NOTES FOR CHIEF MATE

TOPIC:

Orals Revision Notes

Task – Revision Notes: Manoeuvring
Interaction
A vessel moving along experiences unwanted forces caused by the flow of
water and unequal pressure around the hull.

 A build up of positive pressure builds up ahead of the ship caused by

water piling up ahead of the vessel trying to resist its fwd movement.
 The water down the sides of the ship creates a balancing area of
negative pressure.
 The negative pressure over compensates the positive pressure so another
smaller area of positive pressure astern is created.
 These pressure zones not only go outwards they also act vertically
downwards.

Bank Effect
This occurs when a vessel is passing a gently shelving bank, the positive
pressure forward pushes the bow away from the bank. The Negative pressures
draw the stern towards the bank. If the forces are very strong then it may
cause the vessel to roll towards the bank increasing the vessel's draught.
 To control the effect you have to constantly correct the amount of helm
that is being applied.

Bow Cushion effect

When the river banks sides are steep sided the vessel will experience
constructive forces. The forward pressure area is partially constrained on the
obstructed side and therefore creates a cushion at the bow.
As long as the stern is kept far enough away that the negative forces do not
create a suction then you can balance the outward turning force of the bow
cushion with the inward turning force at the stern, this is done by applying
helm towards the bank.
If you are navigating in a narrow channel which is constrained on both sides
then the bow cushion forces the vessel to take the center line of the channel.
If you pass an opening in the channel this loss of pressure will cause the bow to
turn towards the opening.

Squat
 The restriction at the bow causes the speed of water to flow under the
forefoot of the vessel to increase
 This increase of water causes a low-pressure area under the forefoot to
form which in turn leads to a loss of buoyancy at the forefoot.
 Due to the loss of buoyancy, the bow will dip
 Due to the bow dipping, an increasing amount of water will build up in
resistance
  This forces the bow deeper dipping the bow further until the buoyancy is
equal to the downward weight of the vessel
 In addition to what is happening forward the speed of the flow of the
water around the vessel also suffers an increase as it is drawn both along
the ship's side and down under the hull.
 This fall in water level causes the loss of the under keel clearance called
SQUAT
 Another effect of squat is the reduced steering lever, during a turn, this
may lead to a sudden or rapid sheer of the vessel. If a vessel does
experience sheer then a good burst of power is required to correct the
sheer before reducing speed to reduce squat.

Squat = Cb x V2
K

Cb = the block coefficient

V = speed in knots
K = a constant depending upon the
depth : draught ratio

K = When the available depth of water is greater than twice the deepest
draught then K may be assumed to be 100
K = Where the ratio is between 1 : 1.15 and 1 : 2 then K may be assumed
to be 50

Ship to Ship Interaction

If two vessels meet head to head the combined positive bow pressures will
cause the bows to be repelled
When the vessels are abeam the negative pressure zones cause a suction
towards each other

As the vessels are stern to stern the negative pressure causes the vessels to be
drawn together
Shallow water
 In shallow water the size of the turning circle and a loss of speed.
 This is because in shallow water there is a much greater build-up of
lateral resistance caused by the restriction of under keel clearance.
 This causes the pivot point to move aft shortening the turning lever
 The longitudinal water flow under the keel is increased and so the vessel
has to use more power to maintain speed
 There is also a restricted lateral flow caused by the increased draught on
the outside of the turn.
 The result is that the rudder is less effective, the turn is dramatically
reduced therefore the angle of drift is much shallower.

Ship Speed
The following factors affect ships speed:
Boundary Layer
 Vessels carry a body of water surrounding the whole body of
the ship, this water is on mm thick but it causes a loss of
power
Shallow water effect on bow and stern waves
 In addition to the reduction of under keel clearance, there is
an increase of water around the hull which produces a larger
bow and stern wave.
 In addition to squat, the vessel will also have to increase speed
to overcome the bow and stern waves generated

Stopping
There are six main ways of stopping a vessel using just engines and rudders:
 Crash stop
 Low-frequency rudder cycling
 High-frequency rudder cycling
 Turning under full helm
 Controlled speed reduction
 Inertia stop
Crash stop – Putting engines from Full ahead to Full astern
There is an immediate loss of control
Much better to reduce to slow ahead then slow astern, the chance
of cavitation is reduced and control is maintained for longer
Low-frequency rudder cycling –
This is designed to take the greatest advantage of drift angle
which develops as a vessel enters a turn.
High-frequency rudder cycling –
This relies on the drag on the rudder to reduce headway
Turning under full helm –
Good to use when the vessel is not restricted by sea room or
depth.
 This is probably the quickest and most efficient method of taking
way off due to the drag on the hull created by the lateral
resistance to the turn
Controlled Speed reduction –
The most practical way of taking way off the vessel in confined
waters
Speed is reduced in stages until both vessel and engines are dead
slow ahead
When at Slow ahead then Slow astern is sufficient to stop the
vessel
Inertia Stop
This is simply stopping the engines and allowing the ship to stop

The use of anchors for stopping

Dredging is particularly effective in eliminating speed and directional control.
Having both anchors out shifts the pivot point to a position between the two
anchors – this gives improved steering and makes it easier to control the bow.
The additional drag created by the anchors is often sufficient to take all way
off the vessel
The vessel must be moving when the anchors are let go
Clearing a Foul Anchor
If the anchor becomes fouled on the seabed then there are couple of methods
that you have to try and break it out –
 Heave short and steam slowly over the anchor
 If this fails to pay out some cable and steam around the anchor position,
this should rotate the shank allowing it to break out
 If this fails you will need to buoy and break the cable.

Clearing a foul hawse

When a vessel has both anchors out it is inevitable that the vessel will swing
round it moorings due to tide and the wind. This will result in the anchor cables
becoming crossed.
Clearing these turns can be tricky, you can do it by gentle engine moments and
rudder movements steam round untwisting the cable.
If this fails the foul must be cleared manually.
 Heaven in so that the foul turns above the water
 Lash the cables together using natural fiber rope below the turns
 Pass a preventer wire through the sleeping cable after the turns and
lashing
 Heave up the preventer wire to act as a slip wire and turn it up on the
bits
 Walk back on the sleeping cable to expose a joining shackle
 Make fast the cable below the joining shackle and break the cable
 Pass a wire messenger from the port side
 Make a half turn around the riding cable in the opposite direction to the
turns
 Pass a wire up the stbd hawse pipe and attach it to the sleeping cable
 Heave up on the messenger wire and slack on the easing wire
 This will remove the turns, one-half turn at a time
 When all the turns have been removed, retrieve the sleeping cable by
heaving on the easing wire
 Reconnect the joining shackle and remove the preventer wire
 Move the lashing between the two cables
 Heave up and secure the anchors for sea

Hanging off an anchor

When a vessel is to moor to a buoy with its own cable it is, therefore,
necessary to hang the anchor off
 Walk the anchor out till is clear of the hawse pipe
 Secure anchor using wires and bottle screws
 Guillotines should be left in place
 Pass a wire through the D shackle on the anchor secure one end to the
bits and the other end should be put on the windlass
 Rig a preventer wire in a slack position
  Walk back on the anchor till the weight is taken by the wire
 The wire will now be in the up-down position and the preventer will be
tight
 Payout anchor until the first join shackle appears on deck
 Rig an easing wire below the joining shackle and then break the shackle
 Slack back on the easing wire until the cable is clear of the hawse pipe
 The vessel can now use the broken cable to moor to a buoy.

Open moor
The vessel should approach with the wind and weather approximately six points
on the bow with sufficient headway, but not too fast it will cause damage to
the anchors
 Walk both anchors to the waterline
 Let go the windward anchor
 Continue making headway up to windward
 Steam for 2 ship lengths
 Let go the Lee anchor
 Hold on to the windward anchor
 Rudder amidships and engines half astern this will move the stern round
 Payout on the leeward anchor
 Stop engines when the sternway comes on
 The vessel will be brought up when there is equal cable on both anchors
at an angle of about 60º

Standing Moor
Used when the wind and tide are coming from different directions
 Stem the tide
 Let go the upstream anchor
 Move astern
 When the cable is twice the required length let go the downstream
anchor
 Go ahead on the engines to cant the bow away from the first anchor
 Vessel is now back in the middle position
 Now heave on the upstream anchor and pay out on the downstream
anchor
Open Moor Standing Moor
Running Moor
Similar to the Standing moor except it is carried out differently
 Let go, downstream anchor, when the vessel is still moving ahead
 Payout twice as much cable as is required
 Let go upstream anchor
 Pay out the upstream anchor and heave on the downstream anchor
until both lengths are the same

Mediterranean Moor
Carried out in the Mediterranean where the wind is fairly predictable and the
tide is minimal
 Make approach, when one and a half ship lengths away let go the
offshore anchor
 Steam round the anchor then kicks ahead on the engines
 When the bow is one and a half lengths past the intended final position
let got the second anchor
 Come astern on the engines
 Go astern on to the berth adjusting both anchors so that there is even
weight on both
 Run stern lines and make fast

Berthing

Port side to no wind or tide

 Approach with minimum headway at an angle of 25º - 30º
 The bow should be aimed at a point just short of where you want to
position the ship
 Stop engines well in advance and drift in
 When about a beams width off the berth Hard Stbd
 Slow astern will can't the stern to port

Stbd side to no wind or tide

 Make the approach at 15º - 20º
 Aim roughly where the bow will end up
 When half a beams width from the berth back spring ashore
 Dead slow astern
 Pass a stern line as soon as possible to assist with coming alongside

Port side to tide from ahead with a gentle onshore breeze

 Due to the tide, there will be much better steering characteristics
due to more water passing over the rudder
 Stop the vessel when still far away from the berth and assess the tide
and wind strength
 Aim the bow at the final position
  Approach at 25º - 30º
 When about a beams width off the berth round up to stem the tide
 Balance this position and wind will bring the vessel alongside

Port side to Tide from dead ahead strong onshore breeze

 Aim the vessel 50 – 60m ahead of the final position and one a half
beams width off the berth
 Let go the offshore anchor
 Now balance the engines so to stem the tide
 Using the anchor to control the bows closing speed come onto the
berth

Port side to Tide from ahead moderate offshore breeze

 Aim the bow at the final position
 Approach at 20º or less to allow for the vessel being blown off the
berth
 When about a beams width off the berth round up to stem the tide
 Balance this position and wind will bring the vessel alongside
 Pass lines as soon as possible

Avoid when possible approaching a berth with the tide astern of you, unless you
have the assistance of tugs.

Navigating in Ice

 If a vessel is not down to her marks when navigating in ice you should
do all you can to ballast her down ensuring that stability is not
compromised
 Be aware of ballast water freezing especially in high sided tanks, fill
only to 90% full to give some Free surface to it
 Trim by the stern as much as possible so that the props and rudders
are as deep as possible
 Ensure search light is working, if do not navigate at night
 Always pass to windward of icebergs
 When approaching ice from open water make your entrance at right
angles, slowing down until vessel is nearly stopped
 Proceed at speed fast enough that you will not cause damage to the
hull and slow enough ice will not form around you
 When following an icebreaker the idea is to follow in its wake but
don’t get too close to it.
 If your vessel is in danger of having her props hit a berg then stop the
shafts to avoid damage to the blade tips
  If your vessel is suffering from ice accretion then turn your vessel so
the relative wind is on the opposite side. Be very careful not to
induce stress fractures when using hammers or mattocks.

Tugs

3 types of tag:
Conventional
Tractor
Azimuth stern drive

Conventional Tug
 Single prop big rudders
 As soon as she takes a tow the pivot point moves directly under the
towing point
 If the angle of tow moves dead astern to 45º off the tug will not be able
to return to a position with the tow dead astern without letting the tow
go

Tractor Tug
 2 Voith Schnieder units
 Propulsion is fwd of the towing point
 This means the tug can pull in any direction and girt is much less of a
problem
 Very expensive + hard to maintain
 Less bollard pulls than a conventional tug

Azimuth
 Takes the best of both tugs
 Propulsion is a pair of independently rotating units both mounted at the
stern
 2 towing points 1 fwd and 1 aft of midships
 Maneuvers much the same as the conventional tug

Girting
Conventional tugs are prone to girting due to the pivot point being fwd of the
propulsion units. If the tug repositions or the ship takes a sudden swing then
the line of the tow is displaced causing a turning moment, this can heel the tug
violently possibly causing it to capsize
To minimize girting Gob ropes maybe used, this effectively bowses down the
tow rope and moves the pivot point aft of the thrust
Task – Revision Notes: Passage Planning
Appraisal – Gathering all the information together:
 Charts
 Tidal Streams / atlas’s
 Publication: Mariners Handbook, ALRS, Pilot Books, Bridge Procedures
Guide
 Routing Charts
 Ocean Current Charts
 Weekly Notices to Mariners
 M Notices
 IMO ships Routing
 Guide to Port entry
 Distance Tables
 Ice Charts
 Ocean Passages for the world
 Annual Summary notice to mariners

Planning – Putting the lines on the charts and making the passage plan

Execution – Selling and going over the plan with the master

Monitoring – Actually carrying out the plan and monitoring its effectiveness

Weekly Notice to Mariners

Section 1 Explanatory Notes, Index for section 2
 Contains explanatory notes and advice on the use of charts and
publications followed by an index of notices and chart folio index of
charts effected together with the geographical region

Section 2 Admiralty Notices to Mariners – Chart corrections

 Contains notices for correction of charts including notices affecting
navigational charts and are listed consecutively from the onset of the
year
 Contains T’s and P’s notices relevant to the week. The last weekly
notice for each month will also list the T’s and P’s remaining current
 Any new addition charts together with new publications issued
 Latest editions of publications are listed at the end of March, June,
September and December

Section 3 Reprints of Radio warnings

 Contains all Navarea messages in force with reprints of those issued
in the week
 Also lists Hydrolants, Hydropacs, US special warnings received
together with reprints in force for the those areas
  The first weekly notice for each year contains a list of Navearea,
Hydrolant and Hydropac messages

Section 4 Corrections to admiralty sailing directions

 Contains all corrections affecting Sailing Directions for that week
 A cumulative list of these corrections is published each month

Section 5 Corrections to admiralty list of lights and fog signals

 Contains all corrections for that week

Section 6 Corrections to admiralty list of radio signals

 Contains all corrections for that week

Section 7 Corrections to admiralty miscellaneous publications

 Contains all corrections for that week

Section 8 Corrections to admiralty digital publications

 Contains all corrections for that week

Routing charts
The following Information is found on a monthly routine chart:
 Ice information – max limit
 Position of ocean weather ships
 Recommended tracks and distances
 Bailie wind rose
 Areas of predominant poor visibility
 Mean air temperature guide
 The Wind force guide
 Dew point and mean sea temperatures
 Loading demarcation limits
 Ocean Currents
Task – Revision Notes: Gyro
A gyroscope is a heavy wheel which when at high speed will rotate around its
spin axis and is free to move around two other axis’s mutually perpendicular to
each other. These other two degrees of freedom allow the gyroscope to turn in
azimuth and tilt.

Gyroscopic inertia
 Before the gyro starts to spin its spin axis can be moved in any direction
 When it starts spinning it exhibits resistance against efforts to change
the direction of its spin axis this is gyroscopic inertia
o Inertia is related to the shape and weight of the gyro, the
distribution of that weight and the rate of spin of the wheel
o For the optimum performance, you need a wheel with the weight
heaviest around the rim, which is spinning as rapidly as possible
 Gyroscopic inertia ensures that the spin axis will continue to be directed
towards a fixed point in space
 Consequently, the movement relative to the earth allows gyroscopic
inertia to be divided into tilt and drift

Tilt
 The vertical movement of a gyro axis relative to the earth
If the gyro is situated at the equator horizontal with the spin axis pointing east
the gyros spin axis will steadily tilt upwards so after about 6 hours it will be
vertical, it will then start to tilt downwards and after 12 hours it will be
pointing west. It will continue downwards until after 18hours it will be pointing
vertically downwards, after which it will start to tilt upwards again until it is
directly east again.
When the gyro is at either pole and horizontal it will follow its representative
star around the horizon with no change in tilt.

Drift
 The horizontal movement of the gyro axis (change in azimuth)
A free gyroscope sited at either pole with its spin axis horizontal will
apparently move in a clockwise direction when viewed from above the North
Pole – due to the counter-clockwise rotation of the earth. It will move in an
apparent counterclockwise rotation when viewed from the south pole.
When placed on the Equator there will be no drift

Precession
If you apply a torque perpendicularly to the spin of the axis the axis will move
in a direction perpendicular to that of the applied torque. This is called
precession and is the result of the gyro trying to rebalance itself to
accommodate the two demands made on it.
  If the torque applied about the spin axis in the plane wheel its effect is
to reduce / increase the speed of rotation – increase / decrease the load
on the motor.
To work out which way precession is going to take place you need to know the
direction of spin on the wheel.
Next, you just rotate the torque through 90º in the direction of the spin to
ascertain the direction of precession
Torque applied here

Resultant Precession

Gyro Compass
Precession is very useful and is utilized to make the gyro north seeking.
Assume:
 The axis is horizontal and is pointing to the east at a rising star
 As the star rises the north end of the axis will tilt upwards
 If adding weight to the rotor casing asymmetrically to make it top or
bottom heavy the axis can be made to precess towards the meridian as
the gyro tilts
 When the gyro is horizontal the added weight is either directly above or
below the wheel and causes no torque
 This gravity controlled method, unfortunately, will only make the gyro
very crudely north seeking rather than north settling

Methods of gravity control

The simple method as mentioned above with putting weights directly above or
below the spin axis is highly unsatisfactory in a seaway where the weight would
be subject to accelerations from rolling and pitching of the vessel

What to do…
The system of using liquid ballistics produces a top-heavy effect by a high-
density fluid flowing under gravity from pots on the high side of the assembly
which support the wheel. This fluid is able to flow through a small bore tube to
similar pots on the low side. The torque produced by this weight transfer has
the same effect as the torque produced by a heavy top weight and results in
precession to the meridian.
The bore of the tube is such that it resists the surge of liquid when the vessel
rolls.

Gyro wheel

Horizon

As it tilts the
fluid flows to the
low side causing
a torque,
Tube precession
returns the gyro
back to the
meridian

Gravity control using a pendulum effect

This is basically a pendulum bob which swings to the low side of a spin axis to
produce torque, which in turn processes the gyro towards the meridian. This is
also impractical due to the vessel movement.

Damping
Without some means of damping a gravity controlled gyro will continue to
follow an elliptical path. If the gyro is going to be useful then the size of this
elliptical path must be reduced so that the axis finally settles on the meridian.
A gyro may be dumped in tilt or dumped in azimuth. Damping in tilt is achieved
by making any tilt of gyro produce a horizontal torque which results in vertical
precession to oppose the tilt
Damping in azimuth is achieved by making a vertical torque and horizontal
precession, this precession is out of phase with that achieved by the gravity
control
Errors of a gyro
Course and speed
The cause and effect of tilt in a gyro has been that the gyro has maintained its
position on the earth's surface, unfortunately ships compasses are always on
the move.
When a vessel is steaming North or South its bow is steadily tilting downwards
relative to a point in space, this causes unwanted tilting on the gyros spin axis
When a vessel is steaming East or West there is no tilting so no effect on the
gyro.
If the gyro was responding to N / S motion it would settle with the spin axis
E/W where there was no tilt.
As the gyro settles N/S when subject to the earth rotation alone and E/W when
subject to the N/S component of ships speed a vector diagram can be drawn to
show the error cause by the ships movement.
To correct for these steaming errors is done by correcting latitude and speed
this done manually by applying the information to the lubber line by means of a
cam and cosine groove.
Today latitude and Speed corrections are fed in manually or where it is linked
to a GPS it may receive its information from there.
In either case, the result is fed to a correction torque motor which creates a
precession in tilt equals an opposite to the unwanted tilt.

Change of speed error

Steaming error is proportional to the ship's speed and the cosine of the course.
This normally would not be very high but a vessel navigating at 20kts at lat 70º
may get an error of 8º. The gyro will therefore be unreliable for a period time
while the axis completes its damped spiral path to the new setting position.
Many modern gyro compasses are able to automatically produce a precessing
torque that reduces steaming error problems whatever the course / speed /
latitude

Questions and answers

What are the three degrees of freedom of a free gyroscope

 Free to tilt about its Horizontal axis
 Free to drift about its Vertical axis
 Free to Spin about its axis

Describe the two notable properties of a free gyro

 Gyroscopic inertia – The reluctance of the gyro to change its plane of
rotation unless acted upon by an external force, thus the axle tends to
maintain the same direction with respect to space, known as rigidity in
space
 Precession – The movement of the axle of a gyroscope when an external
force is applied to it. If a force is applied to one end of the spin axis is
 will move at right angles to both the applied force and the spin axis. The
resultant motion is precession.
Upon what properties does the moment on inertia of a free gyro
depend on
 The speed of the wheel
 The mass of the wheel
 The distribution of the mass
What is meant by the terms TILT and DRIFT when applied to the axle
of a free gyro
 Tilt is any movement up or down
 Drift is any movement east or west
Is the rate of tilt constant and how can it be calculated
 Yes, but it depends on the latitude of the gyro. At the equator, with the
gyro spin axis pointing east – west, the axis will appear to tilt east end
up, the tilt rate will be 15 per hour and there will be no drift. The tilt
can be calculated at latitudes other than the equator by the equation 15
x Cos Latitude + Sin azimuth.
Is the rate of drift constant and how can it be calculated
 Yes, again it depends on the latitude of the gyro. At the north pole the
gyro spin axis will when viewed from above, drift clockwise at 15 per
hour. There will be no tilt. The drift at latitudes below the north pole
can be calculated by 15 x Sin Latitude
Why is a free gyro not suitable as a compass
 A free gyro is unsuitable as because :
o It is unable to seek the meridian
o It must be accurately aligned with the meridian, and be regularly
checked and adjusted.
o Frictional torque imposed by the gimble assembly causes the gyro
to drift out of the meridian.
o It only passes the meridian twice in 24 hours

Describe how controlled precession is achieved

Control precession is achieved in the Sperry gyro by means of a liquid ballistic
system. This is fitted to convert a free gyro into a controlled gyro as it provides
a means of controlling the drift of a free gyro. This is achieved by fitting pots
on either end of the gyro. Each pot is filled with equal amounts of mercury
when the spin axis is horizontal. When the north end tilts up mercury transfers
from the north pot to the south pot. This has the same effect as putting a
downward force on the south end, which results in the easterly precession of
the south end and westerly precession of the north end. The amount of
precession depends on how far the north end is above the horizon. As the north
end tilts up Precession will be small, as it continues to tilt it will reach a point
when Precession will match the easterly drift of the earth. It will now precess
west. When it returns to the meridian there will be no tilt and Precession will
be maximum.
Task – Revision Notes: GPS
The GPS system that we predominately use is the NAVSTAR GPS the American
system – which stands for Navigation Satellite Timing and Ranging Global
Positioning System. Other systems are the GLONASS system and the new Galileo
system.

