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Mechanics for Engineers: Dynamics

11th Edition
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Contents
Preface x
Guided Tour xiv
Digital Resources xvii
Acknowledgments xix
List of Symbols xx
11 Kinematics of Particles 615

11.1 Rectilinear Motion of Particles 617
11.2 Special Cases and Relative Motion 635
*11.3 Graphical Solutions 652
11.4 Curvilinear Motion of Particles 663
11.5 Non-Rectangular Components 690
Review and Summary 711
Review Problems 715
12 Kinetics of Particles:
Newton’s Second Law 718
12.1 Newton’s Second Law and Linear Momentum 720
12.2 Angular Momentum and Orbital Motion 763
*12.3 Applications of Central-Force Motion 774
Review Problems 792
13 Kinetics of Particles: Energy and

Momentum Methods 795
13.1 Work and Energy 797
13.2 Conservation of Energy 827
13.3 Impulse and Momentum 855
13.4 Impacts 877
Review Problems 911
*Advanced or specialty topics
vii
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viii Contents
14 Systems of Particles 915

14.1 Applying Newton’s Second Law and Momentum
Principles to Systems of Particles 917
14.2 Energy and Momentum Methods for a System of
Particles 936
*14.3 Variable Systems of Particles 950
Review Problems 974
15 Kinematics of Rigid Bodies 977

15.1 Translation and Fixed Axis Rotation 980
15.2 General Plane Motion: Velocity 997
15.3 Instantaneous Center of Rotation 1015
15.4 General Plane Motion: Acceleration 1029
15.5 Analyzing Motion with Respect to a Rotating
Frame 1048
*15.6 Motion of a Rigid Body in Space 1065
*15.7 Motion Relative to a Moving Reference Frame 1082
Review Problems 1104
16 Plane Motion of Rigid Bodies:

Forces and Accelerations 1107
16.1 Kinetics of a Rigid Body 1109
16.2 Constrained Plane Motion 1144
17 Plane Motion of Rigid Bodies: Energy

and Momentum Methods 1181
17.1 Energy Methods for a Rigid Body 1183
17.2 Momentum Methods for a Rigid Body 1211
17.3 Eccentric Impact 1234
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Contents ix
18 Kinetics of Rigid Bodies

in Three Dimensions 1264
18.1 Energy and Momentum of a Rigid Body 1266
*18.2 Motion of a Rigid Body in Three Dimensions 1285
*18.3 Motion of a Gyroscope 1305
19 Mechanical Vibrations 1332

19.1 Vibrations without Damping 1334
19.2 Free Vibrations of Rigid Bodies 1350
19.3 Applying the Principle of Conservation
of Energy 1364
19.4 Forced Vibrations 1375
19.5 Damped Vibrations 1389
Appendix A: Some Useful Definitions and Properties

of Vector Algebra A1
Appendix B: Mass Moment of Inertia A7
Appendix C: Fundamentals of Engineering
Examination A45
Answers to Problems AN1
Photo Credits C1
Index I1
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Preface
Objectives
A primary objective in a first course in mechanics is to help develop a
NEW! student’s ability first to analyze problems in a simple and logical manner,
and then to apply basic principles to their solutions. A strong conceptual
The 11th edition has undergone a complete
understanding of these basic mechanics principles is essential for success-
rewrite to modernize and streamline the
fully solving mechanics problems. We hope that this text, as well as the
language throughout the text.
preceding volume, Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics, will help
instructors achieve these goals.†
General Approach
Vector algebra was introduced at the beginning of the first volume and is
used in the presentation of the basic principles of statics, as well as in the
solution of many problems, particularly three-dimensional problems. Sim-
ilarly, the concept of vector differentiation will be introduced early in this
volume, and vector analysis will be used throughout the presentation of
dynamics. This approach leads to more concise derivations of the funda-
mental principles of mechanics. It also makes it possible to analyze many
problems in kinematics and kinetics which could not be solved by scalar
methods. The emphasis in this text, however, remains on the correct under-
standing of the principles of mechanics and on their application to the
solution of engineering problems, and vector analysis is presented chiefly
as a convenient tool.‡
11.4 CURVILINEAR MOTION Practical Applications Are Introduced Early. One of the
OF PARTICLES
When a particle moves along a curve other than a straight line, we say y
characteristics of the approach used in this book is that mechanics of
that the particle is in curvilinear motion. We can use position, velocity,
and acceleration to describe the motion, but now we must treat these
quantities as vectors because they can have directions in two or three r' Δr Δs
P'
particles is clearly separated from the mechanics of rigid bodies. This
dimensions.
r
P
approach makes it possible to consider simple practical applications at an
O
11.4A Position, Velocity, and x
Acceleration Vectors (a)

early stage and to postpone the introduction of the more difficult concepts.
z
To define the position P occupied by a particle in curvilinear motion at a
given time t, we select a fixed reference system, such as the x, y, z axes
y Δr
Δt For example:
shown in Fig. 11.12a, and draw the vector r joining the origin O and
point P. The vector r is characterized by its magnitude r and its direction P'
with respect to the reference axes, so it completely defines the position of
the particle with respect to those axes. We refer to vector r as the position r' • In Statics, the statics of particles is treated first, and the principle of
vector of the particle at time t. P
Consider now the vector r9 defining the position P9 occupied by the
same particle at a later time t 1 Dt. The vector Dr joining P and P9 O
r
x
equilibrium of a particle was immediately applied to practical situa-
represents the change in the position vector during the time interval Dt
and is called the displacement vector. We can check this directly from
Fig. 11.12a, where we obtain the vector r9 by adding the vectors r and
z
y
(b)
tions involving only concurrent forces. The statics of rigid bodies is
v
Dr according to the triangle rule. Note that Dr represents a change in
direction as well as a change in magnitude of the position vector r. considered later, at which time the vector and scalar products of two
We define the average velocity of the particle over the time interval
Dt as the quotient of Dr and Dt. Since Dr is a vector and Dt is a scalar,
the quotient Dr/Dt is a vector attached at P with the same direction as Dr P
vectors were introduced and used to define the moment of a force
r
s
and a magnitude equal to the magnitude of Dr divided by Dt (Fig. 11.12b).
We obtain the instantaneous velocity of the particle at time t by O
P0
x about a point and about an axis.
taking the limit as the time interval Dt approaches zero. The instantaneous
(c)
• In Dynamics, the same division is observed. The basic concepts of
force, mass, and acceleration, of work and energy, and of impulse
and momentum are introduced and first applied to problems involv-
†
Both texts also are available in a single volume, Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
and Dynamics, eleventh edition.
‡
In a parallel text, Mechanics for Engineers: Dynamics, fifth edition, the use of vector algebra
is limited to the addition and subtraction of vectors, and vector differentiation is omitted.
x
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Preface xi
ing only particles. Thus, students can familiarize themselves with
the three basic methods used in dynamics and learn their respective 17.1 ENERGY METHODS FOR A
RIGID BODY
advantages before facing the difficulties associated with the motion of
We now use the principle of work and energy to analyze the plane motion
rigid bodies. of rigid bodies. As we pointed out in Chap. 13, the method of work and
energy is particularly well adapted to solving problems involving veloci-
ties and displacements. Its main advantage is that the work of forces and
New Concepts Are Introduced in Simple Terms. Since this the kinetic energy of particles are scalar quantities.
text is designed for the first course in dynamics, new concepts are pre- 17.1A Principle of Work and Energy
sented in simple terms and every step is explained in detail. On the other To apply the principle of work and energy to the motion of a rigid body,
we again assume that the rigid body is made up of a large number n of
hand, by discussing the broader aspects of the problems considered, and particles of mass Dmi. From Eq. (14.30) of Sec. 14.2B, we have
by stressing methods of general applicability, a definite maturity of Principle of work
and energy, rigid body
approach has been achieved. For example, the concept of potential energy
T1 1 U1y2 5 T2 (17.1)
is discussed in the general case of a conservative force. Also, the study of
the plane motion of rigid bodies is designed to lead naturally to the study where T1, T2 5 the initial and final values of total kinetic energy of
particles forming the rigid body
of their general motion in space. This is true in kinematics as well as in U1y2 5 work of all forces acting on various particles of the body
kinetics, where the principle of equivalence of external and effective forces Just as we did in Chap. 13, we can express the work done by nonconser-
vative forces as U NC
1 y2, and we can define potential energy terms for con-
is applied directly to the analysis of plane motion, thus facilitating the servative forces. Then we can express Eq. (17.1) as
transition to the study of three-dimensional motion. T1 1 Vg1 1 Ve1 1 U NC

1 y2 5 T2 1 Vg2 1 Ve2 (17.19)
where Vg1 and Vg2 are the initial and final gravitational potential energy of
Fundamental Principles Are Placed in the Context of Simple the center of mass of the rigid body with respect to a reference point or
datum, and Ve1 and Ve2 are the initial and final values of the elastic energy
Applications. The fact that mechanics is essentially a deductive sci- associated with springs in the system.
We obtain the total kinetic energy
ence based on a few fundamental principles is stressed. Derivations have
O Dm v
n
1
been presented in their logical sequence and with all the rigor warranted T5
2 i51
i
2
i (17.2)
at this level. However, the learning process being largely inductive, simple by adding positive scalar quantities, so it is itself a positive scalar quantity.
applications are considered first. For example: You will see later how to determine T for various types of motion of a
rigid body.
The expression U1y2 in Eq. (17.1) represents the work of all the
• The kinematics of particles (Chap. 11) precedes the kinematics of forces acting on the various particles of the body whether these forces are
internal or external. However, the total work of the internal forces holding
rigid bodies (Chap. 15). together the particles of a rigid body is zero. To see this, consider two
particles A and B of a rigid body and the two equal and opposite forces F
• The fundamental principles of the kinetics of rigid bodies are first and –F they exert on each other (Fig. 17.1). Although, in general, small
applied to the solution of two-dimensional problems (Chaps. 16 displacements dr and dr9 of the two particles are different, the components
of these displacements along AB must be equal; otherwise, the particles
and 17), which can be more easily visualized by the student, while would not remain at the same distance from each other and the body
would not be rigid. Therefore, the work of F is equal in magnitude and
three-dimensional problems are postponed until Chap. 18.
The Presentation of the Principles of Kinetics Is Unified.

The eleventh edition of Vector Mechanics for Engineers retains the unified
bee87342_ch17_1091-1173.indd 1093
presentation of the principles of kinetics which characterized the previous
ten editions. The concepts of linear and angular momentum are introduced
in Chap. 12 so that Newton’s second law of motion can be presented not
only in its conventional form F 5 ma, but also as a law relating, respectively,
the sum of the forces acting on a particle and the sum of their moments to
the rates of change of the linear and angular momentum of the particle. This
makes possible an earlier introduction of the principle of conservation of
angular momentum and a more meaningful discussion of the motion of a
particle under a central force (Sec. 12.3A). More importantly, this approach
can be readily extended to the study of the motion of a system of particles
(Chap. 14) and leads to a more concise and unified treatment of the kinetics
of rigid bodies in two and three dimensions (Chaps. 16 through 18).
bee87342_FM_i-xxii.indd xi 12/3/14 10:26 AM

xii Preface
Systematic Problem-Solving Approach. New to this edition of

NEW! the text, all the sample problems are solved using the steps of Strategy,
Modeling, Analysis, and Reflect & Think, or the “SMART” approach.
This methodology is intended to give students confidence when approach-
ing new problems, and students are encouraged to apply this approach in
the solution of all assigned problems.
Free-Body Diagrams Are Used Both to Solve Equilibrium

Problems and to Express the Equivalence of Force
Systems. Free-body diagrams were introduced early in statics, and their
importance was emphasized throughout. They were used not only to solve
equilibrium problems but also to express the equivalence of two systems
of forces or, more generally, of two systems of vectors. In dynamics we
will introduce a kinetic diagram, which is a pictorial representation of
inertia terms. The advantage of this approach becomes apparent in the
study of the dynamics of rigid bodies, where it is used to solve three-
dimensional as well as two-dimensional problems. By placing the empha-
sis on the free-body diagram and kinetic diagram, rather than on the
standard algebraic equations of motion, a more intuitive and more com-
plete understanding of the fundamental principles of dynamics can be
achieved. This approach, which was first introduced in 1962 in the first
edition of Vector Mechanics for Engineers, has now gained wide accep-
tance among mechanics teachers in this country. It is, therefore, used in
preference to the method of dynamic equilibrium and to the equations
of motion in the solution of all sample problems in this book.
Sample Problem 12.5

