Principal Crop Experimentation 2

HORTICULTURAL RESEARCH AND
TRAININGINSTITUTE
PRINCIPLES OF CROP EXPERIMENTATION

MODULE CODE GST 06210
NTA LEVEL 6
Prepared by: L. Tairo

Module Tutor
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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CROP EXPERIMENTATION
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF RESEARCH AND EXPERIMENT

Terminologies
 Farming system is the total of production and consumption decisions of the

farmhouse hold including the choice of crop, livestock and off farm enterprises and
food consumed.
 Technologies is the combination of all the management practices used for

producing and or storing a given crop or crop mixture.
 Technological component is a specific part of a technology such as variety,

fertilizer, herbicide etc.
 On farm experiments (OFE) are experiments conducted in farmer’s field usually

with immediate aim of developing technological recommendations for farmers.
Researchers or farmers or both may manage OFE.
 On farm research (OFR) this is research in farmer’s field with farmers involved to
formulate improved technologies. These are typically two type of activities
interrelated in OFR.These are: -
o Surveys of farmer’s circumstances.
o Experiments.
 Farmer’s circumstances they are all those factors which affect farmers decisions
with respect to use of a crop technologies. They include natural factors such as
rainfall and soil economic factors like marketing, resource availability etc.
 Recommendation domain is a group of roughly homogeneous farmers with

similar circumstances for whom we can make more or less the same
recommendation. Recommendation domain may be defined in terms of both
natural factors e.g. rainfall and economic factors e.g. farm size.
 Target area/region is a relatively homogeneous area/region chosen for an on farm

research programme. The choice of the region or area may depend on crop
production potential. Government goals with respect to income distribution and the
available infrastructure for doing research in the region/area.
On farm research procedure are most efficiently implemented when focused on a relatively
homogeneous region/area or group of farmers
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 Farming system approach is a set of agricultural procedures conducted in farmer’s
field with the participation of farmers to develop technologies/recommendations for
an identified group of farmers.
SYSTEM COMPONENT INTERACTION

Farming system interactions are the interaction between crops, livestock and non-farm
enterprises of the farming system that influence the choice of a technology for the target
crop.
Types of interaction in farming system are

i) Interaction over space.e.g. Intercropping coffee, banana or maize and beans
ii) Interaction over time.e.g. Carry over from one cycle to another i.e. residual effect
iii) Interaction over time and space.e.g. In relay cropping-maize, beans, potato and
cassava
iv) Competition for farmers resources.e.g crop compete for land, labor and capital
v) Interaction arising from risk or farmers food preference.e.g planting less risky crops
like cassava and potatoes and planting early maturity varieties
FARMING SYSTEM APPROACH TO RESEARCH AND EXTENSION VS TRADITIONAL

RESEARCH
Differences between farming system approach to research and extension and commodity
S/ COMMODITY/TRADITIONAL ON FARM RESEARCH/FARMING SYSTEM
N RESEACH RESEARCH
1 Approach -Reductionist -Holistic, where system interaction is explicitly
-Single discipline or crop recognized
oriented -Interdisciplinary
2 Objectives Maximum exploitation of The same as that of the farmers varies and is
biological potential complex depending on the degree of market-
orientation and multiple objectives of the farmer
3 Selection Maximum output per unit of Whether he can better satisfy his objectives from
criteria input whichever resource is limiting his present
activities. Appropriateness should be evaluated
in relation to farmers priorities and his resource
use pattern
- Biological feasibility
- Economic viability
- Risk
- System compatibility
- Objective and resources use pattern
- Social acceptability
4 Research Often set by crop wise and Often derived from identified farmer’s problems
priority discipline wise orientation. and priorities provide a basic for evaluating the
Mechanism used in setting relative importance of these problems within the
priorities may be different system and to better consideration of farmers
from the farmers and may priorities
reflect researchers interest
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5 Experimen a) Content-determined by the a) Dictated by system problems identified
tal method researchers
b) Non-experimental b) Non-experimental variable set at farmer level
variables are often set at
optimum level
c) Design-often more c) Dictated by level of confidence that the
complex. try to keep researcher has in the technology usually
variability managed simpler system variability both environmental
and management is sampled
d) Management completely d) Depend on the nature of the trial
researcher managed
e) Site-often research station e) Farmers field environment
f) Plot-small f) Plot size. Often larger depend on nature of
the trial
g) Replicate multireplicate per g) Minimum two per site farms could be used as
location replicates
COMPLEMENTARY BETWEEN FARMING SYSTEM APPROACH TO RESEARCH AND

EXTENSION AND COMMODITY RESEARCH
Experimental station research (ESR) is primarily aimed at developing new technological
components, which require more controlled condition such as
- New varieties
- New breed
- New pesticides
- New irrigation methods
They are used to screen technological components that might have undesirable effects on
farmers’ field like.
- Herbicides that might have residue effect
- Pesticides that might have a side effect on either man or animals
Promising technological components arising out of experimental station-research are
further refined evaluated in OFE/OFR for their appropriateness to farmers.
Therefore the flow of information between OFR/OFE and ESR is two ways. Information
generated by OFR/OFE is important for guiding ESR e.g. Information on farmer’s
circumstances and from OFE/OFR may provide circumstances/conditions and that conform
to farmer’s preferences for maturity, yield, taste and storage quality.
Information from OFR/OFE aggregated over several regions can help to establish broad
priorities for the experiment station work. It can provide a valuable base for assessing the
impact or alternative breeding decisions.eg the relative emphasis that should be placed on
earliness versus diseases resistance.
The on farmers circumstances and from experiments helps to establish the production
benefits to each characteristics and the associated risks as well as the type of farmers that
would benefit from each characteristics.
Further more -; Information feedback to ESR is as important as the recommended
technologies fed forward to farmers by ESR.
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This is because many experiment station research programmes have lacked an effective
mechanism for relating research decisions to farmers
RECOMMENDATION AND DIFFUSION

A recommendation is information that farmers can use to improve the productivity of their
resources. In FSR the extensions phase i.e. recommendation stage deals with the wider
dissemination of the identified technology/technological components widely and rapidly as
possible.
Methods of disseminating/diffusion research recommendations

The methods can be divided into three categories
a) Mass method
b) Group method
c) Individual/farmers approach
i) Mass method
Posters- These are sheet of papers or cardboards with illustrations and usually few
simple words
Publication-They are distributed in connection with office calls, farm and home visits,
fairs and meetings, laid in a logical and easy to follow e.g.-Field note
- Leaflet
- Pamphlet
- Report
Radio
Television
Video cassette
DVDs
ii) Group methods

These are especially, effective in moving farmers from the interest stage to a trial stage of
recommendation this involves
a) Demonstration
b) Field day
c) Farmers exchange visits
d) Agricultural shows
e) Conference
f) Audio visual
(a).Demonstration
Use of farmers’ field to inform farmers on the benefits of a new technology
and how to use it
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(b) Field day
Farmer tours the research areas to actually see experiment
(c) Farmers exchange visit

This is farmers tours, farmers are given opportunities to travel to other
places and see for themselves improved practices adopted by other
farmers
(d) Agricultural shows

Where farmers are given opportunity to witnesses new products and skill
also new technological innovation
(e) Conference
Research results are presented to extension workers, farmers etc
(f) Visual material

They include chalkboards, chart, graphs, slide, photographs etc.
iii) Individual
(a) Farmers approach
(b) Telephone conversation
(c) Office visits
(d) House visits
(e) Letter communication
(a). Farmers approach

Visit, farmers gets an opportunity of sharing experience and knowledge
since farmers from different areas have different knowledge and
experience of doing.
(b) Telephone conversation

Direct conversation through telephone
(c) Office visits

A farmer gets an opportunity to visits extension’s office.
(d) House visits

An extensionist visit an individual farmers
(e) Letter
A letter is written to a farmer that includes some recommendation regarding
farming
TERMS RELATED TO EXPERIMENT AND SURVEY
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 Informal survey is defined as a survey undertaken without a formal sampling
procedure, pre-tested questionnaire and other means that can permit statistical
analysis.
Informal survey is implemented by using a checklist
Checklist is a tentative list of questions used to get information/data from a target
group during informal survey
 Formal survey is defined as a survey undertaken to provide a quantitative basis for
conclusion drawn during earlier phases, redefine target group and test hypotheses
about relationships.
Formal survey is implemented by using a questionnaire
Questionnaire is a set of specific questions used to implement formal survey
 The experiment is defined as a Trial designed to test the validity of the proposed
hypothesis. Also defined as a Planned inquiry to obtain new facts or to confirm the
results of the previous experiments
 Experimental unit is defined as a unit to which treatments are applied
 Sampling unit is defined as a unit on which actual measurement is made
 Experimental error is defined as a measure of the variation which exists among
observations on experimental units treated alike. MSE=.(S1 2 +S2 2 ) /2
STAGES OF FARMING SYSTEM APPROACH TO RESEARCH AND EXTENSION

1. Diagnosis stage
Involve collecting and analyzing information in order to design on farm experiments
Diagnosis activities may include a review of secondary data, interviews with local
officials, informal surveys consisting farmers interviews and field observations it also
include formal surveys with a questionnaire.
The purpose of initial diagnostic activities is to gather enough information to describe the
basic features of the research areas to identify problems that limit farmer’s productivity
and to begin considering possible improvements in farmers practices.
The information obtained from diagnostic activities can be used to design the fist cycle of
on farm experiments. Of course diagnosis does not end once the first experiments are
planned
Steps involved in diagnosis stage

The major objective of diagnostic phase is to describe and understand the current
production system, identify the key farmer problems and some preliminary ideas on how to
help/solve these problems
There are four major steps involved in this phase
a) Identification of target group of farmers
b) Collection, analysis and interpretation of back ground information
c) Exploratory/informal survey
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d) Formal/verification survey
a) Identification of target group of farmers

This is target grouping or recommendation domain. It is true that no two farmers have
identical circumstances and therefore necessary to classify farmers with similar
circumstances into recommendation domain regroup of farmers for whom we can make
more or less the same recommendations in farmers circumstances. The more variation
on the more domains needed and on the amount of research resources the more
resources the more domains can be afforded.
b) Collection, analysis and interpretation of back ground information

Farmer’s circumstances are all factors that influence farmers’ decision. It is the situation
in which farmers find themselves and have to manage. It is necessary to collect, analyse
and interpret the available secondary information by collecting any primary data describe
the system.
Thus researchers assemble and analyze back ground data from secondary sources and
note those factors which will guide questioning of farmers
Farmers’ circumstances may be grouped into five (5) categories. These are-:
 Natural circumstances
Include physical, biological and climatic factors like rainfall intensity, distribution
and reliability. Soil type, structure, fertility status, texture and reaction topography
(slope, hill and shape) biological e.g. pests, diseases, animal type and number,
types of crop
 Institutional circumstances.
Include marketing and distribution mechanism, credit programme, extension
programme and farmers organization
 Infrastructure circumstances
e.g. Road, network, accessibility, health and educational facilities
 Economic circumstances.
Price fluctuation of both inputs and products population density, settlement
pattern, crop statistics i.e. relative importance of enterprise, land and labor
availability, source and mode of payment.
 Social and cultural circumstances