Until recently the civilian access to the system was degraded but in 2000 the
Selective Availability was removed.

When selective availability was in use the accuracy was only up to 100m, with
the introduction of DGPS which was able to produce accuracy up to 1-3m

The GPS System is made up of 3 parts:

 Ground Control Segment
 Space Segment
 User Segment

Ground Control Segment

Master control station
 Controls and monitors the satellite orbits
 Predicts performance and produces ephemeris for all satellites
 Information about the health of the satellites is passed to each
satellite so they can pass this on to the users
In addition to the master control station, there is four monitoring station in low
latitudes that are evenly space around the world. This is so that satellites are
always above the horizon of one or more stations
The monitoring stations collect data in the ephemeris production, they may
also be used to transmit navigation data and commands to the satellites.

Space Segment
Satellites operate in six circular orbits inclined to the equator.
Each orbit has four active satellites, this configuration ensures that at least 4
satellites are available to a user anywhere on the earth surface.

User Segment
A GPS receiver determines the position of its antenna by simultaneously
measuring the ranges from a number of satellites whose positions are
accurately known. Basically what actually happens is the receiver measures
how far a code signal received from the satellite is out of step with a replica
code generated within the receiver. Unfortunately, the clock within the
receiver is not synchronized exactly with the satellite time so the direct
calculation of range is not possible. But the errors for the satellite clocks are
know and are sent out by the Ground Control Segments.
GPS signals are very weak and spread over a wide bandwidth, therefore the
receiver gets good signals and a lot of noise. So that the receiver does not pick
up lots of stronger signals the design of the antennae is vital.
The weak signals are amplified as they are sent down the cable to the
antennae. Further amplification is carried out in the receiver to pick out and
process the code.
The receiver’s microprocessor then is able to devise the pseudo range.

There are 3 types of receiver on the market

Parallel Receiver
 1 channel dedicated to each satellite this allows them to access all the
satellites continuously and simultaneously
 Such receivers achieve better signal-noise ratios and better pseudo
range results
 Parallel receivers are typically used for highly accurate applications such
as for surveying

Fast sequencing receivers

 Do not have dedicated channels
 They are able to rapidly switch between the channels of the available
satellites
 Due to the measurements not being made simultaneously which may
result in inaccuracies in the position

Multiplexing receivers
 These are very fast sequencing
 But are prone to noise which results in bad positions

Errors within the GPS System

WGS84
GPS provides positions based on WGS84 (World Geodetic System 84) which is a
mathematical model of the earth. This requires all current charts to be
converted to WGS84 to ensure that they correspond with the actual position.
The corrections are usually noted on the charts and obviously, this provides a
big opportunity for human error.

System Error
 Despite the constant monitoring of the satellites by control stations,
there will be small clock errors and ephemeris errors. Although the
combined error is unlikely to give more than a 2m position error.
 Ionospheric delay is caused by refraction in the ionosphere, this delay
can be calculated and supplied to the user via the Control Stations
 Tropospheric delay can not be calculated, this will only produce a small
error when using a good receiver
  Multipath error refers to an error caused by receiving direct and
reflected signals – the receivers in a modern set are programmed to
detect this
 Noise is likely to cause errors in positions obtained from the GPS,
warning of solar activity may be included in this category

Dilution of precision
When fixing normally we know that 3 bearings cut at 60º are ideal, the GPS
system will automatically select available satellites to provide that accurate
fix.
The user receives an indication of the accuracy of the fix he has received and
the expected current satellite geometry.
This is provided by the receiver and available on the display as Dilution of
Precision (DOP):
 GDOP – Geometric Dilution of Precision applies to four dimensions (N/S,
E/W, height and time)
 PDOP – Position Dilution of Precision applies to three dimensions (N/S,
E/W, and height)
 HDOP – Horizontal Dilution of Precision is the most valuable to a
navigator because it indicates the probable accuracy of the N/S and
E/W dimensions)
 EDOP – Easting Dilution of Precision is of interest when longitude errors
are most critical
 NDOP – Northing Dilution of Precision is of interest when latitude
accuracy is critical
 TDOP – Time Dilution of Precision applies to time accuracy only
 VDOP – Vertical Dilution of Precision when altitude is critical

If your HDOP reading is 2 then there is a 95% probability that the GPS position
is within 200m of the true position.

DGPS
A DGPS base station is erected over a known position and the coordinates of it
are entered into the receiver.
Given the true position and the ephemeris of all the satellites the base station
receiver is able to calculate a series of true ranges. It simultaneously measures
the pseudo range to the same satellites. The difference between the two
provides a set of range corrections that is then transmitted to users in the
area, resulting in a more accurate position.
For DGPS frequencies check the ALRS Vol. 2
Errors with DGPS
 The maximum separation between the DGPS station and the user should
be 300Nm
 Noise can result in an error of a number of meters in the pseudo range
 Multipath error cannot be removed but receivers compensate for it
 Radar

RADAR stands for Radio Detection and Range

Fundamentally a RADAR is a precision clock which enables the time between a
transmitted radio signal leaving the set and the reflected pulse returning to the
set to be measured.
 RADAR can measure the bearing and distance of most objects at quite
long ranges by using radio waves or electromagnetic vibration

The basic set

 Transmitter – This generates the radio waves
Transmits the high energy radio waves and receives
the low energy echoes
 Waveguide - Metal tubing that carries the high-frequency radio
waves
 Antennae - This directs the radio waves towards the objects and
receives the echoes
It makes it possible to work out the bearing of the
target
It collects the received echoes and directs them
towards the receiver
Scanners transmit energy from the magnetron in a
narrow beam, this horizontal width of beam is usually
defined as the angle between half power points
 Receiver - A device that detects the presence of any echoes
and amplifies them ready for display
 Time base or Trigger - The means of measuring the travel time of the
pulse and echo
 Display - The means of showing the echoes in plan form – The
Plan Position Indicator (PPI)

Horizontal beam width

Side Lobes P1
Half Power

Main Lobe
Maximum Power
A

Half Power
P2
  The angle P1 A P2 is the horizontal bandwidth
 P1 and P2 are the points which a receiver being moved across a beam at
a constant distance from the scanner would register half power
 In the diagram above the horizontal bandwidth is greatly exaggerated
and in reality it is less than 2º
 It is very difficult to design a scanner which only has a main beam and
much smaller less powerful beams exist – side lobes
 The scanner width and wavelength of the radar frequency determine the
horizontal beam width- The wider the scanner the smaller the
Horizontal bandwidth
The shorter the wavelength the smaller the
Horizontal bandwidth

Vertical Bandwidth

 More complicated than horizontal bandwidth and the way scanners are
designed there is much more Vertical bandwidth than Horizontal
Bandwidth
 The sea surface reflects energy breaking up the vertical pattern into
lobes - this is because the waves of energy and reflected waves of
energy are sometimes in phase and sometimes out of phase, this results
in lobes
 The number of vertical lobes formed depends on the wavelength and the
height of the scanner
o By taking the length of the vertical line from the scanner to the
sea surface and dividing that length by half the wavelength used
in the radar pulse you can find the number of vertical lobes
 The distance between the vertical lobes increases with distance from
the vessel
Radar Transmission
For a good echo to be produced the radar pulse must:
 Have high energy
 Be of short wavelength to enable to echo to be accurately timed
 Be generated for only short periods of time to ensure echoes from
nearby objects are detected

Pulse length and Pulse Repetition Frequency

Typical pulse lengths:
Short 15m 0.5µ sec
Medium 75m 0.25µ sec
Long 300m 1.00µ sec
A large number of these pulses are generated every second this is known a
Pulse Repetition Frequency
The interval of time between successive pulses is known as Pulse Repetition
Interval
Due to the high speeds of the pulses echoes from targets at a long range will
return before the next pulse is transmitted

RADAR’s Limitations
Due to the curvature of the earth, there is a limit to what we can see with the
naked eye because light is refracted we are able to see roughly 6% further than
the theoretical horizon.
RADAR waves are also refracted and because they are at a lower frequency
than light they are bent further so the RADAR can see 15% further than the
theoretical horizon.

Discrimination
Differentiation of targets depends on three factors:
1. Spot size
2. Pulse Length
3. Horizontal beam width

Spot size
The electron beam in the CRT is focused as finely as possible, the degree of
focus governs the spot size, this is very much dependent on the range scale in
use.

Pulse length
A detected echo produces an intensification of the electron beam
The duration of the bright spot on the screen is, therefore, a function of the
duration of the received echo – the duration of the echo is the pulse length.
Targets which are on the same bearing and closer than half the pulse length
will appear as one target – therefore we can say that Range Discrimination is
dependent on pulse length and spot size
Range and bearing accuracy
Bearing accuracy is governed by:
1. Horizontal Beamwidth
2. Scanner to trace sync
3. Heading marker
4. Aerial squint error

If the scanner to trace synchronization is not correct then there will be errors
in bearing:
 One revolution of the trace on the CRT must happen at the same time as
one revolution of the scanner
 The orientation of the picture on the screen must be correct to the
orientation of the heading marker
 The heading marker is operated by a switch which is activated
every time the scanner passes it, this must be adjusted so that
the heading marker intersects the picture at the correct point

Squint error
This is a slotted waveguide scanner and is caused when a magnetron produces a
slightly different RF pulse from that which the aerial is designed for is
introduced into the set.

Errors are seen on the PPI

False Echoes
These echoes may appear on the screen when there is no real target there,
there are 6 types:
1. Indirect – Caused by obstructions in the path of the radar beam, Think
masts on the Surf when targets would appear in the blind sector when in
fact they were ahead of you

2. Sidelobe – When very good target is present at close range there may be
sufficient energy returned from the side lobes to generate echoes on the
screen, these echoes may appear in an arc on either side of the target
3. Multiple – caused by a radar pulse being reflected backward and
forwards between two reflective surfaces before being received by the
scanner
4. Interference – Caused by the radar picking up pulses of other radars
operating in the vicinity using a similar transmission frequency and
similar pulse repetition frequency. Normally causes a spiraling pattern
on the display
5. The second Trace returns – In some cases, the echo will return to the
scanner after the next pulse has been sent, the system assumes that the
echo is from the second pulse and will paint the target accordingly
6. Ghost – This will occur when a vessel is approaching power cables which
span a channel, the appearance on a radar screen is that the target is on
 a steady bearing, even with evasive action the target will remain on a
steady bearing

Automatic Radar Plotting Aids

This is a computer attached to a Radar which able to automatically measure
ranges and bearings of selected targets. From a series of ranges and bearings a
track history can be formed:
 True track
 True speed
 CPA
 TCPA
Remember the ARPA shows you what the target has done NOT what it is doing
now.

Automatic Identification System

AIS is a shipboard broadcast transponder system operating in the VHF radio

band. It is designed to send the following information out:
 Ship Identification
 Position
 Heading
 Ship length, beam, draught
 Hazardous cargo

Each AIS system consists of:

 1 VHF transmitter
 2 VHF receivers
 1 VHF DSC receiver
 Standard marine electronic communications link to shipboard display
systems
 Positioning and timing information is taken from either an integral GPS
or and external one with a DGPS for coastal navigation
 Each system transmits and receives over two radio channels to avoid
interference problems

The AIS transponder is usually working continuously whether it is near shore or

mid-ocean.

Requirements
All passenger ships and cargo ships of 300GT or more
Ships constructed on or after 1 July 02 must have them
Ships built before then are to be phased in as follows:
Pax and tankers By 1 Jul 03
Other Vessels 50000Gt+ By 1 Jul 04
 Other Vessels 10 – 50000GT By 1 Jul 05
Other Vessels 3 – 10000GT By 1 Jul 06
Other Vessels 300 – 3000GT By 1 Jul 07

Electronic Charts

Constructed using either Rasta Data or Vector Data

Raster Data:
 Produced by scanning the master components used in the production of
a paper chart
 The resultant image is made up of colored pixels
 It is basically a scan of our normal charts
 You can not interrogate the objects on the charts to produce information
on it

VectorData:
 Produced by giving digital values to each and every object on the chart
 The computer can identify these objects
 It is, therefore, possible to interrogate these objects to obtain
information on them
 You are able to customize views as well due to the layering effect given

Display systems
There are two basic groups:
 ECDIS – Electronic Chart Display and Information System
 RCDS – Raster Chart Display System
ECDIS is a navigation information system which complies with IMO performance
standards and which with adequate backup arrangements can be accepted as
complying with the up to date chart required IMO. The regulations state that
you should be using Vector charts but as you can use Raster charts if there are
no suitable vector charts available.

RCDS should only be operated together with an appropriate folio of up to date

paper chart. There is no performance standard set out and therefore RCDS is
unable to meet the requirements listed under SOLAS V/20, 2001 and is
therefore not a legal equivalent to and an up to date paper chart

NAVTEX

This is a navigational telex service broadcasting safety messages on 518kHz

It is possible to receive Navtex on radio telex but you should really use a
dedicated system which comprises of the following:
  Receiver tuned to the broadcast frequency
 Printer and cash roll paper

A microprocessor control ensures that a routine message already received will

not be reprinted on subsequent transmissions
You are able to select services according to the user’s preference but the
following services are permanent:
 Navigation Warnings
 Meteorological Warnings
 SAR information

Echo Sounders

An echo sounder sends short pulses of ultrasonic sound vertically downwards

from the vessel. When it is reflected off the seabed it returns to the
transmission source. The time taken for the sound to return to the ship is
measured and with the knowledge of the speed of sound in water is converted
into a depth.
So basically an echo sounder is a time measuring device.
 A trigger fires the pulse generator producing an electrical pulse 10kHz –
250kHz
 Part of the pulse is sent to the recorder / visual display producing a
mark on the paper or a blip on the screen
 Part of the pulse is sent to the transducer where it is converted from AC
to Ultra Sound and is directed in a beam to the seabed
 The sound is bounced off the seabed
 The returning signal is received by the transducer and is converted back
to an AC current
 An amplifier boosts the returning signal, which is much weaker than the
transmitted signal
 A voltage is applied to the recorder or to the displayed painting a new
trace
 The depth can be read off the scale

Possible Errors
Stylus Rate Error
The speed of pen arm or the belt being incorrect not synchronizing with the
transmissions. If the belt is too fast the depth recorded will be too great

Index Error
When the transmission or zero mark is not zero.
False bottom Error
False bottom readings may be obtained when the depth of water is such that
the time taken for the returning echo is greater than the time taken for the
pen to one or more revolutions and the next pulse has been transmitted

Multiple Echoes
These occur when the pulse bounces between the seabed and the keel or the
sea surface, this will give multiples of the true depth.

Cone Effect
The transmission from the transducer is approximately conical shape this shape
reduces the loss of returns due to rolling and pitching, but it can lead to
incorrect readings when the bottom contour shelves steeply.

Side Echoes
These may be from an object not immediately below the vessel but whose slant
depth is less than the depth of water. This is due to side lobes from the
transducer and may occur in dredged or man-made channels when the echoes
return from the walls before the bottom.

Separation Error
When different transceiver and receiver transducers are used. When in shallow
water the limit with the vessel almost aground the depth recorded would be
half the distance between the TX and RX transducers.

Aeration
When the transmitted pulse encounters air bubbles up to 99.9% of the energy is
reflected – it is, therefore, essential to position the transducer in a position
where the transducer is not going to be affected by bubbles e.g. not the bow or
stern.
Task – Revision Notes: Magnetic Compass
General

All ships over 150 GRT must be fitted with a magnetic compass, they must also
carry a spare compass. This spare should be stored away from the bridge so it is
unaffected by any casualty disabling the bridge. It is the owner and Masters
responsibility to ensure the compass is in good working order.

Adjustments

The compass should be adjusted when:

 They are first installed

 They become unreliable
 The ship undergoes structural repair or alteration
 Electrical or magnetic equipment is installed or removed close to the
compass
 A period of 2 years has elapsed since the last adjustment and a record of
deviations has not been maintained or such deviations are excessive

Changes in Magnetism during the life of the ship

Masters should check the performance of the compass if

 Carrying cargoes with magnetic properties

 Using electromagnetic lifting appliances to load or discharge
 Major collision or electrical discharge
 When the ship has been laid up for a period of time

Monitoring

Compass errors should be determined after each large alteration and at least
once a watch. A person holding a certificate of competency as compass
adjuster must make any adjustments. If the master deems it necessary a
person holding a Masters license may make the adjustment.

Deviation card

Deviations at points around the compass

Position of fore and aft magnets
Position of athwartships magnets
Size of the flinders bar
Position of Kelvin spheres from center
Position of heeling magnets
Coefficient B
The fore and aft component of the ships permanent magnetism is known as
Force P. It affects the compass needle by attracting it forward (if does this
then the ship has a magnetically blue bow for this example)

The ships head in the diagram is the compass heading, therefore the north-
seeking compass needle is always vertically upwards
The completed diagram shows that the deviation caused by the P-force takes
the form of a sin curve and produces Easterly deviation on Easterly courses and
Westerly deviation on a westerly course

C rod
The c rod is the component of the ships vertical soft iron that has an effective
upper pole on the compass position. This is induced magnetism and is
dependant on which hemisphere you are in. The C rod is usually the ship's
funnel as the heat coming out of the funnel creates induced magnetism.
As with the P-force we see that deviation varies as the sin of the course
C rod diagram

Coefficient C
The solitary cause of the cosine component of the deviation is force Q and is
due to athwartships permanent magnetism. It is considered positive if it
attracts the compass needle to starboard
The diagram shows that the deviation caused by force Q takes the form of a
cosine curve. It causes westerly deviation on Northerly courses and easterly
deviation on Southerly courses
The deviation will increase with magnetic latitude.
This is corrected by the athwartships magnets.
Coefficient D
This deviation is the result of a combination of fore and aft and athwartships
soft iron. It occurs on the intercardinal headings.
The Soft iron spheres are used to cancel out this magnetism

Therefore:
 Coefficient B is caused by force P and the C rod
 Corrected using the Flinders bar and the fore and aft
Magnets
 Coefficient C is caused by force Q
 Corrected using the Athwartships Magnets
 Coefficient D is caused by a combination of fore and aft and
athwartships soft iron magnetism
 Corrected using the soft iron spheres

Why may there be some deviation left in the compass after it has been
adjusted?
The compass adjuster can only estimate how much soften iron there is
affecting Coefficient B so, therefore, he may have balanced a number of
flinders bar and the fore and aft magnets correctly for the position the ship is
in. If the ship then proceeds over the equator the induced magnetism changes,
if there are excessive deviations on Easterly or Westerly headings then we can
assume that the compass adjuster got the amount of induced magnetism wrong
using the wrong length of Flinders bar.
You could adjust the fore and aft magnets to resolve this problem, or you could
take regular errors noting down the different deviations, and then present
these to the compass adjuster on your return. This is known as a split B
problem due to the split between Permanent and Induced Magnetism.

What is a retentive error?

This is the resultant magnetism that a ship will acquire if on a heading for a
prolonged period – for example when tied up alongside for any time.
This error is not permanent and will disappear gradually over a few days. This
should be noted when leaving port.

Suppose you were on a ship going from Southampton to the Far East, what
adjustments would you make to the compass, if any?
 Adjust the Heeling Error Bucket as magnetic latitude changes

What is Heeling Error?

 Deviation caused by the heeling (rolling) of the ship

What would you do if the spheres had been removed from the compass?
 Check deviation card, marks on the frame, etc.

What routine maintenance would you do on the compass?

 Visual inspection, check no bubbles, verify the position of
correctors, keep a record of compass errors.

On what heading is a heeling error most noticeable?

 North or South

What scenario would require spheres placed in the fore and aft line?
 The presence of coefficient E. Deviation caused by induction
in the ships diagonal horizontal soft iron.

What preparations would you take into consideration before performing a

compass swing?
 Funnel at normal sea going temperature
 Upright Vessel
 Compass card tested for friction
 Lubber Line coincident with fore and aft line
 Azimuth prism aligned
 Position of all deck equipment at normal sea going condition
 Ships in vicinity more than 0.3M distant
 Steady on each heading to prevent guessing error
Task – Revision Notes: Chart work
Clearing Bearing
Clearing bearings must be so far from the Limiting Danger Line that if crossed
the bow / stern of the vessel will still be in the safe water.

Limiting Danger Line

This should have additional safe water depth built into the depth so that if you
were to stray across it and would not go aground.

Clearing bearings / lines

Clearing marks are selected objects that when in transit or just open lead clear
of a danger.
When a clearing line is not available then you can use clearing bearings.

NLT 260º

NMT 272º

As long as the bearing of the church is not less than 260º and not more than
272º your vessel is clear of the danger.
Advance and Transfer
Advance = The amount the vessel has advanced along the original course after
the wheel over point has been reached

Transfer = The amount the vessel has moved at right angles to the original
course after the wheel over point has been reached.

To use Advance and Transfer you have to use the tables provided by the
builder, they are worked out for different speeds and rudder angles.
 Find Tidal Stream
A ship steering 110º at 10kts departs from Position A at 0100 arrives at B at
0200, find the tide experienced during this period.