A Careful Balance between SI and U.S. Customary Units
B
The 12-lb block B starts from rest and slides on the 30-lb wedge A, which
is supported by a horizontal surface. Neglecting friction, determine (a) the
Is Consistently Maintained. Because of the current trend in the
acceleration of the wedge, (b) the acceleration of the block relative to
30°
A
the wedge. American government and industry to adopt the international system of
STRATEGY: You are given the forces (weights) of the two objects and
want to find their accelerations. You can use Newton’s second law, but
you have to take into account relative motion as well.
units (SI metric units), the SI units most frequently used in mechanics are
MODELING: Treat both objects as particles. Since you have two objects,
you will need two systems: wedge A and block B. In order to draw the
introduced in Chap. 1 and are used throughout the text. Approximately
kinetic diagrams for each of these systems, you need to know the direction
of the accelerations. Therefore, before drawing the free-body and kinetic
diagrams, look at the kinematics.
half of the sample problems and 60 percent of the homework problems
Kinematics. First examine the acceleration of the wedge and the
acceleration of the block.
are stated in these units, while the remainder are in U.S. customary units.
A
aA
Wedge A. Since the wedge is constrained to move on the horizontal
surface, its acceleration aA is horizontal (Fig. 1). Assume that it is directed
The authors believe that this approach will best serve the need of the
Fig. 1 Acceleration to the right.
of A. (continued) students, who, as engineers, will have to be conversant with both systems
of units.
defined from the kinetic diagrams in Figs. 2 and 3. Assuming the cable
is inextensible, you can write the lengths in terms of the coordinates and
It also should be recognized that using both SI and U.S. customary
xA
bee87342_ch12_718-794.indd 733 then differentiate. 11/26/14 11:44 AM
Constraint equation for the cable: xA 1 2xB/A 5 constant units entails more than the use of conversion factors. Since the SI system
Differentiating this twice gives
A xB/A
aA 5 22aB/A (5) of units is an absolute system based on the units of time, length, and mass,
You now have five equations and five unknowns, so all that remains is to
θ = 50° B
substitute the known values and solve for the unknowns. The results are
NA 5 20.1281 lb, NB 5 0.869 lb, T 5 0.281 lb, aA 5213.46 ft/s2, and
whereas the U.S. customary system is a gravitational system based on the
aB/A 5 6.73 ft/s2.
T 5 0.281 lb b units of time, length, and force, different approaches are required for the
REFLECT and THINK: In this problem, we focused on the problem
Fig. 4 Position vectors for
dependent motion.
formulation and assumed that you can solve the resulting equations either
by hand or by using a calculator/computer. It is important to note that you
solution of many problems. For example, when SI units are used, a body
are given the weights of A and B, so you need to calculate the masses in
slugs using m 5 W/g. The solution required multiple systems and multiple
concepts, including Newton’s second law, relative motion, and dependent
is generally specified by its mass expressed in kilograms; in most prob-
motion. If friction occurred between B and the ramp, you would first need
to determine whether or not the system would move under the applied lems of statics it will be necessary to determine the weight of the body
force by assuming that it does not move and calculating the friction force.
Then you would compare this force to the maximum allowable force μsN.
in newtons, and an additional calculation will be required for this purpose.
On the other hand, when U.S. customary units are used, a body is speci-
fied by its weight in pounds and, in dynamics problems, an additional
calculation will be required to determine its mass in slugs (or lb?s2/ft). The
authors, therefore, believe that problem assignments should include both
systems of units.
The Instructor’s and Solutions Manual provides six different lists of
assignments so that an equal number of problems stated in SI units and
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Preface xiii
in U.S. customary units can be selected. If so desired, two complete lists
of assignments can also be selected with up to 75 percent of the problems
stated in SI units.
Optional Sections Offer Advanced or Specialty Topics. A

large number of optional sections have been included. These sections are
indicated by asterisks and thus are easily distinguished from those which
form the core of the basic dynamics course. They can be omitted without
prejudice to the understanding of the rest of the text.
The topics covered in the optional sections include graphical meth-
ods for the solution of rectilinear-motion problems, the trajectory of a
particle under a central force, the deflection of fluid streams, problems
involving jet and rocket propulsion, the kinematics and kinetics of rigid
bodies in three dimensions, damped mechanical vibrations, and electrical
analogues. These topics will be found of particular interest when dynamics
is taught in the junior year.
The material presented in the text and most of the problems require
no previous mathematical knowledge beyond algebra, trigonometry, elemen-
tary calculus, and the elements of vector algebra presented in Chaps. 2
and 3 of the volume on statics.† However, special problems are included,
which make use of a more advanced knowledge of calculus, and certain
sections, such as Secs. 19.5A and 19.5B on damped vibrations, should be
assigned only if students possess the proper mathematical background. In
portions of the text using elementary calculus, a greater emphasis is placed
on the correct understanding and application of the concepts of differentia-
tion and integration, than on the nimble manipulation of mathematical for-
mulas. In this connection, it should be mentioned that the determination of
the centroids of composite areas precedes the calculation of centroids by
integration, thus making it possible to establish the concept of moment of
area firmly before introducing the use of integration.
†
Some useful definitions and properties of vector algebra have been summarized in Ap-
pendix A at the end of this volume for the convenience of the reader. Also, Secs. 9.5 and
9.6 of the volume on statics, which deal with the moments of inertia of masses, have been
reproduced in Appendix B.
bee87342_FM_i-xxii.indd xiii 12/3/14 10:26 AM

Guided Tour
Chapter Introduction. Each chapter begins with a list of learning
objectives and an outline that previews chapter topics. An introductory
section describes the material to be covered in simple terms, and how it
will be applied to the solution of engineering problems.
Chapter Lessons. The body of the text is divided into sections, each
consisting of one or more sub-sections, several sample problems, and a large
number of end-of-section problems for students to solve. Each section cor-
responds to a well-defined topic and generally can be covered in one lesson.
In a number of cases, however, the instructor will find it desirable to devote
more than one lesson to a given topic. The Instructor’s and Solutions Manual
contains suggestions on the coverage of each lesson.
11
Kinematics of Particles Sample Problems. The Sample Problems are set up in much the
The motion of the paraglider can be described in terms of its
same form that students will use when solving assigned problems, and
position, velocity, and acceleration. When landing, the pilot of the
paraglider needs to consider the wind velocity and the relative
motion of the glider with respect to the wind. The study of
they employ the SMART problem-solving methodology that students are
motion is known as kinematics and is the subject of this chapter.
encouraged to use in the solution of their assigned problems. They thus
serve the double purpose of reinforcing the text and demonstrating the
bee87342_ch11_615-717.indd 615 10/9/14 5:41 PM
type of neat and orderly work that students should cultivate in their own
NEW! solutions. In addition, in-problem references and captions have been added
to the sample problem figures for contextual linkage to the step-by-step
More than 40 new sample problems have solution.
been added to this volume.
Solving Problems on Your Own. A section entitled Solving Prob-
Sample Problem 11.4
lems on Your Own is included for each lesson, between the sample prob-
An uncontrolled automobile traveling at 45 mph strikes a highway crash
barrier square on. After initially hitting the barrier, the automobile deceler-
lems and the problems to be assigned. The purpose of these sections is to
ates at a rate proportional to the distance x the automobile has moved into
the barrier; specifically, a 5 2602x, where a and x are expressed in ft/s2
and ft, respectively. Determine the distance the automobile will move into
the barrier before it comes to rest.
help students organize in their own minds the preceding theory of the text
v0
y
–a (ft/s2) and the solution methods of the sample problems so that they can more
x
successfully solve the homework problems. Also included in these sec-
z
x (ft) tions are specific suggestions and strategies that will enable the students
STRATEGY: Since you are given the deceleration as a function of
displacement, you should start with the basic kinematic relationship
a 5 v dv/dx. to more efficiently attack any assigned problems.
MODELING and ANALYSIS: Model the car as a particle. First find
the initial speed in ft/s,
mi 1 hr 5280 ft ft
v0 5 a45 ba ba b 5 66
hr 3600 s
Substituting a 5 2602x into a 5 v dv/dx gives
mi s
Homework Problem Sets. Most of the problems are of a practical
v dv
a 5 2602x 5
Separating variables and integrating gives

dx
nature and should appeal to engineering students. They are primarily designed,
0 x
v dv 5 2602x dx y # v dv 5 2 # 602x dx
v0 0 however, to illustrate the material presented in the text and to help students
2/3
1 2 1 2 1
v 2 v0 5 240x3/2 y x 5 a (v20 2 v2 )b (1)
2 2
Substituting v 5 0, v0 5 45 ft/s gives
80
understand the principles of mechanics. The problems are grouped according
d 5 14.37 ft b
REFLECT and THINK: A distance of 14 ft seems reasonable for a
barrier of this type. If you substitute d into the equation for a, you find a
to the portions of material they illustrate and, in general, are arranged in
maximum deceleration of about 7 g’s. Note that this problem would have
been much harder to solve if you had been asked to find the time for the
automobile to stop. In this case, you would need to determine v(t) from
order of increasing difficulty. Problems requiring special attention are indi-
Eq. (1). This gives v 5 2v20 2 80x3/2. Using the basic kinematic relation-
ship v 5 dx/dt, you can easily show that
t x
# dt 5 # 2v
dx
cated by asterisks. Answers to 70 percent of the problems are given at the
2
2 80x3/2
0 0 0
Unfortunately, there is no closed-form solution to this integral, so you
would need to solve it numerically.
end of the book. Problems for which the answers are given are set in straight
type in the text, while problems for which no answer is given are set in italic
and red font color.
bee87342_ch11_615-717.indd 627
NEW! 10/9/14 5:41 PM
Over 300 of the homework problems in

the text are new or revised.
xiv
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Guided Tour xv
Chapter Review and Summary. Each chapter ends
with a review and summary of the material covered in that
chapter. Marginal notes are used to help students organize Review and Summary
their review work, and cross-references have been included to
This chapter was devoted to presenting the method of work and energy and
help them find the portions of material requiring their special the method of impulse and momentum. In the first half of the chapter, we
studied the method of work and energy and its application to the analysis of
attention. the motion of particles.
Work of a Force
We first considered a force F acting on a particle A and defined the work of
F corresponding to the small displacement dr [Sec. 13.2] as the quantity
Review Problems. A set of review problems is included dU 5 F?dr (13.1)
s2
ds
dr A2
A a
at the end of each chapter. These problems provide students or recalling the definition of the scalar product of two vectors, as
dU 5 F ds cos α (13.19) A1
s
further opportunity to apply the most important concepts intro- where α is the angle between F and dr (Fig. 13.30). We obtained the work
of F during a finite displacement from A1 to A2, denoted by U1y2, by integrating
s1 F
O
duced in the chapter. Eq. (13.1) along the path described by the particle as
A2
Fig. 13.30
U1y2 5 #
A1
F?dr (13.2)
For a force defined by its rectangular components, we wrote

A2
U1y2 5 #
A1
(Fx dx 1 Fy dy 1 Fz dz) (13.20)
Work of a Weight
Review Problems We obtain the work of the weight W of a body as its center of gravity moves
from the elevation y1 to y2 (Fig. 13.31) by substituting Fx 5 Fz 5 0 and
Fy 5 2W into Eq. (13.20) and integrating. We found
y2
13.190 A 32,000-lb airplane lands on an aircraft carrier and is caught by an