Including believes and attitudes, food preferences and social obligation.
c) Exploratory/informal survey
Is the survey undertaken without formal sampling procedures, pre testing questionnaire
and other means that permits statistical analysis.
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It is conducted by the researchers the agronomists, the economists and the social
scientists working as a team. They transverse the target region observing farmer field
and interviewing farmers and other person with specialized knowledge of agriculture in
the area.
It is best done when the target crop is in the ground/field so that problems can be
efficiently implemented in a single recommendation domain or at least a target region
which have previously being identified as respect to farming systems homogeneous with
respect to farming system and practice to allow researchers to focus their effort in a
common set of problems
The time used in exploratory survey will vary from 1 – 3 weeks depending on the size
and complexity of the region and previous local knowledge of the researchers the bulk of
the exploratory work will consists of interviews with farmers.
A broad cross section of farmers should be interviewed farmers who hold position of
traditional leadership can usually give a good description of local farming practices and
often have very useful perceptions about the reasons behind these practices
So called innovate farmers or farmers who have successfully of information on potential
technologies for farmers in the area.
Effort should be made to identify farmers who are roughly representatives of the region.
These farmers are best identified by chance e.g. farmers that researchers meet in the
village.
Group interviews can be particularly valuable in obtain a general information on farmers
practices and reasons for such practices. However groups should be ordered to arrive at
answers to questions relatively quickly.
Interview should be conducted in a relaxed manner it is best conducted in a place which

farmer is most comfortable such as sitting down in the house, under the shade of a tree
in the field. Use of pencils and papers should be restricted although notice may be taken
names of products, varieties.
However all relevant information should be immediately noted down after leaving the
farmers.
It may also be possible for one member of the research team to take more extensive
notice during the interview while the other members conduct the bulk of the interview.
Effort should be made to identify the primary decision maker in the house hold with the
respect to a certain crop or practices.e.g if women are responsible for weeding maize,
then it will desirable to talk to women to discuss weeding practices. In some cultures this
may be difficult if all researchers’ team members are male. The exploratory survey is
therefore a continuous learning process of assembling information on farmers’
circumstances evaluating the information obtained to determine where further effort
should be focused.
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Objectives of exploratory/informal survey
i) Refining recommendation domain. The variation in farmers’ circumstances in the
region is basis for refining recommendation domain.
ii) It help to quickly gather information through informal interviews with many people
so as to understand the local farming system/practices
iii) Help to collect information that may be too sensitive or complicated to include in a
formal survey.
iv) Used to design the formal survey
v) To formulate hypothesis to explain present practices.
vi) To identify production problems and constrains or missed opportunities.
vii) Prescreening of technological components that could solve the identified
problems.
Advantages of informal survey

 It is cheap
 It is practical
 It is fast
 It can be used to approach more sensitive and complex issues
 It put researchers in direct contact with farmers
Steps involved in informal survey

 Definition of the target area using secondary data
 Decide on the information needed and prepare a checklist of questions
 Decide on time and season, and choice of the farmers
 Field work and daily work/information review
 Assemblage of the gathered information ,summarization and report writing
d) Formal/verification survey
This is the survey that uses a standardized or structured questionnaire, a random
sample of farmer and enumerators are often used to administer the survey.
The purpose of formal survey is generally to verify and quantifying information and to
test hypothesis formulated in the exploratory survey.
Objectives of formal survey

i) To verify the information obtained from the informal survey .i.e. description and
understanding of farming systems.
ii) To test the hypothesis developed, target grouping and the priority given to a
particular problem may be adjusted.
iii) To obtain additional information about the priority problems identified.
iv) To quantifying certain parameters, known the limitations e.g. labor profile.
v) To enhance credibility.
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vi) To test farmers opinions and attitudes about proposed technologies or
technological component
vii) To identify cooperating farmers for OFE
viii) To assist in the better design and interpretation of the farm experiment
- Timing of operation.
- Identify experimental and non experimental variable
- Develop evaluation criteria
Steps involved in the formal survey

i) Questionnaire development i.e. content format, organization.
ii) Questionnaire translation.
iii) Sampling.
iv) Recruitment and training of enumerators.
v) Field testing of questionnaire.
vi) Questionnaire revision.
vii) Actual implementation of the field survey.
viii) Analysis, interpretation and completion of survey report.
- Identifying and prioritizing critical constraints problem
- Identifying possible interventions.
The content of questionnaires is:-
- Specific for each survey.
- Unique for the target group under consideration.
- Dictated by the informal survey
Data collection procedure in Formal survey

 Preparing a simple questionnaire for data collection.
- A questionnaire is the principal instrument of obtaining information from
respondents
- Questionnaire is one of the three components of a face to face interview
consisting of the enumerator, respondent and the questionnaire
- A questionnaire is a list (set) of questions which should be clear, consistent,
unambiguous and well focused.
- Content of questionnaire is vital for collecting priority information
 For adoption studies is it important to develop short well-focused questions
based on specific hypotheses.
 The questionnaire content depends on priorities that are dictated by the
purpose of the study and how the data is going to be used.
 The main information needs must be listed and data collected should be
analyzed. If you are not sure how you are going to analysed the data don’t
collect it.
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 The content deals with the information to be collected types of questions
included as well as the format.
Logical sequence in producing a good questionnaire involves 7 steps

 Determining data need
 Determining question format
 Determining the questions content
 Determining the wording of questions
 Deciding on questions sequence
 Physical layout and length
 Pre-testing and revision of questionnaire.
Questions can be factual/or opinion open or closed.

(i) Information to be collected
- Factual questions seek facts (more specific)
- Factual questions are objectives
- Opinion questions are less specific as they seek what respondent thinks (feel
- Opinion questions are subjective
(ii) Types of questions included in questionnaire
- Close questions: have predetermined responses, they are pre-cooled with the
responses being read out to the respondents
- Open questions: Do not have predetermined responses. There are open
spaces where the responses are written down.
NB: For adoption studies closed questions should be in the majority because they are
o Easy to analyze thus making the analysis efficient
o Make the study well focused by channeling answers
(iii) Types of formats used in questionnaire development
4 types/categories of formats-
 Parallel questions/dichotomous questions
 Open –ended questions
 Closed questions
 Tabular format
Open –ended questions

o Interviewer written down the response in fully eg. What is the importance of
growing maize
Close –ended /multiple choice questions

o Interviewer checks the appropriate response category eg. What types of crop do
you cultivate?
 Maize
 Cabbage
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 Banana
 Leeks
 Other (specify)
Dichotomous questions /parallel questions –

o two responses are allowed (Yes/No)
Tabular questions
-Where questions are asked after which rows and column in a table are
completed.eg.
Type of crop Acreage Harvest
Maize
Sunflower
Paddy
Total
(iv) Words used in a question should be
 Simple clear explicit and easily understood by interviewer and respondent
 Adoption question s should be specific
 Avoid leading questions
 Overlapping answers (e.g. use fertilizer and improved seeds, close to multiple
questions)
 Vague terms be avoided eg. Frequently often
 Avoid technical terms
 Be time and location specific
 The unit of observation should be in local terms
Organization of questions
o Order questions in a logical manner i.e. have a logical layout. For example
(i) Introductory questions
(ii) Identity and location of respondent –title page
(iii) Questions specific to crop management –main body of the survey
(iv) Sensitive questions last.
 Order questions to make administration of questions easy and capture and maintain
the interest and participation of the respondents.
 Number all questions, group them into selection introduce each section
 Group questions according to subject matter into sections
 Sequence so as to facilitate the linking of preceding and succeeding sections and
according to structure organization of the farms
Order questions within each section and then order section.

Guidelines to ordering sections
 Introduction of section
 Move from general to specific to complex ask for familiar first them to less familiar
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 Order according to time with recent events first or on subject matter.
 Avoid unnecessary repetitions and irrelevant questions.
 Provide enough space for answers.
v) Collect data using questionnaire

-Assume that questionnaires are ready translated and pretested, that you have
recruited and trained enumerators and informed local leaders.
- the researcher is the main administrator of survey that is implemented by
enumerators. The main objective is to get accurate information from respondent by
o Ensuring village leaders are cooperative. Familiarize yourself with the survey
and avoid being a stranger
o Obtaining farmer cooperation
 The researcher should be familiar with village/farmer situations
 Treat information confidentially
 Timing of a interview to avoid times when farmers are very busy or are
engaged in social or community activities.
 Enumerators behavior should behave in accordance with local ,
acceptable cultural values and norms
Example
Collecting data using the tabular format question
i) Single list ranking by respondent or a group
The respondents asked to order list of problems/ items by importance or value.
Eg To rank 1 to the first most important problem
S/ Problems identified in crop production Ranking

No
1 Insect pests
2 Weeds
3 Soil fertility
4 Input costs
5 Labor shortage
ii) Single list ranking by many respondents or a groups-Method A

The respondents asked to order list of problems/ items by importance or value.
E.g. To rank 1 to the first most important problem
S/No Problems identified in Respondents Total Ranking

crop production Scores
A B C D E
1 Insect pests
2 Weeds
3 Soil fertility
4 Input costs
5 Labour shortage
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NB. The problem with the smallest total score is given the first rank
iii) Single list ranking by many respondents or a groups-Method B
The respondents are given 10 objects each and asked to distribute them among
the five problems with the largest number of objects being given to the most
important problems
S/No Problems identified in Respondents Total Ranking

crop production Scores
A B C D E
1 Insect pests
2 Weeds
3 Soil fertility
4 Input costs
5 Labour shortage
Number of objects (stones, 10 10 10 10 10 50
Seeds)
NB. The problem with the largest total score is given the first rank
iv) Weighted respondents scores
The respondents are asked to select only three important problems/items in his/her crop
production and to rank/order them by their importance or value as most important
(Weight=3), second most important (Weight=2) and the third most important (Weight=1), by
putting tick (√) in appropriate space.
NB. The weights then applied on the number of respondents who gave response on each
type of problem/item.
S/No Problems identified in Respondent response

crop production Most important Second most Third most important
Weight=3 important Weight=1
Weight=2
1 Insect pests
2 Weeds
3 Soil fertility
4 Input costs
5 Labour shortage
The problem with the largest total weighted score is given the first rank
v) Pair-wise ranking
Respondent required comparing only two items at a time,( Eg crops) based on their
importance or value
Crop Groundnuts Cowpeas Green grams Bambara nuts Sunflower
Groundnuts
Cowpeas
Green grams
Bambara nuts
Sunflower
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Summary of pair-wise ranking method B
Crop Total count Ranking/Preference
Groundnuts
Cowpeas
Green grams
Bambara nuts
Sunflower
The problem with the largest total count is given the first rank
vi) Direct matrix ranking
The respondent is asked to rank the items/ enterprises based on each criterion. The
ranking is based on the number of items/ enterprises. The scale of ranking is from1 to n.
Where 1 imply the best one/ first preference and n last preference.
Examples, for four items/ enterprises the scale of 1-4 is used. 4 imply the last/ fourth
preference.
Criteria for preference Enterprise
Cattle Sheep Pigs Goats
Marketability
Rate of production
Ease of management
Ease of feeding
Resistance to pests
Cultural uses
Good taste
Ease for conversion
Monetary value
TOTAL SCORE
RANKING
NB. The enterprise with the smallest total score is given the first rank
vii) Paddy ranking preference by respondent

S/No Variety Rank Reasons
1 SARO 5
2 WAHIWAHI
3 SUPER INDIA
4 IR 65
5 MBAWA MBILI
viii) Paddy ranking preference of varieties by many respondents

S/No Variety Farmer reported rank preference
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 SARO 5
2 WAHIWAHI
3 SUPER INDIA
4 IR 65
5 MBAWA MBILI
ix) Frequency of fertilizer application for paddy varieties

S/ Variety Farmer reported frequency of fertilizer application (0,1,2 or 3)
No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 SARO 5
2 WAHIWAHI
3 SUPER INDIA
4 IR 65
5 MBAWA MBILI
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S/No Variety Farmer reported frequency of fertilizer application
Nil Once Twice Thrice
1 SARO 5
2 WAHIWAHI
3 SUPER INDIA
4 IR 65
5 MBAWA MBILI
x) Paddy yields for different varieties

S/No Variety Farmer reported yield
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 SARO 5
2 WAHIWAHI
3 SUPER INDIA
4 IR 65
5 MBAWA MBILI
xi) Paddy yields for different frequency of fertilizer application

S/No Frequency of fertilizer Farmer reported yield
application 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 Nil
2 Once
3 Twice
4 Thrice
xii) Paddy yield for different varieties with different frequency of fertilizer application
S/No Variety Farmer reported yields
1 SARO 5
2 WAHIWAHI
3 SUPER INDIA
4 IR 65
5 MBAWA MBILI
xiii) Frequency of weeding on paddy varieties