COG and SOG

A - 0100

B - 0200

10Nm long Tide experienced,

Speed is over 1hr in
this case

Running Fix
The vessel below is steering a course of 110º at a speed of 10kts

0900 DR

0930 DR
0900 DR

Transfer the
0900 5nm 0930
up the position
course line

Things to remember to put on the chart

 Limiting danger lines
 Clearing lines / bearings
 Advance and transfer
 Wheel over points
 ETA’s at wheel over points
 Transit / compass errors
 SBE time
 Call master times
 Astern propulsion check
 Contingency anchorage
 VHF channel for pilots / VTS
 Expected visible ranges
 Clear anchors
 PI’s
 Expected tidal stream
 Leading lights
Task - Revision Notes: Weather
Low / Depression
A low is an area of atmospheric pressure lower than its surroundings
A low may be referred to a cyclone.

High
A region of higher atmospheric pressure to that of its surroundings
A high may be referred to as an anticyclone
A ridge is the horizontal extension of the high away from its center

Fronts
Zones of bad weather connecting with low-pressure regions
Cold fronts – bring cold air, good visibility, and showers
Warm fronts bring warm air, poor visibility and showers
Occlusions are where cold and warm fronts merge, from this you get variable
weather.

The Atmosphere
The doldrums
At the equator there is a low-pressure belt around the earth, the air at
this point rises to great height because it is strongly heated by solar
radiation, the air particles will also hold a lot of water.
Horse Latitudes
The air continues to rise until it hits a ceiling at about 15-20km up – the
air then moves pole-wards as it moves northwards it cools and becomes
denser, therefore, it starts to sink. This occurs right around the earth
and is called the Subtropical high-pressure belt.
Tradewinds
The air which has descended in the Subtropical belt has to go
somewhere so it forms part of the trade winds. From 20º - 40º N the air
flows back into the equator in a layer close to the earth surface,
completing the circulation.
Polar High
At the pole, there is an area of cold slow moving air. The pressure is
generally much higher than the other latitudes due to the air being very
cold and dense.
Westerlies
From the North, the Polar air moves south assisted by the centrifugal
effect. Forcing against this is the air mass from the subtropical belt of
high pressure. This resists the spread of polar air causing unsettled
weather within the air mass due to the two air masses pushing forward
against one another. This is called the westerlies belt.
Wind
The Wind is air in motion
If there is a steep gradient – isobars are close together = fast flowing air
 If there is a gentle gradient – isobars are far apart = slow flowing air
Coriolis
The Coriolis force does not move air it only deflects particles as soon as they
start moving
If there was no Coriolis force air would move high to low by the shortest route,
Coriolis causes the air to rotate.
 Northern Hemisphere rotates anticlockwise about a low
rotates clockwise about a high
 It is the other way round in the Southern Hemisphere

At the equator Coriolis is Nil and the air flows directly from high to low
At the poles Coriolis is at its highest deflecting air which wants to obey the
pressure balancing force – this, therefore, prevents balancing highs and lows:
this means that the closer a low or high gets to the pole the longer its life is.

Formation of a cold front

When cold air pushes underneath warm air, the warm air must move upwards.
Because the air is forced up fairly quickly the result is the formation of clouds –
Cumulus
Signs of a cold front passing

Ahead of front In front Behind front

Cloud Low continuous Nimbostratus & Cloud separating
Status some
Cumulonimbus
WX Fog & rain Hvy Rain and Isolated showers
Thunder
Wind Dir & Spd Dir variable / Veers 180º
Constant gusty weakening
Temp Constant Falling Falling rapidly
Humidity High Falling Dry air
Visibility Mod – Poor Mod – Poor Good – v good
Pressure Falling Steady Rising

Formation of a warm front

When warm air displaces cold air, it slides over the top of the cold air, the
result is the formation of layer clouds – Stratus
Signs of a warm front passing

Ahead of front In front Behind front

Cloud Developing cirrus Cloud all over Clouded all over
nimbostratus stratus or
stratocumulus
WX Halo around sun / Rain increasing Fog patches &
the moon then stopping drizzle
followed by fog or
mist
Wind Increasing and Freshening Dir + Spd constant
backing veering
Temp Rising Rising Constant
Humidity Increasing V high High
Visibility Worsening Poor Mod
Pressure Falling steadily Falling slowly Steady then
falling

Depressions often form on a front on the boundary of two air masses ‘warm &
cold’
A depression appears on the chart as a series of isobars around a center point
of low pressure.
Depressions give unsettled weather and will often be accompanied by strong
winds
The main direction of movement for a depression is east in the Northern
hemisphere.
They travel at varying speeds although a larger decaying depression will most
likely be slower.

Fog
Fog is caused by air being cooled to its dew point (the point where air becomes
saturated by the water vapor within it) the condensation of this water vapor
produces fog.

Advection / sea fog

When warm moist air flows over a cold sea, the air is cooled to its dew
point and advection fog occurs.
It is often only a small thin layer and mast tops can be seen over the top
of it.
In temperate / high latitudes advection fog is most common in spring
when the sea is at its coolest.
It is particularly prevalent where prevailing winds transport warm moist
air over areas of cold water or major cold water currents.
Frontal fog
This may occur on warm front /occlusion if the temperature of the air
in front of the front is very low
Frontal fog occurs due to the mixing of warm and cold air on the two
sides of the front

Arctic Sea smoke

This occurs in very high latitudes when cold air is blown over the
relatively warm sea. Evaporation occurs but the cold air is unable to
hold the water vapor, so some of the water vapor condenses causing fog
Usually found in gaps in ice fields / glaciers

Radiation Fog
Radiation fog occurs over low-lying land on clear nights. It is due to cold
air meeting relatively warm land

How to forecast fog

Warnings of fog can be observed by frequent monitoring of the wet and dry
bulb thermometers.
It should be closely monitored whenever the air temperature is slightly higher
or almost equal to that of the sea.
You should plot temperature against dew point. If the curves converge then you
can expect fog

Land and sea breeze

Best known in tropical and subtropical climates. It occurs when there is
unequal heating of the land and sea
By day the sun raises the temperature of the land but the sea temperature
stays very much the same.
Air in contact with the land rises very quickly expanding as it rises due to the
heating. The air from the sea flows into the gap and takes its place this creates
an onshore wind.
Offshore wind
At night the air over the land cools rapidly, causing it to become denser and
thus it starts to fall, this creates a pressure gradient causing air to flow out
towards the sea

These land / sea breezes will be increased if:

 The sky is clear
 Calm conditions
 Desert or dry barren coastline
 High ground near the coast.

Katabatic wind
A Katabatic wind occurs when radiation on a clear night causes cooling over the
sloping ground, the colder denser air will flow downhill producing a downslope
wind.
Tropical revolving storms
The requirements for a TRS are:
 Unstable air
 High sea temperature
 High Humidity
 Low wind shear
 Latitudes higher than 5º so that there is an adequate Coriolis
force
The approach of a TRS may be indicated by:
 Rapid drop in pressure, more than 3mb below the seasonal
average,
 Increasing wind speed
 Change of wind direction
 High (cirrus) clouds becoming Cirro-Stratus, Cumulus, and then
Cumulo-Nimbus
 Long low swell from the apparent direction of the storm center
If you believe there is a TRS nearby you can work out where your vessel lies in
comparison to the eye easily by:
 Stop the vessel to find out the true wind speed and direction
 Use Buys Ballots Law to estimate the storm's center – The
observer should face the wind, the center of the storm will be
approximately 90° to the right of the observer in the Northern
Hemisphere.
 A rough distance of how far the storm is away from you can be
worked out by the wind force – Force 7 = 150nm from the eye
Force 8 = 125nm from the eye
Force 10 = 75nm from the eye
Action to take in the Northern Hemisphere
If the wind is veering you are in the dangerous quadrant of the storm
 Proceed at full speed
 Put the wind 10 – 45° on the stbd bow
 As the wind continues to veer alter to stbd with it
If the wind is backing then you are in the navigable semicircle of the storm
 Proceed at full speed
 Put the wind on the stbd quarter
 As the wind continues to back alter to port with it
If the wind is steady then you are in the path of the approaching storm
 Proceed at full speed
 Put the wind on the stbd quarter and head into the navigable semicircle
 Once you are well into the navigable semicircle alter course to port with
the wind as it backs
Action to take in the Southern Hemisphere

If the wind is backing then you are in the dangerous quadrant of the storm
 Proceed at full speed
 Put the wind 10 – 45° on the port bow
 As the wind continues to back alter to port with it
If the wind is veering then you are in the navigable semicircle of the storm
 Proceed at full speed
 Put the wind on the port quarter
 As the wind, veers alter to stbd
If the wind is steady then you are in the path of the approaching storm
 Proceed at full speed
 Put the wind on the port quarter and head into the navigable semicircle
 Once you are well into the navigable semicircle alter course to stbd with
the wind as it backs

If your ship is a situation where it can not outrun the TRS then you should leave
too. In the northern hemisphere put the wind off the stbd bow and in the
southern hemisphere off the port bow. Adjust the engine speed so that the
vessel is able to maintain steerage way but no more.
Veering = Clockwise
Backing = Anti Clockwise
Uk Air masses

AM = Arctic Maritime air

 Cold dry and stable
 Warming as it travels South, humidifying and becoming less stable
 Resulting in Cold and rain

PC = Polar Continental air

 Cold dry and stable
 Warming with some humidification over the north sea becoming less
stable and getting warmer
 Resulting in cool / cold, dry / showery weather

TC = Tropical Continental air

 Warm dry and unstable
 Starts to cool therefore no humidification, stabilizing
 Resulting in warm and dry
TM = Tropical Maritime air
 Warm humid unstable air
 As it moves it cools and becomes saturated stabilizing
 Resulting in rain and fog

PM = Polar Maritime air

 Cold humid stable air
 As it moves it warms and the humidity will increase becoming less stable
 Results in cool wet weather

Currents
The surface and subsurface effect of the wind in the generation of ocean
currents

Surface
 The Wind blows over the water
 Friction transfers energy to the water
 The water initially moves in the same direction as the wind but
Coriolis deflects the water to the ‘right in the Northern Hemisphere’
 The surface current speed is 1/40th of the wind speed
 The surface current direction is 30º from the wind direction

Subsurface effect
 Surface layer transfers energy to the next layer down
 As the energy moves down to the next layer it is deflected by Coriolis
 The speed decreases due to the viscosity
 The next layers follow a similar pattern but the direction keeps
changing the further down you go due to Coriolis, this continues until
the direction finally becomes negative, this occurs at approx 50m

Ice Accretion
Fresh water ice
 Forms at temperatures below 0ºC
 Due to rain, snow, sleet, fog
 Causes a problem by freezing to aerials, GPS antennae, Radars
o It will cause a Radar to turning (therefore keep it on when in
cold climates)
o Settles on GPS antennae and will weaken the signal

Salt water ice

 Forms at temperatures below -2ºC
 Due to wind creating spray (in excess of Force 6 required)
 It freezes on the foredeck
 Causes listing, change of trim – possible hogging, decreases freeboard
 Increases KG
 Decreases GM

What can be done?

 Alter course
 Decrease speed
 Seek shelter
 Head towards warmer latitudes

The process of freezing water and the effect of salinity

 Cold air -10ºC

 Cold surface water
 Density of the water increases
 Convection brings warm water to the surface
  At 4ºC the Freshwater reaches its maximum density
 Cools further, density decreases
 Convection stops in fresh water, convection carries on in salt water
 Freshwater surface looses heat and starts to freeze when the
temperature reaches 0ºC
 Saltwater continues to cool until it reaches -2ºC when convection stops
and the surface starts to freeze

Life cycle of North Atlantic Icebergs

Icebergs are mainly formed from the glaciers of Greenland

East coast bergs are swept south by the east Greenland current
West coast bergs are swept north by west Greenland current
Easterly Bergs
 When they are calved into the sea they immediately start to break up
 Very few bergs survive past the south tip of Greenland as they melt in
the warmer water and are broken up by wave action
Westerly Bergs
 Calved from the westerly glaciers they are swept north and freeze in the
sea ice during the winter in the Baffin Bay
  In spring the ice thaws and the bergs are released
 Carried south by the Canada and Labrador currents
 As they get further south they melt quicker due to the sea temperatures
increasing
 Very few reach the shipping lanes
 The ice limit is 40N 40 W

Monsoons
Summer over the South China Sea

 Land gets hot over the desert due to the low specific heat
 Land is hot so the air heats up
 Density decreases
 Low pressure over the land
 High pressure over the South Indian Ocean
 Pressure gradient South to North
 Coriolis Effect deflects flow right in the Northern Hemisphere = SW
Monsoon
 Coriolis Effect deflects flow left in the Southern Hemisphere = SE Trades
 Hot humid equatorial / tropical maritime air which is unstable
 Orographic uplift causes heavy rain on the windward coast and where it
comes into contact with the mountains
Winter over South China Sea

 Clear, cold and dry stable air

 Land cold, air cold and dense
 Pressure high over land
 Pressure low over the equator
 Pressure gradient North to South
 Winds North to South Coriolis deflecting to the right creating the NE
Monsoon
 The polar Continental air mass gives low temperatures and low humidity
The currents of the North and South Atlantic

 Equatorial currents are propelled west by trade winds

 North Equatorial currents are propelled by the NE trades
 South Equatorial currents are propelled by the SE trades
 Due to the low latitude i.e. on the equator, Coriolis is not effective so
the current flows straight
 As the equatorial currents flow west they meet the continental barrier,
this causes a high level to occur and a gradient to exist west to east
 Gradient currents flow eastwards because of no Coriolis it flows straight
hence the counter current.
Mediterranean Currents

 Themed gets high levels of the sunshine with hardly any rain
 The imbalance between evaporation and rain lowers the level and a
gradient is formed
 Surface water flows east through the Gibraltar Straights
 This surface current is deflected by Coriolis causing the water to flow
anti-clockwise around the Med
 Because of the amount of evaporation the water is much saltier resulting
in denser water
 At the Gibraltar Straights, density pressure exists at low level so deep
water moves west (Think Submarines in the 2nd world war)
Task – Revision Notes: Synoptic Charts
Wind direction
 From High to Low pressure
 Deflected to the right in Northern Hemisphere
 Deflected to the left in the Southern Hemisphere
 Crossing the isobars at the angle of in draft towards low pressure
roughly two points
 The depression is – face the wind and the depression is on the right in
the N’ hemisphere
 The depression is – face the wind and the depression is on the left in
the S’ Hemisphere
Wind Speed
 Geostrophic wind scales on UK charts
 Wind speed factors for other charts
Gradient Wind
 Supergeostrophic around anticyclonically curved isobars
 Sub geostrophic around cyclonically curved isobars
Surface wind
Two-thirds of Geostrophic / gradient wind over water
One-third of Geostrophic / gradient wind over land

System movement
Depressions move in the direction of Geostrophic wind in warm sector
Fronts move in the direction of the wind component perpendicular to the front

Large anticyclones move very slowly if at all

A ridge between depressions moves with the adjacent depressions

Cloud and precipitation

Cloud is generally ahead of warm fronts and behind cold fronts
Precipitation is generally close to the front

Weather Routing
Weather routing services can be found on the web or in Admiralty List of Radio
Signals Vol 3
Task – Revision Notes: Chain Register
The chain register is a record of all the testing done on all of the Ship’s lifting
gear connected with cargo work
 Derricks – their fittings, their attachment to decks, the masts etc…

The mate keeps the register and records in it:

 All tests
 All replacements made
 Usually, the test certificates are kept with the register
 All certificates and inspections of all the wire ropes

The register comes in 4 parts:

Part
1. Covers the annual and quadrennial inspections and thorough
examination of derricks and permanent attachments to the
derricks, masts, and decks. The annual inspection is carried out
by ships personnel and the quadrennial inspection is carried out
by a surveyor.

2. This covers the annual thorough examination of cranes, winches,

hoists and accessory gear. This is usually provided by the Chief
Engineer

3. This covers the annual thorough examination of gear exempted

from Annealing which includes: Gear made from malleable cast
iron, mild steel, and any items having case hardened parts or ball
bearings and parts of pulley blocks.

4. Record of the annealing of Chains, Rings, hooks, shackles, and

swivels - ½” or less are annealed every 6 months and over ½”
every 12 months

At no time should any attempt be made to lift weights in excess of the safe
working load of the weakest part of the gear unless for a proof load

Regulations require the SWL to be one-fifth of the breaking strain

The SWL of various material are below:

 3 stranded manila 2d2/1800
 3 stranded polypropylene 3d2/1800
 3 stranded terylene 4d2/1800
 3 stranded nylon 5d2/1800
 Flexible steel wire rope 2OD2/3000
 Grade 1 chain 2OD2/3600
Task – Revision Notes: Code of Conduct
The code of conduct is a set of rules for us to follow while we at sea, it is there
to give us discipline as is designed to help us improve an individual's
performance.

Paragraph 9
This covers acts of misconduct which if proved with reasonable satisfaction are
dismissible offenses either immediately or at the end of the voyage. The
offenses it covers are as follows:

 Assault
 Willful damage to the ship or any property on board
 Theft or procession of stolen property
 Possession of offensive weapons
 Persistent or willful failure to perform duty
 Unlawful possession of distribution of drugs
 Conduct endangering the ship or persons on board
 Combination with others at sea to impede the progress of the voyage or
navigation of the ship
 Disobedience of orders relating to safety of the ship or any persons
onboard
 To be asleep on duty or fail to remain on duty, if such conduct would
prejudice the safety of the ship or any person on board
 Incapacity through the influence of drink or drugs to carry out duty to
prejudice the safety of the ship or those on board
 To smoke / use a naked light or an unapproved electric torch in any part
of a ship carrying dangerous cargo or stores where smoking or the use of
naked lights or unapproved torches is prohibited
 Intimidation, bullying and / or interference with the work of other
employees
 Behaviour which seriously detracts from the safe working of the ship
 Conduct of a sexual nature or other conduct based on sex affecting the
dignity of woman and men at work which are unwanted, unreasonable
and offensive to the recipient
 Behaviour which seriously detracts from the social well-being of any
other person on board
 Causing or permitting unauthorized persons onboard the ship whilst at
sea
 Repeated commission of breaches of a lesser degree listed in Para 11.
after warnings have been given in accordance with the procedures in
Para 10.
Paragraph 10
Breaches of a lesser degree of seriousness may be dealt with by:

 Informal warning is given at an appropriate level lower than that of the

master
 Formal warning by the head of the department which will be suitably
recorded
 Formal warning by the master recorded in the ship's official log book
 Written reprimand administered by the master and recorded in the
official Log

Paragraph 11
Offenses which are suitable for the procedures outlined in Para 10. are:

 Offenses of the kind described in Para 9. which are not considered to

justify dismissal
 Minor acts of negligence, neglect of duty, disobedience, and assault
 Unsatisfactory work performance
 Poor time keeping
 Stopping work before the authorized time
 Failure to report to work without a satisfactory reason
 Absence from the place of duty or from the ship without leave
 Offensive or disorderly behavior

Dealing with breaches of the code

A seafarer which breaks the code will first be seen by an officer designated by
the master. If the officer is satisfied that no further action is required / no
more than an informal warning is required the matter will be dealt with then
be regarded as closed.
If it is a more serious offense or it is not the first time it has been committed a
formal warning will be given recorded. The case may be referred to the Master,
any case falling under Para 9 MUST be referred to the master
A serious case that the master is required to deal with must be done with the
minimum amount of delay. The master must give the seafarer the chance to
admit that he has done something and allow the seafarer to call any witnesses
which may help the seafarer.
After careful and thorough investigation and having considered all evidence,
the master will orally inform the accused of whether or not he finds him guilty
of the alleged breach.
The seafarer shall be given a copy of all entries made in the log book relating
to his breach and shall acknowledge this by a receipt. He shall be given a copy
of any report made to the company which relates to the incident for which the
seafarer is subject to disciplinary action .
Task – Revision Notes: Code of safe working practices
The code is concerned with improving health and safety on board ship. The
code provides guidance on safe working practices for situations that commonly
arise on ships. It is a statutory requirement for the code to be carried on UK
ships

Section 1 – Safety responsibilities and shipboard management

Chapter 1 – Risk Assessment – Who, what how
Chapter 3 – Safety Officials – Officer, reps, committee
Chapter 4 – Personal Protective Equipment
Chapter 6 – Means of access and safe movement – pilots,

Section 2 – Personnel Health and Safety

Chapter 8 – Safety Induction - procedures
Chapter 10 – Emergency procedures – musters and drills
Chapter 11 – Security onboard – piracy, drugs, terrorism
Chapter 12 – Safe movements – WT doors, lighting

Section 3 – Work Activities

Chapter 16 – Permit to work -
Chapter 17 – Enclosed spaces – hazards, procedures
Chapter 18 – Boarding Arrangements – positioning, lighting, nets
Chapter 21 – lifting plant – use of equipment, hand signals
Chapter 25 – Anchoring, Mooring & Towing

Section 4 – Specialist ships

Dry cargo, tankers, Offshore, Ro-Ro, tugs
Task – Revision Notes: Health and Safety
Employers must provide workers with all the appropriate health and safety
items taking into the risks to their health and safety.