U1y2 5 2 #
y1
W dy 5 Wy1 2 Wy2 (13.4)
arresting cable. The cable is inextensible and is paid out at A and B
from mechanisms located below deck and consisting of pistons moving
in long oil-filled cylinders. Knowing that the piston-cylinder system
maintains a constant tension of 85 kips in the cable during the entire A2
W
landing, determine the landing speed of the airplane if it travels a
distance d 5 95 ft after being caught by the cable.
dy
A
A y2
A1
y
35 ft
y1
35 ft Fig. 13.31
905
B
d
Fig. P13.190 v0
bee87342_ch13_795-914.indd 905 8/30/14 1:53 PM
13.191 A 2-oz pellet shot vertically from a spring-loaded pistol on the
O
surface of the earth rises to a height of 300 ft. The same pellet shot
A B
from the same pistol on the surface of the moon rises to a height of
1900 ft. Determine the energy dissipated by aerodynamic drag when
the pellet is shot on the surface of the earth. (The acceleration of
gravity on the surface of the moon is 0.165 times that on the surface
of the earth.)
r0 r1
13.192 A satellite describes an elliptic orbit about a planet of mass M. The
Fig. P13.192
minimum and maximum values of the distance r from the satellite
to the center of the planet are, respectively, r0 and r1. Use the prin-
ciples of conservation of energy and conservation of angular momen-
tum to derive the relation O
1 1 2GM
1 5 2 200 mm
r0 r1 h
where h is the angular momentum per unit mass of the satellite and
G is the constant of gravitation. A
13.193 A 60-g steel sphere attached to a 200-mm cord can swing about
point O in a vertical plane. It is subjected to its own weight and 100 mm
to a force F exerted by a small magnet embedded in the ground. 12 mm
The magnitude of that force expressed in newtons is F 5 3000/r2, B
where r is the distance from the magnet to the sphere expressed
in millimeters. Knowing that the sphere is released from rest at A,
determine its speed as it passes through point B. Fig. P13.193
911
bee87342_ch13_795-914.indd 911 8/30/14 1:53 PM
Concept Questions. Educational research has shown that students can

often choose appropriate equations and solve algorithmic problems without
having a strong conceptual understanding of mechanics principles.† To help
assess and develop student conceptual understanding, we have included Con-
cept Questions, which are multiple choice problems that require few, if any,
calculations. Each possible incorrect answer typically represents a common
misconception (e.g., students often think that a vehicle moving in a curved
path at constant speed has zero acceleration). Students are encouraged to
solve these problems using the principles and techniques discussed in the
text and to use these principles to help them develop their intuition. Mastery
and discussion of these Concept Questions will deepen students’ conceptual
understanding and help them to solve dynamics problems.
†
Hestenes, D., Wells, M., and Swakhamer, G (1992). The force concept inventory. The Physics
Teacher, 30: 141–158.
Streveler, R. A., Litzinger, T. A., Miller, R. L., and Steif, P. S. (2008). Learning conceptual knowl-
edge in the engineering sciences: Overview and future research directions, JEE, 279–294.
bee87342_FM_i-xxii.indd xv 12/3/14 10:26 AM

xvi Guided Tour
Free Body and Impulse-Momentum Diagram Practice

FREE-BODY PRACTICE PROBLEMS
16.F1 A 6-ft board is placed in a truck with one end resting against a block
B
78°
Problems. Drawing diagrams correctly is a critical step in solving
secured to the floor and the other leaning against a vertical partition. A
Draw the FBD and KD necessary to determine the maximum
allowable acceleration of the truck if the board is to remain in the
position shown.
kinetics problems in dynamics. A new type of problem has been added to
16.F2 A uniform circular plate of mass 3 kg is attached to two links AC
and BD of the same length. Knowing that the plate is released
Fig. P16.F1 the text to emphasize the importance of drawing these diagrams. In
from rest in the position shown, in which lines joining G to A and
B are, respectively, horizontal and vertical, draw the FBD and KD
for the plate. Chaps. 12 and 16 the Free Body Practice Problems require students to
D
draw a free-body diagram (FBD) showing the applied forces and an
C
75°
B
equivalent diagram called a “kinetic diagram” (KD) showing ma or its
75°
A G
components and Ia. These diagrams provide students with a pictorial
Fig. P16.F2 representation of Newton’s second law and are critical in helping students
16.F3 Two uniform disks and two cylinders are assembled as indicated.
Disk A weighs 20 lb and disk B weighs 12 lb. Knowing that the
system is released from rest, draw the FBD and KD for the whole
system.
to correctly solve kinetic problems. In Chaps. 13 and 17 the Impulse-
A
Momentum Diagram Practice Problems require students to draw diagrams
B
8 in. 6 in. showing the momenta of the bodies before impact, the impulses exerted
TA TB
on the body during impact, and the final momenta of the bodies. The
A B
answers to all of these questions can be accessed through Connect.
3.3 ft
G
6.6 ft
C 15 lb 18 lb D
Fig. P16.F3
Computer Problems. Accessible through Connect are problem sets
16.F4 The 400-lb crate shown is lowered by means of two overhead cranes.
Knowing the tension in each cable, draw the FBD and KD that can 1.8 ft
for each chapter that are designed to be solved with computational software.
be used to determine the angular acceleration of the crate and the 3.6 ft
acceleration of the center of gravity. Fig. P16.F4
Many of these problems are relevant to the design process; they may involve
1039
the analysis of a structure for various configurations and loadings of the
bee87342_ch16_1017-1090.indd 1039 9/29/14 4:43 PM
structure, or the determination of the equilibrium positions of a given mech-
anism that may require an iterative method of solution. Developing the
algorithm required to solve a given mechanics problem will benefit the
students in two different ways: (1) it will help them gain a better understand-
ing of the mechanics principles involved; (2) it will provide them with an
opportunity to apply their computer skills to the solution of a meaningful
engineering problem.
bee87342_FM_i-xxii.indd xvi 12/3/14 10:26 AM

Digital Resources
Connect® Engineering provides online presen-
tation, assignment, and assessment solutions. It
connects your students with the tools and
resources they’ll need to achieve success. With Connect Engineering you
can deliver assignments, quizzes, and tests online. A robust set of questions
and activities are presented and aligned with the textbook’s learning
outcomes. As an instructor, you can edit existing questions and author
entirely new problems. Integrate grade reports easily with Learning
Management Systems (LMS), such as WebCT and Blackboard—and much
more. Connect Engineering also provides students with 24/7 online access
to a media-rich eBook, allowing seamless integration of text, media, and
assessments. To learn more, visit connect.mheducation.com
Find the following instructor resources available through Connect:
• Instructor’s and Solutions Manual. The Instructor’s and Solutions
Manual that accompanies the eleventh edition features solutions to all
end of chapter problems. This manual also features a number of tables
designed to assist instructors in creating a schedule of assignments for
their course. The various topics covered in the text have been listed in
Table I and a suggested number of periods to be spent on each topic
has been indicated. Table II prepares a brief description of all groups
of problems and a classification of the problems in each group accord-
ing to the units used. Sample lesson schedules are shown in Tables III,
IV, and V, together with various alternative lists of assigned homework
problems.
• Lecture PowerPoint Slides for each chapter that can be modified.
These generally have an introductory application slide, animated
worked-out problems that you can do in class with your students,
concept questions, and “what-if?” questions at the end of the units.
• Textbook images
• Computer Problem sets for each chapter that are designed to be
solved with computational software.
• C.O.S.M.O.S., the Complete Online Solutions Manual Organization
System that allows instructors to create custom homework, quizzes,
and tests using end-of-chapter problems from the text.
LearnSmart is available as NEW!

an integrated feature of McGraw-Hill Connect. It is an adaptive learning
system designed to help students learn faster, study more efficiently, and
retain more knowledge for greater success. LearnSmart assesses a student’s
knowledge of course content through a series of adaptive questions. It
pinpoints concepts the student does not understand and maps out a
personalized study plan for success. This innovative study tool also has
features that allow instructors to see exactly what students have
accomplished and a built-in assessment tool for graded assignments.
xvii
bee87342_FM_i-xxii.indd xvii 12/3/14 10:26 AM

xviii Digital Resources
NEW! SmartBook™ is the first and

only adaptive reading experience available for the higher education mar-
ket. Powered by an intelligent diagnostic and adaptive engine, SmartBook
facilitates the reading process by identifying what content a student knows
and doesn’t know through adaptive assessments. As the student reads, the
reading material constantly adapts to ensure the student is focused on
the content he or she needs the most to close any knowledge gaps.
Visit the following site for a demonstration of LearnSmart or Smart-

Book: www.learnsmartadvantage.com
CourseSmart. This text is offered through CourseSmart for both

instructors and students. CourseSmart is an online browser where students
can purchase access to this and other McGraw-Hill textbooks in a digital
format. Through their browser, students can access the complete text
online at almost half the cost of a traditional text. Purchasing the eText-
book also allows students to take advantage of CourseSmart’s web tools
for learning, which include full text search, notes and highlighting, and
e-mail tools for sharing notes among classmates. To learn more about
CourseSmart options, contact your sales representative or visit
www.coursesmart.com.
bee87342_FM_i-xxii.indd xviii 12/3/14 10:26 AM

Acknowledgments
A special thanks to Jim Widmann of California Polytechnic State Univer-
sity, who thoroughly checked the solutions and answers of all problems
in this edition and then prepared the solutions for the accompanying
Instructor’s and Solutions Manual. The authors would also like to thank
Baheej Saoud, who helped develop and solve several of the new problems
in this edition.
We are pleased to acknowledge David Chelton, who carefully reviewed
the entire text and provided many helpful suggestions for revising this edition.
The authors thank the many companies that provided photographs
for this edition. We also wish to recognize the determined efforts and
patience of our photo researcher Danny Meldung.
The authors also thank the members of the staff at McGraw-Hill for
their support and dedication during the preparation of this new edition.
Phillip J. Cornwell
Brian P. Self
The authors gratefully acknowledge the many helpful comments and

suggestions offered by focus group attendees and by users of the previous
editions of Vector Mechanics for Engineers:
George Adams Howard Epstein Amir G Rezaei

Northeastern University University of Connecticut California State Polytechnic
William Altenhof Asad Esmaeily University, Pomona
University of Windsor Kansas State University, Martin Sadd
Sean B. Anderson Civil Engineering Department University of Rhode Island
Boston University David Fleming Stefan Seelecke
Manohar Arora Florida Institute of Technology North Carolina State University
Colorado School of Mines Jeff Hanson Yixin Shao
Gilbert Baladi Texas Tech University McGill University
Michigan State University David A. Jenkins Muhammad Sharif
Francois Barthelat University of Florida The University of Alabama
McGill University Shaofan Li Anthony Sinclair
Oscar Barton, Jr. University of California, Berkeley University of Toronto
U.S. Naval Academy William R. Murray Lizhi Sun
M. Asghar Bhatti Cal Poly State University University of California, lrvine
University of Iowa Eric Musslman Jeffrey Thomas
Shaohong Cheng University of Minnesota, Duluth Northwestern University
University of Windsor Masoud Olia Jiashi Yang
Philip Datseris Wentworth Institute of University of Nebraska
University of Rhode Island Technology Xiangwa Zeng
Timothy A. Doughty Renee K. B. Petersen Case Western Reserve University
University of Portland Washington State University
xix
bee87342_FM_i-xxii.indd xix 12/3/14 10:26 AM

List of Symbols
a, a Acceleration k Centroidal radius of gyration
a Constant; radius; distance; semimajor l Length
axis of ellipse L Linear momentum
a, a Acceleration of mass center L Length; inductance
aB/A Acceleration of B relative to frame in m Mass
translation with A m9 Mass per unit length
aP/^ Acceleration of P relative to rotating M Couple; moment
frame ^ MO Moment about point O
ac Coriolis acceleration MRO Moment resultant about point O
A, B, C, . . . Reactions at supports and connections M Magnitude of couple or moment; mass of
A, B, C, . . . Points earth
A Area MOL Moment about axis OL
b Width; distance; semiminor axis of n Normal direction
ellipse N Normal component of reaction
c Constant; coefficient of viscous damping O Origin of coordinates
C Centroid; instantaneous center of rotation; P Force; vector
capacitance #
P Rate of change of vector P with respect
d Distance
to frame of fixed orientation
en, et Unit vectors along normal and tangent
q Mass rate of flow; electric charge
er, eθ Unit vectors in radial and transverse
Q Force; vector
directions #
e Coefficient of restitution; base of natural Q Rate of change of vector Q with respect
logarithms # to frame of fixed orientation
E Total mechanical energy; voltage (Q)Oxyz Rate of change of vector Q with respect to
f Scalar function frame Oxyz
ff Frequency of forced vibration r Position vector
fn Natural frequency rB/A Position vector of B relative to A
F Force; friction force r Radius; distance; polar coordinate
g Acceleration of gravity R Resultant force; resultant vector; reaction
G Center of gravity; mass center; constant R Radius of earth; resistance
of gravitation s Position vector
h Angular momentum per unit mass s Length of arc
H# O Angular momentum about point O t Time; thickness; tangential direction
HG Rate of change of angular momentum HG T Force
T Tension; kinetic energy
# with respect to frame of fixed orientation
u Velocity
(HG)Gxyz Rate of change of angular momentum HG
with respect to rotating frame Gxyz u Variable
i, j, k Unit vectors along coordinate axes U Work
NC
i Current U122 work done by non-conservative forces
I, Ix, . . . Moments of inertia v, v Velocity
I Centroidal moment of inertia v Speed
Ixy, . . . Products of inertia v, v Velocity of mass center
J Polar moment of inertia vB/A Velocity of B relative to frame in
k Spring constant translation with A
kx, ky, kO Radii of gyration vP/^ Velocity of P relative to rotating frame ^
xx
bee87342_FM_i-xxii.indd xx 12/3/14 10:26 AM