S/ Variety Farmer reported frequency of weeding (0,1,2 or 3)
No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 SARO 5
2 WAHIWAHI
3 SUPER INDIA
4 IR 65
5 MBAWA MBILI
S/No Variety Farmer reported frequency of weeding

1 SARO 5
2 WAHIWAHI
3 SUPER INDIA
4 IR 65
5 MBAWA MBILI
xiv) Paddy yields for different frequency of weeding

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S/No Frequency of weeding Farmer reported yield
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 Nil
2 Once
3 Twice
4 Thrice
SURVEY RESULTS
The five respondents asked to order list of problems by importance or value. Eg To rank 1
to the first most important problem. The survey data were as follows for five HORTI
students
RESPONDENT -A
S/No Problems identified in crop production Ranking
1 Insect pests 3
2 Weeds 4
3 Soil fertility 5
4 Input costs 1
5 Labour shortage 2
RESPONDENT -B
1 Insect pests 4
2 Weeds 5
3 Soil fertility 2
4 Input costs 1
5 Labour shortage 3
RESPONDENT -C
1 Insect pests 5
2 Weeds 4
3 Soil fertility 3
4 Input costs 1
5 Labour shortage 2
RESPONDENT -D
1 Insect pests 3
2 Weeds 4
3 Soil fertility 2
4 Input costs 1
5 Labour shortage 5
RESPONDENT -E
1 Insect pests 3
2 Weeds 5
3 Soil fertility 2
4 Input costs 1
5 Labour shortage 4
The survey data were compiled, Summarized and Analysed using Single list ranking
Method A. The survey results were tabulated as indicated below.
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S/No Problems identified in crop Respondents Total Scores Ranking
production A B C D E
1 Insect pests 3 4 5 3 3 18 4
2 Weeds 4 5 4 4 5 22 5
3 Soil fertility 5 2 3 2 2 14 2
4 Input costs 1 1 1 1 1 5 1
5 Labour shortage 2 3 2 5 4 16 3
The problem with the smallest total score is given the first rank which means the first most
important problem. There fore
 Input costs is the first most important problem
 Soil fertility is the second most important problem
 Labour shortage is the third most important problem
The five respondents were also given 10 objects each and asked to distribute them among
the five problems with the largest number of objects being given to the most important
problems. The survey data were compile, Summarized and Analysed using Single list
ranking Method B. The survey results were tabulated as indicated below
S/No Problems identified in crop production Respondents Total Ranking
Scores
A B C D E
1 Insect pests 3 3 4 5 1 16 1
2 Weeds 1 1 3 1 2 8 4
3 Soil fertility 2 2 2 1 4 11 3
4 Input costs 3 3 1 2 3 12 2
5 Labour shortage 1 1 0 1 0 3 5
Number of objects (stones, Seeds) 10 10 10 10 10 50
The problem with the largest total score is given the first rank which means the first most
important problem. There fore
 Insect pests is the first most important problem
 Input costs is the second most important problem
 Soil fertility is the third most important problem
The five respondents also were asked to select only three important problems in his/her crop production and
to rank/order them by their importance or value as most important (Weight=3), second most important
(Weight=2) and the third most important (Weight=1), by putting tick (√) in appropriate space.
S/No Problems Respondent response
identified in crop First most important Second most important Third most important
production Weight=3 Weight=2 Weight=1
1 Insect pests
2 Weeds
3 Soil fertility √
4 Input costs √
5 Labour shortage √

identified in crop Most important Second most important Third most important
1 Insect pests
2 Weeds
4 Input costs √
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1 Insect pests
2 Weeds
4 Input costs √

1 Insect pests √
2 Weeds
4 Input costs √
5 Labour shortage

1 Insect pests √
2 Weeds
4 Input costs √
5 Labour shortage
The weights then applied on the number of respondents who gave response on each type
of problem/item and the survey data were compiling, Summarized and Analysed using
weighted respondents score. The survey results were tabulated as indicated below
S/No Problems Number of participants reporting Total Total Ranking
identified in crop Most Second most Third most Score Weighted
production important important important Score
Weight=3 Weight=2 Weight=1
1 Insect pests 0 0 2 2 2 4
2 Weeds 0 0 0 0 0 5
3 Soil fertility 0 4 1 5 9 2
4 Input costs 5 0 0 5 15 1
5 Labour shortage 0 1 2 3 4 3
The problem with the largest total weighted score is given the first rank which means the
first most important problem. There fore
 Input costs is the first most important problem
 Soil fertility is the second most important problem
 Labour shortage is the third most important problem
Respondents were requested to compare only two items at a time,( Eg crops) based on
their importance or value and then, the survey data were compiling, Summarized and
Analysed using Pair-wise ranking Method A. The survey results were tabulated as indicated
below
Crop groundnuts Cowpeas Green grams Bambara nuts Sunflower
Sunflower Sunflower Sunflower Sunflower Sunflower
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Bambara nuts Bambara nuts Cowpeas Green grams
Green grams Green grams Green grams
Cowpeas peas -
Groundnuts -
Total count 0 2 3 1 4
Ranking 5 3 2 4 1
The crop enterprise with the largest total count is given the first rank which means the first
most important enterprise. There fore
 Sunflower is first most important crop enterprise
 Green gram is the second most important crop enterprise
 Cowpeas is the third most important crop enterprise
The respondents were asked to rank the Livestock enterprises based on each criterion.
The ranking was based on the number of Livestock enterprises. The scale of ranking is
from1 to 4. Where 1 imply the best one/ first preference and 4 last preferences. The survey
data were compiling, Summarized and Analyzed using Direct matrix ranking Method A. The
survey results were tabulated as indicated below
Marketability 1 4 3 2
Rate of production 4 3 1 2
Ease of management 3 2 4 1
Ease of feeding 3 2 4 1
Resistance to pests 3 2 4 1
Cultural uses 3 1 4 2
Good taste 3 4 2 1
Ease for conversion 3 2 4 1
Monetary value 2 3 1 4
TOTAL SCORE 25 23 27 15
RANKING 3 2 4 1
The enterprise with the smallest total score is given the first rank which means the most
important Livestock enterprise. There fore
 Goat is the first most important Livestock enterprise
 Sheep is the second most important Livestock enterprise
 Cattle is the third most important Livestock enterprise
The five respondents were given 10 objects each and asked to distribute them among the
given four Crop enterprises with the largest number of objects being given to the most
important Crop enterprise The scale of ranking is from 0 to 10. Where 10 imply the best
one/ first preference and 0 is completely not required. The survey data were as follows for
five Horticultural students
RESPONDENT -A
Good taste 3 2 1 4
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RANKING 4 2 3 1
RESPONDENT -B
Good taste 2 3 3 2
RANKING 1 3 4 2
RESPONDENT -C
Good taste 2 1 5 2
RANKING 4 3 1 2
RESPONDENT -D
Good taste 3 1 2 4
RANKING 2 3 4 1
RESPONDENT -E
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Good taste 2 2 4 2
RANKING 3 2 4 1
The survey data were compiling, Summarized and Analysed using Direct matrix ranking
Method B. The survey results were tabulated as indicated below
Good taste 12 9 15 14
TOTAL SCORE 115 108 102 125
RANKING 2 3 4 1
The enterprise with the largest total score is given the first rank which means the most
important Livestock enterprise. There fore
 Goat is the first most important Livestock enterprise
 Cattle is the second most important Livestock enterprise
 Sheep is the third most important Livestock enterprise
Survey report
Survey report is a document that summarizes interpretation and presentation of data.
A survey report must have the following sections: -
 Title.
 Abstract
 Introduction.
 Materials and the methods.
 Results.
 Discussions.
 Conclusion.
Sources of data
 Libraries
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 Radio
 Television
 Newspapers/magazines
 People
 Information offices
 Reports
 Field experimentations
 Laboratories etc
Data can be obtained from the whole population or from a sample. A method used in
collection of data includes the following.
i) Direct observation.
ii) Interview.
iii) Abstraction from published sources.
iv) Measurement
v) questionnaire
a) Direct observation.
Under this information is collected direct from source like field experiment trials,
observations, demonstration plots and it is essentially primary data. This method involve
eyes, one looks at the phenomenon and records what is seen.
Disadvantage
It is expensive methods
Advantage
It is reliable and very precise.
b) Interviewing
It involves asking questions, which may or may not be on papers, but must have a
known target.
The method is not reliable because interviews are likely to cheat deliberately,
forgetfulness’ and misunderstanding hence wrong collection
c) Abstractions
It involves obtaining data from journal, newspaper, textbooks, leaflets, and newsletters.
Advantages
-Information data is most up to date
-Easily to obtain.
-Most reliable
Disadvantages
-Language barrier
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-May not available when needed e.g. due to postage
-May not be obtained regularly and the form needed
d) Questionnaire
It involves asking questions previously printed on paper. Questions should be simple in
form and language.
Data collected but not yet organized are called raw data. When data are collected and
given in specific trends they are called organized data.
Arranging numbers in ascending order is from the lowest to the highest while in
descending order is from highest to the lowest. When numbers are arranged in either of
the two orders they form an array.
e) Measurement
Data can be obtained by measurement e.g. Area, Distance, height
vi) Supervision of enumerators

o Identify errors at an early stage to permit re-interviewing.
-Enumerators are the people who administer the questionnaire

-Qualities of enumerators
 Friendly personalities
 Flexibility
 Knowledgeable to local farming conditions, customs etc
 Hard working, patient, tactful, open minded and sympathetic to farmers problems
(vii) Field testing of questionnaire

This is done to correct any mistakes that could have been overlooked during
development of the questionnaire. This is done by experienced enumerators and
researchers and has to be done in the field typical of the target area.
(viii) Revision of Questionnaire

This is done based on the problems encountered and the experience gained.
vii) Methodological and logistical issues

 Help with administration of difficult questions
 Assist in handling unforeseen problems
 Checking the questionnaire for error and omissions do not allow black spaces.
 Provide moral support to enumerators
 Ensure enumerators are actually interviewing farmers and that they have a good
relationship with the community.
 Collect completed questionnaires
 Supply questionnaires and other stationery
 Provide transport and payment for services rendered by enumerators
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 Ensure basic facilities for living are provided
Special problems in the field

Some of the special problems encountered are
(i) Paraphrasing the questions –translation problems
(ii) Question order –pretesting may solve it
(iii) Accuracy Vs speed of interviews
(iv) If the respondent is inappropriate terminate
(v) Explain purpose of the interview to the farmers to avoid refusal. Otherwise select
another not forces cooperation.
(vi) If respondent is missing do not ask next available person, seek information on
future availability is this fails, the last resort is to find a replacement.
NOTE
There are a number of reasons why replacement may be necessary. Thus one must have
a larger than needed sample size to cater for replacement.
Field work design.
(i) Size of sample and geographical dispersion

(ii) Number of interviewers and supervisors available and the time for each interview
(iii) Days available to complete the survey
(iv) Accommodation and transport facilities
(v) Availability of funds
(vi) Time for enumerators to complete interview and move to the next respondent
(vii) Enumerators and supervisors must be familiar with the local area to ensure time is
not wasted.
(viii) Avoid keeping farmers waiting to be interviewed.
Therefore, logical sequence in producing a good questionnaire involves 7 steps

(i) Determining data need
(ii) Determining question format
(iii) Determining the questions content
(iv) Determining the wording of questions
(v) Deciding on questions sequence
(vi) Physical layout and length
(vii) Pre-testing and revision of questionnaire.
2 Planning stage
The essential task in this stage is to identify priorities for research and design on farm
experiments. The information from the diagnosis stage is used in planning on farm
experiments.
Steps involved in planning stage.

a) Identify problems limiting the productivity of the farming system.
b) Rank the problems.
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c) Identifying the causes of the problems.
d) Analyze interrelations among problems and causes.
e) Identify possible solutions to the problems.
f) Evaluate possible solutions.
a) Identify problems limiting the productivity of the farming system