 On every ship with more than 5 crew, a safety officer must be appointed
 The point of the safety officer is to take an independent view of safety
on behalf of the company, although it is recognized that sometimes the
safety officer has other duties such as being a chief officer and may well
need to conduct risk assessments also.
 Safety Representatives must also be elected, these crew members must
have more than 2 years consecutive sea service since attaining the age
of 18
 A safety committee should be established

Safety Inspections
 The safety officer should make an inspection of each accessible part of
the ship at least once every three months.
 Records must be kept of all inspections

Accidents
 The safety officer should maintain a record of all accidents and
dangerous occurrences
 The investigation of incidents is very important and must be done as
required by MSN 1584
 Interviews should be carried out to try and determine what went wrong
/ what happened
 Statements should be taken, these should try and cover the facts rather
than opinions
 Records should contain:
o Details of the incident
o Date
o Persons involved
o Nature of injury
o All statements
o Recommendations
o Any action was taken
In addition, it should contain:
 List of witnesses, addresses, positions and occupations
 Whereabouts of original signed statement
 Date accident reports were sent to the MAIB
 List of items collected, why and where stored
 Index
Personal protective equipment
 PPE must only be used when risks cannot be avoided or reduced to an
acceptable level by safe working practices that cause no health risk to
any worker
 It is the employer's responsibility to ensure workers are provided with
suitable PPE
 And should be supplied at no cost
 All workers required to use PPE should be trained in its proper use and
must wear the equipment every time they are performing the task that
it was supplied for

Safety Signage
 Safety signs should be used whenever a hazard or obstruction is present.
 Employers should ensure that safety signs are displayed where
appropriate
 Workers should ensure they understand the signage before starting any
work and

Means of Access
 The master and the employer must ensure that a safe means of access is
provided between the ship and shore
 When the access is provided by the port then it is still the master's
responsibility to ensure that the equipment meets the requirements
Task – Revision Notes: Customs, Heath, and Immigration
Customs on Arrival
 All vessels arriving from outside the European Union must report to
customs
 Vessel arriving from within the EU that are not on an authorized regular
shipping service – which is a service is one that operates between EU
ports on a regular service – these ships shall report to customs
 The report to the customs house must be made within 3hrs of arrival
 If there are Pax on board then the master must inform the customs
before arrival that they were disembarking
 Pax which are not EEA citizens must get the immigration officers
approval before disembarking
 A customs officer will usually compare the contents of the bonded locker
with the list of ships store, if everything is in order he will seal the
locker until the ship departs
 To obtain clearance the following documents must be completed
 General Declaration
 Ship stores declaration
 Crew effects declaration
 Crew list
 Pax list if there are
 Cargo Declaration

Customs on Departure
 All vessels leaving a UK port for a destination outside the EU or for a free
zone within the EU must be cleared by customs before they leave
 Vessels with a fixed pattern – i.e. Ferries may be granted with a fixed
period clearance for specified voyages
 To obtain clearance the following documents must be completed
 General Declaration
 Crew list
 Pax list
 Stores declaration - required if stores are loaded in the UK
 Cargo declaration

Health clearance
 Free pratique means that you are seeking permission to disembark and
commence cargo operations
 A ship shall seek health clearance if arriving from a foreign port if during
the last 28 days there has been a death – not from an accident, illness
where the person's temp is over 38ºC, rash, glandular fever, jaundice or
where the person has severed diarrhea
  The master must report any person suffering from an infectious disease,
any animals that may spread an infectious disease – e.g. cockroaches
infestation
 If a ship's accommodation needs fumigating guidance can be sort of the
IMDG code supplement

Immigration
 All pax must be listed on a passenger list, they will generally require a
passport
 The pax may be required to complete a landing card but this is
dependant on how long the ship is going to be in the UK, type of voyage
etc…
Task – Revision Notes: Hours of Work Regulations

Under the safe manning, hours of work and watch keeping regulations 1997 all
vessels must have a schedule of duties and a record of deviations.

The schedule of duties must describe the work for masters and seamen who’s
work includes watching keeping duties. It must also include the chief and
second engineer and the mate. This is to provide a guide so that they do not
work more hours than is safe for the ship or for their own performance of duty.

The schedule of duties should be displayed in a prominent place in the crew

accommodation for the information of all seamen

The schedule of duties must specify the maximum period of continuous watch
keeping, the minimum rest period between watches and the total daily, weekly
and monthly hours of work.

The minimum periods of rest allowed are:

In any 24-hour period, there must be a minimum of 10 hours rest, which

may be divided into not more than two periods, one of which must be at
least 6 hours.

To provide for a minimum of 10 hours rest in any 24 hour period and 77

hours in any 7-day period and 4 weeks annual paid leave

Exemptions may be made to the above rules in the case of emergencies, drills
or overriding operational conditions (conditions where essential shipboard work
cannot be delayed for environmental or safety reasons or which cannot
reasonably have been anticipated at the start of the voyage)

Where the Master or crewmember has been required to work during a

scheduled rest period it must be entered into the record of deviations giving his
name and the reason why he worked during the rest period.

A copy of the schedule of duties and record of deviations must be kept by the
company and the Master. It should be kept for 5 years and be made available to
the MCA or proper officer if requested.
Task – Revision Notes: ISM Code
The purpose of the code is to provide an international standard for the safe
management and operation of ships and for pollution prevention.

The Safety Management objectives for the company are:

 Provide for safe practices in ship operation and a safe working
environment
 Establish safeguards against all identified risks
 Continuously improve safety management skills of personnel ashore and
aboard ships, including preparing for emergencies related both to safety
and environmental protection

The Safety management system should ensure:

 Compliance with mandatory rules and regulations
 That applicable codes guidelines and standards recommended by the
organization, Administrations, Classification Societies and maritime
industry organizations are taken into account

Every company should develop implement and maintain a safety

management system which includes the following functional requirements:
 A safety and environmental protection policy
 Instructions and procedures to ensure safe operation of ships and
protection of the environment in compliance with relevant international
and flag state legislation
 Define levels of authority and lines of communication between shore and
shipboard personnel
 Procedures for reporting accidents and non-conformities with the
provisions of this code
 Procedures to prepare for and respond to emergency situations
 Procedures for internal audits

Safety and environmental Protection

The company should establish a safety and environmental protection policy.

Designated person ashore (DPA)

To ensure the safe operation of each ship and to provide a link between the
company and those on board. The responsibility and authority of the DPA
should include monitoring the safety and pollution prevention aspects of the
operation of each ship and ensuring the adequate resources and shore-based
support are applied as required
Masters Authority
The company shall clearly define and document the master's responsibility with
regard to:
 Implementing the safety and environmental protection policy of the
company
 Motivating the crew in the observation of the above policy
 Issuing appropriate orders and instructions in a clear and simple manner
 Verifying that specified requirements are observed
 Reviewing the SMS and reporting its deficiencies to the shore based
management

The company should ensure that the master is:

 Properly qualified for command
 Fully conversant with the Company’s SMS
 Given necessary support so that the master's duties can be safely
performed

Company verification review and evaluation

 The company should carry out internal safety audits to verify whether
safety and pollution prevention activities comply with the SMS
 The company should periodically evaluate the efficiency of and when
needed, review the SMS in accordance with procedures established by
the company
 Personnel carrying out audits should be where possible independent of
the areas being assessed

Certification
 The ship should be operated by a company with a valid Document of
Compliance
 The Document of compliance is issued by the administration for a period
of 5 years
 The Document of Compliance is only valid on for the ships indicated on it
 There will be annual verification of the Document of Compliance by the
administration
 A Safety Management Certificate is issued to each ship. It is valid for 5
years with and intermediate audit carried out between the second and
third anniversaries.
 A copy of the Document of Compliance is also carried on board.
Safety Management Plan
The Safety Management System should include shipboard instructions and
procedures covering the following operations:
 Shipboard Operation: General
Including Standing Orders, Watchkeeping, Security, maintenance, record
keeping, passenger control, safety committee
 Shipboard Operations: in Port
Including embarkation and disembarkation arrangements, boarding card
systems, cargo operations, handling of dangerous goods, stability, harbor
watches, bunkering, storing, re-fit and dry-docks
 Preparing for Sea
Including checklists, assessment of stability, cargo securing, securing
hatches and other shell openings, testing of main engines, steering and
bridge equipment, passage planning, verification of pax and crew figures,
positive reports from departments, clearance, safety broadcasts for
passengers.
 Shipboard Operations: at Sea
Including watchkeeping requirements, navigation, position fixing, use of
navigational aids, look-out, fire rounds, upkeep of log books, drills
 Emergencies and Contingencies
Checklists for all emergencies and contingencies including General
Emergency procedures, fire, collision, man overboard, equipment failure,
heavy weather, pollution, passenger control, and broadcasts etc.
Task – Revision Notes: ISPS Code

International Ship and Port Facility Security Code

 Establishes communications between the MCA and shipping and port
industries to detect security threats and take preventative measures
 Establish roles and responsibilities between the MCA and shipping and
port industries for ensuring maritime security’
 Ensure collection and exchange of security-related information
 Provide plans and procedures to react to changing security threat and
levels

The code applies to:

 All pax ships
 Cargo ships over 500GRT
 Mobile offshore drilling
 Port facilities engaged in international trade

The code requires all vessels to carry a ship security plan, to have a Company
Security Officer and designate a person onboard as the Security Office. The
code provides guidance to Masters and Security Officers. The plan must be
approved by the flag state and is revalidated every 5 years

Ship Security Officer

Every vessel must have a designated security officer who is accountable to the
Master. He is responsible for the security of the ship, monitoring of the security
plan and is the ships liaison with the Company Security officer and Port
Security Officer.
The ship security officer must:
 Regular security inspections
 Raise security awareness and provide training for the crew
 Report non-conformities and deficiencies to the Company Security
Officer
 Maintain the security plan keeping records and proposing new
modifications to it
 Liaise with Port Security and coordinate security measures when
alongside

Company security officer

The company shall designate someone as the Companies Security Officer. He
will be responsible for checking and assessing each ships security monitoring
the security plan and liaising with the port and ship security officers.
He must
 Advise threat levels to each ship
 Ensure ship security audits are carried out
  Ensure the maintenance and modification of the plan
 Ensure that deficiencies and non-conformities are promptly addressed
and dealt with
 Communication and co-operation between Ship security Officer and port
Security officer

The master
The master's responsibility regarding the safety of the ship remains unchanged,
he is still able to make decisions and shall not be constrained by the company,
this includes denial of access to persons and refusal to load cargo.
If a conflict arises between safety and security requirements the master shall
give effect to those requirements necessary to maintain the safety of the ship.
The master shall implement temporary security measures if he thinks it is
necessary.

The government authority

The authority – MCA is responsible for:
 Setting the applicable security level
 Testing approved plans
 Surveying vessels compliance and issuing security certificates

The Ship security assessment

The process of developing and updating the security plan, it is the
responsibility of the Company Security Officer to ensure that the assessment is
carried out by a qualified person. The assessment should include:
 Evaluating existing security measures
 Evaluating key shipboard operations that require protection
 Identification of threats and the likelihood of the occurrence
 Identification of weaknesses
The assessment should be documented and retained by the company

The Ship Security Plan

The company Security officer is responsible for ensuring that all vessels carry
an approved ship security plan. Recognized companies may prepare this plan
your behalf. It should include:
 Identifying restricted areas and protection for such areas
 Measures for preventing unauthorized access
 Procedures for responding to threats and instructions for governments
 Procedures for evacuation of the ship
 Procedures for reporting security incidents
 Duties of security personnel
 Procedures for training and drills
 Procedures for auditing and reviewing the plan
 Identification of Ship security officer and company security officer
contact details
  Instructions and testing of security equipment
 Locations of ship security alert system activation points and instructions
on their use

Training
The company security officer and the ship security officer shall have received
training in the contents of the ship security plan. Other personnel involved in
security duties should have sufficient knowledge to perfume their task.
The ship security officer is to ensure that regular training is carried out and
drills carried out at 3 monthly intervals. The Company Security Officer should
participate in exercises involving the ship and or government agencies at
intervals not exceeding 12 months

Certification
 International Ship Security Certificate – new ships and old ships once
they have proved they comply with the code
 Renewal Certificate – every 5 years
 Intermediate Verification – At least one intermediate survey to be
carried out between the 2nd and 3rd year

Security Levels
There are 3 levels and it is the responsibility of the government authority –MCA
and applies to ships and port facilities
Security Level 1 – Normal operational level
Ports and ships shall:
Check identity of all persons boarding the ship
Secure areas for baggage and car parks
Securing unattended spaces adjoining passenger areas
Manning access points to the vessel
Provide security briefing to ship staff
Random search of baggage
Security Level 2 – Heightened
Additional personnel to patrol the deck
Limiting access points to the vessel
Boat patrols in the waterside of the ship
Establish restricted zones around the vessel on the shore side
Increased searches of personnel and baggage
All visitors to have an escort at all times
Full search of the ship
Security Level 3 – Exceptional – Imminent risk of security incident
Single access to the ship
No access to visitors
Suspension of cargo / embarkation operations
Evacuation of the vessel
Moving vessel to secure location or to sea
Ship Security Alert System
Ships built after 1st of July 2004 and passenger's vessels and tankers must have
an approved ship security system fitted not later than the first survey of the
radio installation after 1st July 2004. For all other ships, this is extended to 1st
July 2006

The alert system shall be able to:

 Transmit a ship to shore security alert indicating that the security of the
ship is under threat or has been compromised
 Be activated from the bridge and at least one other location
 Not send the alert to other ships
 Not raise any alarm on the ship
 Continue to transmit until reset
Task – Revision Notes: lifting equipment
 The master and the employer must ensure that any lifting plant onboard
is:
o Good design
o Sound construction
o Fit for purpose
o Properly installed
o Properly maintained
o Not being used in excess of its safe working load
 Systematic preventative maintenance programs should be carried out in
accordance with the manufacturers instructions
 Only trained competent people can use the lifting plant

Testing
 Master and employer must ensure that no lifting plant is used:
o After manufacture or installation
o After any repair of modification
o Should not be used unless it has been suitably tested by a
competent person in the last 5 years
o Should not be used if it has not been thoroughly examined by a
competent person at least once in the last 12 month period

Competent person
 Should be over 18yrs old and have practical and theoretical knowledge
required. This should include actual experience of the type of machinery
or plant concerned sufficient to be able to detect any weakness and to
assess their relation to the strength stability and functions of the plant
 A thorough examination means a detailed inspection and any such
dismantling as the competent person feels necessary to remove any
hidden parts that would allow a thorough examination.
 All lifting plant must be inspected every 12 months
 Where the lifting plant is used very frequently more frequent inspections
may be carried out

Markings
 The master and the employer must ensure that each lifting appliance is
clearly marked with its safe working load and a means of identification
 Where the SWL varies with a cranes radius of operation it is required to
be fitted with an accurate indicator visible to the driver, showing the
radius of the load and the SWL corresponding to that radius
 The requirement to mark the lifting gear will generally apply to lifting
beams, frames and other gear whose weight is substantial in relation to
the loads they lift
Certificates
 The master shall ensure that a certificate is supplied within 28 days
following any statutory test or examination.
 This certificate must be stored onboard for a period of at least 2 years
 All reports and certificates should be kept readily available for dock
worker or shore employer using the ships plant
 A register of lifting appliances and items of loose gear should be
maintained in a form based on the model recommended by the
International Labour Organization
 Records and reports may be kept in paper or electronic format

Precautions to take prior to a heavy lift

 Risk assessment
 Adequate stability for the lift to take place. Increase the GM by filling
bottom tanks and remove any free surface from the tanks
 Any additional backstays and preventers should be rigged
 Full inspection of all guys, lifting tackles, blocks, shackles and wires. All
equipment should be within SWL
 Lift gangway and have sailors standby at the mooring stations
 Fenders rigged over the side
 Winch drivers are experienced and competent
 Remove ships rails
 Release barges that may be tied up alongside
 Inspect the load and confirm the lifting points
 All unnecessary personnel clear
 Take the weight, as the cargo leaves the dock the ship will heal over
 Chief Officer to inspect all the rigging, once happy with everything then
he will hand the ‘con’ over to the hatch foreman

Derrick Survey
 Every 12 months by the chief officer
 Every 5 years by a surveyor, the surveyor will pay particular attention to
the fittings on the derrick, mast, and deck. He will check fro excessive
wear and corrosion
 All blocks, shackles, links chains and wire will be examined to ensure
they are all in satisfactory condition
Task – Revision Notes: MAIB
The MAIB ‘Marine Accident Investigation Branch’ examines and investigates all
types of marine accidents to or on board UK flagged ships and also UK ships
worldwide.

The MAIB’s sole objective when investigating an accident is to determine the

cause with an aim of improving the safety of life at sea and trying to avoid
similar accidents occurring in the future.
The MAIB is not there to apportion liability or blame and does not enforce laws
or carry out prosecutions. They carry out separate investigations to those made
by for example the police.

What to report to the MAIB?

 Accidents
 Major Injuries
 Serious injuries must be reported within 14days
 Near miss, accidents do not need to report although the MAIB would
recommend for it to be reported so further lessons can be learned

Statutory Instrument - 2005 No. 881

The Merchant Shipping (Accident Reporting and Investigation) Regulations 2005,
the purpose of this Statutory Instrument is to make it law that the master /
senior surviving officer / owner / Harbor Authority / MCA must contact the
MAIB after any major accident or serious injury.
The report must be sent as soon as is practicable by the quickest means
available.

Is an MAIB investigation always required?

Not all accidents or injuries will be investigated by the MAIB, if the ships report
and investigation have been well executed then that is often good enough,
obviously for a more serious accident an external investigation may be
required.
Task – Revision Notes: Pilot Ladders
 Ladder must be secured properly and lie flat on the side of the ship
providing access to the ship from 1.5m to 9m
 A single length of ladder should be used
 The treads must be made of hardwood
 Each thread should be made of wood without any knots
 Each thread must be not less than 480mm long, 115mm wide and 25mm
deep
 The steps should not less than 300mm nor more than 380mm apart
 The steps should be secured in such a manner that the step will remain
horizontal
 The lower 4 steps shall be made of hard rubber
 No pilot ladder must have more than two replacement steps
 The side ropes must be made of 18mm manila rope
 Hardwood spreaders between 1800 – 2000mm long must be provided at
such intervals as will prevent the pilot ladder from twisting
 Spreaders must be fitted not more than 5 steps from the bottom
 Spreaders must be fitted at intervals of not more than 9 steps.
Task – Revision Notes: Risk assessment
Risk assessment is the careful examination of what in the nature of operations
could cause harm
The aim is to minimize accidents by:
 First, establish hazards which are present at the place of work
 Address risks to health and safety of workers
 Advice on the use of personal protective equipment
 Assessments will depend on ship types, the nature of operations and the
type and extent of the hazards and risks
 Process of risk assessment should be simple but meaningful
What to assess?
 Should cover the risks arising from the activities of workers on the ship
 Risks that are reasonably unforeseeable need not be assessed.
Who carries it out?
 In all cases, the individual employers have responsibility for assessing
risks to their workers.
 In practice, risk assessment is a continuous process and should be done
every time before work starts
The main elements of risk assessment are:
 Classify work activity
 Identify hazards and personnel at risk
 Determine risk
 Decide if risk is tolerable
 Prepare action plan if necessary
 Review adequacy of action plan
Identifying hazards
 Is there a source of harm?
 Who or what could be harmed?
 How could harm occur?
Determine risk
The risk from the hazard may be determined by estimating
 The potential severity of harm
 The likelihood that harms will occur
Once you have determined if there is a risk or not you must decide if it is
tolerable or not.
 Once the significant risks have been decided upon an action plan should
be decided upon
 All plans should be reviewed each time they are used to ensure that they
cover the specific job and hazard that is being done.

Guidelines can be found in the Code of Safe Working Practices chapter 1.

Task – Revision Notes: Ships’ Certificates
Documents/Certificates for Masters Handover

Solas Certificates
 Safety Construction (5 years)
 Safety Equipment (2 years)
 Safety Radio (1 year)
 Passenger Ship Safety Certificate (PSSC) (1 year)

Marpol Certificates
 International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate (IOPP) (5 years)
 International Noxious Liquids Certificate (INL) (5 years)
 IOPP Exemption Certificate

Loading Certificates
 Loadline Certificate (1 year)
 Loading Exemption Certificate

Other Certificates
 Tonnage Certificate
 Certificate of Registry
 Certificate of Class
 Deratting Certificate (6 months)
 Safety Management Certificate
 Certificates of Fitness for Type of Cargo, Document of Compliance for the
carriage of Dangerous Goods

Other items
 Official Log Book
 Crew List/Crew Agreement
 Ships Accounts
 Medical Log Book/Drugs
 Stability Book
 ISM Documents (SMS and DOC)
 IBC Code, BCH Code
 Charter Agreement
 Safe Keys/Code
 Oil Record Book
 Garbage Record Book
Official Log Book
Sections
1. Record of Seamen
2. Return of Births and Deaths (RBD1)
3. Masters and Drills
4. Inspection of Pilot Hoists/Accommodation Ladder
5. Draughts/Freeboard (FRE13)
6. OLB Entries

Pt IV – Watertight doors

FRE 13
1. Name
2. Registry
3. Official Number
4. Freeboard
5. Date-Port-Fwd-Aft-Freeboard-Density-FWA-DWA-Signature

Crew Agreement

The ALC documents include the OLB, and the Crew Agreement divided into
parts ALC1, ALC1(a), ALC1(b), ALC(c), ALC(d) and ALC6.

They are obtainable from the RSS, the MCA or a Proper Officer (e.g. British
Consul).

Once completed (at the closure of the crew agreement) the documents are
returned to the Registrar of Shipping in Swansea (RSS).

The ALC Documents

i) ALC1 – The outer card cover in which all the other documents are
fixed
ii) ALC1(a) – The List of Crew who are party to the crew agreement
iii) ALC1(b) – The List of Crew who are exempted from signing the
crew agreement (e.g. Master, office personnel, contractors etc.)
iv) ALC1(c) – List of Young Persons under 18.
v) ALC1(d) – The contractual conditions of the crew agreement and
clauses.
vi) ALC6 – The crew copy of the agreement, displayed in the ship for
the crew along with a copy of ALC1(d)
Certificate of Registry

1. Name
2. Ships details (Official Number, tonnage etc)
3. Owners (64 shares in a ship, owner of more than 34 is majority “owner”)
4. Port of Registry/Choice

Safety Radio Certificate

1. List of Equipment
2. Trading Limits

Safety Equipment Certificate

1. Fire Fighting Equipment

2. Life-saving Equipment
3. Lights and Shapes
4. Magnetic Compass/Gyro
5. Signals (Whistle etc)
6. Charts and Publications (as listed in Solas, S.I.etc)
7. Pilot Ladder and Accommodation Ladder (gangway is part of Safety
Construction Certificate)

Safety Construction Certificate

1. Hull and Machinery

Certificate of Seaworthiness

This is similar to an Interim Certificate of Class and is given by an uninterested

third party (Class 1 Deck or Engine) after repair before a full Class survey.