List of Symbols xxi
V Vector product θ Angular coordinate; Eulerian angle;
V Volume; potential energy angle; polar coordinate
w Load per unit length μ Coefficient of friction
W, W Weight; load ρ Density; radius of curvature
x,
# y,# z# Rectangular coordinates; distances τ Periodic time
x, y, z Time derivatives of coordinates x, y, z τn Period of free vibration
x, y, z Rectangular coordinates of centroid, f Angle of friction; Eulerian angle;
center of gravity, or mass center phase angle; angle
α, α Angular acceleration w Phase difference
α, β, g Angles c Eulerian angle
g Specific weight v, v Angular velocity
δ Elongation vf Circular frequency of forced vibration
e Eccentricity of conic section or of orbit vn Natural circular frequency
l Unit vector along a line V Angular velocity of frame of reference
η Efficiency
bee87342_FM_i-xxii.indd xxi 12/3/14 10:26 AM

bee87342_FM_i-xxii.indd xxii 12/3/14 10:26 AM
11
Kinematics of Particles
The motion of the paraglider can be described in terms of its
position, velocity, and acceleration. When landing, the pilot of the
paraglider needs to consider the wind velocity and the relative
motion of the glider with respect to the wind. The study of
motion is known as kinematics and is the subject of this chapter.
bee87342_ch11_615-717.indd 615 11/26/14 5:47 PM

616 Kinematics of Particles
Introduction Objectives
• Describe the basic kinematic relationships between
11.1 RECTILINEAR MOTION OF
position, velocity, acceleration, and time.
PARTICLES
11.1A Position, Velocity, and • Solve problems using these basic kinematic
Acceleration relationships and calculus or graphical methods.
11.1B Determining the Motion of a • Define position, velocity, and acceleration in terms of
Particle
Cartesian, tangential and normal, and radial and
11.2 SPECIAL CASES AND transverse coordinates.
RELATIVE MOTION
11.2A Uniform Rectilinear Motion • Analyze the relative motion of multiple particles by
11.2B Uniformly Accelerated using a translating coordinate system.
Rectilinear Motion • Determine the motion of a particle that depends on
11.2C Motion of Several Particles the motion of another particle.
*11.3 GRAPHICAL SOLUTIONS • Determine which coordinate system is most appropri-
11.4 CURVILINEAR MOTION OF ate for solving a curvilinear kinematics problem.
PARTICLES
• Calculate the position, velocity, and acceleration of a
11.4A Position, Velocity, and
particle undergoing curvilinear motion using Cartesian,
Acceleration Vectors
tangential and normal, and radial and transverse
11.4B Derivatives of Vector Functions
coordinates.
11.4C Rectangular Components of
Velocity and Acceleration
11.4D Motion Relative to a Frame in
Translation Introduction
11.5 NON-RECTANGULAR
COMPONENTS Chapters 1 to 10 were devoted to statics, i.e., to the analysis of bodies at
11.5A Tangential and Normal rest. We now begin the study of dynamics, which is the part of mechanics
Components that deals with the analysis of bodies in motion.
11.5B Radial and Transverse Although the study of statics goes back to the time of the Greek
Components philosophers, the first significant contribution to dynamics was made by
Galileo (1564–1642). Galileo’s experiments on uniformly accelerated bod-
ies led Newton (1642–1727) to formulate his fundamental laws of motion.
Dynamics includes two broad areas of study:
1. Kinematics, which is the study of the geometry of motion. The principles

of kinematics relate the displacement, velocity, acceleration, and time
of a body’s motion, without reference to the cause of the motion.
2. Kinetics, which is the study of the relation between the forces acting
on a body, the mass of the body, and the motion of the body. We use
kinetics to predict the motion caused by given forces or to determine
the forces required to produce a given motion.
Chapters 11 through 14 describe the dynamics of particles; in

Chap. 11, we consider the kinematics of particles. The use of the word
particles does not mean that our study is restricted to small objects; rather,
it indicates that in these first chapters we study the motion of bodies—
possibly as large as cars, rockets, or airplanes—without regard to their size
or shape. By saying that we analyze the bodies as particles, we mean that
we consider only their motion as an entire unit; we neglect any rotation
about their own centers of mass. In some cases, however, such a rotation is
not negligible, and we cannot treat the bodies as particles. Such motions are
analyzed in later chapters dealing with the dynamics of rigid bodies.
bee87342_ch11_615-717.indd 616 11/24/14 1:38 PM

In the first part of Chap. 11, we describe the rectilinear motion of
a particle; that is, we determine the position, velocity, and acceleration of
a particle at every instant as it moves along a straight line. We first use
general methods of analysis to study the motion of a particle; we then
consider two important particular cases, namely, the uniform motion and
the uniformly accelerated motion of a particle (Sec. 11.2). We then discuss
the simultaneous motion of several particles and introduce the concept
of the relative motion of one particle with respect to another. The first part
of this chapter concludes with a study of graphical methods of analysis
and their application to the solution of problems involving the rectilinear
motion of particles.
In the second part of this chapter, we analyze the motion of a par-
ticle as it moves along a curved path. We define the position, velocity, and
acceleration of a particle as vector quantities and introduce the derivative
of a vector function to add to our mathematical tools. We consider applica-
tions in which we define the motion of a particle by the rectangular com-
ponents of its velocity and acceleration; at this point, we analyze the
motion of a projectile (Sec. 11.4C). Then we examine the motion of a
particle relative to a reference frame in translation. Finally, we analyze
the curvilinear motion of a particle in terms of components other than
rectangular. In Sec. 11.5, we introduce the tangential and normal compo-
nents of an object’s velocity and acceleration and then examine the radial
and transverse components.
11.1 RECTILINEAR MOTION

OF PARTICLES
A particle moving along a straight line is said to be in rectilinear motion.
The only variables we need to describe this motion are the time, t, and
the distance along the line, x, as a function of time. With these variables,
we can define the particle’s position, velocity, and acceleration, which
completely describe the particle’s motion. When we study the motion of
a particle moving in a plane (two dimensions) or in space (three dimensions),
we will use a more general position vector rather than simply the distance
along a line.
11.1A Position, Velocity, and O P

Acceleration x
x
At any given instant t, a particle in rectilinear motion occupies some 1m
(a)
position on the straight line. To define the particle’s position P, we choose
a fixed origin O on the straight line and a positive direction along the line.
We measure the distance x from O to P and record it with a plus or minus P' O
sign, according to whether we reach P from O by moving along the line x
in the positive or negative direction. The distance x, with the appropriate x' 1m
sign, completely defines the position of the particle; it is called the position (b)
coordinate of the particle. For example, the position coordinate Fig. 11.1 Position is measured from a fixed
corresponding to P in Fig. 11.1a is x 5 15 m; the coordinate corresponding origin. (a) A positive position coordinate;
to P9 in Fig. 11.1b is x9 5 22 m. (b) a negative position coordinate.
bee87342_ch11_615-717.indd 617 11/24/14 1:38 PM

P P' When we know the position coordinate x of a particle for every value
x Δx
of time t, we say that the motion of the particle is known. We can provide
O
a “timetable” of the motion in the form of an equation in x and t, such as
(t) (t + Δt) x
x 5 6t2 2 t3, or in the form of a graph of x versus t, as shown in Fig. 11.6.
Fig. 11.2 A small displacement Dx from The units most often used to measure the position coordinate x are the
time t to time t 1 Dt. meter (m) in the SI system of units† and the foot (ft) in the U.S. customary
system of units. Time t is usually measured in seconds (s).
Now consider the position P occupied by the particle at time t and
the corresponding coordinate x (Fig. 11.2). Consider also the position P9
occupied by the particle at a later time t 1 Dt. We can obtain the position
coordinate of P9 by adding the small displacement Dx to the coordinate x
of P. This displacement is positive or negative according to whether P9 is
to the right or to the left of P. We define the average velocity of the
particle over the time interval Dt as the quotient of the displacement Dx
and the time interval Dt as
Dx
Average velocity 5
Photo 11.1 The motion of this solar car can Dt
be described by its position, velocity, and
acceleration.
If we use SI units, Dx is expressed in meters and Dt in seconds; the
average velocity is then expressed in meters per second (m/s). If we use
U.S. customary units, Dx is expressed in feet and Dt in seconds; the
average velocity is then expressed in feet per second (ft/s).
We can determine the instantaneous velocity v of a particle at the
instant t by allowing the time interval Dt to become infinitesimally small. Thus,
Dx
Instantaneous velocity 5 v 5 lim
Dt y0 Dt
The instantaneous velocity is also expressed in m/s or ft/s. Observing that
the limit of the quotient is equal, by definition, to the derivative of x with
respect to t, we have
Velocity of a particle
along a line
P
ddx
v>0 v5 (11.1)
dt
x
(a) We represent the velocity v by an algebraic number that can be positive or
negative.‡ A positive value of v indicates that x increases, i.e., that the particle
v<0 moves in the positive direction (Fig. 11.3a). A negative value of v indicates
P that x decreases, i.e., that the particle moves in the negative direction
x (Fig. 11.3b). The magnitude of v is known as the speed of the particle.
(b)
Fig. 11.3 In rectilinear motion, velocity can Consider the velocity v of the particle at time t and also its velocity
be only (a) positive or (b) negative along the v 1 Dv at a later time t 1 Dt (Fig. 11.4). We define the average acceleration
line. of the particle over the time interval Dt as the quotient of Dv and Dt as
Dv
Average acceleration 5
P v P' v + Δv
Dt
†
See Sec. 1.3.
‡
x As you will see in Sec. 11.4A, velocity is actually a vector quantity. However, since we are
(t) (t + Δt) considering here the rectilinear motion of a particle where the velocity has a known and fixed
Fig. 11.4 A change in velocity from v to direction, we need only specify its sense and magnitude. We can do this conveniently by using
v 1 Dv corresponding to a change in time a scalar quantity with a plus or minus sign. This is also true of the acceleration of a particle
from t to t 1 Dt. in rectilinear motion.
bee87342_ch11_615-717.indd 618 11/24/14 1:38 PM

If we use SI units, Dv is expressed in m/s and Dt in seconds; the average
acceleration is then expressed in m/s2. If we use U.S. customary units, Dv
is expressed in ft/s and Dt in seconds; the average acceleration is then
expressed in ft/s2.
We obtain the instantaneous acceleration a of the particle at the
instant t by again allowing the time interval Dt to approach zero. Thus,
Dv
Instantaneous acceleration 5 a 5 lim
Dt y0 Dt
The instantaneous acceleration is also expressed in m/s2 or ft/s2. The limit
of the quotient, which is by definition the derivative of v with respect to t,
measures the rate of change of the velocity. We have
Acceleration of a
particle along a line
ddv
a5 (11.2)
dt
or substituting for v from Eq. (11.1),
d 2x
a5 (11.3)
dt 2
We represent the acceleration a by an algebraic number that can be posi-

tive or negative (see the footnote on the preceding page). A positive value
of a indicates that the velocity (i.e., the algebraic number v) increases.
This may mean that the particle is moving faster in the positive direction
(Fig. 11.5a) or that it is moving more slowly in the negative direction
(Fig. 11.5b); in both cases, Dv is positive. A negative value of a indicates
that the velocity decreases; either the particle is moving more slowly in
the positive direction (Fig. 11.5c), or it is moving faster in the negative
direction (Fig. 11.5d).
Sometimes we use the term deceleration to refer to a when the speed
of the particle (i.e., the magnitude of v) decreases; the particle is then moving
more slowly. For example, the particle of Fig. 11.5 is decelerating in parts
b and c; it is truly accelerating (i.e., moving faster) in parts a and d.
v v' v' v
P P' P' P
x x
a>0 a>0
(a) (b)
v v' v' v
P P' P' P
x x
a<0 a<0
(c) (d)
Fig. 11.5 Velocity and acceleration can be in the same or different directions.
(a, d) When a and v are in the same direction, the particle speeds up;
(b, c) when a and v are in opposite directions, the particle slows down.
bee87342_ch11_615-717.indd 619 11/24/14 1:38 PM

