrate leaves via the renal tubule
• Filtrate will be formed as long as systemic blood pressure is
normal
o If arterial blood pressure is too low, filtrate formation
stops because glomerular pressure will be too low to form
filtrate
Urine formation and characteristics
2. Tubular reabsorption
• The peritubular capillaries reabsorb useful
substances from the renal tubule cells, such as:
o Water
o Glucose
o Amino acids
o Ions
• Some reabsorption is passive; most is active (with
use of ATP)
• Most reabsorption occurs in the proximal
convoluted tubule
 Aside from the reabsorption
that occurs in the proximal
tubule, other substances are
also reabsorbed such as salts
even urea (that should be
excreted) this is to ensure high
solute concentration so that
water will follow back through
osmosis. To simply put it, the
body would want to conserve
as much water as it could
(especially if you drink less
water) before it really goes as
a component of urine

Figure 14.10 shows a juxtamedullary nephron (found at cortex-medulla junction)

where tubular reabsorption is occurring in the proximal tubule (see pink circle).
Urine formation and characteristics
3. Tubular secretion
• Reabsorption in reverse
• Some materials move from the blood of the
peritubular capillaries into the renal tubules to be
eliminated in filtrate
o Hydrogen and potassium ions
o Creatinine (produced by muscles from the
breakdown of creatine. Remember in muscular
system one of the sources of ATP is by getting the
phosphate group in Creatine phosphate and
attaching it to Adenosine diphosphate to become
ATP.)
Urine formation and characteristics
3. Tubular secretion
• Secretion is important for:
o Getting rid of substances not already in the filtrate
o Removing drugs and excess ions
o Maintaining acid-base balance of blood (will be
discussed in next slides)
• Materials left in the renal tubule move toward the
ureter
Urine formation and characteristics
• Nitrogenous wastes
o Nitrogenous waste products are poorly reabsorbed,
if at all
o Tend to remain in the filtrate and are excreted from
the body in the urine
ü Urea—end product of protein breakdown
ü Uric acid—results from nucleic acid metabolism
ü Creatinine—associated with creatine
metabolism in muscles
Urine formation and characteristics
• In 24 hours, about 1.0 to 1.8 liters of urine are produced
• Urine and filtrate are different
o Filtrate contains everything that blood plasma does
(except proteins)
o Urine is what remains after the filtrate has lost most
of its water, nutrients, and necessary ions through
reabsorption
o Urine contains nitrogenous wastes and substances
that are not needed
Urine formation and characteristics
• Urine characteristics
o Clear and pale to deep yellow in color
o Yellow color is normal and due to the pigment
urochrome (from the destruction of hemoglobin,
done by liver) and solutes
ü Dilute urine is a pale, straw color
o Sterile at the time of formation
o Slightly aromatic, but smells like ammonia with time
o Slightly acidic (pH of 6)
o Specific gravity of 1.001 to 1.035
Urine formation and characteristics
• Solutes normally found in urine
o Sodium and potassium ions
o Urea, uric acid, creatinine
o Ammonia
o Bicarbonate ions
Urine formation and characteristics
• Solutes NOT normally found in urine
o Glucose
o Blood proteins
o Red blood cells
o Hemoglobin
o WBCs (pus)
o Bile
Table 14.1 shows abnormal constituents of urine and its possible causes
Outline:
I. Urinary System
1. Functions
2. Organs of the urinary system
• Kidneys
o Nephrons
o Urine formation and characteristics
• Ureters
• Urinary bladder
• Urethra
o micturition
Ureters
• Slender tubes 25–30 cm (10–12 inches) attaching the
kidney to the urinary bladder
o Continuous with the renal pelvis
o Enter the posterior aspect of the urinary bladder
o Run behind the peritoneum
• Peristalsis aids gravity in urine transport
Figure 14.1 shows the location of the ureters
Outline:
I. Urinary System
1. Functions
2. Organs of the urinary system
• Kidneys
o Nephrons
o Urine formation and characteristics
• Ureters
• Urinary bladder
• Urethra
o micturition
Urinary bladder
• Smooth, collapsible, muscular sac situated posterior to
the pubic symphysis
• Stores urine temporarily
• Trigone—triangular region of the urinary bladder base
based on three openings
o Two openings from the ureters (ureteral orifices)
o One opening to the urethra (internal urethral orifice)
• In males, the prostate surrounds the neck of the urinary
bladder
Figure 14.11 shows the parts of a urinary bladder. Specifically shown here is the trigone
which is based on the 2 ureteral orifice (opening from ureters) and the urethral orifice
which opens to the urethra
Urinary bladder
• Wall of the urinary bladder
o Three layers of smooth muscle collectively called the
detrusor muscle
o Mucosa made of transitional epithelium (see lecture
3-histology)
o Walls are thick and folded in an empty urinary
bladder
o Urinary bladder can expand significantly without
increasing internal pressure
Urinary bladder
• Capacity of the urinary bladder
o A moderately full bladder is about 5 inches long
and holds about 500 ml of urine
o Capable of holding twice that amount of urine
Outline:
I. Urinary System
1. Functions
2. Organs of the urinary system
• Kidneys
o Nephrons
o Urine formation and characteristics
• Ureters
• Urinary bladder
• Urethra
o micturition
Urethra
• Thin-walled tube that carries urine from the urinary
bladder to the outside of the body by peristalsis
• Function
o Females—carries only urine
o Males—carries urine and sperm
Urethra
• Release of urine is controlled by two sphincters
1. Internal urethral sphincter
o Involuntary and made of smooth muscle
2. External urethral sphincter
o Voluntary and made of skeletal muscle
Figure 14.11 shows the external and internal urethral sphincter of the urethra
Urethra
• Length
o In females: 3 to 4 cm (1.5 inches long)
o In males: 20 cm (8 inches long)
• Location
o Females—anterior to the vaginal opening
o Males—travels through the prostate and penis
ü Prostatic urethra
ü Membranous urethra
ü Spongy urethra
 Figure 14.12 shows the prostatic urethra (passes to the prostate), membranous urethra,
and the spongy urethra (includes the bulbar and penile urethra as depicted in this
figure)