Loading Survey
1. Structure
2. Watertight Integrity
3. Freeboard (draught marks, loading permanently marked, deck mark,
freeboard)
4. Safe Access
5. Watertight Doors/Weathertight Doors
6. Deadlights
7. Hatches (hose test, water tightness)
8. Shell Doors (indication, watertight integrity, cameras)
9. Stability Information
10.Ventilators (gooseneck, cowled or mushroom. May have flame arresters)
The difference between Watertight Doors and Weathertight Doors? Watertight
prevents the passage of water in both directions, weathertight only from one
direction (usually into the ship)

The difference between an air pipe and a sounding pipe? The air pipe if at the
forward end of the tank, the sounding pipe is aft.

International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate (IOPP)

Survey of Ships structure, equipment, systems, fittings, arrangements and
materials in respect to the relevant provisions of Marpol Annex 1.
Equipment must be type-approved.
Check of Oil Record Book, manuals, certificates etc.

SOPEP
SOPEP is the Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan. Its main purpose is to set
in motion the necessary actions to stop or minimize the discharge and reduce
its effects on the marine environment. It should also contain Reporting
Requirements and contact names, addresses and numbers.

Oil Pollution Insurance Certificate (OPIC)

Carried by all vessels carrying over 2000 tons of oil in bulk as cargo.
Insurance cover is provided by P&I Clubs (usually up to $500million) The
certificate is provided, once proof of insurance is verified, by MCA in London.

Passenger Ship Safety Certificate (PSSC)

A three-in-one certificate (construction, equipment, and radio) issued as a
SOLAS requirement for all passenger ships on international voyages.
A Record of Equipment supplements the PSSC, listing details of LSA, FFA, radio
equipment etc.
The Passenger Certificate (PC) is a requirement for all UK registered passenger
ships on international voyages and includes the total number of persons
allowed to be carried on board.
The PC may also contain information regarding subdivision marks (C1, C2, as
appropriate) and the corresponding passenger and crew figures.
C1 is a one compartment ship, C2 is two compartment. If one or two
compartments are billed, as relevant, the ship should not submerge the Margin
of Safety Line (or Margin Line) which is 3” below the bulkhead deck i.e. all
watertight bulkheads should extend 3” above the damaged condition waterline.
Task – Revision Notes: SOLAS – Safety of Life at Sea
Chapter 1 – General Provisions
Chapter 2/1 – Construction: structure, stability, machinery, electrical
installations
Chapter 2/2 – Construction: fire protection, detection, extinction
Chapter 3 – Life-Saving appliances and arrangements
Chapter 4 – Radio Communications
Chapter 5 – Safety of navigation
Chapter 6 – Carriage of Cargoes
Chapter 7 – Carriage of Dangerous Goods
Chapter 8 – Nuclear ships
Chapter 9 – Management for safe operation of ships
Chapter 10 – Safety Measures for high-speed craft
Chapter 11 – Special measures to enhance maritime safety
Chapter 12 – Additional safety measures for bulk carriers
Appendix – Certificates

Brief Notes...

Chapter 1
Made up of two parts A & B
Part A – Application + definitions
Part B – Surveys and Certification

Passenger ships must have:

 An initial survey before going into service
 Renewal surveys every 12 months
 Additional surveys when required
Passenger ship safety certificates shall not exceed a period of 12months
where’s cargo safety certificates shall not exceed 5 years before renewal

Chapter 2/2
This requires
 At least 1 hose for each hydrant
 Hydrants shall be in a position where there can be 2 jets not emanating
from the same hydrant and may reach any part of the ship normally
accessible to the pax / crew while the ship is being navigated
 In pax ships for each pair of BA sets, there shall be 1 fog applicator
 Vessels carrying dangerous goods shall comply with the regulations, on
compliance the administration shall provide the ship with an appropriate
document of compliance of the construction and equipment with the
requirements of this regulation
Chapter 3
This requires
 At least 1 lifebuoy shall be fitted on either side of the ship with a
buoyant lifeline equal to and not less than twice the height at which it is
stored above the water line when the vessel is in the lightest seagoing
condition or 30m whichever is greater.

Lifebuoys:
Under 60m - 8 required
60 – 120m - 12 required
120 – 180m - 18 required
180 – 240m - 24 required
240 + - 30 required

Appendix

Certificates required for ISM –

Document of compliance – A Document of compliance shall be issued to
every company which complies with the requirements of the ISM code. A
copy of the document shall be kept on board
Safety management – A Safety Management Certificate shall be issued to
every ship by the Administration or Organisation recognized by the
Administration. The Administration or an organization recognized by it shall,
before issuing the safety management Certificate, verify that the company
and its shipboard management operate in accordance with the approved
safety management system

Certificates required for Dangerous goods

Document of Compliance with special requirements for ships carrying
dangerous goods – An appropriate document as evidence of compliance
with the construction and equipment requirements of that regulation
Dangerous Goods manifest or Stowage Plan – Each ship carrying dangerous
goods shall have a special list or manifest setting forth, in accordance with
the classification set out in regulation VII/2 the dangerous goods on board
and the location thereof. A detailed stowage plan which identifies by class
and sets out the location of all dangerous goods on board may be used in
place of such a special list or manifest.
A copy of one of these documents shall be made available before departure
to the person of an organization designated by the port state authority.
Task – Revision Notes: Taking over command
When a master arrives at a ship he should when walking up the gangway:
 Note the state of the ships side and exterior – including draught marks,
rigging of the accommodation ladder & safety Net, visible condition of
LSA and FFA equipment this will give him a good indication of the ships
management

He would expect at least the following from the outgoing master before he
takes over:
 He should check his handover notes
 The current manning levels and compare them with the safe manning
levels
 The ships condition report
 The SMS documentation
 The standard of crew competency and training
 Any voyage orders
 Safe combination code!

When the crew and officers are to join after you the master should inspect the
following:
 All crew has a valid medical certificate
 All competency certificates are carried in original form and that they are
in date
 All the crew receives their familiarization training as required by SOLAS
The master should then discuss the ships operations with the senior
management team
Navigation and voyage planning should be discussed with the Navigation officer

The master should sign himself on by completing the white spaces in the ALC(b)
noting the reference number on the inside cover of the Official Log Book
He should then:
 Enter his name and COC No. on the front cover of the OLB
 Check the ships documents and cash
 Write in the narrative section that you have taken over from the
previous officer and that all the documents are in order and have been
handed over
Task – Revision Notes: Stowage of Cargoes
Ref: Thomas’ Stowage
Code of Safe Practice for Cargo Stowage and Securing

Master and crew must exercise due diligence to ensure the ship is seaworthy.

Damage Claims
Claims may be made for the following reasons:

Chafe
Damage occurs due to the to and fro movement from the motion and
vibration of the ship causing the cargo to rub and chafe against each other,
against sharp projections and rough surfaces.
Baled goods are particularly susceptible

Temperature
Temperature fluctuations may cause condensation or accelerate
deterioration of cargoes.
High temperatures may affect cargoes:
 Softening of chocolates, fats, and coatings
 Cause partial / full decomposition
 Take a commodity up to its flash point – therefore explosive
 Expansion

Low temperatures may affect cargoes:

 Freezing of fruits and vegetables
 Freezing of bottled liquids – can cause bursting
 Hardening and cracking
 Separation

Cargoes which are subject to damage due to heating:

Should be stored away from local sources of heat i.e. away from engine and
boiler room bulkheads and casing
In the past large claims have arisen due to cargoes literally being cooked on the
top of tanks that are being heated.

Ventilation may be required to reduce the effects of heat build up

Damp or wet packages of all cargoes should be carefully examined and if in

doubt the cargo should be rejected.
Cargo Mixtures
Claims in this class are mostly in respect to bulk grain and seed cargoes. But
heavy claims have been given for mixtures of china clay and silver sand, or oil
with ore.
To avoid such mixing careful regard should be given to:
 Over showing
 Separations when different bagged goods are being carried
 Separation within holds (This is at the Charters expense and
should be written into the charter party.

Dust and Stain

When loading dusty cargoes other cargoes in the vicinity should be well
covered, ideally, you should load these cargoes first.
Packaged cargo at the bottom of the slow in a lower hold may become stained
by oil that may have gathered in the hold, this can taint and spoil the cargo.
Wooden bulkheads can be constructed to separate the cargoes. Bulkheads
should be made of wide planks to reduce the number of seams.

Rust Damage
Due mainly to moisture, rain, fresh or salt water. Steel cargoes may suffer
irreparable damage if rust occurs. Ventilation may need to be used to reduce
any cargo sweat.

Wet Damage
Condensation sometimes known as sweat can cause:
 Rust
 Discolouration
 Mould
 Caking or clogging
For condensation to occur the two following factors must be available – Source
of moisture and a temperature gradient.
The source of moisture may come from:
 The cargo
 The packaging
 The dunnage
 Air trapped in the hold
 Any air introduced in the course of ventilation

Discharging fire damaged goods

Such goods should be discharged under survey they should be divided into
separate lots:
1. goods damaged by fire and or smoke
2. goods damaged by water or steam used in extinguishing the fire
 3. goods damaged broken or otherwise injured in obtaining access to the
seat of the fire
Pilferage
In order to protect a ship from blame and responsibility for pilferage. Ships
officers should organize a close watch on the holds and other cargo liable to be
broached. When many holds containing broachable cargo are being worked
responsible ships personnel should carefully watch the loading process.
Frequent and regular visits by the OOW to the area being worked should be a
good deterrent.
As soon as possible broachable cargoes should be overstored and hold
watchmen should not been removed until it is any longer possible to get at the
broachable goods.
 Accurate and reliable tallying should be carried out
 Sweepings and residue should be removed by responsible personnel
 Attractive and high-value good should be stored inappropriate lock ups
or buried into the stow
 Adequate lighting should be provided
 Proper instructions for the safe handling of the goods should clearly
mark on the goods
 Contents identification and advertising should be avoided
 Tamper proof seals should be used
 Correct documentation should be provided
 Strapping and securing should be suitably strong

Rats and Mice

Rat guards must be fitted to all mooring lines
In the interest of health rat fumigation of holds and accommodation is at times
essential.
Ships must carry a valid De rat certificate which is issued by a competent
authority every 6 months.

Cleaning and Fumigation

Compartments and containers which have been empty of cargo must be made
suitable for the reception of the next load by being thoroughly cleaned. Where
evidence of an infestation exists the hold may have to be fumigated. Normally
this is done by a shore side team although ships staff may use smoke fumigants.
Some grain cargoes come with fumigants in them in the form of white pellets –
these should not be touched or approached – they produce phosphine gas when
they react with the moisture in the atmosphere.
It may be decided to fumigate the cargo upon completion of loading, if this is
the case it may be necessary to evacuate the ship. The master should follow
the instructions very carefully.
Regulations
Most countries have very strict quarantine regulations to prevent the import of
unwanted vermin. These regulations usually prohibit the importation of timber
with any bark still attached and timber entering the country has to be specially
treated.

Mechanical Damage
Lowering heavy slings of cargo into the hold too fast may be responsible for
damage to the cargo.
Dragging cargo out at the time of discharge may result in damage.
Use of cargo hooks on bags, packages, paper, furs etc… should be prohibited
Crowbars may also be used when breaking out cargoes but it should be
prohibited when breaking out cargoes not designed to be handled in such a
way.
Try to use the correct equipment for the job at all times.

Sweepings
This refers to the original contents of a cargo which has been spilled. If second-
hand bags have been used to hold the cargo then this will have been endorsed
on the Mates Receipt and on the Bill of Lading.
Torn or damaged bags do not come under sweepings and should be repaired
and put to the rest of the cargo.
To avoid the ship getting the blame for any sweepings that occur ashore after
discharge the ships sweepings should be bagged and tagged, weighed and
delivered as such. By getting a receipt there is no chance that the ship will be
blamed for any damage done out of their control – this will reduce claims
against the ship.

Receiving Cargoes
If goods are delivered in an unsound condition then they cannot be delivered in
a sound condition either therefore a careful watch should be made during
loading to ensure that no, damaged, stained, torn, leaky, repaired etc… goods
is loaded.

Mates Receipt
The mate's receipt is a receipt of the goods actually received onboard.
It is often the ship owners first line of defense in defending a cargo claim. It is,
therefore, essential that the receipt is issued accurately and reflect the true
condition of the cargo. If there is a dispute over the amount of cargo loaded
then the smaller of the amounts should be recorded with a clause saying that
there may be an extra such and such amount of cargo.
On a bulkier it might be impossible to do a draught survey to compare the
draughts with those supplied by the shipper. The mate's receipt may then be
endorsed stating the fact that the draughts could not be read. A practical
method may be to seal the hatches with an inspector on board – remember to a
surveyor at the discharge port too to observe you unseal the hatches.
Keep a written sequence of events at the load port.
The cargo receiving at the ship in a damaged condition should be rejected,
obviously, it is not always possible to view everything but as long as you do the
best you can are vigilant and exercise due diligence then there is not too much
of a problem.

Bills of Lading
Bills of Lading have internationally respected documents on which banks will
rely when advancing large sums of money.
 If a master knowingly signs a bill of lading knowing that the cargo is
damaged or the description is wrong then his conduct will probably
render worthless any guarantee letters for any loss that has been
suffered.
 The Master should always be aware of the condition of the cargo, if it is
impossible for him to inspect the cargo then the Bill of Lading shall be
qualified accordingly.
 Additionally, the master will often be under a duty to state the quantity
and weight of cargo shipped – once he has signed the Bill of Lading to
state that, it will be very difficult to change the quantity
 The intrinsic value represented by the bill of lading tends to give rise to
many disputes, and therefore if there is any doubt advice from P&I clubs
and owners should be sought.

Tallying
Where Tallymen are employed jointly by the shipper the tally clerks receipt
may take the place of the Mates receipt – in these cases, Spot checks are
advisable by the ships staff.

Delivering Cargo
If there are any reasonable grounds for anticipating damage to cargo before
opening hatches, the protest should be noted.
This protest should be noted as soon as possible after arrival and not later than
24hrs.
It is always beneficial to the ship to have a surveyor standing by during
discharge.
1. When damaged cargo is sighted in a stow a sound practice is to make a
sketch or take a photo of the position of the cargo in relation to other
cargos in the stow
2. All packages found broken during discharge should be laid aside and
segregated
3. Care should be taken to replace back into position any cases bearings
marks and numbers that may have become displaced
4. It is worth gathering up and including with other discharged cargo all
torn slack or empty bags or packages especially where Bills of Lading
state as a certain number of bags – it is better to deliver that number of
bags even if some are empty.
 5. Cargo should never be delivered except on production of a Bill of Lading
properly stamped and endorsed. When a cargo is consigned to order the
Bill of Lading shall bear the shippers endorsement and also that of the
merchant to whom it has been transferred.
6. Never deliver cargo against invoices, letters of guarantee or indemnity,
if in doubt seek advice from the Owners and P&I clubs.

Stowage Plans
 Plans which show the disposition of the cargo loaded should always be
prepared.
 Inaccurate plans may cause delay and costly unproductive employment
of stevedores.
 During the passage – stowage plans should be carefully checked so that
any inaccuracies can be sent ahead
 The plan should be large and should be able to show the comparative
volume of the stow. This may be the only means of conveying to agents
and other discharging ports the proportion and quantity of cargo in any
hold destined for that port.
 Suitable info such as whether the cargo is on pallets is stowed by a
forklift truck or whether or not it is pre-slung should be mentioned.
 For substantial consignments, the marks quantities and position of the
cargo should be shown. If the possible identification of individual Bills of
Lading in the stow can be useful.
 A copy of the plan should be sent ahead to the discharge port
 Bulk carrier plans must contain the total tonnage loaded into each hatch
 Container plans are drawn up and delivered by the shore organization,
the weight of each container must be recorded and where appropriate if
the cargo is hazardous the IMDG code should be displayed.
Task – Revision Notes: Cargo Handling Equipment
The Bale Sling Strop (Sling)
This is more commonly referred to as a sling or a rope strop. It is a never-
ending piece of rope, where the ends have been spliced together.
 Used to sling cases or bales

Rope or Wire Snotters

Rope or wire snotters are used when general cargo is being discharged. Care
should be taken so that the wire is not allowed to slip along the smooth steel
surface, this can be reduced by the insertion of dunnage between the wire
snotter and the cargo.
The snotters should be spread evenly to share the load of the lift.
 Used to discharge general cargoes

Cargo Nets
Cargo nets come in two types rope and wire rope. The wire rope cargo nets are
designed for carrying heavier loads with greater safety, and the net does not
tend to distort even under the most testing conditions.
 Used for lifting stores, baggage etc…
Pallets
Palletised slings of cargo can be prepared before the arrival of the vessel, to
reduce cargo handling time. The cargo is stacked on wooden pallets, which
allows easy handling and forklift handling. The cargo stow may be covered with
shrink-wrapped polyethene or banding straps to protect and secure.

Timber Dogs
These are used for the lifting of heavy logs. The weight of the log causes the
sharpened dog to embed into the end of the log. Caution should be observed
with this method to ensure that the dog is embedded before commencing the
lift.
 Used for lifting logs
Drum or Can Hooks
When the chain is drawn the dogs are tensioned together by a single chain for
lifting steel drums.
 Used for lifting drums

Plate Clamps
For lifting steel plates, if this method can be utilized then it should be
employed. Care should be taken that the load does not exceed the capacity of
the clamp.
When two clamps are employed the clamps should be mounted in the direction
of pull. Only one plate should be lifted at a time.
 Used for lifting Steel plates

Braided Slings
These are used for heavy loads such as metal casings.
Extreme caution should be observed with any lift, but more particularly so with
a heavy lift. Timber bearers to provide a gap for the sling to be removed safely
should be employed when carrying loads of this nature.
Task – Revision Notes: Coal Cargo
Ref: MGN 60

Properties of coal
 Coal gives out Methane, Methane & air (5%+16%) = an explosive
atmosphere
 Methane is lighter than air so it will accumulate in the top of the hole
 Coal cargoes may oxidize resulting in high CO2 levels in the hold
 Coal may self-heat and therefore may be liable to spontaneously
combust, a sure sign of this self-heating is increasing levels of carbon
monoxide within the hold
 Coal may react with water and produce acid which may then produce
hydrogen. Hydrogen is also lighter than air and is very explosive

Segregation
 Boundaries should be fire resistant and resistant to liquids
 Coal should be separated from goods class 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 in packaged form
and separated from bulk cargoes class 4, 5.1
 Stowage of class 5.1 above or below a coal cargo is prohibited
 Coal should be separated longitudinally by a complete compartment or
hold for class 1 goods other than division 1.4

Requirements
 Prior to loading the shipper / agent should provide the master with the
characteristics of the cargo this will outline:
o Safe handling procedure for loading
o Safe handling procedure for transport
o Specifications for moisture content
o Sulphur content
o Size
 Before and during loading the master shall ensure:
o Cargo space / bilge wells are clean and dry
o All electrical cables are checked and are free from defects
o Ships personnel are able to measure the methane content,
oxygen content, carbon monoxide content without entering the
hold
o Ships personnel are able to measure PH samples without entering
the hold
 Ships staff must be familiar and fully trained on the use of this
monitoring equipment
 If possible there are ways of measuring the temperature of the coal
 The ship should carry the required BA sets
  Smoking and the use of any other naked flames should be prohibited,
hot work must only be if space has been properly ventilated
 Prior to departure the master must be satisfied that the surface of the
coal has been trimmed level so that there are no spaces in the edges of
the hold – gas pockets could form if there are spaces
 The atmosphere above the space should be regularly monitored, the
frequency of this monitoring depends on the information given by the
shipper

Ventilation of the holds

 Unless directed otherwise all the holds should be ventilated for the first
24 hours after departure
 If after 24hours the Methane concentrations are acceptably low the
ventilators should be turned off
 The master should as far as possible ensure that any gasses emitted do
not accumulate in any adjacent spaces
o All spaces / passageways should be regularly monitored for the
presence of methane, O2, and CO2, adequate ventilation should
be installed within these spaces
 Regular bilge testing should be carried out, bilges should be kept dry if
there is any sort of PH risk evident
 Any behavioral changes in the cargo within the voyage should be noted
and should be supplied to the shipper

Methane emitting coals

 Surface ventilation should be maintained but the air must not be
directed into the cargo itself
 Ensure that the hold is ventilated fully prior to opening the hatch
 When opening hatches it must be done carefully to avoid sparks
 Personnel must not enter the space unless:
o It has been ventilated and declared safe
o Is gas free
o If it is an emergency then the Hold may be entered by trained
personnel wearing BA

Self-heating coals
 If analysis of the hold shows increasing carbon monoxide levels the
following shall be done:
o Close hatches immediately after completion of loading that hold
o Surface ventilation should be limited to the absolute minimum
time necessary
o Forced ventilation shall not be used
o Personnel should not be allowed to enter the hold unless wearing
BA and if vitally necessary
 o If at the time of loading when the hatches are open the
temperature exceeds 55ºC expert advice should be obtained
 If Carbon monoxide levels still continue to increase self-heating may be
occurring
o Space should be closed down
o All ventilation should be shut off
o Expert advice gained
o Water should NOT be used for fighting coal fires but may be used
for boundary cooling
 Information to be passed on to the owners:
o Identity of holds
o CO, methane O2 concentrations
o Coal temperature
o Times of gas samples
o Times ventilators were opened and closed
o Quantity of coal in the hold involved
o Type of coal as per the shipper's declaration
o Date loaded and ETA at the discharge port
o Comments and observations
Task – Revision Notes: General cargoes
Carrying Dangerous goods

Hazards to ship and personnel

 Risk of explosion when carrying flammable or explosive substances
 Oxidizing Substances and Organic Peroxides burn easily giving off oxygen
which helps fuel the fire
 Corrosive materials may cause damage to the ships steel work or create
an acid if water is allowed to mix with it

Minimization of the hazards

 Reject leaking or damaged packaging
 Poisonous substances to be handled with care, PPA should be worn and
BA should be standing by
 Any strong smells indicating leakage should be investigated
 Smoking to prohibited and flame arrestors to be fitted