The first step in planning on farm experiment is to list problems that limits the productivity
of the farming system under study. These problems may be described as either
biological limiting factors or as in efficiencies in resource. Care should be taken to
describe the problems as precisely as possible.
Evidence for each problem should also be presented. it may be derived from previous
experiments survey or other diagnostic techniques. Researchers should decide if they
have enough confidence in the evidence to identify or confirm the problem when the
problem and supporting evidence have been listed they are ready for consideration in
b) Rank the problems

Rank the problems in rough order of importance as they have been only tentatively
identified should be considered here, if researchers have identified a larger number of
problems they will eventually have to eliminate some from immediate consideration. The
initial ranking carried out in this step is not precise but it will help researchers to decide
which problems have a higher priority for the research programme.
Problems should be ranked using well defined criteria. The criteria suggested here are-
-The distribution of problems including a definition of which farmers in the research are
affected the importance of the crop enterprise to the farming system and the less or
yield or income for which the problem is responsible.
- After the ranking in step (b) problems that researchers fell are of sufficient importance
and for which sufficient evidence is available are passed to step (c) where their causes
are analyzed.
c) Identify causes of the problems

The causes may be due to various farmers’ circumstances
This step should be done only for problems that researchers believe are important
enough to reserve attention.
Since the causes of problems are sometimes quite complex it is helpful to diagram
causes and problems. In some cases a chain of causes may lead to a particular problem
or in other cases several causes may contribute to a problem. When the causes have
been listed they passed to step (d) where interrelations among problems and causes are
considered.
d) Analyze interrelations among problems and causes

Every of ten problems are related to each other either directly or through shared causes.
This step allows researchers to see those relationships and to think about their
implications.
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An examination of overall relationship is helpful for thinking about research priorities.
A cause that is related to more than one problem may deserve extra attention where
solutions are proposed. If one problem contributes to another the first may need to be
addressed before or simultaneously with the second. If a problem has several
contribution causes those may be addressed in the same experiment. If the problem has
no causes in common with others it may addressed separately in the experimental
programme.
e) Identify possible solutions to the problems

Researchers should note any solution that they think might be feasible based research
conducted by their institutions or reported in the literature or based on their experience.
Each of the solution proposed will be evaluated in step (f)
f) Evaluate possible solutions

This is the last step. The proposed solution must be considered in light of their technique
characteristics, the farmer’s ability to adopt the proposed solutions and the research
expense involved .There must be a clear set of criteria to evaluate each proposed
solutions
In this situation the on station research programme should initially focus on screening the
technologies developed on station for relevance to farmers.
This type of feedback information is very useful in determining the appropriateness of
existing priorities in experiment station research.
NB
On farm research (OFR) does not necessarily mean that all research activities are solely
carried out in farmers field only.
OFR include surveys and experimentation depending on the available technical
information and representative ness of the station-situation to farmer’s environments.
Experiment could either be carried out the station or in the farmer’s field. It is important to
remember that technology could be generated from the station as well as the farmer’s
field
3 Experimentation stage
Experiments are planted in the fields of representative farmers and examine a small
number of experimental variables. Those experiments may be described and classified in
a number of ways. But regardless of classification most of them they progress from
exploring production problems to testing possible solutions and then to verify
recommendation and demonstrating them with the farmer.
4 Assessment stage
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Results of on farm experiment should be analyzed carefully. The analysis requires an
assessment of farmer’s reaction and opinions, a thorough agronomic interpretation and
carefully statistical and economical analysis. The results of the assessment are then
used to plan future research and to make recommendations for farmers. In short this
stage include
i) Farmer assessment
ii) Agronomic evaluation
iii) Statistical analysis
iv) Economical analysis
5 Recommendation stage
When researchers are confident that they have enough information they can formulate
recommendations. In a system of OFR that functions well extension agents participate in
the entire process and so are able to transfer recommendations to farmers with skill and
confidence. When farmers are actively involved in the researches. By monitoring farmer’s
opinions and use of new technologies researchers can improve their understanding of
farmer’s needs and preferences.
TARGET AREA/REGION.
What is target area or target region?
Target area or target group is relatively homogeneous area or region chosen for an on farm
research programme.
Process of selecting the target area or target group

1) The decision maker selects the target area.
2) The farming system research team divides the target areas into sub areas according
to characteristics most important for farming station research.
3) The farming system research team selects the research area within the target area.
4) The farming system research team selects farms and farmers within the research
areas for conducting on farm research.
5) When research results are promising the farming system research team and the
extension service select multiple locations within the target areas for validation of
new technologies on a broader scale.
6) If the results of multiple location tests are satisfactory the farming system research
team and the governmental agencies select areas for pilot production programmes
to evaluate the new technologies on a more intensive scale.
7) After resolving any problems arising from the pilot production progammes, the
extension service and other relative agencies implement the new technologies
according to suitable sub areas within the target area.
8) Finally these governmental agencies may extrapolate relevant technologies to
similar areas outside the target area.
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METHODS OF SAMPLING
Terminologies
a) Sampling is a process / techniques of choosing sample from a population
b) Sample(n). is defined as a small part of a population which is thought to be a
representative of a large population (N).
Sample (n) is also defined as a subset of a population; hence any statement made
about the sample should be true to the population (N). Sample (n) is also defined as
a set of measurement which constitutes part of population (N).
c) Population is defined as the collection of items under discussion (N)
d) Sampling frame is defined as a list of the population from which the sample is drawn
e) Sampling interval (K) is defined as the standard distance between element selected
in the sample
f) Sample ratio is defined as the proportional of elements in the population to that of
sample eg. 1/10
g) Sample survey is defined as a survey used to identify any farm setting in which
inferences about the large population are made
h) Biodata is numerical facts obtained from biological observation
i) Data is any useful information collected for an intended purpose. The field officers
have obligation of collecting important data on livestock and crops for several uses
j) Raw data are the data collected that have not been organized numerically
k) Variable is a measurable characteristic. Such a character shows variability or
variation. Individual measurements of a variable are called “varieties” e.g. Weight
gain, volumes, growth rate, reproduction rate.
(A) DATA
Sources of data
 Libraries
 Radio
 Television
 Newspapers/magazines
 People
 Information offices
 Reports
 Field experimentations
 Laboratories etc
USES OF DATA
i. To help extension officers to make wiser decisions in preparing local programmes.
ii. Data can help extension agent in preparing various reports which are submitted to their
supervisors for further compilations and forwarded to policy makers for preparation of
National plan or programmes
30
iii. Data are useful in seeking bank loans. The bank managers would like to know about
cash flows (inflow and outflows) which require data before they approve the loans.
iv. Data are important for historical purposes.
v. Data are useful in research work for academicians and others.
Type of data
Data are broadly categorized into two
(i) Primary data-These are the first hand data collected by an investigator who knows
the condition under which the data were collected. Again, the
investigator would know the exact purpose for which the data were
collected
 Using mechanical devices – for weighing,counting,measuring
 Primary data are collected during the course of doing an experiment in an
experimental research. Methods of collecting primary data,particulary in surveys
and descriptive researches include (i) Observation
(ii) Interview
(iii) Questionnaire
iv) Consumer panel
(ii) Secondary data
Data collected by someone else, and an investigator could use them for other purposes.
Various sources of secondary data

1, Agro-climatic data (Weather report)
It includes monthly rainfall and temperature data from individual weather stations or from
the national weather station.
2. Topographic data (Topographic map)

Topographic maps of a scale of about 1:50000 are available from cartographic unit.
They are valuable in defining the area and in sampling and conducting field operations
3. Soil data (Soil maps)

Soil maps are often available from soil survey units and help to define variation in soil
types affecting cropping pattern as well as drainage and fertility problems. Available soil
analysis also can help in decision on fertilizer experiments particularly in the cases of
phosphorus and potassium.
4. Population data. (Census reports)

The latest population census can provide data for local government units or villages
5. Production data (Agricultural census)

Agricultural census data provide information area and yield for major crops grown in
each local government unit. Variation in cropping pattern can help to guide later
questioning in the field.
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6. Price and market data (market reports)
Information on the quantity price and distribution of inpus, production and credit often
can be obtained from report of public and private agencies operating in the region such
as bank, seeds production agencies, and marketing boards.
7. Research data (Research reports)

Reports of previous research conducted in the region are particularly valuable. Since
they usually contain more detail and better quality data. Official previous on farm
experiment will often be relevant to the task of planning future research.
8. Personal communication.
Includes communication with local leader and researcher
METHODS OF DATA ANALYSIS

 Analyzing data -The process of extracting from the given measurements/counts relevant
information, from which a summarized and comprehensive numerical
description can be formulated e.g. mean, median, mode, range,
standard deviation, variance etc.
The method of data analysis should be decided upon during the planning stages of the
formal survey. Important considerations are size of the sample, length of the questionnaire
and resources available. One could use anyone of the following methods in data analysis.
i) Simple tabulation
- Tabulation from questionnaire
- Tabulation sheets using larger sheets of lined paper, transfer data from
questionnaire.
ii) Computer.
This is the use of relevant computer programmes
Advantage
- Easier handling of larger data set.
- Is used for complex analyses.
- Access to diverse range of analytical technique.
Disadvantage
- Needs expert and experience person.
- They are expensive
- Some suitable statistical programme may not be available.
- They are unreliable where spares, power sources and service facilities are
poor.
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METHODS OF DATA PRESENTATION
 Data presentation -Task of presenting the collected measurements/counts in a form
suitable for deriving logical conclusions e.g. graph, table etc
There are three ways of data presentation

a. By the use of tables.
b. By the use of pictures.
c. Mathematical relationship.
a) Tables
These are the table, which shows relationship between two variables.e.g. Crop calendar.
b) Picture
It includes histograms, bars graphs, line graphs, charts, bar graph, pie chart orgive etc.
Line graph
(b) Simple line graph
Is a method of presenting data by using graphs with line connecting points reflecting the
changes of value in the y-axis
Advantages
 It is easy to construct and interpret
 It is easy to make comparison between production in different years
 It has a wide variety of uses
 Exactly values can be estimated from the graph
 It brings a visual impression
Disadvantages
 It is easy to confuse x and y variables
 It cannot represent more than one item or crop
(c) Multiple line graph

Represent more than two variables on the same graph by using lines of different pattern to
show the different items e.g. Cotton, maize,
Advantages
 It is useful for comparing many commodities
 It is easy to read and interpret
 It doesn’t involve length calculation
 The contrasts are very clear since each line is unique
 It is detailed
Disadvantages
33
 Confusion may occur when there are many values
 Interaction is likely to occur this may cause problem during interpretation
 It is difficult to choose a suitable scale when the values to be represented have great
range
(c) Simple bar graph

It is constructed following the same procedures like a simple line graph, instead of using
line to represent the variables parallel bars are used
NB: Advantages and disadvantages of simple bar graph are similar to those of a simple line
graph
(d) Pie chart

A circle is divided into sections such that the area of each segment is proportion to the size
of the figure it represents.
Advantages
 It is easy to read and interpret
 It gives a clear visual impression especially if color are used
 It is easy to compare various sectors
 Can be used for variety of purposes
 It illustrates statistical information very accurately
Disadvantages
 It is more difficult to estimate differences in area and also quantities
 Involve tedious calculations to convert values into degrees
 It is difficult to read exact values
 Trends and directions of change in values cannot be deducted from from chart
 They are difficult to interpret when the item represented are numerous
d) Mathematical relationships
It includes descriptive statistics for various variables including means, mode, range,
standard deviations, proportions-test, chi-square and F-test.
(B) VARIABLE
Types of variables
Variables are categorized into two
 Qualitative variable is a variable that cannot be counted and it is therefore
enumerated or classified (color, sound ,water etc)
Quantitative variables is grouped into two
Continuous is a variable that can theoretically assume any value between two
given values. Cannot take exact value example height and weight
34
Discontinuous(Discrete) These are the one which can take only exact values
example number of crops
 Quantitative variable these are variables that can be counted e.g. weight, volume
etc
Types of Experimental variables

 Experimental variables
Are those variables that are being performing in a background of other factors which
the researchers try to keep constant in traditional research or manage in on farm
experiment.
 Non-experimental variables
Are those factors that can change but can be managed e.g. weeding, planting time
etc in order to make non-treatment to factors uniform across all plots.
ON FARM EXPERIMENT
CRITERIA FOR SELECTING FARMERS FOR ON FARM EXPERIMENT

a) The farmer must be resident and willing to participate in on farm experiment.
b) Consider if the farmer is a leader in the community and whether this is important to
your objectives.
c) Consider income and resource level of the farmer and whether the farmer is a
representative of the group and satisfy experimental objectives.
d) Consider whether the farmer is accessible.
e) Avoid farmers who are relatively unique.
f) Be aware of biases in your choice of farm and farmers.
g) Consider the impact of your involvement and state of community organization.
h) Logistic should be consistent with your resources
i) If the farmer is participating in demonstration trial, researcher may want to choose
another farmer.
TYPES OF EXPERIMENTS
Categories of Agricultural Experiments
TYPES OF ON FARM EXPERIMENTS

a) Exploratory trial
Is the experimental on farmer’s field to test the technical feasibility of new technology in
the local environment.
35
Exploratory trials help to rank possible new technologies to see which one gives the
higher returns or which one is more effective and therefore which one should be
advanced for further trial work.
Farmers’ participation is limited to commenting on the performance of the tested
technology.
b) Diagnostic trial/investigative trial.