Source:https://www.futurelearn.com/info/courses/understanding-continence-promotion/0/steps/46066
 Figure 14.13 shows the location of the female urethra in relation to the other structures
such as the clitoris and vaginal opening

Souce:https://www.compactcath.com/blog/find-the-urethra-female-uti/
Outline:
I. Urinary System
1. Functions
2. Organs of the urinary system
• Kidneys
o Nephrons
o Urine formation and characteristics
• Ureters
• Urinary bladder
• Urethra
o micturition
Micturition
• Micturition
o Voiding, or emptying of the urinary bladder
o Two sphincters control the release of urine, the internal
urethral sphincter and external urethral sphincter
• Bladder collects urine to 200 ml
• Stretch receptors transmit impulses to the sacral region of
the spinal cord
• Impulses travel back to the bladder via the pelvic
splanchnic nerves to cause bladder contractions
Micturition
• When contractions become stronger, urine is forced
past the involuntary internal sphincter into the upper
urethra
• Urge to void is felt
• The external sphincter is voluntarily controlled, so
micturition can usually be delayed
Outline:
I. Urinary System
3. Fluid, electrolyte and acid-base balance
• Maintaining water balance of the blood
• Maintaining electrolyte balance
• Maintaining acid-base balance of the blood

II. Developmental aspect of the urinary system

III. Interrelation with other organ systems
Fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance
• Blood composition depends on three factors
1. Diet
2. Cellular metabolism
3. Urine output
Fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance
• Kidneys have four roles in maintaining blood
composition
1. Excreting nitrogen-containing wastes (previously
discussed)
2. Maintaining water balance of the blood
3. Maintaining electrolyte balance of the blood
4. Ensuring proper blood pH
Outline:
I. Urinary System
3. Fluid, electrolyte and acid-base balance
• Maintaining water balance of the blood
• Maintaining electrolyte balance
• Maintaining acid-base balance of the blood