We can obtain another expression for the acceleration by eliminating

the differential dt in Eqs. (11.1) and (11.2). Solving Eq. (11.1) for dt, we
have dt 5 dx/v; substituting into Eq. (11.2) gives us
ddv
a5v (11.4)
d
dx
Concept Application 11.1

x (m)
Consider a particle moving in a straight line, and assume that its position
32
is defined by
24 x 5 6t2 2 t3
16 where t is in seconds and x in meters. We can obtain the velocity v at any
time t by differentiating x with respect to t as
8
dx
0 v5 5 12t 2 3t 2
2 4 6 t (s) dt
v (m/s) We can obtain the acceleration a by differentiating again with respect to t.
Hence,
12
4 6 dv
a5 5 12 2 6t
0 dt
2 t (s)
–12
In Fig. 11.6, we have plotted the position coordinate, the velocity, and the
acceleration. These curves are known as motion curves. Keep in mind,
–24 however, that the particle does not move along any of these curves; the
particle moves in a straight line.
–36
Since the derivative of a function measures the slope of the corre-
a (m/s2) sponding curve, the slope of the x–t curve at any given time is equal to
the value of v at that time. Similarly, the slope of the v–t curve is equal
12 to the value of a. Since a 5 0 at t 5 2 s, the slope of the v–t curve must
2 4 6
0 be zero at t 5 2 s; the velocity reaches a maximum at this instant. Also,
t (s) since v 5 0 at t 5 0 and at t 5 4 s, the tangent to the x–t curve must be
–12 horizontal for both of these values of t.
–24
A study of the three motion curves of Fig. 11.6 shows that the motion
of the particle from t 5 0 to t 5 ∞ can be divided into four phases:
Fig. 11.6 Graphs of position,
velocity, and acceleration as 1. The particle starts from the origin, x 5 0, with no velocity but with
functions of time for Concept a positive acceleration. Under this acceleration, the particle gains a
Application 11.1. positive velocity and moves in the positive direction. From t 5 0 to
t 5 2 s, x, v, and a are all positive.
2. At t 5 2 s, the acceleration is zero; the velocity has reached its
maximum value. From t 5 2 s to t 5 4 s, v is positive, but a is
negative. The particle still moves in the positive direction but more
slowly; the particle is decelerating.
3. At t 5 4 s, the velocity is zero; the position coordinate x has reached
its maximum value (32 m). From then on, both v and a are negative;
the particle is accelerating and moves in the negative direction with
increasing speed.
4. At t 5 6 s, the particle passes through the origin; its coordinate x is
then zero, while the total distance traveled since the beginning of the
motion is 64 m (i.e., twice its maximum value). For values of t larger
than 6 s, x, v, and a are all negative. The particle keeps moving in
the negative direction—away from O—faster and faster.
bee87342_ch11_615-717.indd 620 11/24/14 1:38 PM

11.1B Determining the Motion of a
Particle
We have just seen that the motion of a particle is said to be known if we
know its position for every value of the time t. In practice, however, a
motion is seldom defined by a relation between x and t. More often, the
conditions of the motion are specified by the type of acceleration that the
particle possesses. For example, a freely falling body has a constant
acceleration that is directed downward and equal to 9.81 m/s2 or 32.2 ft/
s2, a mass attached to a stretched spring has an acceleration proportional
to the instantaneous elongation of the spring measured from its equilibrium
position, etc. In general, we can express the acceleration of the particle
as a function of one or more of the variables x, v, and t. Thus, in order
to determine the position coordinate x in terms of t, we need to perform
two successive integrations.
Let us consider three common classes of motion.
1. a 5 f(t). The Acceleration Is a Given Function of t. Solving Eq. (11.2)

for dv and substituting f(t) for a, we have
dv 5 a dt
dv 5 f(t) dt
Integrating both sides of the equation, we obtain
e dv 5 e f(t) dt
This equation defines v in terms of t. Note, however, that an arbitrary

constant is introduced after the integration is performed. This is due to
the fact that many motions correspond to the given acceleration a 5 f(t).
In order to define the motion of the particle uniquely, it is necessary to
specify the initial conditions of the motion, i.e., the value v0 of the
velocity and the value x0 of the position coordinate at t 5 0. Rather
than use an arbitrary constant that is determined by the initial conditions,
it is often more convenient to replace the indefinite integrals with
definite integrals. Definite integrals have lower limits corresponding to
the initial conditions t 5 0 and v 5 v0 and upper limits corresponding
to t 5 t and v 5 v. This gives us
v t
#v0
dv 5 # f(t) dt
0
t
v 2 v0 5 # f(t) dt
0
which yields v in terms of t.

We can now solve Eq. (11.1) for dx as
dx 5 v dt
and substitute for v the expression obtained from the first integration.
Then we integrate both sides of this equation via the left-hand side with
respect to x from x 5 x0 to x 5 x and the right-hand side with respect
to t from t 5 0 to t 5 t. In this way, we obtain the position coordinate
x in terms of t; the motion is completely determined.
bee87342_ch11_615-717.indd 621 11/24/14 1:38 PM

We will study two important cases in greater detail in Sec. 11.2: the
case when a 5 0, corresponding to a uniform motion, and the case when
a 5 constant, corresponding to a uniformly accelerated motion.
2. a 5 f(x). The Acceleration Is a Given Function of x. Rearranging
Eq. (11.4) and substituting f(x) for a, we have
v dv 5 a dx
v dv 5 f(x) dx
Since each side contains only one variable, we can integrate the equation.
Denoting again the initial values of the velocity and of the position
coordinate by v0 and x0, respectively, we obtain
v x
# v dv 5 # f(x) dx
v0 x0
x
1 2
2v 2 12 v20 5 # f(x) dx
x0
which yields v in terms of x. We now solve Eq. (11.1) for dt, giving
dx
dt 5
v
and substitute for v the expression just obtained. We can then integrate
both sides to obtain the desired relation between x and t. However, in
most cases, this last integration cannot be performed analytically, and
we must resort to a numerical method of integration.
3. a 5 f(v). The Acceleration Is a Given Function of v. We can now
substitute f(v) for a in either Eqs. (11.2) or (11.4) to obtain either
dv dv
f(v) 5 f(v) 5 v
dt dx
dv v dv
dt 5 dx 5
f(v) f(v)
Integration of the first equation yields a relation between v and t;

integration of the second equation yields a relation between v and x.
Either of these relations can be used in conjunction with Eq. (11.1) to
obtain the relation between x and t that characterizes the motion of the
particle.
bee87342_ch11_615-717.indd 622 11/24/14 1:38 PM

Sample Problem 11.1

The position of a particle moving along a straight line is defined by the
relation x 5 t3 2 6t2 2 15t 1 40, where x is expressed in feet and t in
seconds. Determine (a) the time at which the velocity is zero, (b) the
position and distance traveled by the particle at that time, (c) the accelera-
tion of the particle at that time, (d) the distance traveled by the particle
from t 5 4 s to t 5 6 s.
STRATEGY: You need to use the basic kinematic relationships between

position, velocity, and acceleration. Because the position is given as a
function of time, you can differentiate it to find equations for the velocity
and acceleration. Once you have these equations, you can solve the problem.
MODELING and ANALYSIS: Taking the derivative of position, you obtain

x (ft) x 5 t3 2 6t2 2 15t 1 40 (1)
dx
v5 5 3t 2 2 12t 2 15 (2)
40 dt
dv
a5 5 6t 2 12 (3)
dt
+5
0 t (s) These equations are graphed in Fig. 1.
a. Time at Which v 5 0. Set v 5 0 in Eq. (2) for
3t2 2 12t 2 15 5 0 t 5 21 s and t 5 15 s b
– 60 Only the root t 5 15 s corresponds to a time after the motion has begun:
for t , 5 s, v , 0 and the particle moves in the negative direction; for
t . 5 s, v . 0 and the particle moves in the positive direction.
v (ft/s)
b. Position and Distance Traveled When v 5 0. Substitute
t 5 15 s into Eq. (1), yielding
x5 5 (5)3 2 6(5)2 2 15(5) 1 40 x5 5 260 ft b
0 +5 t (s)
The initial position at t 5 0 was x0 5 140 ft. Since v Þ 0 during the
interval t 5 0 to t 5 5 s, you have
Distance traveled 5 x5 2 x0 5 260 ft 2 40 ft 5 2100 ft
Distance traveled 5 100 ft in the negative direction b
a (ft/s 2)
c. Acceleration When v 5 0. Substitute t 5 15 s into Eq. (3) for
18 a5 5 6(5) 2 12 a5 5 118 ft/s2 b
0 +2 +5 t (s) d. Distance Traveled from t 5 4 s to t 5 6 s. The particle

moves in the negative direction from t 5 4 s to t 5 5 s and in the positive
Fig. 1 Motion curves for the particle. direction from t 5 5 s to t 5 6 s; therefore, the distance traveled during
each of these time intervals must be computed separately.
From t 5 4 s to t 5 5 s: x5 5 260 ft
x4 5 (4) 2 6(4)2 2 15(4) 1 40 5 252 ft
3
(continued)
bee87342_ch11_615-717.indd 623 11/24/14 1:38 PM

Distance traveled 5 x5 2 x4 5 260 ft 2 (252 ft) 5 28 ft

5 8 ft in the negative direction
From t 5 5 s to t 5 6 s: x5 5 260 ft
x6 5 (6)3 2 6(6)2 2 15(6) 1 40 5 250 ft
Distance traveled 5 x6 2 x5 5 250 ft 2 (260 ft) 5 110 ft
5 10 ft in the positive direction
Total distance traveled from t 5 4 s to t 5 6 s is 8 ft 1 10 ft 5 18 ft
REFLECT and THINK: The total distance traveled by the particle in
the 2-second interval is 18 ft, but because one distance is positive and one
is negative, the net change in position is only 2 ft (in the positive direc-
tion). This illustrates the difference between total distance traveled and net
change in position. Note that the maximum displacement occurs at t 5 5 s,
when the velocity is zero.
Sample Problem 11.2

You throw a ball vertically upward with a velocity of 10 m/s from a
window located 20 m above the ground. Knowing that the acceleration of
the ball is constant and equal to 9.81 m/s2 downward, determine (a) the
velocity v and elevation y of the ball above the ground at any time t,
(b) the highest elevation reached by the ball and the corresponding value
of t, (c) the time when the ball hits the ground and the corresponding
velocity. Draw the v−t and y−t curves.
y STRATEGY: The acceleration is constant, so you can integrate the

defining kinematic equation for acceleration once to find the velocity
v0 = +10 m /s
equation and a second time to find the position relationship. Once you
have these equations, you can solve the problem.
a = – 9.81 m/s2
MODELING and ANALYSIS: Model the ball as a particle with
negligible drag.
y0 = +20 m
a. Velocity and Elevation. Choose the y axis measuring the position
coordinate (or elevation) with its origin O on the ground and its positive
O sense upward. The value of the acceleration and the initial values of v
and y are as indicated in Fig. 1. Substituting for a in a 5 dv/dt and noting
Fig. 1 Acceleration, initial that, when t 5 0, v0 5 110 m/s, you have
velocity, and initial position of
dv
the ball. 5 a 5 29.81 m/s2
dt
v t
# v0510
dv 5 2 #
0
9.81 dt
[v] v10 5 2[9.81t] t0

v 2 10 5 29.81t
v 5 10 2 9.81t (1) b
bee87342_ch11_615-717.indd 624 11/24/14 1:38 PM

Substituting for v in v 5 dy/dt and noting that when t 5 0, y0 5 20 m,

v (m /s)
you have
10 Velocity-time curve
Sl dy
op
e 5 v 5 10 2 9.81t
= dt
0 a
1.019 = 3.28 t (s) y t
–9
.8
1
m
#y 0520
dy 5 # (10 2 9.81t) dt
0
/s 2
[y ] y20 5 [10t 2 4.905t 2 ] t0
–22.2 y 2 20 5 10t 2 4.905t 2
y 5 20 1 10t 2 4.905t2 (2) b
Fig. 2 Velocity of the ball as a
function of time. Graphs of these equations are shown in Figs. 2 and 3.
b. Highest Elevation. The ball reaches its highest elevation when
y (m) v 5 0. Substituting into Eq. (1), you obtain
/s
m
10
10 2 9.81t 5 0 t 5 1.019 s b
=
v0
Substituting t 5 1.019 s into Eq. (2), you find