Is a simple trial where researcher wants to investigate and discover a possible unknown,
problems or general information rather than working at technical solution e.g. how much
does the weeds causes loss of yield of the crop.
c) Determinative trial/adaptation trial/refinement level trial.

Aims at finding appropriate variation or levels e.g. fertilizer rate trial, which will look on
the response of a crop to different rates of fertilizer.
Researchers may have a particular [possible new technology from exploratory trial that
have the economical returns. However these may need further trial in different level thus
a refinement level trial is important.
d) Verification trial
Aims at testing the suitability of technologies to all farmers. These are used when
researchers has good idea that the technology is successful but there is more doubt as
to how it will perform under the wider range of environment or different farmer
managements. Testing is required in more environments and under more type of farmer
management in that domain.
A verification trial commonly has no replication of a site but is planted at many sites. The
“best bet”treatement from a determinative trial is tested against the farmers’ normal
practice also it encourage farmers participation.
e) Demonstration trial
This usually have a single new technology in larger plot compared to all the farmer
normally practices.
They are usually organized or (implemented) by the farmers. They largely serve to form
farmers and how to use it.
ASSESSMENT OF ON FARM TRIALS

There are four types of assessments
1. Farmer’s assessment.
2. Agronomic assessment/evaluation.
3. Statistical evaluation/analysis.
4. Economic evaluation.
1) Farmer’s assessment
36
In farmers assessment those farmers with sufficient knowledge/experience with new
technology will explain
- How they employ it.
- It is advantages and disadvantages.
- Describe why they decide in favor or against it.
Farmer’s assessment therefore helps to know the opinions/reaction of farmers on the
new technology.
2) Agronomic assessment/evaluation.
Is an agronomic interpretation system. Specifically researchers assess the experiment
data to verify that the observed responses make sense from an agronomic stand point.
Agronomic data collected will depend ion the objectives of the trial and treatment under
test e.g. experimental treatment performance data like yield, weed incidence, pest or
diseases incidence.
Additional data from the trial to help explain performance of experimental treatments e.g.
plant population, weed types, weed weight removed from treatments, yield components
etc.
Agronomic data only establish the technical relationships, which could be used to
determine the technical optimum.
Agronomic evaluation is done by the biological scientists
3 Statistical evaluations
Traditionally agronomic trials are being evaluated by the biological scientists using the
statistical technique.
Evaluation criteria vary depending greatly on the degree of market orientation.
The appropriateness of any technology should always be evaluated in relation to their
priority objectives and resource use pattern. A most of variables influence the farmer’s
choice of technology e.g. physically biological and socio-economic factors. Socio-
economic factors likes lack of market, shortage of labor cash and food preferences
dominate these choices.
4 Economic evaluations.
This looks at the following aspects simultaneously
- Profit.
- Risk.
- System compatibility
- Objectives and preferences.
- Resource availability.
- Institutions and infrastructure.
- Social acceptability.
To make good recommendation for farmer’s researchers must be able to evaluate
alternative technologies from the farmer’s point of view.
The premises of economic analysis are: -
37
- Farmers are concerned with the benefit and costs of particular technology.
- They usually adopt innovation in stepwise fashion.
- They will consider the risk involved in adopting new practices
NB
Economic analysis include the following aspects
b. The partial budget.
c. The marginal analysis.
d. Minimum returns analysis.
e. Sensitivity analysis.
IMPLEMENTATION PROCEDURES FOR ON FARM EXPERIMENTATION

a) Site selection.
b) Experimental layout i.e. placement of trial at site.
c) Trial monitoring and data collection includes researcher and their results
d) Definition of responsibilities among various factors:-
- Role of farmers in on farm research.
- Role of farmers in extensions in on farm research.
- Role of farmers in research in on farm research.
PROBLEMS IN IMPLEMENTING FARMING SYSTEM APPROACH

1) Resources
In implementing farming system approach it is well known that resources are general
inadequate. This limits implementation of the system.
2) Linkages problem
Poor linkage between research, extension and farmers is another problem, which
have been experienced in implementing farming system research.
3) Sustainability
This is very difficult to achieve in farming system approach. Sustainability is the
ability of a system to maintain product over the long term even when subjected to
stress and shock.
4) Multidisplinary research team

Difficult to form and maintain in most farming system approach programme
5) Farmers participation in most of farming system approach.

Programme is difficult to sustain.
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EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
PRINCIPLES OF FIELD EXPERIMENTATION
THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF RESEARCH

INTRODUCTION
Research is defined as a studious inquiry or examination, especially a critical and
exhaustive investigation or experimentation having for its aim the discovery of new facts
and their correct interpretation, the revision of accepted conclusions, theories or laws in
the light of newly discovered facts or the practical application of such conclusions,
theories or laws.
Research also can be defined as systematic inquiry into a subject to discover new
facts or principles.
The researcher is interested in the repeatability of the research results and their
extension to more complicated and general situations. This can be achieved through
careful planning of the collection of relevant and accurate data through experiments
and/or surveys.
Research mainly concerned with
 The collection of data relevant to a problem
 Data analysis
 Data interpretation
 The presentation of the results to the various end users
The procedure for research is known as the scientific method which involves the five
elements
i) Observed facts: Science is said to begin with observation, through which

knowledge of certain facts is obtained and many facts are
established
ii) Hypothesis: A consideration of the body of facts about a subject leads to the
establishment of an hypothesis
Hypothesis is defined as a tentative idea as to how the facts are to be

interpreted and explained.
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Hypothesis is a logical supposition, a reasonable guess which may give
direction to thinking with respect to the problem and thus, aid in solving it.
.
Hypotheses are laws which can be tested experimentally.
ii) Experiment: The experiment is a critical step in the scientific method, and
the questions it seeks to answer should be crucial to the
support or rejection of an hypothesis.
The experiment is a research tool used to discover something unknown or to test
a principle or hypothesis.
Experiment is conducted to provide specific facts from which general conclusions

or principles are established.
Experiment involves inductive reasoning because deals with problems requiring

inductive reasoning.
Reasoning that proceeds from a specific conclusion to a general principle is

called inductive reasoning
Inductive reasoning arrives at a general principle from a specific conclusion.
The experiment is defined as a

 Trial designed to test the validity of the proposed hypothesis.
 Planned inquiry to obtain new facts or to confirm the results of the
previous experiments
iii) Experimental results: The analysis of experimental data leads to establishment
of new facts..The results of the experiment establish additional facts
iv) Interpretation of experimental results: The interpretation of new facts in the
light of what is known already leads to the support, rejection or alteration of the
hypothesis.
The research conducted might be descriptive and involving a sampling survey or might
involve a controlled experiment.
There are four major principles involved in the planning and collection of relevant data in
research either conducted through surveys or experiments. These are
 Validity
 Precision
 Wide coverage
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 Use of sample
Basic Principles of Crop Experimentation (Research)

i) Validity
The investigation should be valid in the sense that conclusion drawn from it should be
logically tenable and not subject to personal bias or preferences of the investigator.
Validity is achieved through randomization in allocating treatments to experimental
units.
Randomization
is a process of allocating treatments to experimental units in order to eliminate bias.
Experimental unit is defined as the unit of experimental material to which a treatment is

applied
Treatment is defined as a dosage of material or procedure to be tested in an experiment.

ii) Precision
The results should be precise in the sense that the random and non-random error
affecting them should be controlled at a low level, and it should be possible to assess
their magnitude from the results of the investigation.
Experimental errors are not errors in the sense of being wrong; they represent the
variability among the experimental unit.
Experimental error is a function of the experimental design and not of experimental
units per treatment.
Precision is the ability of an experiment to detect a true treatment effect.
Precision refers to the magnitude of the difference between two treatments that an
experiment is capable of detecting
Accuracy refers to the closeness with which a particular measurement can be made
Precision is achieved through replication and use of appropriate experimental
design
Experimental design refers to planned grouping of experimental units so as to improve
precision.
Replication means that a treatment is repeated two or more times.
An experiment is said to be replicated when there is more than one experimental unit
per treatment.
An experiment with a single replication provides a very poor measure of treatment effect
and provides no measure of experimental error.
The reasons for replication are
 To obtain an estimate of experimental error
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 To increase the scope of inferences of the experiment by selection and
appropriate use of quite variable experimental units
 To increase the precision with which a treatment mean is estimated
 To facilitate the study of the interaction between treatments and sites.
Methods for increasing precision

The precision of the research can be improved by
 Increased replication
 Careful selection of treatments
 Refinement of technique: Improved techniques to reduce the variability among the
units treated alike improve precision of experiment
Uniformly apply treatments, devised suitable and unbiased measures of
treatment effects, prevent gross error and control external influences can
improve the precision
 Selection of the Experiment Unit:
- Increase the size of experimental units ( within limits)
-The size and shape of the field affects precision. In general, variability decreases
with an increase in plot size, but once a certain size has been reached, the increase
in precision falls off rapidly with larger size.
-Rectangular plots are most efficient in overcoming soil heterogeneity when
their long axes are in the direction of greatest soil variation.
- Increasing the number of animals per experimental unit increases precision
of an experiment
 Planned Grouping of Experimental Units.
-Planned grouping involves the use of the principle of experimental design we have
designated local control. By randomization of treatments to experimental units it is
possible to remove certain sources of variation such as
a) Changes in soil fertility across the an experimental area
b) Differences in gaining ability associated with the age and weight of animals
The grouping of experimental units in different ways gives rise to various
experimental designs.
Use of a more efficient experimental design improves the precision of
experiment.
 Proper selection of Experimental material
Careful selection of uniform material is desirable in a research

In selecting experimental material it must be kept in mind the population about which
the inference can be made.
It is important to use the kinds of experimental materials that will be used in
actual agricultural production
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 Taking Additional Measurement
A technique known as the analysis of covariance can be used to remove an
important source of variation among the experimental units.
Example, initial weights of cattle used in a feeding experiment might be used to
remove this effect on the rate of gain over a feeding period.
The use of Covariance improve the precision of the experimental results
iii) Wide coverage
The precision of an experiment also depends on the inherent variability of experimental

units.
The experimental error will be smaller if the experimental units are homogeneous.
However, in order to achieve wider applicability of the results, heterogeneous units will
have to be used in the experiment.
There are techniques available for increasing precision without undue sacrifice of coverage.
This is the design problem where one has to choose a design to estimate the effects of
treatment as accurately as possible.
If the amount/number of replication is increased, the gain in precision is achieved but not in
efficiency. To get gain in efficiency there is a requirement of increasing precision without
increasing the size of the experiment.
iv) Use of samples
In both methods of data collection, whether through surveys or experiments, consideration

in cost ( in terms of money, effort or time spent ), the need for accuracy and administrative
difficulties often make it impractical to collect information from all elementary units in a
survey or try all possible combinations of experimental units and treatments in an
experiment.
Sample is selected using a chance mechanism.
In survey a random sample of elementary unit is selected while in an experiment the
treatment are applied to the experimental units at random.
The use of a chance mechanism in the selection procedure enables the investigator to
draw valid and rigorous inductive inferences by the use of calculus of probabilities.
Collected data can be subjected to random errors and non-random errors.
The various types of non-random errors can be caused by
 Subjective bias of the investigators
 Non –response
 Inadequate coverage
 Imprecise of definitions
 Error in processing data and other various factors
43
In planning data collection, the investigators has to provide ways and means for control of
these non random errors
Sample surveys and experimental designs can be used in their own situations or can be
used simultaneously to control non random errors.
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN SELECTING SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