Statutory Publications
 Ships intending to carry Dangerous goods are required to have a
Document of Compliance
 Statutory Instrument 19
 IMO Code of Safe Practice for the Stowage and Securing of Cargo
 Emergency procedures for ships carrying Dangerous goods
 EMFAG
 Code of Safe Working Practices

Hold Preparations
 To be cleaned, washed and kept free of moisture
 To be ventilated regularly
 All holds are to be watertight
 Fire fighting systems to be operational
 Lighting equipment is to be in good order

Cargo Handling
 Persons handling the goods should be fully aware of nature and any
hazards possible with the cargo
 Loading and Discharge shall be done with the utmost care
 If possible Dangerous Goods should be handled during daylight hours
 Before loading all Dangerous Goods packages are to be thoroughly
checked
 Water reacting cargoes must not be stowed on deck
Cargo Securing
 All dangerous goods are to be tightly stowed and well secured against
any movement – attention should be paid to ensure there is no chafe
 Dangerous goods in containers are secured as with any normal container

Cargo Care
 Temperature and humidity should be monitored
 Goods requiring proper ventilation should be ventilated
 Soundings must be taken to ensure that there is no water in the holds
 Check lashing regularly
 Weather tightness of hatches to be checked

Refrigerated Cargoes

Hazards to ship and personnel

 Deficiency of oxygen occurs when ozone is used to eliminate odors
 Chemicals used inside the refrigerant are harmful to people
 Very cold holds are a risk to personnel

Precautions to minimize the hazard

 Use environmentally friendly chemicals
 Proper entry checks made before entering into holds – ventilate first
 Thermal clothing to be worn

Statutory Publications
 Code of safe practices for cargo stowage and securing
 SI 19

Hold preparations
 Compartments to be taint / odor free
 Insulation to be inspected
 Ventilators leading to other compartments to be unplugged
 Bilges cleaned and suction tested
 Dunnage to be pre-cooled before use

Cargo Handling
 Cargo nets to be used for slinging meat or fruit
 Walking on cargo is not allowed unless you use a walking board
 Temperature in hold should be as per cargoes requirements
 Constantly check C02 levels when loading C02 emitting cargoes

Cargo Stowage
 Boxes should be the self-ventilated type
  Distribute cargo uniformly over the floor
 Temperature in hold should be as per cargoes requirements

Cargo Securing
 Stow uniformly
 Reefer containers to be lashed the same way as normal containers

Cargo Care
 The temperature, humidity, C02 and OZONE levels to monitored
regularly
 Eggs and butter are very liable to taint so do not stow with fruit
 Defrosting should be carried out as per the shipper's instructions
 Good ventilation should be given to fruit to avoid C02 build up
Task – Revision Notes: Timber Cargoes
Due to the high stowage factor, a vessel will not be down to her marks when
her holds are loaded full of timber.
Two methods to bring the vessel to her marks:
1. Load ore into the bottom of the holds – proper separation is required
to stop the timber absorbing moisture from the ore
2. Stow more timber on the deck – if this is done you must follow
additional regulations:
 Timber must be compactly stowed and secured by a system of overall
lashings of adequate strength with efficient and easily accessible
methods for quick release
 If uprights are necessary then the distance between them must be not
more than 3m
 The maximum height of timber above the deck if the vessel is in the
winter zone during the winter period remains 1/3 of the extreme breadth
of the vessel

When a vessel is loading as required by the timber load line rules the following
must be adhered to:
 Timber to be stored solidly in wells at least to the height of the focsal
 If there is no superstructure at the after end of the vessel the timber
must be extended to at least the after side of the after most hatchway
 The securing lashings shall consist of not less than 19mm close link chain
o These lashings shall not be independent of each other
o Not more than 3m apart
o Fitted with slip hook and stretching screws
o Wire rope lashings shall have a short length of long chain to
permit the length of lashing
 The lashings are secured to eye plates attached to the sheer strake or
deck stringer at intervals of not more than 3m. The end one is to be not
more than 2m from the superstructure bulkhead
 If there is no bulkhead then eye plate lashings are to be provided 0.6 –
1.5m from the ends of the timber deck cargo
 If the timber is in lengths of less than 3.6m the spacing of the lashings
shall be reduced.

Stability
The stability book onboard should have comprehensive calculations in it
regarding:
 The increased weight of the timber deck cargo due to
o The absorption of water in dried timber
o Ice accretion
o Variations in consumables
 o The free surface effect of liquid in tanks
o The weight of water trapped in broken spaces within the timber
deck cargo and especially logs.
The master should:
 Cease all loading operations if a list develops
 Before proceeding to sea ensure that:
o The ship is upright
o The ship has an adequate GM
o The ship meets the required stability criteria
Ships carrying timber deck cargoes should operate as far as possible with a safe
margin of stability and with a metacentric height which is consistent with
safety requirements but such a metacentric height should not be allowed to
fall below the recommended minimum.

Excessive stability should be avoided as it will result in violent rolling motions

in heavy seas which will create large sliding and racking forces causing a high
amount of stress on the lashings.
Preferably GM should not exceed 3% of the breadth of the vessel.

Testing, examination and certification of the lashing equipment

 All lashing gear used for securing the timber deck cargo should be tested
and marked according to the national regulations. Copies of certificates
should be kept onboard.
 No treatments to the gear which could hide defects shall be applied
after the testing
 A visual inspection of the gear shall be made at intervals not exceeding
12months
 A visual examination of all securing points on the ship including uprights
should be performed before loading the timber deck cargo

Tightening lashings
Lashings should be tightened at the start of the voyage and then at regular
intervals throughout the voyage.
Any adjustments to the lashings shall be recorded in the ships log book.

A List
If a list occurs during the voyage it can normally be put down to three factors:
1. Cargo shift
2. Water ingress
3. Angle of loll
1. Cargo may have shifted below decks or may be apparent on deck. An
immediate examination should be made to determine whether the cargo
has shifted.
Ballasting of fuel transfer may have caused the list
Any cargo shift will in most cases occur during bad weather, so it will be
difficult and dangerous to send crew out to jettison cargo, this may be
 the last resort as it is unlikely to improve the situation, as the cargo will
not jettison all at once and there is a high chance of damage to the
propeller.
2. Water ingress can be determined by sounding through the ship. Pumps
can be used to pump out any obvious water.
3. If the rolling of a ship prior to detection of the list has become very slow
and the ship returns to the upright position in a sluggish manner then
this will indicate that the ship has a small if non-existent Metacentric
Height. The list is therefore due to the ship rolling from one side to the
other and having no righting arm to return it to the upright
This can be rectified by adding weight down below – ballast or removing
weight high up – jettisoning deck cargo.
With ballasting, you should fill the lowest tank first so as to regain
stability quickly. If you were to fill the high side first then the ship could
roll to that side and then capsize.

Any cargo jettisoned a warning to other ships should be made by all available
means to let them know.

Means of lashing
Hog Lashings

Wire rope lashings

 To securing eyes on deck

Snatch Block

Wiggle wire

Double lashing

Turnbuckle or
lever tensioner

To tensioning drums

Publication to refer to:

Code of Safe Practice for ships Carrying Timber Deck

Cargoes 1991
Task – Revision Notes: Bulk Carriers
Due to the high-risk nature of carrying cargoes in bulk the BC Code was
introduced – ‘IMO Code of Safe Practice for Solid Bulk Cargoes’
The aim of the BC code is to promote safety of stowage and shipment of bulk
cargoes by:
 Highlighting the dangers associated with the shipment of certain types of
bulk cargoes
 Gives guidance on the procedures to be adopted when the shipment of
bulk cargoes is contemplated
 Listing typical materials currently shipped in bulk together with advice
on their properties and handling
 Describing test procedures to be employed to determine various
characteristics of the bulk cargo materials

The BLU Code – ‘IMO code of Practice for the safe Loading and Unloading of
Bulk carriers’
The aim of the BLU Code is to outline the procedures that must be followed by
the ship and bulk terminal prior to and during bulk handling operation. The
main idea of it is to create a standard method of operation.

BC Code
Section 1: definitions
 Angle of repose – the maximum slope angle of a free-flowing granular
material
 Cargoes that may liquefy – materials which are subject to moisture
migration and subsequent liquefaction
 Flow moisture point – the percentage moisture content at which a flow
state develops under the prescribed method of test
 Stowage factor – the figure expressed that states the number of cubic
meters which one tonne of material will occupy

Section 2: general precautions

The main emphasis of this section is on stress and stability basically saying that
special attention shall be paid to ensure that the distribution of weight is such
that it avoids excessive stresses.

Section 3: Safety
This section is concerned with the safety of the ship and personnel and refers
to MFAG of the IMDG code.

Section 4: Acceptability of consignments for shipping

The main emphasis is on the testing and sampling of the proposed cargo. And
that the shipper provides all relevant details concerning the cargo, including all
characteristics and properties of the material.
Section 5: Trimming Procedures
The general requirement that the cargo should be trimmed to a reasonable
level. For cargoes with an angle of repose of less than 30º the Grain Reg’s apply

Section 6: Methods of working out Angle of Repose

This gives guidance to ships officers to work out the Angle of Repose if the
figure can not be taken from ashore

Section 7: Cargoes which may liquefy

Cargoes received with a moisture content above the transportable moisture
limit should not be accepted and special care should give to ensure that water
is not allowed to enter the hold during the passage.

Section 8: Test procedures for cargoes which may liquefy

Guidance for ships officers on simple tests that can be performed on cargoes
which may liquefy

Section 9: Materials with chemical hazards

Most of these are covered in the IMDG code but many only become hazardous
when carried in bulk.
The section also covers the requirements for segregation between bulk
materials processing chemical hazards and dangerous goods in packaged form
and incompatible bulk materials processing chemical hazards.

BLU Code
Section 1: The terms associated with bulk cargo

Section 2: The suitability of ships and terminals

This discusses the obligations of the ship owner and manager when offering a
ship to carry a particular bulk cargo. Also the obligations of the terminal in
bringing the vessel alongside the berth

Section 3: Procedures between the ship and shore before arrival

Provides considerable detail of the load sequence, stowage by hold order of
loading and quantity to be loaded. Once the terminal has received that
information the terminal will provide the ship with the information regarding
the berth and the cargo operations.

Section 4: Procedure between ship and the shore after arrival but before
handling
This basically regards the Master / Mate relationship with the terminal

Section 5: Loading and handling of ballast

Brief details on what is expected from ships officers and the terminal
operations staff during the actual loading operation. On completion the code
requires the master and the terminal agree that the ship has been loaded
according to the plan.

Section 6: Unloading and handling of ballast

The same as section 5 but this time with regards to unloading the cargo

Planning the Load

 Determine the amount of ballast to be on board at berthing or
unberthing
 Determine the other weight onboard such as fuel and fresh water.
 Calculate the total amount of cargo to be loaded
 Calculate the individual tonnages if more than one grade or if more than
one loading / discharge port is involved
 Plan the amount of cargo in each individual loading pour or discharging
sequence
 Match the deballasting / ballasting sequence with the cargo operation to
keep hull stresses within the required limits
 Write down the expected time intervals for each pour and ballast
operation to ensure the synchronization
 Plan for draft checks at critical points throughout the load or discharge
 Ensure ballasting will be completed prior to the final trimming pour and
final draft survey
 Plan the final trimming pour

Loading the cargo

 Arrive within the port limits in ballast with any floodable hold empty
and all holds ready to receive cargo
 Issue of the Notice of Readiness by the master
 Holds inspected and Notice of Readiness accepted
 Arrive at the loading berth, Chief Officer, and Terminal agree on the
checklist and load sequence, the initial draft survey is conducted before
the hatches are opened and prior to starting deballasting
 Loading and deballasting begin ensuring that the pumping and the
loading match the plan
 Draught checks are carried out at various stages throughout the loading
for comparison with the terminals figures
 Each hold is loaded with the correct number of pours in the correct load
sequence
 Ballast completed prior to the final draught check and before the
trimming pours
 Trimming pour completed to give desired trim and deadweight
 Draught survey to ensure correct load tonnage and distribution of
trimming pours
  Final inspection to ensure correct cargo levels and hatches are secure
for sea
 Bill of Lading signed, time sheets and statement of facts agreed
 Terminal received confirmation that the loading was completed as
planned
 Port clearance give ship sets to sea

Ventilation of the holds

Ventilators should be directed as follows:
 Leeward vents facing into the wind
 Windward vents facing away from the wind

Hot to cold – ventilate hold

Cold to hot – ventilate not
Task – Revision Notes: Container Ships
The standardization of containers has been brought about by the:
‘IMO International Convention for safe containers.’
The main goals being to maintain a high level of safety of human life in
handling and transport of containers – done by providing strength requirements.
And to facilitate the international transport of containers by providing uniform
international safety regulations.

The outcome of the convention is that containers that have been safety
approved for international transport will have a safety approval plate on them.

CSC Safety Approval

[GB-L/749/2/7//75]
Date Manufactured ………………
Identification No. ………………
Maximum Gross Weight …Kg …lb
Allowable stacking weight for 1.8g
…Kg …lb
Racking test load value …Kg …lb

 [GB-L/749/2/7//75] this code specifies the Country that approves the

container, the rest of the numbers are the approval reference
 Month and year of manufacture
 The Identification number is provided by the manufacturer
 Maximum operating weight
 The allowable stacking height – the weight that the container can
support from above it
 The load applied for transverse racking tests

Other types of container

 General purpose container – the standard container in use
 Bulk container – 20’ container with three hatches in the roof for loading
bulk material
 Ventilated container – 20’ with a passive ventilation system adjacent to
the top and bottom side rails
 Open sided container – 20’ with an open side to it with a gate and a roll
down curtain, may be used to carry livestock
 Open top container – 20’ or 40’ used to carry large heavy, tall goods that
can be loaded through the roof rather than the door. Roof battens can
be fitted after the cargo is secured
  Half height containers – 20’ or 40’ used to load high-density cargoes
when a full container would not be filled
 Flat rack containers – 20’ or 40’ with no sides or roof
 Insulated containers – used when there is blown air available from the
ship
 Refrigerated containers – similar to the insulated container but they
have a refrigeration supply fitted to them which can be plugged into the
ships power
 Tank containers – 20’ or 40’ framework steel tanks used for carrying
hazardous and non-hazardous liquid

Cargo Planning
 The cargo space on a container ship is well know due to it being made up
of equal slots so the basic plan is always the same.
 Each container space has a 6 figure code which specifies the position of
it. And tells you the fore and aft position, the athwartships position and
the vertical position.

o The first two figures specify the row number which starts from
the bow. Odd numbers = 20’ and Even numbers 40’
 Therefore a 20ft container in the furthest bay fwd would
start with 01, if it was in the next available bay then it
would start 03
 If a 40ft container was in rows 1 and 2 then it has the
prefix 02

o The second pair of numbers tells you its athwartships location

starting from the centre line. Odd numbers = stbd and Even
numbers = port
 Therefore 06 = the third cell from midships on the port side

o The third pair of figures tells us the vertical location, Full height
containers are Even numbers starting with 02 and a half height
containers are Odd numbers. On deck, the lowest tier is 82

 For each bay, a complex plan is drawn up which includes

 Ports of loading and discharge
 Contents
 Weight
 Container Number

 This leads the planner to various other issues as he needs to know any
special requirements such as DG or Refrigeration
 The weight of each container must be known to distribute the weight
evenly
  Distribution of cargo must be planned carefully to avoid double handling
of cargo which discharging
 Provision for oversized units

 These various factors would make the planning very difficult for the ship
to do it as they are unlikely to have sufficient information, therefore it
is done by specialist planners

Loading the containers

Container ships are made up of cell guides below decks and sometimes above
decks this means that it is almost impossible to load the containers if the ship
is not upright. The ships, therefore, are fitted with automatic ballast systems
which trigger water to be pumped between wing tanks.

Securing Containers
The ‘IMO Code of Safe Practice for Cargo Stowage and Securing’ only requires
that ships that carry cargo in standardized stowage and securing systems
should:
 Designed and equipped that the standardized cargo concerned can be
safely stowed and secured onboard under all conditions except during
the voyage
 Provided with adequate information for the use by the master of the
arrangements provided for the stowage and securing of the specific
cargoes for which the ship is designed
Therefore it is necessary that the ship has an approved securing manual and
the necessary equipment onboard

Lashings must be checked before sailing to ensure that they are tight and then
again during the voyage.

If a master suspects that the cargo within a closed container has not been
properly secured within the container then a Cargo Stowage and Securing
Declaration should be sighted or refused
Task – Revision Notes: Reefer cargoes
Conventional reefer ships still carry the majority of refrigerated cargo but are
also equipped to carry containers above and below decks. These ships generally
have a greater number of individual spaces than that of a general cargo ship.
This division of space means fewer containers in a stack so there is a greater
variety of cargo that can be carried. Due to the high amount of palletised cargo
that is carried the dimensions of the hold are generally in pallet-sized
multiples.

Cargo is kept at its required temperature through a combination of efficient

insulation and refrigeration. The temperature control is performed by blowing
refrigerated air through space into the cargo.
The main purpose of refrigeration is basically for organic reasons, as organic
material is prone to attack by micro-organisms, bacteria, and mold. These all
require warmth to be able to multiply.

Living organic matter emits heat and gasses, CO2 and ethylene which is
produced by ripening fruit – ethylene will speed up the ripening process.

Loading
Space must be clean, dry, free of odor and be pre-cooled.
 Cleaning – washing down with a disinfectant and deodorizer, the perhaps
painting will be required, clean fans by running them in both directions
so that dust is blown from the trunking. Scuppers must be cleaned.
Clean dunnage must be laid out and the hold must be fumigated.
 Freeing odor – this will pretty much be done in the cleaning process
 Pre-cooling – this is achieved by bringing the temperature down to
slightly below the carrying temperature and maintaining the
temperature for a period of 24hrs

The cargo must be fully inspected and the publication ‘The transport of
Perishable Foodstuffs’ or ‘Guide to Food Transport’ should be consulted.
The cargo should be in its transportable state as the ship is only there to
maintain the temperature not lower it.

The cargo should be loaded so that the air flow is not restricted – if the cargo
has bellies they should be stored belly to belly rather than in the gaps so air
flow is not restricted.
Dunnage should be used to keep the cargo away from ships sides and also to
ensure that the air is allowed to freely circulate.

Compatibility of cargo
Great care should be taken in mixing cargoes.
  There should be sufficient overlap of temperature limits to allow normal
fluctuations in temp
 Packaging and storage patterns – mixing items may cause stowage
problems and air circulation problems
 Ethylene production / sensitive cargoes could lead to unacceptable
ripening of cargoes.
 Odor emission and sensitivity of cargo

Care during transportation

The conditions of carriage should be strictly kept to, monitored and recorded.
Proper documentation of cargo space conditions will assist the ship owner if
claims are made against him.
Record:
 Temperatures
 Fans should run at speeds necessary to maintain temperature and meet
ventilation requirements, excessive ventilations could cause the cargo to
dry out
 Ethylene levels should be controlled by venting a proportion of
circulated air to the atmosphere and replacing it with fresh air
 CO2 may be injected into the circulating air to maintain required levels

Discharging cargo
Stevedores are generally experienced at the loading port but at the discharge
port will probably require more assistance.
 When working a cargo which is below another cargo, screens should be
erected to stop heat getting in the hold
 Spaces should be temporarily covered during short breaks and cooling
fans run
 When required to walk on meat they should have clean boots on
 Walking boards should be used when working on cartons or cases of fruit
 Cargo slings should be made up at the edges of the hatch to prevent
damage
 When damage is found in the stow all details should be carefully noted
so that the cause can be found and perhaps avoided in the future
Task – Revision Notes: Ro – Ro
‘The merchant shipping (carriage of Cargo) Regulations’
The regulations require the shipper to provide the owner or master with a
description of the cargo, a gross mass of the units and any special properties of
the cargo so that they are able to ensure compatibility and safe stowage of the
cargo.

The regulations require the owner and master to ensure that ‘appropriate
precautions are taken during the loading and transport of cargo units,
especially with regard to securing arrangements on board such ships and on the
cargo units and with regard to the securing points onboard.

There are additional guidelines in the ‘Roll on Roll off ships, stowage and
securing of vehicles code of practice’

Section 1
Principle sources of danger
Section 2
Considers the protection of personnel on ramps and vehicle decks
Section 3
Guidance on the use vehicle decks, ships ramps, lifting appliances and
securing arrangements
Section 4
Aimed at shippers ensuring vehicles are suitable
Section 5
Stowage and securing for ships officers
 Shippers advice should be followed regarding the handling +
securing of vehicles
 Vehicles should be aligned in the fore and aft direction
 Stored as closely together as is possible in the athwartships
direction, so as to restrict movement in the event of lashing
failure
 Safe access to securing arrangements, stairways, and escape
routes
 Parking breaks to be on
 Freight vehicles of more than 3.5T should be secured in all
circumstances
 Vehicles on inclined decks should be checked
 Lashings should only be made on proper securing points at
equal tension
 Securing operations should be completed before sailing
Section 7
Refers to the cargo securing manual
  Details of fixed securing points, pad eyes, eye bolts and
elephant feet
 Locations and storage of portable securing gear
 Examples of correct application of portable securing gear on
various cargo units, vehicles etc
 Indication of the variation of transverse, longitudinal and
vertical accelerations to be expected in various positions
onboard

Design and operation

 Closing and locking of doors prior to departure (enter in logbook)
 Indicators and alarms showing the status of door
 CCTV in cargo and door areas on the bridge
 Passenger counting system
 Provision of draught, trim and stability information before departure
 Lightweight survey every 5 years (inclined of 2% difference)
 Must have a Co-operation with SAR services plan
 Compliance with “stowage and securing of vehicles code of practice”

Ballast
Due to the Ro-Ro vessels being able to load horizontally it is important that the
ship is kept so. Modern tractor units are capable of towing up to an incline of
about 10º so it is important to keep it to about 6º so therefore it is important
that proper use is made of the ballast to keep the ship at an acceptable level.