=
Slop
pe
Slo
25.1
y 5 20 1 10(1.019) 2 4.905(1.019)2 y 5 25.1 m b
e=
v=
20 c. Ball Hits the Ground. The ball hits the ground when y 5 0.
– 22
Position-time Substituting into Eq. (2), you obtain

.2 m
curve
20 1 10t 2 4.905t2 5 0 t 5 21.243 s and t 5 13.28 s b
/s
0 1.019 3.28 t (s) Only the root t 5 13.28 s corresponds to a time after the motion has
Fig. 3 Height of the ball as a begun. Carrying this value of t into Eq. (1), you find
function of time. v 5 10 2 9.81(3.28) 5 222.2 m/s v 5 22.2 m/s w b
REFLECT and THINK: When the acceleration is constant, the velocity

changes linearly, and the position is a quadratic function of time. You will
see in Sec. 11.2 that the motion in this problem is an example of free fall,
where the acceleration in the vertical direction is constant and equal to 2g.
x Piston Sample Problem 11.3

Many mountain bike shocks utilize a piston that travels in an oil-filled
cylinder to provide shock absorption; this system is shown schematically.
When the front tire goes over a bump, the cylinder is given an initial
velocity v0. The piston, which is attached to the fork, then moves with
Oil respect to the cylinder, and oil is forced through orifices in the piston.
This causes the piston to decelerate at a rate proportional to the velocity
at a 5 2kv. At time t 5 0, the position of the piston is x 5 0. Express
(a) the velocity v in terms of t, (b) the position x in terms of t, (c) the
velocity v in terms of x. Draw the corresponding motion curves.
(continued)
bee87342_ch11_615-717.indd 625 11/24/14 1:38 PM

STRATEGY: Because the acceleration is given as a function of velocity,

you need to use either a 5 dv/dt or a 5 v dv/dx and then separate variables
and integrate. Which one you use depends on what you are asked to find.
Since part a asks for v in terms of t, use a 5 dv/dt. You can integrate this
again using v 5 dx/dt for part b. Since part c asked for v(x), you should
use a 5 v dv/dx and then separate the variables and integrate.
MODELING and ANALYSIS: Rotation of the piston is not relevant,

so you can model it as a particle undergoing rectilinear motion.
a. v in Terms of t. Substitute 2kv for a in the fundamental formula
defining acceleration, a 5 dv/dt. You obtain
v t
dv dv dv
2kv 5
dt v
5 2k dt #
v0
v
5 2k #
0
dt
v
ln 5 2kt v 5 v0 e2kt b
v0
b. x in Terms of t. Substitute the expression just obtained for v into

v 5 dx/dt. You get
dx
v v0 e2kt 5
dt
v0
x t
# 0
dx 5 v0 #e
0
2kt
dt
v0 2kt t v0
x52 [e ] 0 5 2 (e2kt 2 1)
k k
O t v0
x5 (1 2 e2kt ) b
k
x
v0
c. v in Terms of x. Substitute 2kv for a in a 5 v dv/dx. You have
k dv
2kv 5 v
dx
dv 5 2k dx
v x
O t
# dv 5 2k # dx
v0 0
v
v0
v 2 v0 5 2kx v 5 v0 2 kx b
The motion curves are shown in Fig. 1.
REFLECT and THINK: You could have solved part c by eliminating t

from the answers obtained for parts a and b. You could use this alternative
method as a check. From part a, you obtain e2kt 5 v/v0; substituting into
O v0 x the answer of part b, you have
k
Fig. 1 Motion curves for the v0 v0 v
piston x5 (1 2 e2kt ) 5 a1 2 b v 5 v0 2 kx (checks)
k k v0
bee87342_ch11_615-717.indd 626 11/24/14 1:38 PM

Another random document with
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for them. This Insect is found in India, where it is said to be common
on the banks of sandy rivers, living there in burrows of the depth of
three feet. Very little is known, however, as to this curious Insect. It
has recently been reported[254] as being injurious to tobacco and
other crops on high ground in Durbungha by cutting off their roots.
The local name for the Insect is bherwa. We should think it
somewhat doubtful whether this refers really to S. monstrosus.
Fig. 202.—Anostostoma australasiae, male. Australia.
In number of species the Locustidae are perhaps scarcely inferior to

the Acridiidae, and in variety of form they surpass this latter family.
Many of the most gigantic forms are apterous, and these very often
have a repellant aspect. The genus Anostostoma is remarkable for
its large head. Allied to it is Deinacrida heteracantha, the "Weta-
punga" of the New Zealand natives, an Insect formerly abundant in
the forests north of Auckland, but of late years become extremely
rare. The head and body of this Insect may measure more than 2½
inches in length, and when the antennae and legs are stretched out
the total length may be 14 or 15 inches. Although bulky and
absolutely wingless, yet, as Buller informs us,[255] it climbs with
agility, and is sometimes found on the topmost branches of lofty
trees. When disturbed it produces a clicking, accompanied by a slow
movement of its hind legs. A second species, D. thoracica, lives in
decayed wood, and a third, D. megacephala, is remarkable from the
very large size of the head and mandibles in the male sex. The fact
that a clicking noise is produced by the Weta-punga is of some
interest, for the genus Deinacrida is among the Locustidae that
possess ears, but are said to be destitute of sound-producing
organs.
Amongst the most remarkable of the Locustidae are the two species
of which Brongniart has recently formed the genus Eumegalodon
and the tribe Eumegalodonidae, which is not included in Brunner's
table of the tribes of Locustidae. The ovipositor is large and sabre-
shaped; the male is unknown. The genus Megalodon is placed by
Brunner in the tribe Conocephalides; it also consists of extremely
remarkable Insects.
Fig. 203.—Eumegalodon blanchardi, female. Borneo. × ⅘. (After

Brongniart.)
The Locustidae appear to be of slow growth, and the autumns of

Britain are usually not warm enough for them. Hence we have but
nine British species, and of this number only three or four are known
to occur north of the Thames. The only one that attracts attention is
Locusta viridissima, which in some districts of the south of England
occurs in considerable numbers, and attests its presence by its
peculiar music. It is called the green grasshopper.
The geological record is rather obscure in the matter of Locustidae.

Scudder considers that a fair number of Tertiary forms are known,
and says that they represent several of the existing tribes and
genera. One or two have been found in Mesozoic rocks.
Table of the Tribes of Locustidae
1. Tarsi more or less depressed.

2. Front tibiae furnished with auditory cavities.
3. Antennae less distant from the summit of the occiput than from the
labrum; inserted between the eyes.[256]
4. First two joints of the tarsi laterally smooth. (Posterior tibiae
furnished on each side with an apical spine.) Tribe 1.
Phaneropterides. (Fig. 196, Microcentrum; Fig. 199,
Myrmecophana. Fig. 101, Poecilimon affinis.)
4′. First two joints of the tarsi laterally, longitudinally sulcate.
5. Foramina of the anterior tibiae normally open. (Fig. 193, A.)
6. Posterior tibiae furnished on each side with apical spines.
7. Prosternum unarmed. Tribe 2. Meconemides.
7′. Prosternum bispinose or bituberculate. Tribe 3.
Mecopodides.
6′. Posterior tibiae with no apical spines. (Head prognathous.)
Tribe 4. Prochilides. (Fig. 200, Phasmodes.)
5′. Foramina of the anterior tibiae forming a chink, or protected by a
scale. (Fig. 193, B.)
6. Anterior tibiae with no apical spines.
7. Margins of the scrobes[257] of the antennae prominent. Tribe

5. Pseudophyllides. (Fig. 187, Cyrtophyllus crepitans; Fig.
198, Pterochroza ocellata.)
7′. Margins of the scrobes of the antennae not prominent.
8. Posterior tibiae furnished above on each side with apical
spines, or with a single spine on the side.
9. Posterior tibiae either furnished with apical spines on each
side, or only on the inner side. Tribe 6.
Conocephalides. (Fig. 189, Copiophora cornuta.)
9′. Posterior tibiae furnished above with an apical spine
placed only on the outer side. Tribe 7.
Tympanophorides.
8′. Posterior tibiae without apical spines. Tribe 8. Sagides.
6′. Anterior tibiae furnished with an apical spine on the inner side.
[258]
7. The first joint of the posterior tarsi destitute of a free sole-lobe.
Tribe 9. Locustides.
7′. The first joint of the posterior tarsi furnished with a free sole-
lobe. Tribe 10. Decticides.
3′. Antennae more distant from the summit of the occiput than from the
labrum, inserted either beneath the eyes or on their inferior border.
Tegmina and wings greatly abbreviate, scale-like; when tegmina are
present they are furnished in each sex with a tympanum.
4. Third joint of the posterior tarsi shorter than the second. Both
anterior and posterior tibiae furnished on each side with a spine.
Tribe 11. Callimenides.
4′. Third joint of posterior tarsi longer than the second joint. Anterior
tibiae with no apical spine on the inner side, and posterior tibiae
with no apical spine on the outer side.
5. Antennae inserted at the edge of the eyes. Pronotum unarmed.
Tegmina present in each sex. Anterior tibiae furnished on the
outer side with an apical spine. Posterior tibiae furnished
beneath with four apical spines. Tribe 12. Ephippigerides.
5′. Antennae inserted distinctly below the eyes. Pronotum spinous.
Elytra in the females wanting. Anterior tibiae without apical
spine on either side. Posterior tibiae beneath with two apical
spines or with none. Tribe 13. Hetrodides.
2′. Anterior tibiae without auditory cavities. Tegmina with no tympanum.
Tribe 14. Gryllacrides. (Fig. 201, Schizodactylus monstrosus.)
1′. Tarsi distinctly compressed (most of the species apterous.) Tribe 15.
Stenopelmatides. (Fig. 202, Anostostoma australasiae; Fig. 197,
Dolichopoda palpata.)
CHAPTER XIV
ORTHOPTERA CONTINUED—GRYLLIDAE, CRICKETS
Fam. VIII. Gryllidae—Crickets.

Antennae very slender, generally long and setaceous; hind legs
long, saltatorial. Tegmina with the outer portion deflexed on to
the side of the body, and with the inner part lying flat on the
body. Tarsi usually three-jointed (rarely two- or four-jointed).
Female with a long ovipositor (except in Gryllotalpides).
Apterous forms numerous.
The Gryllidae are closely connected with the Locustidae, the musical
and auditory organs being in both similarly situate, and the female in
both possessing, in most of the tribes, an elongate exserted
ovipositor. The two families differ in the number of joints of the tarsi,
in the form of the tegmina, and in the fact that in Gryllidae the portion
of the wing modified for musical purposes consists of a larger portion
of the organ—according to de Saussure, the discoidal as well as the
anal area.
Fig. 204.—House-cricket, Gryllus (Acheta) domesticus, male.
The family would be a very natural one if we were to exclude from it

the mole-crickets which have fossorial front legs and no ovipositor,
and the Tridactylides, which also are destitute of ovipositor, and have
short antennae, consisting of about ten joints.
The head is generally very large; ocelli are present, though usually
imperfect; the extremity of the body bears a pair of remarkably long
cerci. The hind tibiae are usually armed with very strong spines; the
first joint of the hind tarsus is elongate, and terminates in two spines,
between which the small second joint is often almost completely
concealed; the feet are not provided beneath with pads, but only
bear remote setae.
The alar organs are difficult of comprehension, and different opinions

prevail as to their morphology. The tegmina are extremely different to
the hind wings, and never attain large dimensions, neither do they
exhibit any leaf-like or ornamental structures. In the genus
Pteroplistus they are formed somewhat like the elytra of Coleoptera,
and close over the back of the Insect in a fashion very like that found
in beetles. According to Brunner the larger part of the tegmen—
which, as we have said, reposes flat on the back of the Insect—
represents merely the anal area, and all the other parts must be
sought in the smaller, deflexed portion of the wing-cover. De
Saussure's opinion, to a somewhat different effect, we have already
mentioned. The tegmina of the male are extremely different from
those of the female, so that it is a matter of much difficulty to decide
what nervures correspond.[259]
Fig. 205.—Tegmina (sinistral) of the house-cricket. A, male, inner