 Survey objectives
 Nature of research problems
 Field work logistical problems
 Availability of time and money
 Common sense
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN DETERMINING THE SAMPLE SIZE

 Variability of local conditions
 Required degrees of precision
 Time and monetary constraints
 Availability of data handling facilities
 Availability of trained manpower (Enumerators)
 Information gap identified
 Questionnaire complexities
 Depth of analysis required
SAMPLING METHODS / TECHNIQUES

Sampling techniques are divided into two main groups
i) Non random sampling (Non probability sampling) techniques
 These are the techniques of purposive sampling in which a sample is drawn
to represent or illustrate some particular characteristics of the population
which was defined prior to actual selection of the sample
 The results of these techniques are subject to bias, hence not commonly
used in sample survey
ii) Random sampling techniques (Probability sampling techniques)
 Techniques of probability sampling in which every unit in the population or
sub population has an equal chance of being selected
 In random sampling, all items have some chance of selection that can be
calculated. Random sampling technique ensures that bias is not introduced
regarding who is included in the survey.
 Risk of sampling bias is minimized and it is possible to make inferences
about the population from which the sample was drawn in these techniques.
RANDOM SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

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The random sampling techniques include
 Simple random sampling technique
 Systematic random sampling technique
 Stratified random sampling technique
 Multi-stage sampling technique
 Cluster sampling technique
i) Simple random sampling technique

Sampling technique whereby each member of the population has equal chance
of being selected
Simple random sampling technique involves 5 steps
 Defining clearly the population from which the sample will be taken/drawn
 Obtaining or preparing the sampling frame
 Assigning the serial number to every member of the population
 Determining the sample size (at least 30% of the population)
 Selecting the members of the sample using table of random numbers
Advantages of Simple random sampling
 It is easy and simple
 Appropriate for homogeneous population concentrated in a single area
 Each member of the population has the same probability of being chosen.
Disadvantages of Simple Random sampling

 Difficult to obtain a population list
 Selected units can be geographically dispersed and therefore expensive to reach.
 Provides imprecise estimates if the population characteristics are very variable
 No representativeness especially when population is not truly homogeneous
ii) Systematic random sampling technique

Systematic sampling, sometimes called interval sampling, means that there is a
gap, or interval, between each selection.
Sampling technique whereby every Kth unit/element from the population is
selected after obtaining the random sampling stating point .Systematic random
sampling technique involves 5 steps
 Obtaining or preparing the sampling frame
 Assigning the serial number to every member of the population
 Determining the sample size ( n = at least 30% of the population) and
sampling interval (K)
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 Obtaining the random sampling starting point (Selecting the first member
of the sample using table of random numbers) and choosing every K th
individual from a sampling frame
NB. K=N/n
n= at least 30% of N
Advantages of systematic random sampling
 Easy and quick
 More accurate than simple random sampling
 More convenient compared to simple random sampling
 Gives virtually a random sample and provided
 Gives virtually a random sample and provided there is no periodic pattern. Bias is
eliminated
Disadvantages of systematic random sampling

 Need sampling frame to be in random o9rder otherwise will be biased results.
 The need to arrange elements in the order of magnitude make this technique limited
to few studies.
 You may need a list to start with, if you wish to know your sample size and calculate
your sampling interval.
 The systematic has a built in stratification e.g. one sampling unit being drawn from
each stratum. However, there is no reliable way of measuring the standard error.
iii) Stratified random sampling technique

This is a sampling technique in which the population is divided into strata and for each
stratum a random sample is taken
The investigator divides a population in group’s strata. It is assumed that the population is
not uniform (heterogeneous), but the strata are rather uniform (homogenous).
Stratified random samples are usually more efficient in discovering properties than simple
random samples. They can never be less efficient. The reason they more efficient are that
some knowledge of the variation is included in the stratification.
The strata can be;-

i) Villages
ii) Classes of people or animals
iii) Geographical areas
The technique can be used when the population to be sampled consists of groups with
distinct characteristics (Heterogeneous population)
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Stratified random sampling technique involves 5 steps
and dividing it into homogeneous subgroups
 Obtaining or preparing the sampling frame of each homogeneous
subgroup and assign the serial numbers to members of a subgroups
 Determining the sample size ( n = at least 30% of the population) and
number of individuals to be sampled from each subgroup using
proportional allocation method
 Sample/selecting the required number of an individuals from each
homogeneous subgroup
 Combine the chosen/selected individuals from each homogeneous
subgroup to form a sample (Stratified random sample)

Advantages of stratified random sampling
 Easy
 Ensure enough cases in each group therefore increases representativeness.
 The precision of statistical estimates is increased through minimization of within
group variability (greatly increase sample efficiency)
 Gets more information from entire population
 Permits the use of different sampling design for different proportion of the population
iv) Multi-stage sampling technique

The technique involves at least two stages.
Example if the objective is to draw a sample of 100 farmers of Kilosa district.
Stage1 involves
 List all villages in Kilosa district and assign a serial number to each village
 Determine the number of villages to be sampled
 Draw a number of villages ( e.g. Three sample villages) using simple or
systematic random sampling technique
Stage 2 involves
 List all farmers within the chosen villages and assign them with a serial
numbers
 Draw a sample of 100 farmers using simple or systematic random
sampling technique
Advantages of multi-stage sampling
 Saves travelling time and costs, hence cheap
 No need for a complete sampling frame
 Can build a sampling frame as sampling progresses
Disadvantages of multi-stage sampling
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 Complex
 Generalizing estimates to population in difficult
v) Cluster sampling
It is sometimes expensive to spread your sample across the population as a
whole. For example, travel can become expensive if you are using interviewers
to travel between people spread all over the country. To reduce costs you may
choose a cluster sampling technique.
Steps involved
 Define clearly the population from which the sample will be drawn
 Divide the population into geographical clusters (groups with
heterogeneous individuals)
 List all identified geographical clusters and assign them with a serial
numbers
 Determine the number of geographical cluster to be sampled and sample
them using simple or systematic random sampling technique
 Combine all individuals of the chosen geographical clusters to form a
cluster sample.
Advantages of Cluster sampling

 Cluster sampling divides the population into groups, or cluster.
 A number of clusters are selected randomly to represent the population, and then all
units within selected clusters are included in the sample.
 No units from non-selected clusters are included in the sample. They are
represented by those from selected clusters.
 Reduces costs particularly when the population is spread over larger geographical
areas.
 Simplified field work and administration is more convenient. Instead of having a
sample scattered over the entire coverage area, the sample is more localized in
relatively few centre (clusters).
Disadvantages of cluster sampling

 Less accurate results are often obtained due to higher sampling error than for simple
random sampling with the same sample size.
Experiment is divided into three major categories

(a) Preliminary experiment.
Involves testing a larger number of treatments to gather basic information to be used
in planning future work.
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(b) Critical experiments.
Involve comparing the responses of experimental material to different treatments
using sufficient experimental units to ensure detecting of differences in responses
(c) Demonstrational experimental.

Involve comparing a new treatment or treatments (few in number) with a standard.
APPLY RESEARCH PRINCIPLES IN DESIGNING AN EXPERIMENT.
In the planning and conducting of an experiment there are a number of consideration that
should be careful thought through if the experiment is to be a success.
In order for an experiment to be successful the following important steps to be taken.
Five important steps to be taken in order for an experiment to be successful
 Definition of the problem and Statement of objectives: State the problem clearly and
concisely, and state precisely the questions to be answered, the hypothesis to be
tested and the effects to be estimated.
 Critical analysis of the problem and objectives: State precisely the present status of
knowledge concerning the problem and whether the objectives of the experiment
really important to a solution of the problem.
 Selection of treatments, experimental material, experimental design, Unit for
observation and number of replication
 Considering control of the effects of the adjacent units on each other, data to be
collected, type of statistical analysis to be used and method of summarizing the
results to be used.
 Conducting the experiment, Analyzing data, and Interpreting results and preparing a
complete, readable and correct report of the research.
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NOTE
1. The procedure for research is known as the scientific method which
involves the five elements
 Observed facts:
 Hypothesis
 Experiment
 Experimental results:
 Interpretation of experimental results:
2. There are four basic principles involved in Experimentation

 Validity
 Precision
 Wide coverage
 Use of sample
3. The design and conduct of an experiment involves five steps
 Choice of appropriate experimental design
 Choice of appropriate treatments, experimental material and experimental unit
 Choice of the number of replicates
 Management of the experimental variables
 Data collection
Steps in experimentation
(i) Definition of the problem
- Problem solving is to state the problem clearly and concisely.
- If the problem is understood, you should be able to formulate questions which,
when answered will lead to solution
(ii) Statement of objectives

- May be in the form of questions to be answered, the hypothesis to be tested or
the effects to be estimated
- Objective should be written out in precise terms. This allows the experimenter to
plan the experimental procedures more effectively.
(iii) Selection of treatment

The success of the experiment rest on the careful selection of treatments, whose
evaluation will answer the questions posed
(iv) Selection of experimental materials

Choose the appropriate materials for that experiment
(v) Selection of experimental design

The experimental design should be simple and fit for the experiment
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(vi) Consideration of data to be collected
Collected the information that would give you an accurate information during
experimental implementation
(vii) Conducting the experiment

(viii) Analyzing data and interpreting results
(ix) Selection of the unit for observation and number of replication
DESIGN A SIMPLE ON STATION EXPERIMENT USING STANDARD PROCEDURES
a) Describing the commonly used experimental designs.