II. Developmental aspect of the urinary system

III. Interrelation with other organ systems
Maintaining water balance of the blood
• Normal amount of water in the human body
o Young adult females = 50%
o Young adult males = 60%
o Babies = 75%
o The elderly = 45%
• Water is necessary for many body functions, and
levels must be maintained
Maintaining water balance of the blood
• Water occupies three main fluid compartments
1. Intracellular fluid (ICF)
• Fluid inside cells
• Accounts for two-thirds of body fluid
2. Extracellular fluid (ECF)
• Fluids outside cells; includes blood plasma, interstitial
fluid (IF), lymph, and transcellular fluid
3. Plasma (blood) is ECF, but accounts for 3L of total body
water.
• Links external and internal environments
Maintaining water balance of the blood
• Regulation of water intake and output
o Water intake must equal water output if the body is to
remain properly hydrated
o Sources for water intake
ü Ingested foods and fluids
ü Water produced from metabolic processes (10%)
o Thirst mechanism is the driving force for water intake
Maintaining water balance of the blood
• Thirst mechanism
o Osmoreceptors are sensitive cells in the hypothalamus
that become more active in reaction to small changes
in plasma solute concentration
o When activated, the thirst center in the hypothalamus
is notified
o A dry mouth due to decreased saliva also promotes
the thirst mechanism
o Both reinforce the drive to drink
 Maintaining water balance of the blood
• Sources of water output
o Lungs (insensible since we cannot sense the
water leaving*)
o Perspiration
o Feces
o Urine

*water vapor (gaseous phase of water) is picked up from the organs of the respiratory
system due to exhaled air passing over the moist linings of the respiratory organs. Together
with carbon dioxide, water vapor is excreted
Maintaining water balance of the blood
• Hormones are primarily responsible for reabsorption of
water and electrolytes by the kidneys
o Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) prevents excessive
water loss in the urine and increases water
reabsorption
o ADH targets the kidney’s collecting ducts
Outline:
I. Urinary System
3. Fluid, electrolyte and acid-base balance
• Maintaining water balance of the blood
• Maintaining electrolyte balance
• Maintaining acid-base balance of the blood

II. Developmental aspect of the urinary system

III. Interrelation with other organ systems
Maintaining electrolyte balance
• Electrolytes are charged particles (ions) that
conduct electrical current in an aqueous solution
• Sodium, potassium, and calcium ions are
electrolytes
Maintaining electrolyte balance
• Small changes in electrolyte concentrations cause water
to move from one fluid compartment to another
• A second hormone, aldosterone, helps regulate blood
composition and blood volume by acting on the kidney
o For each sodium ion reabsorbed, a chloride ion
follows, and a potassium ion is secreted into the
filtrate
o Water follows salt: when sodium is reabsorbed, water
follows it passively back into the blood (due to
osmosis-movement of water from area of lower to
higher solute concentration.)
Maintaining electrolyte balance
• Renin-angiotensin mechanism
o Most important trigger for aldosterone release
o Mediated by the juxtaglomerular (JG) apparatus of
the renal tubules
o When cells of the JG apparatus are stimulated by low
blood pressure, the enzyme renin is released into
blood
Maintaining electrolyte balance
• Renin-angiotensin mechanism
o Renin catalyzes reactions that produce angiotensin II
o Angiotensin II causes vasoconstriction and
aldosterone release
o Result is increase in blood volume and blood
pressure
Just a recap from lecture 9 this figure
shows how the renin-angiotensin
system works due to a drop in blood
pressure and blood volume.

Renin released from the kidney acts

on angiotensinogen from the liver to
produce angiotensin I. ACE
(Angiotensin-converting enzyme)
from lungs acts in angiotensin I to
form angiotensin II (also causes
vasoconstriction) which acts on the
adrenal gland to stimulate
aldosterone. This hormone causes
reabsorption of salt and water (water
follows due to osmosis).
Outline:
I. Urinary System
3. Fluid, electrolyte and acid-base balance
• Maintaining water balance of the blood
• Maintaining electrolyte balance
• Maintaining acid-base balance of the blood