A/Amax

The value is given to a ship to indicate its survivability in the flooded condition
Task – Revision Notes: Passenger Ship Operations
Passenger ship Safety Certificate
The PSSC is a SOLAS requirement and must be carried on all UK flagged Pax
ships engaged on international voyages.
It covers Construction, Equipment, and Radios
Surveys are carried out each year.

Items inspected on the initial survey

 Construction, machinery, and equipment
 Safety equipment
 Radio equipment
 Subdivision load lines – these may be assigned for the use of alternative
service conditions. The line would depend on the passenger spaces in
use.

Some of the things that can be found on the certificate:

 Operational sea areas
 Main and auxiliary machinery and boilers
 Watertight subdivision arrangements
 Fire system and appliances
 Radio installation
 Navigation equipment and publications
 Lights shapes and sound signals and distress signals
 Means of embarkation for pilots

A record of equipment detailing the LSA and FFA onboard as well as details of
the radio facilities must supplement the certificate.

Muster lists and Drills

Muster Lists
The Master is responsible for compiling the master list and ensuring it is
updated and placed in places throughout the ship including the bridge, engine
room, and crew accommodation. It shall have on it:
 A translation into the working language of the ship
 Contain details of alarm signals, communications and abandon ship signal
 Show duties of each crew member
 The survival craft assigned to each person
 Ensure that a deck officer or qualified person is command of each
survival craft
 Indicate a person capable of carrying out survival craft engine repairs
 The location of passenger assembly points
 The person responsible for the upkeep of LSA and FFA
Drills
Each crew member must participate in at least one abandon ship drill and one
fire drill every month.
These drills must be held within 24hrs of leaving port if more than 25% of the
crew have not taken part in drills on board the ship.
Additionally, on Pax ships these drills must be conducted weekly and as many
crews as practicable should take part, such that every crew member
participates once a month.

A muster of Pax must take place within 24hrs of their embarkation and they
must be given instructions on the following:
 Actions to take when hearing the GES
 Location of and how to put on a life jacket
 GES and the signal to abandon ship
 Importance of being properly clad
 Dangers of jumping into the water
 Watertight doors and fire doors

If a small number of Pax join after the drill there attention should be drawn to
the safety instructions in their cabins
These instructions should include:
 Muster station
 Action to take on hearing GES
 Location and method of putting on a lifejacket

Requirements for crew dealing with passengers in emergencies

All crew nominated to assist pax in an emergency should receive additional
training to enable them to perform their duty. The crew should be proficient
in:
 Communications – Sufficient English to provide instructions, raise alarm,
report and notify
 Life Saving – Knowledge of the muster list, GES and areas of
responsibility and generalship layout
 LSA – Location of life jackets and blankets
 First Aid – basic first aid and transportation of casualties
 Fire – raising the alarm, initial containment, dangers of inhalation
 Abandon ship – Signal and use of survival equipment

Methods to improve and maintain crew proficiency

 Practical training onboard
 Familiarization – i.e. repeated tours
 Participation in drills
 Exercises in use of equipment
 Exercises in use of communication equipment
 Evacuation exercises
  Real life drills
 Attendance of Crisis management and Human Behaviour courses

Crisis Management and Human Behaviour

Research has shown that:
 60% of people will not know what to do and will become confused
and will require specific instructions + direction
 25% of people will act rationally and will help others
 15% of people will experience ‘Spontaneous Incompetence’
Basically won't be able to move or believe the seriousness of the
situation
 Of the 25% rational people:
o 10% will look after them
o 10% will assist others
o 5% will try and deal with the emergency – these people can
get in the way – they may try and persuade others to do
what they say rather than listening to the crew – retired
police, firefighters etc…

Information to the passengers

On sounding the GES make regular and honest announcements – this will gain
confidence and trust.

Behaviour of the crew

The crew provides leadership and reassurance. Signs of fear will distress pax –
best way to be is almost a dictator – ‘I am trained for this situation, here’s
what we are going to do and if you follow my instructions we will all survive’

Problems likely to be encountered

 Elderly – may be left to fend for themselves as some pax demonstrate
selfish and aggressive tendencies towards others to save themselves
 Pax will demand to return to their cabins, if they are not allowed to
then they will become angry
 Pax will attempt to bring luggage with them
 List, smoke – will confuse pax so expect them to be disoriented

Emergency information for passengers – MSN 1409

The overall aim of providing information to pax keeping them sufficiently well
informed throughout an emergency.
It is essential that pax are informed of the of procedures that should follow in
an emergency – this information should be communicated to pax on or before
departure.
There are 5 requirements to assist pax in an emergency these are:
1. Continuously illuminated signs to be provided in passageways and
stairways indicating direction to muster stations
2. All doors used for exits to open decks and all emergency escapes being
clearly marked to indicate their purpose
3. All vessels are provided with a public address system
4. Instructions on muster stations, lifejackets etc to be posted in cabins
and conspicuous places
5. Where a drill is not held on departure the attention of passengers is
drawn to the ships emergency instructions

Signs
 Muster Station signs should be located at muster stations and readily
apparent to pax so they can readily identify the muster station
 Muster station direction signs provided in alleyways, stairwells showing
how to get to muster station
 Exit signs – all doors leading to open decks and doors, windows etc…
used for emergency escapes. Signs should be placed on door or in a
position to indicate the presence of the door
 Deck identification – the number / name of deck should be readily
identified by signs at each entrance and stairway

Public Address systems

 These should be capable of broadcasting to all public spaces which
include open decks.
 It should be powered from the main electrical source and from an
alternative power source.

Decision Support System

Passenger ships Classes I, II and II(a) are required to have a decision support
system for emergency management.
The plan must identify all foreseeable emergency situations and for each
emergency have an emergency plan / procedure
Areas that shall be included in the system are:
 Fire
 Damage to the ship
 Pollution
 Security Threats
 Serious accident to Pax and Crew
Whenever possible the drills and training onboard will make use of the decision
support system

Bomb threats
Reception and bridge have a set format of questions to ask the caller
 What group is making the threat
 What threat is there to the ship
 Any time limit of the bomb
 Demands of the group
 What the group hopes to achieve
 Male or female
 Regional accent
 Background noise
 Calm or panicked
 Rational or irrational
Task – Revision Notes: Seaworthiness
The owner is obliged to provide a seaworthy vessel.
Common law recognizes that vessels can not be absolutely watertight in all
conditions and that owners can not guarantee the seaworthiness of a vessel
once she leaves port and is subject to the perils of the sea.

“Perils of the sea: fortuitous accidents or casualties peculiar to

transportation on navigable water; stranding, sinking, collision, heavy weather
or other unusual forces of nature.”

The requirements of common law as stated in the Hague rules and the Hague-
Visby rules, that the vessel left her berth in a seaworthy condition as far the
owners, master and officer could tell by careful reasonable inspection.

A vessel will be deemed to be unseaworthy if she set sail without:

 Valid statutory certificates
 Valid certificate of class
 Proper stowage and securing of cargo
 Cargo care system in good order
 A properly qualified master and crew
 The proper crew complements as outlined by the safe manning
certificate
 Appropriate charts and publications for the voyage which are corrected
and up to date
 Sufficient bunkers for the voyage

The consequence of unseaworthiness is a breach of contract with the possibility

to terminate the contract. If the cargo owner can show that his loss was caused
by a failure of the carrier to exercise due diligence to make the vessel
seaworthy, then the carrier will not be able to rely on any other clauses in the
Rules which reduce his liability. If the loss or damage was caused by
unseaworthiness on the part of the ship the burden of proving that due
diligence was carried out is on the carrier or other person claiming exemption
under Article IV. If the Hague-Visby Rules apply then there are 17 exceptions to
liability that the carrier can use to avoid being responsible for loss or damage.
For example act, neglect, or default of the master, mariner, pilot or the
servants of the carrier in the navigation or management of the ship. So the
carrier will be looking to show that the ship was seaworthy for the voyage
(HVR. Article III/1) and that any loss or damage was caused by one of the
exceptions to liability (HVR. Article IV/2).
Task – Revision Notes: Load Lines
When a ship loads in a summer zone she can load to the top of her summer
marks this is also the statutory freeboard mark.

If the vessel is in fresh water then she can load to the top of her ‘F’ fresh
mark, when she returns to the open sea (summer zone) the vessel will return to
the Summer Marks

Similarly, if she loads in a winter zone then she can load to the ‘W’ mark, then
when she returns to the summer zone she will sink to her summer mark

The ships dock water allowance is the allowance given to a vessel so that she
can load in Dock water, when she does this she will be over her Summer Marks,
but due to the fact Dock water allowance has been calculated the vessel will
be at her Summer Marks when she returns to open sea.

Dock water allowance = FWA x (1025 – Density of the dock water)

25
 S is the position calculated from the Load line rules
 W is one forty-eighth of the summer load draught below S
 T is one forty-eighth of the summer load draught above S
 F is an equal amount of Displacement
4T above S
Displacement at the summer load draught and T is the metric
tones per cm immersion
 TF is the position relative to T and is found in the same way as F relative
to S
 WNA
 This is used by vessels not exceeding 100m in length when in certain
areas of the North Atlantic Ocean during the winter period. When
assigned it is 50mm below the Winter marks
Diagram of a standard Load line

Timber ships
Certain vessels are assigned Timber load lines after they have met all the
required criteria.
 LS is arrived at from the appropriate tables in the Load line Regs
 LW is one thirty-sixth of the summer timber load draught below LS
 LT is one forty-eighth of the summer timber load draught above LS
 LF and LTF are calculated in the same way as F and TF except that the
displacement used in the formulae is that of a vessel at her summer
timber load draught.
 LWNA is at the same level as WNA
Timber load line
Task – Stability Notes: Angle of Loll
The angle to which a ship with a negative initial metacentric height will lie at
rest in water

An angle of loll can occur due to a number situations:

 Deck cargoes absorbing moisture especially timber deck cargoes, you
should allow up to 15% extra for the weight that will be absorbed during
the voyage when making the initial calculations.
 Consumption of fuel and water thus creating Free Surface and a rise in G
 Ballast tanks may lower if water is lost through the vent pipes during
rough weather. Ensure that ballast tanks are kept pressed up.
 Poor cargo and ballast tank management is the usual cause of angle of
Loll.
 Heavy lift operations cause an instantaneous loss of GM when the weight
is lifted off the deck, such a large increase in KG should be considered
prior to the lift.
 Shift of bulk cargo

It is not always easy to work out if the ship is listed or is lolled, and if you are
in any doubt always treat it as though the vessel is lolled.
Once you are satisfied that the weights are distributed evenly then we can
assume that the list is due to negative GM.
The main priority is to lower the Center of gravity so it goes below M – the
initial metacentric height. All slack tanks should be pressed up as this will stop
a rise in G due to free surface effect. Anything on the ships decks should be
lowered for example Derricks should be lowered. Oil in tanks should be
transferred to bottom tanks.
If the ship has high ballast tanks then these should be emptied high side first,
as the high side will lower G the most.
Once this has been done and there is a still a list there what can we do???
If there are empty bottom tanks we could fill these, but in the process of doing
this, there will be a free surface effect with will cause an increase in the
negative GM thus creating a greater angle of loll. If it is possible to fill tanks
then you should consider filling the smaller tanks first.
If there is a tank with a split at the center which side do you fill first and why?
If you were to fill the high side first then the ship would roll upright then would
quickly roll over to the other side creating an angle of loll on that side, there is
a high chance that the ship could capsize as it rolls over.
So fill the lower bottom tanks, this will initially list the ship over further but it
is being done in a controlled manner, as you move the center of gravity
downwards the list will eventually start to decrease, when this starts to happen
you can start filling the other sides bottom tanks and bring the ship upright in a
controlled manner.
A ship with a negative initial metacentric height is unstable when inclined, As
the heel angle increases the center of buoyancy ‘B’ will move out so it
becomes directly below G this is called the angle of Loll, at this time the
capsizing moment has gone.
When the angle of Loll and the GZ is zero G remains in the Centerline. If the
ship continues to heel past the angle of loll B will move out to vertically under
the low side thus allowing the ship to return to the angle of Loll. If B does not
move out far enough the ship will end up capsizing.

ALWAYS only fill 1 tank at a time.

Task – Revision Notes: Bilge and ballast systems
Bilge system
Is designed to remove excess water from the bilge and pump it to a holding
tank or over the side via an OWS
Ballast system
Is designed to fill or empty water ballast tanks from the sea, or allow water to
be transferred via tanks for trim /stability purposes.
Cargo Ships
All cargo ships are provided with pumping and piping arrangements so that any
watertight compartment or watertight section of a compartment can be
pumped out when a vessel has a list of up to 5º and is on an even keel.
In machinery spaces they may be pumped out through 2 suction pumps:
 1 from the main bilge line
 1 from an independent power driven pump
Also, there must be an emergency bilge pump
Passenger Ships
Passenger ships must provide the capability to pump out each compartment or
section following a casualty under all practical conditions whether the ship is
listed or not.
There must be at least 3 bilge pumps and must where possible be in separate
compartments. The pumps and lines must be kept within 20% of the ships beam
and pipes must be fitted with non-return valves. These requirements are
designed to try and prevent any compartment from becoming flooded during a
grounding.
Bilge lines
Bilge lines are fitted with strum boxes at the mouth of the line. The strum box
is a box which covers the end of the pipe and has small holes in it up to 10mm
in diameter. The point of the strum box is to stop any dirt or debris being
sucked into the lines.
In machinery spaces and the shaft tunnel, the bilge line is led to a mud box,
there is a fine mesh in the mud box which collects sludge and foreign objects.
Scuppers
Scuppers are fitted at the ships side to drain the decks.
Below the freeboard deck scuppers are led to bilges rather than over the side
unless they are fitted with nonreturn valves.
Task – Revision Notes: Bilged Side compartment
A box-shaped vessel of length 120m, beam 18m floats at draft 6m in salt water.
The vessel has a midship side compartment of length 20m calculate the angle
of list if the compartment becomes bilged
120m

18m

20m

Find bodily sinkage

Increase in draft = Lost volume
Intact water plane area
= 9 x 20 x 6
(120 x 18) – (9 x 20)
= 0.55m
Find new KB
KB = New T ÷ 2
= 6 + 0.55 ÷ 2
= 3.28m
Find the shift in B
Area Dist of centroid Moments
Whole 18 x 120 0 0
Damaged - (9 x 20) 4.5 -810
1980 -810

Shift in B = -810
1980
= -0.41

120

Shift in B
18m
Find BM 4.5
BM =I
 but I = Igg because this is for a
box shape
Igg = Ixx – (A x h2)
Ixx = L x B3 - l xb3
12 3

= 120 x 183 - 20 x 93
12 3
= 53460m4
Igg = Ixx – (a x h2)
= 53460 – (1980 x 0.412)
= 53127.16
BM = Igg ÷ 
= 53127.16 ÷ (120 x 18 x 6)
= 4.10m
GM = (KB + BM) – KG
= (3.28 + 4.10) – 5
= 2.38
List = Tanº = Shift in B
GM
= Tanº = 0.41
2.38
= 9.77º angle of list
Task – Revision Notes: Bilging a side compartment with
permeability
Find the angle of the list when a side compartment is bilged and the
compartment has a permeability of 0.7.
KG = 5.8
130

11

17

Find GM in the damaged condition

GM = (KB + BM) – KG
Find KB
//Sinkage = lost vol (includes Permeability)
intact WPA
= 6 x 11 x 17 x 0.7
(130 x 11) – (11 x 17 x0.7)
= 0.6m
New Draft = 6.0 + 0.6
= 6.6m
KB = 6.6 ÷ 2
= 3.3m
Find BM = LB3 – lb3 x permeability
12 12

= 130 x 113 - 17 x 113 x 0.7
12 12
(130 x 11 x 6)
BM = 1.53m
Now you can find GM
GM = (3.3 x 1.53) – 5.8 Negative GM
= - 0.97 therefore there is
Find Heel an angle of Loll
Tanº = 2 x – GM
BM
= 2 x –0.97 = 48.39º
1.53
Task – Revision Notes: Bilging an end compartment
Find the fwd and aft draughts when an end compartment is bilged

KG = 5.0m

13
115

14
57.5 G
LCF 57.5
8 51 B

Centroid

//sinkage = lost vol

intact WPA
= 8 x 13 x 14
(14 x 115) – (13 x 14)
= 1.02m

Draft at LCF = 8 + 1.02 = 9.02m

Change in trim = Trimming Mom

MCTC
= LCB LCG = 57.5 – 51 = 6.5m
Δ =  x P = (8 x 115 x 14) x 1.025
= 13202T

TM = 6.5 x 13202
= 85813Tm
Buoyancy force = Lost vol x P
= 8 x 13 x 14 x 1.025
= 1492.4T
Distance from the LCF to the Centroid of the damaged compartment is 57.5m
MCTC = Δ x GMl
100 x LBP
GML = KB + BMl – KG
KB = New draft ÷ 2
= 9.02 ÷ 2 = 4.5m

BMl = Inertia Longitudinally = BMl3

 12
 
= 14 x1023 ÷ 12 ÷ (8 x 115 x 14)
= 96.12m

GMl = 4.5 + 96.12 – 5

= 95.63
MCTC = 13202 x 95.63 ÷ (100 x 115)
= 109.78
Change Trim = 85813 ÷ 109.79
= 781.68cm
= 7.82m
Draft aft = T x W ± Trim x LCF ÷ LBP
= 9.02 – 7.82 x 51 ÷ 115
= 5.55m

Draft fwd = Taft ± trim

= 5.55 + 7.87
= 13.37m
Task – Stability Notes: Freeboards
A change in freeboard could occur if:

 Loading and discharging a cargo causing a change in draught

 Loading and discharging of ballast, fuel or lube oil
 Ice accretion
 Absorption of moisture by deck cargo
 Ingress of water in a damage situation
 Shipping heavy seas

The increase in freeboard will result in the following:

 The initial GM will be unchanged

 GZ values will be increased at angles of heel beyond the angle of heel
at which deck edge immersion takes place for small free-boarded ships
 Dynamical stability is increased at angles of heel beyond the angle of
heel at which deck edge immersion takes place
 The range of stability is increased; if freeboard were to be reduced
then GZ values would similarly reduce

Assignment of Freeboards
Type A ships – freeboard is extracted from Freeboard Table A
Type B ships – freeboard is extracted from Freeboard Table B

The freeboard is increased by a tabulated amount relating to length if the ship

is fitted with portable hatch beams, covers, and tarpaulins.

The freeboard can be reduced by 60% of the difference of Type A & B if:
 More than 100m in length
 Fitted with steel gasket hatch covers
 Will remain afloat when loaded to the summer load line if one
compartment is bilged
The ship will then be referred to as a Type B60 ship

The freeboard can be reduced by 100% of the difference between Type A & B if
the vessel complies with the requirements for a Type A ship:
 Machinery casing protected
 Freeing arrangements and gangway access
 Will remain afloat when loaded to the summer marks with 2
compartments bilged
The ship is then referred to as a Type B100 ship

The freeboard is increased if the length is less than 100m

  Correction for depth, if the depth for freeboard exceed L/15

 Correction for position of the deck line is made if the deckline is not
placed at the depth corresponding to the depth for freeboard

 Standard height and length of superstructures are tabulated against

ships length

 A standard sheer profile is defined by ordinates measured as a function

of the ships length

 Minimum bow height – this is the distance at the forward perpendicular

between the summer load line and the top of the exposed deck at side.
Freeboard will be increased if the bow height is less than the minimum
bow height until they are equal

The result of these calculations will allow the freeboard to be assigned.

Timber freeboards
The summer freeboard is calculated as for a type B ship with weather tight
pontoon or steel hatch covers without the -60% or the -100% allowance
Task – Revision Notes: Freeboard Assignment

Type A vessel
 Designed to carry liquid cargo in bulk
 Has small watertight steel gasket hatches
 High watertight integrity of decks
 Low permeability of cargo

Type B vessel
 All other types of ship

Assignment of freeboard
 Tabular freeboard in found in tables A and B of the Loadline regs
 This is multiplied by a correction for block coefficient which gives you
the basic freeboard
Next:
1. Sheer – if there is an excess beyond the basic template then there
is a reduction in freeboard
2. Superstructure – the structure provides additional buoyancy and
therefore the freeboard can be reduced
3. Trunks and forepeaks – these again provide extra buoyancy so
the freeboard can be reduced
4. Minimum bow height – the vessel's freeboard is increased until
the minimum bow height is reached
5. Correction for effective deck edge
6. Depth correction – freeboard is increased if Length ÷ Breadth is
greater than 15
Once all the corrections have been made the freeboard can be assigned

The freeboard is increased by a tabulated amount related to length if the ship

is fitted with portable hatch beams covers and tarpaulins.

Type B60 ships

The freeboard can be reduced by 60% of the difference between the freeboards
extracted from the Tables A and B if the ship is
 More than 100m in length
 Fitted with steel gasket clamped hatch covers in Positions 1 and 2
 Will remain afloat when the loaded to the summer load line with one
compartment flooded other than a machinery space.
 If the vessel is more than 225m then the machinery space is considered a
floodable compartment
Type B100 ships
The freeboard is reduced by 100% of the difference between the freeboards
extracted from the Tables A and B if the ship additionally complies with the
requirements for a Type A ship
 Machinery casing protection
 Freeing arrangements
 Gangway and safe access
 The ship must remain afloat when loaded to the summer draught and
two adjacent compartments are flooded other than the machinery
compartment
 In vessels over 225m in length then the machinery space is considered a
double compartment
Task – Revision Notes: Change in Draught
A vessel displacing 8000T in SW has a TPC of 10.5cm The vessel moves into FW
then loads 340T Calculate the change in draught.
FWA = W
4 TPC

FWA = 8000
4 x 10.5
= 190.47cm
Load cargo in FW
= 340 x 1025
10.5 1000
= 33.2cm
Total change in draft
= 190.47 + 33.2
= 52.24cm

Example 2
The statutory Summer Freeboard of a vessel is 4300mm. At a certain time in RD
1006kg/m3 in a summer zone the freeboard on the port side is 4290mm and on
the stbd side is 4280mm.
The FWA is 175mm and TPC salt water at and near the load draught is 25.2.
How much can more cargo be loaded?