The principal difference among experimental designs is the way in which experimental
units are grouped or classified.
In all designs experimental units are classified by treatments, but in some they are further
classified into
 Blocks
 Rows
 Columns
 Main plots
 Sub plots
The analysis of variance uses the means of these groupings called sources of variation to
estimate mean squares (variances).
An experimental design is defined as
 The way in which experimental units are grouped or classified
 A plan on how to obtain data (facts)
 A planned grouping of experimental units.
There are three important principles inherent in all experimental designs that are essential
to the objectives of statistical science. These are
 Replication
 Randomization
 Local control
 Replication
 Replication means that a treatment is repeated two or more times.
 Its function is to provide an estimate of experimental error and to provide precise
measure of treatment effects.
 The number of replications that will be required in a particular experiment depends
upon magnitude of the differences you with to detect and the variability of the data
you are working with.
 Randomization
51
Randomization is the assignment of treatments to experimental units so that all units
considered have an equal chance of receiving a treatment.
It functions to assure unbiased estimates of treatment means and experimental error
 Local control
This principle of experimental design allows for certain restrictions on randomization
to reduce experimental error. For example, in the randomized complete block
design, treatments are grouped into blocks that are expected to perform differently
and allowing a block effect to be removed from the total variation in the trial.
The experimental designs which can be used include

 Two sample technique
 Paired sample technique
 Completely randomized design (CRD
 Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD
 Latin square design (LSD)
 Split plot design
 Factorial experiment
 Two sample technique

In this technique it is assumed that the experimental material is uniform.
The material is divided into a number of experimental units and a treatment is
assigned to an experimental unit at random using a table of random numbers.
The two sample technique is the simplest example of the completely randomized
design.
T-test is used in testing the significance of the difference between the treatment
means and to construct confidence intervals.
It is assumed that the observations (variates)
o are independent random samples
o are normally distributed
o have common variance
In this design experimental units are classified by treatments

 Paired sample technique
In this technique it is assumed that the experimental units are not homogenous.
In this design the experimental units are grouped in pairs in such a way that the variation
between units in one pair is less than variation between units in different pairs.
The treatments in this design are applied at random within each pair/block
Paired sample technique is an example of complete randomized block design.
In this design experimental units are classified by treatments and blocks
 Completely randomized design (CRD)
The completely randomized design (CRD) is the generalized case of the two sample
technique for two or more treatments.
52
Allocation of treatments to experimental units is completely at random such that each
experiment unit has the same chance of receiving any of the treatments
CRD set up by assigning treatments at random to a set of experimental units

It is assumed that the experimental materials can be divided into homogeneous
experimental units and the treatments are applied to the units at random.
The randomization is carried out separately for each of the experimental units; that is if
there are 4 treatments, for each unit we select at random a number from 1 to 4 to decide
which treatment should be applied to the experimental unit. We generally restrict the
randomizations that each treatment is applied to the same number of experimental units
It is assumed that
o the observed value on each treatment constitute a random sample of all possible
responses under that treatment of all experimental units (independent random
samples),
o The variation among units treated a like is that same for all treatments common
variance
o The responses are normally distributed
In summary, it is assumed that the observations are t independent random samples from t
normal populations that have common variance.
In CRD experimental units are classified by treatment
The additive statistical model of CRD is
Xij = u+ti + eij ,
where
Xij= the jth observation on the i th treatment
U =overall mean
ti = effect of the i th treatment
eij = random error.
In this model the treatments and the error are the sources of variation which have to be
shown in the analysis of variance.
Disadvantages
 Design can be used effectively only if the experimental units are homogenous
E.g. Under controlled condition such as laboratory
 For larger number of Treatment,CRD requires a larger number of
experimental units, so that securing homogenous materials may become an
laborious task
 Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD)
The Design in which experimental unit are grouped in blocks and the treatments are
randomly allocated to the units in each block
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RCBD used in situation where experimental units are not homogeneous but can be
blocked (grouped) into groups of similar experimental units.
The treatments are independently and randomly assigned to units within each block.
The paired sample technique is the simplest example of RCBD.
RCBD set up by assigning treatments at random to the block
A separate randomization is made for each b lock.
In this design experimental units are grouped and classified by treatments and blocks.
Eg. Experiment with 4 treatments (AB,C,D) and 5 replication (5 blocks)
 Treatments (A,B,C,D) are first assigned to block 1, then 2,3,4 and last to block 5.
Therefore in this design the treatments are assigned at random to a group of experimental
units called the block.
The object is to keep variability among experimental units within a block as small as
possible and to maximize difference among blocks.
Each treatment is assigned once to experimental units within a block.
Blocks can be compact areas of a field groups of animal that can be handled in a uniform
manner (grouped according to breed weight age) or different times of applying treatments
to experimental units.
With crops , blocks should be long and narrow in shape.

When a productivity gradient is expected with the experimented areas, blocks should be
laid across the gradient and plots within a block laid parallel to the gradient.
The additive statistical model associated with a RCBD
o xij= ս + bi + tj + eij ,
where
o u= overall mean
o bi= effect of the i th block
o tj = effect of the j th treatment
o eij = random error.
Advantages
 The analysis is easy
 There are no restrictions on the number of treatments. The number of blocks
must be greater than one
 When the variability between block is larger, then the gain in precision over
CRD is larger
 Latin square design (LSD)
Is a design in which the numbers of rows, columns and treatments are the same
The Latin square design makes use of the blocking or grouping concept introduced
with the RCBD. The blocking factors in the LSD are row and column effects.
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While the RCBD deals with one blocking factor, LSD deals with double blocking factor
(double blocking arrangement)
Blocking in LSD can be in two directions perpendicular to the soil fertility gradients.
Also, Blocking in LSD can be done according to the breed and age of animals or bred
and weight of animals.
The row and column effects are group of experimental units arranged to permit the
measurement of two identifiable sources of variation plus treatment effects.
Randomization in LSD is restricted in that each row and each column being a simple
complete block.
Most commonly used LSD are those having from 4 to 8 treatments with a single
experimental unit per treatment in each column and row.
In a Latin square design randomization involves placing the treatments at random in

the square, subject to the restriction that a treatment can occur only once on a row or
column.
In LSD randomization involves three main steps

 Select a sample Latin of the desired square from a table of Latin squares
 Using an appropriate randomization mechanisms, randomize the row
arrangement of the selected Latin square in step 1.
 Randomized the column arrangement using the same procedure used for
randomizing rows in step 2 .
*The stastical model for a Latin square design is given as

Xijk = tai + bj + tk + eijk
Where, u = overall mean
ai = effect of the ith row
bj = effect of the jth column
tk = effect of the kth treatment
eijk = random error
 The split – plot design
The basic split-plot design involves assigning the treatments of one factor to main plots
arranged in a completely random, randomized complete block or a latin square design. The
treatments of the second factors are assigned to subplots within each main plot.
The split plot design is used in factorial experiments. It involves randomly assigning the
levels of one factor to large plot and randomly assigning the levels of another factor to
small subplots within the large plots
The designing of the Split plot design involves
 Grouping of experimental units in blocks within the experimental area
55
Number of blocks =Number of replications
 Grouping of experimental units in Main plots within the block
Number of Main plots =Number of Main factors
 Grouping of experimental units in Sub plots within the Main plot
Number of Sub plots =Number of Treatments
 Randomization of Main factors in the Main plots within the Block and Sub factors
(Treatments) in Sub plots within the Main plot.
 Factorial Experiment
In a factorial experiment the effects of two or more factors are investigated simultaneously.
If the behavior of one factor is suspected of changing with changes in another factor, this
behaviour can be tested by a factorial set of treatment laid out in a suitable experimental
design.
When two or more factors (each may be at two or more levels) are tested in all possible
combinations, the resulting treatments are said to be factorial. Differential effects of one
factor on another are called interactions.
Even if interactions do not occur in factorial experiments the results are more widely
applicable because the main treatment effects have been shown to hold over a wider range
of conditions.
Examples of combinations of factors in an experiment are
 Testing varieties at varying levels of soil fertility
 Evaluating the effect of a hormone on the gaining ability of male versus female
 Evaluating the relative contribution of fungicide and insecticide to the emergence of
seedlings
 3 dosage levels of a fungicide with 3 dosage levels of an insecticide =3 2
factorial experiment =9 treatments
b) Outline steps for designing and conducting on station experiment.

 Choice of appropriate experimental design
 Choice of appropriate treatments and experimental material
 Choice of the appropriate number of replicates
 Choice of the appropriate experimental units
 Randomization of treatments, management of experimental variables and data
collection
c) Design on paper on station trial.
d) Select treatments for the On-Station Trial (OST).

In choosing treatments to be tested, care is necessary to ensure that the treatments are
really capable of achieving the objectives.
56
The general rule is to select set of treatments that shall provide the best possible
information about the questions which the experiment is supposed to answer. However,
when selecting treatments it’s advisable to observe the following general criteria.
 Probability that the technology will work
 The potential benefits
 Sustainability of the solution
The following checklist can assist in choosing treatments

i) Farmer preferences and practices
 Current management factors affecting technology being tested
 Current level of inputs and availability
 Crop-Livestock interaction
 Labour availability
 Decision making criteria
 Gender
ii) Economic performance
 Minimum amount needed for sale, Storage or consumption
 Maximum level of inputs
 Limit to risk
 Demand and marketability
 Availability of inputs and services
iii) Agronomic performance
 Response of crop/Livestock to inputs and management
 Expected interactions
 Expected performance compared to farmer’s practices
iv) Selecting package components
 Know relative response of each under farmers conditions
The treatments for crop experiments include

 Methods of land preparation
 Types of seedbeds
 Types of manures
 Types of varieties
 Methods of seed selection
 Methods of planting
 Spacing
 Sowing depths
 Methods of weed control
 Frequencies of weed control
 Methods of controlling insect pests
 Frequencies of controlling insect pests
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 Methods of fertilizer application
 Frequencies of fertilizer application
 Types of fertilizer
 Forms of fertilizer
 Methods of harvesting
Etc
The treatments for Livestock experiments include
 Methods of feeding
 Types of feeds
 Frequencies of feeding
 Methods of Diseases control
 Types of vaccines
 Frequencies of vaccination
 Method of controlling insect pests
 Types of breeds
 Methods of castration
Etc
The following point need to be considered when selecting number of treatments

 The trial type
 The management of Trial and available resources
 The type of technology
 Larger plots may mean fewer treatments
 Intercropping agro forestry and tree Trials need large plots
 Caution should be exercised for risky technologies such as imported technologies
and pesticides
 Control treatments should also be included to provide a standard for comparison
with the other treatments
 The control treatments could be an optimum level, standard practice or variety,
farmers’ practice, current recommendation or untreated plot which should be
defined.
When selecting treatment levels the following tips may be useful

 Interview farmers to know acceptability and economics
 Determine response curve
 Analyze labor requirements
 Consider low levels of inputs-may be optimum in farmers conditions
 Consider diversity of the target group and area
 Consider economics
58
a) Demarcate field plots according to desired experimental design
Demarcate field plots based on lay out designed on paper
MANAGE AN ON-STATION CROP EXPERIMENTAL TRIALS

a) Identify experimental and non experimental variables and apply them on field
plots
The management of on-station experiments involves mainly the management of treatment
factors (experimental variables) and non-treatment factors (non-experimental variables).
Variables are measurable characteristics of experimental units
Management of treatment factors

This is the management of the treatment inputs themselves. These usually will be
managed by the researcher and should be under uniform control within the treatment. It
should be remembered that any variation in the application of a treatment over plots
allocated to that treatment will increase experimental error.
Although experimental error does not in general mean experimental “mistakes”, at this level
of management, failures in the research effort could result in errors that are true mistakes.
For example, incorrect labelling of plots, containers or field books and failure to apply inputs
to the correct plots in the correct amount s at the appropriate times can result in an
experimental error that has more than a random source of variation. Such mistakes could
lead to biased information and consequently to erroneous conclusions. Even if such errors
were later discovered, adjustments for the mistakes can be time consuming and
comparisons of adjusted estimated are rarely straightforward. At times of treatment
application and data collection, the researcher or competent associate should be in the field
carefully supervising the treatment application or date collection activities to avoid time-
consuming adjustments later.
Management of non-treatment factors (Non-Experimental variable)

The conditions or non-experimental variables refer to both controllable and
uncontrollable factors.
Controllable factors include all management and cultural practices that are applied to the
Trial area other than treatments. The controllable factors are also termed non-experimental
variables.
These are factors that inputs not expected to vary from treatment to treatment. With
experiment station technology generation experiments, researchers would seek to have
these inputs applied as uniformly as possible.
When designing on-station experiments, Controllable factors should be identified
For example
 In a variety trial in which neither fertilizer nor spacing was a treatment factor, the
researcher would strive to have the fertilizer applied as uniformly as possible and,
for crop planted in hills, have hill spacing precisely maintained within and among the
plots.
59
 In a weeding Trial , treatment would be different weeding regimes and test
conditions would be land preparation, Fertilizer application, Planting time and
Variety choice.
Uncontrollable factors are the environmental conditions eg rainfall, frost and temperature.
Uncontrollable environmental conditions change with season and site eg rainfall, soil
heterogeneity etc.
b) Collect data from a field on-station experiment