aspect; B, female, outer aspect: a, inner margin; b, outer margin;
c, nervure bearing stridulating file.
The wing-covers of the male differ from those of the Locustidae,

inasmuch as the pair are of similar formation, each bearing a
stridulating file on its lower aspect. This file projects somewhat
inwards, so that its position is marked on the outer aspect of the
wing-cover by a depression. Usually the right tegmen overlaps the
other, an arrangement contrary to that which prevails in other
Orthoptera. The wings are ample and delicate; they possess
numerous nervures that are not much forked and have a simple,
somewhat fan-like arrangement; the little transverse nervules exhibit
only slight variety. These wings are frequently rolled up at the apex,
and project beyond the body like an additional pair of cerci (Fig.
204). The abdomen is chiefly remarkable for the large development
of the pleura, the stigmata being consequently very conspicuous.
The cerci are not jointed, though they are flexible and, often, very
long; they bear a variety of sense-organs (Fig. 67). The saltatorial
powers of the crickets are frequently considerable.
Graber has observed the post-embryonic development of the field-

cricket, Gryllus campestris, though unfortunately not from the very
commencement, so that we do not know whether there are five, six,
or seven ecdyses; the number is probably either six or seven. The
manner in which the alar organs are developed is similar to that we
have described and figured in the Locustidae. In the earlier instars
there is a slight prolongation of each side of the meso- and meta-
notum, but about the middle of the development a considerable
change occurs—the rudimentary organs then become free
appendages and assume a different position.
The Gryllidae possess a pair of tympana on each front leg, but these
organs contrast with those of the Locustidae in that the pair on each
leg usually differ from one another, the one on the outer or posterior
aspect being larger than that on the inner or front face of the leg.
The ears of the Gryllidae have not been so well investigated as

those of the Locustidae, but are apparently of a much less perfect
nature. No orifice for the admission of air other than that of the
prothoracic stigma has been detected, except in Gryllotalpa. On the
other hand, it is said[260] that in addition to the tibial organs another
pair of tympana exists, and is seated on the second abdominal
segment in a position analogous to that occupied by the ear on the
first segment of Acridiidae.
The musical powers of the crickets are remarkable, and are familiar
to all in Europe, as the performance of the house-cricket gives a fair
idea of them. Some of the Insects of the family are able to make a
very piercing noise, the note of Brachytrypes megacephalus having
been heard, it is said, at a distance of a mile from where it was being
produced. The mode of production is the same as in the Locustidae,
rapid vibration of the tegmina causing the edge of one of them to act
on the file of the other.
The mole-cricket, Gryllotalpa vulgaris—the Werre of the Germans,

Courtilière of the French—is placed with a few allies in a special
group, Gryllotalpides, characterised by the dilated front legs, which
are admirably adapted for working underground. Like the mole, this
Insect has a subterranean existence. It travels in burrows of its own
formation, and it also forms beneath the surface a habitation for its
eggs and family. Its habits have been alluded to by Gilbert White,
[261] who tells us that "a gardener at a house where I was on a visit,
happening to be mowing, on the 6th of May, by the side of a canal,
his scythe struck too deep, pared off a large piece of turf, and laid
open to view a curious scene of domestic economy: there were
many caverns and winding passages leading to a kind of chamber,
neatly smoothed and rounded, and about the size of a moderate
snuff-box. Within this secret nursery were deposited near a hundred
eggs of a dirty yellow colour, and enveloped in a tough skin, but too
lately excluded to contain any rudiments of young, being full of a
viscous substance. The eggs lay but shallow, and within the
influence of the sun, just under a little heap of fresh moved mould
like that which is raised by ants."
Fig. 206.—Front leg of the mole-cricket. A, outer; B, inner aspect: e,

ear-slit.
The front legs are remarkable structures (Fig. 206), being beautifully
adapted for burrowing; the tibiae and tarsi are arranged so as to act
as shears when it may be necessary to sever a root. The shear-like
action of the tarsus and tibia is very remarkable; the first and second
joints of the former are furnished with hard processes, which, when
the tarsus is moved, pass over the edges of the tibial teeth in such a
way as to be more effective than a pair of shears. In consequence of
its habit of cutting roots, the mole-cricket causes some damage
where it is abundant. It is now a rare Insect in England, and is almost
confined to the southern counties, but in the gardens of Central and
Southern Europe it is very abundant. Its French name courtilière is
supposed to be a corruption of the Latin curtilla. Its fondness for the
neighbourhood of water is well known. De Saussure says that in
order to secure specimens it is only necessary to throw water on the
paths between the flower-beds of gardens and to cover the wetted
places with pieces of board; in the morning some of these Insects
are almost sure to be found under the boards disporting themselves
in the mud. The Gryllotalpae swim admirably by aid of their broad
front legs.
Ears exist in the mole-cricket, and are situate on the front leg below
the knee, as in other Gryllidae, although it seems strange that a leg
so profoundly modified for digging and excavating as is that of the
mole-cricket should be provided with an ear. In Gryllotalpa the ear is
concealed and protected by being placed in a deep slit or fold of the
surface, and this depression is all that can be seen by examination
of the exterior (Fig. 206, e). In the allied genus Scapteriscus the
tympanal membrane is, however, destitute of special protection,
being completely exposed on the surface of the leg.
Although the tegmina or upper wings in Gryllotalpa are of small size,

yet the true wings are much more ample; they are of delicate texture
and traversed by many nearly straight radii, so that they close up in
the most complete manner, and form the two long delicate, flexible
processes that in the state of repose may be seen projecting not only
beyond the tegmina, but actually surpassing the extremity of the
body hanging down behind it, and looking like a second pair of cerci.
The mole-cricket is believed to be chiefly carnivorous in its diet,

though, like many other Orthoptera, it can accommodate its appetite
to parts of the vegetable as well as of the animal kingdom. The
Insect is capable of emitting a sound consisting of a dull jarring note,
somewhat like that of the goat-sucker. For this purpose the tegmina
of the males are provided with an apparatus of the nature we have
already described, but which is very much smaller and less elaborate
than it is in the true crickets.
Fig. 207.—Alimentary canal and appendages of the mole-cricket: a,

head; b, salivary glands and receptacle; c, lateral pouch; d,
stomato-gastric nerves; e, anterior lobes of stomach; f, peculiar
organ; g, neck of stomach; h, plicate portion of same; i, rectum; k,
lobulate gland; l, extremity of body; m, Malpighian tubes. (After
Dufour.)
The alimentary canal and digestive system of Gryllotalpa present

peculiarities worthy of notice. Salivary glands and reservoirs are
present; the oesophagus is elongate, and has on one side a peculiar
large pouch (Fig. 207, c); beyond this is the gizzard, which is
embraced by two lobes of the stomach. This latter organ is, beyond
the lobes, continued backwards as a neck, which subsequently
becomes larger and rugose-plicate. On the neck of the stomach
there is a pair of branching organs, which Dufour considered to be
peculiar to the mole-cricket, and compared to a spleen or pancreas.
The single tube into which the Malpighian tubules open is seated
near the commencement of the small intestine. These tubules are
very fine, and are about one hundred in number. The arrangement
by which the Malpighian tubules open into a common duct instead of
into the intestine itself appears to be characteristic of the Gryllidae,
but is said to occur also in Ephippigera, a genus of Locustidae.
According to Leydig[262] and Schindler the Malpighian tubules are of
two kinds, differing in colour, and, according to Leydig, in contents
and histological structure. Near the posterior extremity of the rectum
there is a lobulated gland having a reservoir connected with it; this is
the chief source of the foetid secretion the mole-cricket emits when
seized. The nervous chain consists of three thoracic and four
abdominal ganglia; these latter do not extend to the extremity of the
body; the three anterior of the four ganglia are but small, the terminal
one being much larger.
The number of eggs deposited by a female mole-cricket is large,

varying, it is said, from 200 to 400. The mother watches over them
carefully, and when they are hatched, which occurs in a period of
from three to four weeks after their deposition, she supplies the
young with food till their first moult; after this occurs they disperse,
and begin to form burrows for themselves.
It has been said that the young are devoured by their parents, and
some writers have gone so far as to say that 90 per cent of the
progeny are thus disposed of. M. Decaux, who has paid
considerable attention to the economy of the mole-cricket,[263]
acquits the mother of such an offence, but admits that the male
commits it. The number of eggs in one nest is said to be about 300.
The embryonic development of the mole-cricket has been studied by

Dohrn[264] and Korotneff,[265] and is considered by the former to be
of great interest. The tracheae connected with each stigma remain
isolated, while, according to Korotneff, the development of the
alimentary canal is not completed when the young mole-cricket is
hatched. Perhaps it may be this condition of the digestive organs
that necessitates the unusual care the mother bestows on her
young.
Fig. 208.—Cylindrodes kochi. Australia. A, outline of the Insect with

five of the legs and the extremity of the body mutilated; B, middle
leg. (After de Saussure.)
The genus Cylindrodes (Fig. 208, C. kochi) comprises some curious

and rare Insects of elongate, slender form. They are natives of
Australia, where the first species known of the genus was found in
Melville Island by Major Campbell, from whom we learn that these
Insects burrow in the stems of plants, and are so destructive that he
was unable to keep a single plant in his greenhouse on account of
the ravages of Cylindrodes campbellii. The form of these Insects is
beautifully adapted to their habits, the body being contracted in the
middle in such a way as to permit the middle and hind legs to be
packed against it, so that the cylindrical form is not interfered with by
these appendages while the excavating anterior legs are at work in
front of the Insect. The abdomen has nine segments; the terminal
one, said to be remarkably long and destitute of cerci, is not shown
in our figure.
The genus Tridactylus is considered by de Saussure to form, with its

ally Rhipipteryx, a division of Gryllotalpinae, but they are treated,
perhaps more correctly, by Brunner as a separate tribe. T. variegatus
(Fig. 209) is a small Insect, abundant in sandy places on the banks
of rivers in Southern Europe,—extending on the Rhone as far north
as Geneva,—and is remarkable for its great power of leaping, and
for the rapidity with which it can burrow in the sand. This anomalous
Insect has only ten joints to the antennae. Its alar organs are
imperfect, and not like those of other Gryllidae in either form or
neuration. The hind legs are of peculiar structure, the tibiae
terminating in two processes between which is situate a rudimentary
tarsus. Near the extremity of the tibia there are some plates, forming
two series, that can be adpressed to the tibia, or extended as shown
in our figure. The body is terminated by four rather short, very mobile
processes; the upper pair of these are each two-jointed, and are
thought by de Saussure and Haase[266] to be cerci; the inferior pair,
being articulated processes of the anal segment, their presence in
addition to cerci is remarkable. It is difficult to distinguish the sexes
of this Insect.
Fig. 209.—Tridactylus variegatus, France.
The exotic genus Rhipipteryx is allied to Tridactylus. It is widely

distributed in South America, but the little Insects that compose it are
rare in collections, their saltatorial powers no doubt making it difficult
to catch them; little is known as to their habits. In the undescribed
Amazonian species we figure (Fig. 210), the wings, instead of being
mere rudiments, as in Tridactylus, are elongate and project beyond
the body; they are of a blue-black colour, and arranged so as to look
as if they were the abdomen of the Insect; they, moreover, have a
transverse pallid mark, giving rise to an appearance of division. It is
difficult to form any surmise as to the nature of so curious a
modification of the wings.
The Tridactylides have no tympana on the legs, and their affinity with
the Gryllidae is very doubtful. Dufour thought T. variegatus to be
more allied to the Acridiidae. He based this opinion chiefly on some
points of the internal anatomy, but pointed out that Tridactylus differs
from the Acridiidae in having no air-sacs in the body.
Fig. 210.—Rhipipteryx sp., Amazon valley.
Not many of the Gryllidae are so peculiar as the forms we have