II. Developmental aspect of the urinary system

III. Interrelation with other organ systems
Maintaining acid-base balance of blood
• Blood pH must remain between 7.35 and 7.45 to
maintain homeostasis
o Alkalosis—pH above 7.45
o Acidosis—pH below 7.35
o Physiological acidosis—pH between 7.0 and 7.35
Maintaining acid-base balance of blood
• Kidneys play greatest role in maintaining acid-base
balance
• Other acid-base controlling systems
o Blood buffers
o Respiration
 Maintaining acid-base balance of blood
• Blood buffers
o Acids are proton (H+) donors
o Strong acids dissociate completely and liberate
all of their H+ in water
o Weak acids, such as carbonic acid, dissociate
only partially
o Bases are proton (H+) acceptors
o Strong bases dissociate easily in water and tie
up H+
o Weak bases, such as bicarbonate ion and
ammonia, are slower to accept H+
*if you still remember carbonic acid and bicarbonate are involved in the facilitation of
the transport of CO2 in the blood
Maintaining acid-base balance of blood
• Molecules react to prevent dramatic changes in
hydrogen ion (H+) concentrations
o Bind to H+ when pH drops
o Release H+ when pH rises
• Three major chemical buffer systems
1. Bicarbonate buffer system (will be explained
further)
2. Phosphate buffer system
3. Protein buffer system
Maintaining acid-base balance of blood
Maintaining acid-base balance of blood
 Maintaining acid-base balance of blood
• Respiratory mechanisms
o Respiratory rate can rise and fall depending on
changing blood pH to retain CO2 (decreasing the
blood pH; CO2 can react with water forming
carbonic acid*) or remove CO2 (increasing the blood
pH)

*this specifically occurs when carbon dioxide leaving a cell enters the RBC and within,
together with water forms carbonic acid (see lecture 12 on respiratory system)
Maintaining acid-base balance of blood
• Renal mechanisms
o When blood pH rises:
ü Bicarbonate ions are excreted
ü Hydrogen ions are retained by kidney tubules
o When blood pH falls:
ü Bicarbonate ions are reabsorbed
ü Hydrogen ions are secreted
o Urine pH varies from 4.5 to 8.0
Outline:
I. Urinary System
3. Fluid, electrolyte and acid-base balance
• Maintaining water balance of the blood
• Maintaining electrolyte balance
• Maintaining acid-base balance of the blood

II. Developmental aspect of the urinary system

III. Interrelation with other organ systems
Developmental aspect of the urinary system
• The kidneys begin to develop in the first few weeks of
embryonic life and are excreting urine by the third
month of fetal life
• Common congenital abnormalities include polycystic
kidney (cluster of cysts forms in the kidney) and
hypospadias (opening of the urethra is at the underside
of the penis instead of at the tip)
• Common urinary system problems in children and
young to middle-aged adults include infections caused
by fecal microorganisms, microorganisms causing
sexually transmitted infections, and Streptococcus
Developmental aspect of the urinary system
• Control of the voluntary urethral sphincter does not
start until age 18 months
• Complete nighttime control may not occur until the
child is 4 years old
• Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are the only common
problems before old age
o Escherichia coli (E. coli), a bacterium, accounts for
80 percent of UTIs
Developmental aspect of the urinary system
• Renal failure is an uncommon but serious problem in
which the kidneys are unable to concentrate urine, and
dialysis must be done to maintain chemical
homeostasis of blood
• With age, filtration rate decreases and tubule cells
become less efficient at concentrating urine, leading to
urgency, frequency, and incontinence
• In men, urinary retention is another common problem
Developmental aspect of the urinary system
• Problems associated with aging
o Urgency—feeling that it is necessary to void
o Frequency—frequent voiding of small amounts of
urine
o Nocturia—need to get up during the night to
urinate
o Incontinence—loss of control
o Urinary retention—inability to completely empty
the bladder; common in males, often the result of
hypertrophy of the prostate gland
Outline:
I. Urinary System
3. Fluid, electrolyte and acid-base balance
• Maintaining water balance of the blood
• Maintaining electrolyte balance
• Maintaining acid-base balance of the blood

II. Developmental aspect of the urinary system

III. Interrelation with other organ systems
Interrelationship with other organ systems

Figure 14.14 shows the

interrelationship of the
urinary system to other organ
systems. Aside from removing
wastes products coming from
other organ systems, the
urinary system is also
responsible for maintaining
water, electrolyte and acid-
base balance in the
body/blood. This image is also
available in page 560 of the
book
Questions?