Freeboard Port = 4290mm

Freeboard Stbd = 4280mm
Mean = 4285mm
Statutory Freeboard = 4300mm
= 15mm (Therefore S line is 15mm below the surface)

DWA = FWA (1025 –d)

25
= 175 x (1025 -1000)
25
= 133mm

Change of draught
= 133 – 15
= 118mm
= W ÷ TPC
W = Change of draught x TPC
= 11.8 x 25.2 x 1006
1025
 = 291.85T
Example 3
Calculate the amount of cargo to load so that the ship will sail at her maximum
draughts
Present draught Fwd = 9.37m
Aft = 9.89m
In water RD 1.010. Cargo to discharge = 540T and load 970T of the bunker.
FWA 210mm
Summer draught in SW = 9.98m
Mean TPC 63

Present Draught = 9.37

= 9.80
mean = 9.63

DWA = 210 x 15
25
= 126mm = 0.12m

Summer Draught SW = 9.986m

Summer Draught DW = 10.106m
Permitted sinkage = Summer draught – Mean present draught
= 10.106 – 9.63
= 0.476m

Increase in Δ = 47.6 x 63 x 1010

1025
= 2955T

Loaded and Discharged

Bunkers + = 970T
Cargo - = 540T
Net = 430T

Cargo to load = Δ – Net loading

= 2955 – 430
= 2525T
Task – Construction Notes: Forces
Vertical Shear Force
Vertical shear forces are the forces which occur in sections where there is non-
uniform excess buoyancy or excess load.
Due to the vessel being intact these vertical upwards and downwards forces
will slightly distort the vessel.

Longitudinal shear forces compliment the vertical ones.

If the ship has excess weight at either end the vessel tend to ‘Hog’ and if there
is excess weight amidships the ship will ‘Sag’. Similarly if a ship on a wave and
she is supported amidships she will Hog.

Torsion
When a body is subject to a twisting moment which is normally referred to as
torque.
For Example, a ship heading across waves at a 45º angle will be subject to
righting moments different at either end creating a twisting effect. Most ships
have very small torsion moments, but container ships special torsion box
girders are fitted to the high sides of the ship. These girders are specifically
designed to reduce this twisting effect.

Static loading
A transverse section of a ship is subjected to static pressure from the
surrounding water in addition to the weight of cargo.
Although this transverse stress is not a major issue, but if inadequate stiffening
was not present then major structural distortion would occur.
To resist the transverse stresses, transverse bulkheads, floors in double
bottoms, deck beams, and side frames are fitted

Vibration Stresses
Vibration from machinery on board is constantly there, it can result in fatigue
to localized items, although not a major problem it can lead to lead to a more
general collapse.

Panting
The tendency for the shell plate to work in and out because of fluctuating
pressures on the ends of the hull when passing through waves. Additional side
stringers are fitted to strengthen the areas liable to panting

Pounding
Local Stresses occurring on the bottom shell framing forward when the vessel is
driven into head seas. Most common when a vessel is in light ballast. Additional
Task – Revision Notes: Find the List after discharge
A vessel Δ 10300T, KG 5.2m is listed 4º to port. 742T is loaded 2.8m above the
keel and is divided equally 4.58m each side of the CL. If KM is constant at 5.8m
what is the final list?

Find Heeling moment

= Tanº = W x D
Δ x GM
GM = KM – KG
= 5.8 – 5.2
= 0.6m
= Tan 4º = HM
10300 x 0.6
HM = Tan 4º x 10300 x 0.6
= 432.15Tm to port

Use Load table to find KG

Δ KG Moment
10300 5.2 53560
+ 742 2.8 2077.6

11042 55637.6

KG = 55637.6 ÷ 11042
= 5.04
GM = 5.8 – 5.04
= 0.76m

Find Heel
Heel = 432.15
11042 x 0.76
= 2.95º to port
Task – Revision Notes: Free Surface Effect
If a tank is completely filled with liquid then the tank effectively can be
considered as a solid mass with its center of gravity acting through the center
of the tank.
If the tank is then drained to only partly filled, the surface of the liquid is free
to move. The inertia causes a virtual change in the center of gravity of the tank
to some point above the theoretical center of gravity in the tank. This effect
on the ships Centre of Gravity ‘G’ will be as if the weight of the liquid in the
tank where to be raised from the center of the liquid to position of the virtual
center of gravity.

In the initial upright condition everything is pretty much normal but as the ship
is heeled by an external force:
 A wedge of liquid is transferred to the low side of the ship
 As the weight shifts, G moves in parallel
This reduces the righting lever GZ and makes it the same as what the
Task – Stability Notes: GZ curves
Dynamical Stability at any angle of inclination may be defined as ‘The work
required by the external forces such as wind and waves to the ship to that
angle of heel.’

Transverse Statical stability is the term used to describe a ship's ability to

return to the upright in the still water.

So for a ship heel for example 25º, it is necessary for all the external forces to
be overcome the sum of all the righting moments.

When assessing the transverse stability of a vessel a GZ curve is drawn.

GZ is the measurement of how far G and B are apart horizontally

The shaded area of

the Curve
represents the
external forces
necessary to over
come the righting
lever to cause the
heel

Dynamical stability is the area under the curve, where’s statical stability just
measures a horizontal line from the curve to GZ, this results in figures being
the same in this case 25º & º.

We can, therefore, say that dynamical stability is determined by the area

under the curve up to the angle of heel

This dynamical stability is measured in ‘tonne meter radians’.

Dynamical Stability will continue to increase with the heel as long as there is a
positive righting lever. Once it reaches the Angle of vanishing the ship will
capsize.
When drawing the GZ curve it is normal to draw a vertical at 53.7º which is 1
radian and a horizontal for GM on the GZ axis. Now draw a line from 0 to point
where the line cross, this allows you draw the smaller angles of heel at the
start of the curve.

Intact stability criteria for cargo ships with assigned freeboards under the
Load Line regulations

 The area under the GZ curve should not be less than 0.055-meter radians
up to a 30º angle of heel, and not less than 0.09-meter radians up to 40º
or the angle of down flooding whichever comes first

Angle of down flooding is the angle of heel at which openings in the hull /
superstructure which can not be closed weathertight become immersed

 The area under the righting lever curve between the angles of heel of
30º to 40º or 30º to the angle of down flooding should not be less than
0.03-meter radians.
 The righting lever GZ should be at least 0.20m at an angle of heel equal
to or greater than 30º
 The maximum righting arm should occur at an angle of heel not less than
30º
 The initial GM should not be less than 0.15m

Intact Stability requirements for Passenger ships

Passenger ships shall comply with all the same regulations as Cargo ships but in
addition:

 The angle of heel on account of all the passengers standing on one side
shall not exceed 10º
 The angle of heel on account of turning should not exceed 10º when
calculated.
Intact Stability Criteria without Sails for the MSY Wind
Surf
 The area under the GZ curve shall not be less than 0.055mr between 0º
and 30º heel
 The area under the GZ curve shall not be less than 0.090mr between 0º
and 40º or the angle of down flooding if less than 40º. (The angle of
down flooding is the angle at which openings in the hull, superstructure,
and deckhouses which cannot be made weather tight become immersed.
 The area under the GZ curve between heel angles of 30º - 40º (or the
angle of down flooding if less than 40º) shall not be less than 0.030mr
 The righting lever GZ shall be at least 0.020m at an angle of heel of 30º
or greater
  The maximum GZ shall occur at an angle of heel not less than 30º
 The initial GM shall be greater than 0.15m

The following GZ curves demonstrate the intact stability Criteria.

Area greater than 0.055mr

GZ

57.3

HEEL

Angle greater than 0.030mr

GZ

57.3

HEEL
 Maximum GZ occurs at more than 30º

GZ

57.3

HEEL

Angle greater than 0.090mr

GZ

57.3

HEEL
 Minimum 0.020m at 30º

GZ

57.3

Initial GM not less than 0.300m

GZ

57.3

HEEL
Task – Revision Notes: Free surface effect
A vessel length 130m and beam 12m is floating upright in salt water at a 4.2m
draught. A deep bottom tank extends across the beam of the vessel Length
30m, breadth 12m and depth 5m. There are a centerline division and the port
side of the tank is full of oil RD 0.95
KG is 4.3m
Calculate the angle of list if half of the oil in the tank is pumped into the stbd
tank such that the tank is level.

Find the heeling moment caused by moving the oil across the vessel
Weight of fuel = half the volume of the tank x RD oil
= (5 x 30 x 6) x 0.95
= 855T
Moment =WxD
= 855 x 6m (centroid of the tank is 3m from the side)
Heeling moment = 5130tm

Find Final KG
Δ = volume x density
= (130 x 12 x 4.2) x 1.025
= 6715.8T

Item Δ KG Moment
Ship 6715.8 4.3 28877.94
Oil out -855 3.75 -3206.25
Oil in 855 1.25 1068.75
Total 6715.8 26740.44

Final KG Solid = 26740.44 ÷ 6715.8

= 3.98m
Find KM of the vessel
= KB = half the draught
= 4.2 ÷ 2
KB = 2.1m

BM = L x B3
12

= 130 x 123 ÷ 12 ÷ (4.2 x 12 x 130)
= 2.86
KM = KB + BM
= 2.1 + 2.86
= 4.96
 GM = KM – KG
= 4.96 – 3.98
= 0.98
Calculate Loss GM due to FSE
Loss GM = I x RD
Δ x n2

I for tank = L x B3
12
= 30 x 123
12
= 4320m4

Loss GM = 4320 x 0.95

6715.8 x 22
= 0.153m

Final GM = GM – loss GM
= 0.98 – 0.153
= 0.827
Calculate final list
Tanº =wxd
Δ x GM
= 5130
6715.8 x 0.827
= 0.924
= 42.7º to stbd
Task – Revision Notes: Find the Heeling moment causing
the list
A vessel displacement 10000T is listed 6º to stbd
KM 9.5m (constant) KG 5.52m
Calculate the list and the GM after loading the following:
85T at KG 6.5m and 6m to port of the CL
25T at KG 8.0m and 2m to stbd of the CL

Find Initial Heeling Moment

Tan 6º = w x d(hm)
10000 x 0.04
Tan 6º x 10000 x 0.04 = w x d
= 462.46tm

Find final Heeling Moment

85 x 6 to port = 510
25 X 2 to stbd = 50
Net Heeling Moment = 462.46 + 50 -510
= 2.46tm to stbd

Find the final KG

Δ KG Moment
10000 5.52 55200
+85 6.5 552.5
+25 8 200
10110 55952.5

KG = Mom
Δ
KG = 55952.5
10110
= 5.53m

GM = KM – KG
= 5.96 – 5.53
GM = +0.43m

Find Final List

Tanº = Heeling moment
Δ x GM
Tanº = 2.46tm
10110 x 0.43
List = 0.03º to stbd
Stability Notes
A vessel is said to be heeled when inclined by an external force – wind, waves
A vessel is said to be listed when inclined by an internal force – weight shifted

The center of buoyancy moves from B to B1

The center of gravity G does not change as no weights have been moved
The righting lever GZ
The Moment of Statical Stability = Displacement x GZ

Height of the Metacentre = KM KM = KB + BM

In the diagram above

G is below M and the vessel has a positive GM
The vessel has a positive righting moment
Neutral Equilibrium
This vessel, when heeled by an external force, will remain at that angle

G and M are the same therefore GM is zero

GZ is, therefore, zero
Righting moment is zero
Unstable Equilibrium
This vessel, when heeled over, will continue to heel further

G is above M so there is a negative GM

GZ is, therefore, negative
There is a capsizing moment

Stiff vessels have a large GM and a short rolling period they are very stable but
violent rolling could result in a cargo shift. Low center of gravity ships such as
Bulk carriers

Tender vessels have small GMs and long rolling periods vessel may be barely
stable and may become unstable during the voyage as G moves up due to
bottom weights (fuel water etc…) being used up or if there is an increase in top
weight (timber taking on water)
 GZ curves

(C)

(E)
GZ

(A)

(B&D)

57.3

(F)
HEEL

A) From the curve, you can get GZ for any angle of heel. From this, you can
calculate the righting moment using (W x GZ)
B) Angle of vanishing stability, this is the angle at which the GZ value
reduces to zero and becomes negative
C) Maximum GZ
D) The range of stability. This is the range of angles for which GZ is
positive, for all the angles of heel in this range the vessel will return to
her initial position when the external force is removed
E) Initial GM – only really a guide as you should use the fluid GM
F) Angle of deck edge immersion where the curve changes from concave to
convex
Because this area is negative we
can identify this GZ curve as a
curve for a vessel with an angle of
loll

GZ

HEEL
Loading and discharging weights

 When a weight is loaded G moves in a direction directly towards the

loaded weight
 When a weight is discharged G moves in a direction directly away from
the discharged weights position
 When a weight is shifted onboard G moves in a direction parallel to the
shift of the weight

The weight is moved horizontally, G moves in parallel

As the weight is suspended it acts at the derrick head, G moves vertically

upwards
As the weight is swung out over the dock, G moves parallel with the move

With the weight on the dock, G moves directly away from the derrick head.
 Heeling due to windage

Centroid of wind
age area

Wind Heeling moment = windage area (m2) x Distance C to B x 48.5kg/m2

1000

Righting GZ x Displacement
Moment Area ‘A’ Area ‘B’

Wind
Heeling
moment x
1.5

Wind
Heeling
moment

HEEL

15º roll
Angle of down
Static angle flooding
of heel
Area A – represents the energy developed by a combination of wind gusts and
rolling
Area B – represents the ability of the vessel to absorb some energy

Requirements for compliance

1. Static angle of heel must be less than or equal to 0.65 x angle
of deck edge immersion
2. Area B must be greater than or equal to Area A

Stress and Bending Moment Question

A vessel has 5 equal compartments, LBP 200m each compartment being
40m. In the unloaded condition Draught = 4m and Beam is 45m
We load:
1. 10000T
2. 12000T
3. 40000T
4. 12000T
5. 10000T
a) Find the maximum Shear force
b) Find the maximum Bending moment

i) Find the mass of the ship

Displacement = (200 x 45 x 4) x 1.025
= 36900T
mass / m = 36900 ÷ 200
= 184.5t/m

ii) Find buoyancy

Work out the total weight of the ship when loaded – weight of the cargo +
displacement
Buoyancy = 120900T ÷ 200
= 604.5t/m

iii) Find out the mass of the cargo

Hold:
1. 250t/m
2. 300t/m
3. 1000t/m
4. 300t/m
5. 250t/m
For the loading diagram
1. 604 – 250 – 184 = 170
2. 604 – 300 – 184 = 120
3. 604 – 1000 – 184 = -580
4. 604 – 300 – 184 = 120
5. 604 – 250 – 184 = 170

See diagram overleaf

Loading diagram

Mass /m

Hold 1 Hold 5
Hold 2 Hold 4

Length
of vessel

Hold 3

The shear force can be calculated at any point along the vessels length by
calculating the area under the loading diagram
For example:

1. 170 x 40 (length of the hold)

= 6800
2. 120 x 40 + 6800 = 11600
3. -580 x 40 + 11600 = - 11600
4. 120 x 40 + -11600 = -6800
5. 170 x 40 + -6800 = 0

Maximum Shear
Forces

The bending moment experienced by a vessel at any point along its length can
be calculated by calculating the areas under the shear force diagram.

Because the loading diagram is made up of triangles and rectangles it is easy to

calculate the area under the shear force diagram, see below

1. 20 x 6800 (half the base x the height) = 136000

2. 20 x 4800 (4800 = 11600 – 6800) = 96000 + 136000 + 40 x 6800 ( area
of the rectangle below it = 504000
3. Etc…
Bending moment is expressed in Mega Newton meters to convert tm to MNm
multiply by 9.81 x 10-3

Calculating Drafts

 Calculate the LCG

= longitudinal moment ÷ displacement (taken from load table)

 From the ships hydrostatic tables obtain:

Reference keel draft
MTM – moment required to trim the vessel 1m
LCB
LCF

 Calculate the trim between perpendiculars

= displacement x (LCG – LCB) ÷ MTM

 Calculate the draft at the aft perpendicular

= Reference keel draft – (trim x (LCF – 12) ÷ LBP)

 Calculate the draft at the fwd perpendicular

= Reference keel draft + (trim x (LBP – LCF +12) ÷ LBP

 Calculate mid ships draft

= (aft draft + fwd draft) ÷ 2

Calculating KG and GM

 Calculate the vertical CofG using the load table

KG = vertical moment ÷ displacement

 Calculating KG corrected for free surface

= KG + free surface moment ÷ displacement

 From the ships hydrostatic tables using the reference keel draft obtain:
= Vertical transverse metacenter KMt

 Calculating the metacentric height above KGc to give GM

= GM = KMt – KGc

 Using the ships Max KG table obtain the Max KG for the reference keel
draft.
= Max KG
  Calculate the margin to ensure that it is positive and therefore safe to
go to sea.
= Max KG - KGc

Load table will have the following titles

Description Mass LCG Longitudinal VCG Vertical Free

moment moment Surface
Moment

When plotting a GZ curve you calculate GZ by:

KG x Sin
GZ = KN – KN Heel Heel GZ KG x Sin Heel
-0.017 0 -0.017
0.909 0.7434 5 0.1656
1.82 1.4812 10 0.3388
2.702 2.2077 15 0.4943
3.559 2.91743 20 0.6416
5.197 4.265 30 0.932
6.578 5.4829 40 1.0951
7.362 6.5343 50 0.8277
7.705 7.3871 60 0.3179

The GZ figures can then be plotted against heel

Task – Revision Notes: Synchronous Rolling and Pitching
Synchronous Rolling
This occurs when the natural roll period of the vessel is the same as the arrival
period of the waves

Dangers:
 Vessel may capsize
 Major structural damage
 Loss or shift of cargo
 Injury to crew or passengers
 Discomfort

What to do:
 Change course
If unable to change course:
 Change speed if waves are not from the beam
 Change the GM – ballast or move cargo
 Change KM – ballast wing tanks or move cargo outboard

Synchronous Pitching
This occurs when the natural pitching period of the vessel is the same as the
period of the waves.

Dangers:
 Damage to the bulbous bow
 Damage to hatches
 Damages to the propeller due to cavitation
 Damage to the engine bearings due to the propeller racing when it
leaves the water
Task – Dry Docking
It is a requirement that all ships shall be drydocked for inspection and
maintenance below the water line at periods not exceeding 2 years.
When a ship is being dry docked additional forces act upon the keel, to what
normally would be present due to the upthrust as result of the vessel taking to
the blocks. These forces can produce excessive loads on the stern structure of
the ship and can ultimately lead to a loss of stability.

When a vessel enters a dry dock she should be floated in with a small aft trim.
The ship is usually aligned to the blocks with the help of a diver, once in
position the dock gates can be closed and the water pumped out.
The critical point for the ship occurs when the aft section of the ship touches
the block, this is when a loss of stability will occur.
As the water continues to fall the vessels mean draft will start to decrease as
more weight is taken on the after section of the vessel, the upthrust that is
given by the blocks on the stern section is known as the ‘P force’.
The P force will continue to increase as the buoyancy of the vessel is lost – so
basically the role of the buoyancy force, which normally would support the ship
is taken by that of the P-force.
As more water is pumped out the vessel will become supported along its length
by all the blocks this is known as the critical instant, once this occurs the
problem of loss of stability is no longer such an issue and the critical period is
over, when this occurs the P-force acts uniformly along the vessels length – this
force continues to increase as the buoyancy is further reduced.
Once the ship is fully dry i.e. the blocks are supporting the full ship the P-force
will be equal to that of the vessels displacement.

It is possible to calculate the P-force at any time during the operation

P force is calculated using the following formulae

P force = Reduction in True Mean Draft (cm) x TPC

During the critical period prior to the bow section taking to the blocks, the P-
force will be acting on a single point on the stern frame of the ship. This stern
frame is specially designed and strengthened for this purpose – but for obvious
reasons, there is only so much force that this frame can take. If this limit is
exceeded structural damage to the stern frame will occur.
The easiest way to avoid damage to the stern frame from too higher P force is
to limit the aft trim; this is because P force is directly proportional to the
change in trim so therefore if you keep the trim to a minimum then the
maximum load experienced by the stern frame will also be decreased. It is,
therefore, fair to say that the bigger the vessels displacement the more
important it is to keep the trim to a minimum.
Task – Revision Notes: Trim and Stability
Trim is also known as Longitudinal Stability and it is measured as in changes in
the draft rather than in degrees.
When the vessel is on an even keel G and B are in a vertical line and the ship
will be displacing its own weight in water. If a weight is moved aft of the
center of flotation the center of gravity will also move aft, the ship will now
trim until G and B are once again vertical.
Water density change
When a ship passes from one density water to another the mean draft will
change. If the ship is heavily trimmed the trim will change also.
As it passes from saying sea water into the fresh water the ship will sink down
due to being in the denser water and the Center of gravity changes causing B to
move so it is once again vertically below G and once again in Equilibrium. This,
in turn, will cause a change in trim.
Loading
If a cargo is loaded at the center of flotation there will be no trimming moment
and the drafts will increase uniformly
If the weight is now shifted fwd / aft of the center of flotation it will cause the
vessel to trim.
Trim and stability booklet
With every new ship, a trim and stability book is produced, it contains the
following:
 Ships particulars
 Inclining experiment report and results
 Capacity, VCG, LCG and particulars for all holds, tanks etc…
 Deadweight scale data
 Hydrostatic curves
 Example conditions
o Lightweight
o Full load
o Heavy ballast
o Medium ballast
o Light ballast
All these criteria can be built around a computer which will allow the Officers
to input data before loading or discharging to ensure that all stability criteria
are met first.
Stability changes during flooding
When a compartment is bilged the mean draft will increase. The change in
mean draft causes a change in the position of the center of buoyancy and the
initial metacenter. KM changes but KG remains constant, GM changes also.
Permeability
Permeability is the percentage of space which can be occupied by water when
space is flooded.