mentioned. The family consists in larger part of Insects more or less
similar to the common cricket, though exhibiting a great variety of
external form. The common cricket of our houses, Gryllus (Acheta)
domesticus (Fig. 204), has a very wide distribution in the Old World,
and is also found in North America. It is believed to have had its
natural distribution extended by commerce, though really nothing is
known as to its original habitat. The shrill chirping of this little Insect
is frequently heard at night in houses, even in the most densely
inhabited parts of great cities. Neither the female nor the young are
musical, yet the chirping may be heard at all seasons of the year, as
young and adults coexist independent of season. The predilection of
Gryllus domesticus for the habitations of man is very curious. The
Insect is occasionally found out of doors in the neighbourhood of
dwelling-houses in hot weather, but it does not appear that this
species leads anywhere a truly wild life. It is fond of heat; though it
rarely multiplies in dwelling-houses to any great extent, it is
sometimes found in profusion in bake-houses. Usually the wings in
the cricket are elongate, and project backwards from under the
tegmina like an additional pair of cerci; a variety, however, occurs in
which these tails are absent, owing to abbreviation of the wings.
There is no beauty in the appearance of any of the Gryllidae, though
many of them are very bizarre in shape. Very few of them venture to
leave the surface of the earth to climb on plants. The species of
Oecanthus, however, do so, and may be found sitting in flowers.
They have a more Locustoid appearance than other Gryllidae. One
of the most curious forms of the family is Platyblemmus, a genus of
several species found in the Mediterranean region, the male of which
has the head prolonged into a curious process (Fig. 211); this varies
greatly in development in the males of the same species. It would
seem that this organ is of a similar nature to the extraordinary
structures we have figured in Locustidae (Fig. 189) and Mantidae
(Fig. 136), though it appears impossible to treat the cephalic
appendages of Platyblemmus as ornamental objects; their import is
at present quite obscure.
A curious form of variation occurs in this family, and is called

micropterism by de Saussure; we have already mentioned its
occurrence in the house-cricket. The hind wings, which are usually
ample, and frequently have their extremities rolled up and protruding
like cerci, are sometimes much smaller in size, and not visible till the
tegmina are expanded. De Saussure at one time supposed these
micropterous individuals to be distinct species; it is now, however,
known that intermediate examples can be found by examining a
great many specimens. Some species are always micropterous.
Fig. 211.—Platyblemmus lusitanicus, male. A, front of head; B, profile

of Insect with most of the appendages removed.
In Britain we have only four representatives of the Gryllidae, viz. the

mole-cricket, the house-cricket, and two field-crickets, one of which,
Nemobius sylvestris, is considerably smaller than the house-cricket,
while the other, Gryllus campestris, the true field-cricket, is a larger
Insect. Its habits have been described in an interesting manner in
Gilbert White's 88th letter. This Insect, like so many others, is
apparently becoming rare in this country.
A single fossil from the Lias has been described as belonging to the
Gryllidae, but in the Tertiary strata a variety of members of the family
have been discovered both in Europe and North America.
The classification of Gryllidae is due to de Saussure,[267] and is said

by Brunner to be very natural. In the following synopsis of the tribes
of crickets we give de Saussure's arrangement, except that we
follow Brunner in treating Tridactylides as a distinct tribe:—
1. Antennae ten-jointed; posterior tarsi aborted. Tribe 1. Tridactylides.

(Fig. 209, Tridactylus variegatus; Fig. 210, Rhipipteryx sp.)
1′. Antennae many jointed; posterior tarsi normal.
2. Tarsi compressed, the second joint minute.
3. Anterior legs fossorial; anterior tibiae at the apex with two to four
divisions. Pronotum elongate, ovate, rounded behind. Female
without ovipositor. Tribe 2. Gryllotalpides. (Fig. 206, front legs of
Gryllotalpa; Fig. 208, Cylindrodes kochi.)
3′. Anterior legs formed for walking. Ovipositor of the female visible
(either elongate or rudimentary).
4. Posterior tibiae biseriately serrate. Tribe 3. Myrmecophilides.
4′. Posterior tibiae biseriately spinose. Ovipositor straight.
5. Antennae short, thickish, almost thread-like. Facial scutellum
exserted between antennae. Posterior tibiae dilated. Gen.
Myrmecophila.[268]
5′. Antennae elongate, setaceous. Facial scutellum transverse,
visible below the antennae. Tibiae slender.
6. Posterior tibiae armed with two strong spines, not serrate
between the spines. Tribe 4. Gryllides. (Fig. 204, Gryllus
domesticus; Fig. 211, Platyblemmus lusitanicus.)
6′. Posterior tibiae slender, armed with slender spines, and serrate
between them. Tribe 5. Oecanthides.
2′. Second joint of the tarsi depressed, heart-shaped.
3. Posterior tibiae not serrate, but biseriately spinose.
4. The spines on each side three and mobile; apical spurs on the inner
side only two in number. Ovipositor short, curved. Tribe 6.
Trigonidiides.
4′. The spines numerous, fixed. Ovipositor elongate, straight. Gen.
Stenogryllus.
3′. Posterior tibiae serrate and spinose on each side, the apical spurs,
as usual, three on each side. Ovipositor straight or curved. Tribe 7.
Eneopterides.
CHAPTER XV
NEUROPTERA—MALLOPHAGA—EMBIIDAE
Order III. Neuroptera.
Imago with biting mouth; with two pairs of wings, the anterior as well
as the posterior membranous, usually with extensive neuration,
consisting of elongate nervures and either of short cross-nervules
forming numerous cells or of a complex minute mesh-work. (One
division, Mallophaga, consists entirely of wingless forms; in
Termitidae some of the individuals of each generation become
winged, but others do not: except in these cases adult wingless
forms are few.) The metamorphosis differs in the several divisions.
Fig. 212.—Osmylus chrysops, New Forest.

The Neuroptera form a heterogeneous, though comparatively small,
Order of Insects, including termites, stone-flies, dragon-flies, may-
flies, caddis-flies, lace-wings, scorpion-flies, ant-lions, etc. Bird-lice
are also included in Neuroptera, though they have no trace of wings.
We treat the Order as composed of eleven distinct families, and, as

a matter of convenience, arrange them in five divisions:—
1. Mallophaga.—Permanently wingless Insects, living on the bodies of birds

or mammals. (Development very imperfectly known.) Fam. 1.
Mallophaga.
2. Pseudoneuroptera.—Insects with wings in adult life (in some cases wings
are never acquired). The wings are developed in a visible manner
outside the body. There is no definite pupa. Live entirely on land. Fam.
2. Embiidae; 3. Termitidae; 4. Psocidae.
3. Neuroptera amphibiotica.—Wings developed as in division 2. Three ocelli
usually exist. Life aquatic in the early stages. Fam. 5. Perlidae; 6.
Odonata; 7. Ephemeridae.
4. Neuroptera planipennia.—Wings developed internally; not visible in early
stages, but becoming suddenly evident when the pupal form is
assumed. Mandibles present in the adult Insect. Life in early stages
aquatic or terrestrial. Fam. 8. Sialidae; 9. Panorpidae; 10.
Hemerobiidae.
5. Trichoptera.—Development as in division 4. Mandibles absent in the adult
Insect. Life aquatic in the early stages. Fam. 11. Phryganeidae.
The families we have enumerated in the preceding scheme are now

generally adopted by entomologists. Great difference of opinion
exists, however, as to the groups of greater value than the family,
and for a long time past various schemes have been in vogue.
Though it is necessary to allude to the more important of these
systems, we can do so only in the briefest manner.
Some of the families of Neuroptera are similar in many points of

structure and development to Insects of other Orders; thus
Termitidae are somewhat allied to Blattidae, Perlidae to Phasmidae
in Orthoptera, while the Phryganeidae or Trichoptera make a
considerable approach to Lepidoptera. Some naturalists—among
whom we may mention Burmeister and Grassi—unite our Aptera,
Orthoptera, and most of our Neuroptera into a single Order called
Orthoptera. Others treat our Neuroptera as consisting of eight or
nine distinct Orders; these, together with the names proposed for
them, we have already alluded to in our chapter on classification,
pp. 171-177.
Erichson, impressed by the variety existing in Neuroptera, separated

some of the groups into a sub-Order called Pseudoneuroptera; this
sub-Order comprised our Termitidae, Psocidae, Ephemeridae, and
Libellulidae. This division is still adopted in several treatises; the
Pseudoneuroptera are indeed by some naturalists retained as an
Order distinct from both Orthoptera and Neuroptera. Gerstaecker
subsequently made use of a system somewhat different from that of
Erichson, uniting the Perlidae, Ephemeridae, and Odonata into a
group called Orthoptera amphibiotica, from which the Termitidae and
Psocidae were excluded. The divisions we have here adopted differ
but little from those of Gerstaecker, though we have arranged them
in a very different manner. It is probable that not one-tenth part of the
Neuroptera existing in the world have yet been examined by
entomologists, and of those that are extant in collections, the life-
histories and development are very imperfectly known. We have,
therefore, not considered it wise to adopt a system that would
involve great changes of nomenclature, while there can be little hope
of its permanency.
Fossils.—When considering the subject of fossil Insects we briefly

alluded to the discussions that have occurred as to whether the
fossils of the palaeozoic period should be referred to existing Orders.
Since the pages we allude to were printed, M. Brongniart's very
important work[269] on the Insects of that epoch has appeared. He
considers that these ancient fossils may be classified with the
existing Orders of Insects, though they cannot be placed in existing
families; and he assigns the palaeozoic fossil Insects at present
known, to the Orders Neuroptera and Orthoptera, and to the
homopterous division of Hemiptera. The greater part of the species
he looks on as Neuroptera, and places in six families—
Megasecopterides, Protephemerides, Platypterides,
Stenodictyopterides, Protodonates, and Protoperlides. Of these he
considers the ancient Protephemerides, Protodonates, and
Protoperlides as the precursors, which, we presume, we may
interpret as the actual ancestors, of our existing Ephemeridae,
Odonata, and Perlidae.
Some of the fossils restored and described by the French

entomologist are of great interest. We shall notice the
Protephemerides, Protodonates, and Protoperlides in connexion with
the families to which they are specially allied, and shall now only
allude to the quite extinct families of Neuroptera, the
Megasecopterides, Platypterides, and Stenodictyopterides.
It is a peculiarity of these ancient Insects that they were much larger

creatures than the corresponding forms that now exist. This may be
due, to some extent, to the fact that tiny, fragile forms have not been
preserved in the rocks, or have not attracted the attention of
collectors; but as some of the palaeozoic Insects were absolutely the
largest known—surpassing considerably in size any Insects at
present existing—it is probable that, even if small forms existed at
the remote epoch we are alluding to, the average size of the
individual was greater than it is at present. The Megasecopterides of
the carboniferous epoch were Insects of large size, with long, narrow
wings, a small prothorax, and large meso- and meta-thorax, these
two segments being equal in size; the abdomen was elongate and
moderately voluminous, and was terminated by a pair of very
elongate, slender filaments like those of the may-flies. The family
includes several genera and species found at Commentry. One of
these forms, Corydaloides scudderi, is of great interest, as it is
believed by Brongniart that the imago possessed tracheal gills
situated on the sides of the abdomen, analogous with those that
exist at present in the immature condition of certain Ephemeridae.
They are of interest in connexion with the gills found at the present

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Mechanics for Engineers: Dynamics

11 Kinematics of Particles 615

13 Kinetics of Particles: Energy and

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14 Systems of Particles 915

15 Kinematics of Rigid Bodies 977

16 Plane Motion of Rigid Bodies:

17 Plane Motion of Rigid Bodies: Energy

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18 Kinetics of Rigid Bodies

19 Mechanical Vibrations 1332

Appendix A: Some Useful Definitions and Properties

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Acceleration Vectors (a)

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transition to the study of three-dimensional motion. T1 1 Vg1 1 Ve1 1 U NC

The Presentation of the Principles of Kinetics Is Unified.

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Systematic Problem-Solving Approach. New to this edition of

Free-Body Diagrams Are Used Both to Solve Equilibrium

Sample Problem 12.5

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Optional Sections Offer Advanced or Specialty Topics. A

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Separating variables and integrating gives

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Over 300 of the homework problems in

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attention. the motion of particles.

For a force defined by its rectangular components, we wrote

13.190 A 32,000-lb airplane lands on an aircraft carrier and is caught by an

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Concept Questions. Educational research has shown that students can

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Free Body and Impulse-Momentum Diagram Practice

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The authors gratefully acknowledge the many helpful comments and

George Adams Howard Epstein Amir G Rezaei

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bee87342_ch11_615-717.indd 615 11/26/14 5:47 PM

1. Kinematics, which is the study of the geometry of motion. The principles

Chapters 11 through 14 describe the dynamics of particles; in

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11.1 RECTILINEAR MOTION

11.1A Position, Velocity, and O P

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or substituting for v from Eq. (11.1),

We represent the acceleration a by an algebraic number that can be posi-

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We can obtain another expression for the acceleration by eliminating

Concept Application 11.1

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