Trials are planted in order to test one or more careful chosen Hypotheses. To make these
tests we need to obtain information or data from the Trial. The type and amount of data
collected during experimentation depends on
 The types of experimental Hypotheses being tested
 The manpower and expertise available
 The equipment at your disposal
It’s advisable to plan the analysis and likely interpretations of the experiment beforehand to
decide the data needed.
Collect as much information as you can on performance aspects of treatments. Economic
yield alone is rarely enough except in verification or demonstration-type trials.
In addition, it is useful to design periodic visit sheets where observations concerning the
Trials and hazards can be recorded
The people collecting the data should be supplied with the necessary tools such as
 Field notebook
 Weighing balances
 Writing materials
 Measuring devices
In addition, it is useful to design periodic visit sheets where observations concerning the
Trials and hazards can be recorded
Data should be directly recorded into the field notebooks because
 Data loss and errors occurs if data have to be recopied
 Bits of papers can be misplaced and observations can be forgotten
Data from Trials are collected in order to

 Measure the performance of treatments in trials and decide if treatment performance
is real
 Explain or interpret the performance of experimental treatments in Trials
 Determine if promising treatment effects are economical and so likely to be adopted
by farmers
 To continue diagnosis of the technical problems and causes found in the work area.
Salient factors to be included in the different types of data
Site characteristics
 Site history which should include the number of year under cultivation, previous crop
and management practices
 Topography and soil i.e. Slopes, soil depth, surface texture and textural change
down the profile ( pH, CEC, %BS, OM etc)
60
 Identify site by drawing a sketch and plan to find the location and layout later in the
season or in subsequent years if marker pegs are removed.
 Indicate state of site at planting eg. Whether crop residues are present, weed
situation, wet or dry seedbed
 It is useful to have a rainfall data for the site. Rainfall data can be vital to the
interpretation of treatment responses or the lack of them
Management data
 Order of operations performed and their dates
 Material inputs used eg. Seed, fertilizer,
 Conditions when the crop was planted
 Experimental treatments applied or operations performed
 Management of non-experimental practices
 Power sources used
 Labour used-Hours worked, number of people involved and their roles
Treatment performance data

Data on treatment performance are vital. They should be given top priority and taken with
the utmost care.
There are many possible variables we could measure or observations we could make,
some in various ways. Their choice will depend on the objectives of the Trial and the types
of experimental variables in the Trial.
The observations/measurements of treatment performance in on-station experiments
include
 State of the seedbed
 Germination and stand counts
 Crop development and growth observations in relation to practices such as fertilizer
application and weed control
 Spatial variation in the vigour of the crop(s)
 Weed incidence and weed type
 Incidence of pests and diseases and losses caused
 Environmental stresses eg. Water deficit at certain stage of development
 Economic yield
 Yield quality
 Storability
NB.A schedule for data collection should be set up ahead of time
c) Organize data from a field trial in a format that will be used for analysis
A well-designed, easy-to-use field notebook is essential. It must be well laid out with extra
space left to allow for unforeseen but important entries.
A standard format includes the

 Title of the experiment
 Statement of the objectives of an experiment
 Organization of the selected information (Site characteristics, Management data,
Treatment performance data
61
Examples
i) Data organization from two sample techniques or Paired sample techniques
Treatment Replication Treatment
1 2 3 4 5 Total Mean
A
B
Grand
ii) Data organization from Completely Randomized Design (CRD)
Treatment Replication Treatment

1 2 3 4 Total Mean
A
B
C
Grand
iii) Data organization from Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD)
Treatment Block Treatment

1 2 3 4 Total Mean
A
B
C
Total
MISSED DATA
Missed Data ( X ) can be estimated by using the following formula
X = (T t +B b) -GT
( t-1) (b-1)
Where
X = missed Data / variate
T= Total treatment of missed data
t = Number of treatment
B = Total block of missed data
b = Number of block
GT = Grand Total
iv) Data organization from Latin Square Design

Treatment Row Treatment
1 2 3 4 Total Mean
62
A
B
C
D
Total
Row Column Row
1 2 3 4 Total
1
2
3
4
Total
v) Data organization for Analysis of counts/ Testing for independence

Class B/ Variable B TOTAL
Number of individuals
Class A/ Variable A C1 C2 C3
R1
R2
R3
R4
TOTAL GT
Observed Expected
R1 C1 (Total R1 X Total C1) / GT
RI C2 (Total R1 X Total C2) / GT
63
PRACTICAL SKILLS-1
Example 1
Q1.Prepare the stratified random sample of 20 farmers from the give sampling Frame
S/No Male S/No Female
1 Abdallah 1 Wanu
2 Byabato 2 Salah
3 Chisunga 3 Ruth
4 Hassan 4 Johari
5 Mandia 5 Devote
6 Mankiligo 6 Zainab
7 Mghase 7 Agripina
8 Mtaho 8 Veronica
9 Rashid 9 Monika
10 Said 10 Marry
11 Sirikwa 11 Dora
12 Waya 12 Rehema
13 Elizabeth
14 Frolence
15 Sophia
16 Joyce
17 Grace
18 Glory
NB: Use column 1 of a table of random numbers as a random starting point.
Q2.Prepare the simple random sample of 6 female farmers from the give sampling Frame
S/No Name
1 Wanu
2 Salah
3 Ruth
4 Johari
5 Devote
6 Zainab
7 Agripina
8 Veronica
9 Monika
10 Marry
11 Dora
12 Rehema
13 Elizabeth
14 Frolence
15 Sophia
16 Joyce
17 Grace
18 Glory
64
NB: Use column 1 of a table of random numbers as a random starting point
Q3.Prepare the systematic random sample of 6 female farmers from the give sampling
Frame
S/No Name
1 Wanu
2 Salah
3 Ruth
4 Johari
5 Devote
6 Zainab
7 Agripina
8 Veronica
9 Monika
10 Marry
11 Dora
12 Rehema
13 Elizabeth
14 Frolence
15 Sophia
16 Joyce
17 Grace
18 Glory
PRACTICAL SKILL-2
Q1. Identify the most important problem from the given surveyed data using Single list
ranking -Method A
RESPONDENT -A
1 Insect pests 3
2 Weeds 4
3 Soil fertility 5
4 Input costs 1
5 Labour shortage 2
RESPONDENT -B
1 Insect pests 4
2 Weeds 5
3 Soil fertility 2
4 Input costs 1
5 Labour shortage 3
RESPONDENT -C
1 Insect pests 5
2 Weeds 4
3 Soil fertility 3
4 Input costs 1
5 Labour shortage 2
RESPONDENT -D
1 Insect pests 3
2 Weeds 4
3 Soil fertility 2
4 Input costs 1
65
5 Labour shortage 5
RESPONDENT -E
1 Insect pests 3
2 Weeds 5
3 Soil fertility 2
4 Input costs 1
5 Labour shortage 4
Q2. Identify the most important problem from the given surveyed data using weighted
respondents scores method.
identified in crop First most important Second most important Third most important
1 Insect pests
2 Weeds
4 Input costs √

1 Insect pests
2 Weeds
4 Input costs √

1 Insect pests
2 Weeds
4 Input costs √

1 Insect pests √
2 Weeds
4 Input costs √
5 Labour shortage

66
1 Insect pests √
2 Weeds
4 Input costs √
5 Labour shortage
Q3. Identify the most important Enterprise from the given surveyed data using Direct matrix
ranking method A

Good taste 3 4 2 1
Q4. Identify the most important Enterprise from the given surveyed data using Direct matrix
ranking method B
RESPONDENT -A
Good taste 3 2 1 4
RESPONDENT -B
Good taste 2 3 3 2
RESPONDENT -C
67
Good taste 2 1 5 2
RESPONDENT -D
Good taste 3 1 2 4
RESPONDENT -E
Good taste 2 2 4 2
PRACTICAL SKILLS-3
Q1. DGA 2011 planned to conduct Fertilizer Trial with five treatments (A, B, C, D and E)
and three replications.
Design on paper CRD Experimental Design and randomize the given treatments
Q2. DGA 2011 planned to conduct Fertilizer Trial with five treatments (A, B, C, D and E)
and three replications.
Design on paper RCBD Experimental Design and randomize the given treatments
Q3. DGA 2011 planned to conduct Trial with Three varieties (X, Y and Z) and five
treatments (A, B, C, D and E) with three replications.
68
Design on paper Split Plot Experimental Design and randomize the given Varieties and
treatments
Q4. DGA 2011 planned to conduct Fertilizer Trial with four treatments (A, B, C and D)
Design on paper Latin Square Experimental Design and randomize the given treatments
PRACTICAL SKILLS-4
DATA COLLECTION, ORGANIZATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF THE
RESULTS
Example 1
Q1. Two types of food were tested for their taste and the results scores in numerical values
were as follows:
Excellent =5 , Very good = 4 , Good = 3, Satisfactory = 2 and Poor = 1
Stratified random sample of five Panellists took part in testing two types of food and their
scores were tabulated as follows
Food type
Panellist A B
P1 5 3
P2 4 3
P3 5 4
P4 5 4
P5 4 2
Carry out the statistical data analysis and interpret the results at 5 % level of significance.
Q2. DGA 2011 collected the data from a Varietal Trial using Experimental Design
demarcated on paper as indicated below. The letter indicates the treatment and the value
is yield.
A A B A B
19 15 19 17 18
A B B B A
14 23 19 21 20
Q3. Livestock Feeding Trial was conducted by DGA 2009 at MATI Ilonga to determine
whether feeding leguminous pasture increases Animal weight. 15 animals were fed
leguminous pasture and other 15 were control.
The experimental results were tabulated as follows
Replication Animal not fed Leguminous pasture Animal fed Leguminous pasture
69
Net weight gain (Kg/ Yr) Net weight gain (Kg/ Yr)
1 30 45
2 38 56
3 31 29
4 42 63
5 52 78
6 38 45
7 33 26
8 48 54
9 23 44
10 18 32
11 36 77
12 48 55
13 37 88
14 46 52
15 25 73
Perform the appropriate statistical data analysis and interpret the results at 5 % level of
significance.
Example 2
Q1. DGA 2011 collected the data from a Varietal Trial conducted using CRD Experimental
Design demarcated on paper as indicated below. The letter indicates the treatment and the
value is yield.
B C B C
50 57 53
54
D D A B
54 65 47 67
D A C A
74 52 69 62
70
C D B A
57 59 57 51
Example 3
Q1. DGA 2011 collected the data from a Varietal Trial conducted using Latin Square
Experimental Design demarcated on paper as indicated below. The letter indicates the
treatment and the value is yield.
ROW COLUMN
I II III IV V VI
I F D A B E C
28.2 29.1 32.1 33.1 31.1 32.4
II E B C F D A
31 29.5 29.4 24.8 33 30.4
III D E F C A B
30.6 28.8 21.7 30.8 31.9 30.1
IV C A B D F E
33.1 30.4 28.8 31.4 26.7 31.9
V B F E A C D
29.9 25.8 30.3 30.4 33.5 32.3
VI A C D E B F
30.8 29.7 27.4 29.1 30.7 21.4
Example 4
Q1. DGA 2011 collected the data from a Varietal Trial conducted using RCBD Experimental
value is yield.
BLOCK I BLOCK II BLOCK III BLOCK IV

B 56 C 55 B 57 A 53
D 60 D 67 A 52 B 59
C 63 A 54 C 59 D 61
71
A 53 B 56 D 64 C 59
Example 5
Q1. DGA 2011 collected the data from a Varietal Trial conducted using RCBD Experimental
value is yield.
BLOCK I BLOCK II BLOCK III BLOCK IV

B 56 C 55 B X A 53
D 60 D 67 A 52 B 59
C 63 A 54 C 59 D 61
A 53 B 56 D 64 C 59
Example 6
Q1. Trial was conducted by DGA 2010 at MATI Ilonga to determine whether Slugs prefer
cabbage to Chinese cabbage at 5% level of significance.
100 Slugs put into a box with cabbage and Chinese cabbage. 61 Slugs go to Cabbage and
39 Slugs go to Chinese cabbage.
significance.
NOTE: Calculated value=4.84
Tabulated value=3.84
 Conclude that Slugs prefer cabbage to Chinese cabbage at 5 % level of significance.
Q2. Trial was conducted by DGA 2010 at MATI Ilonga to determine whether farmers differ
significantly in varietal preference at 5% level of significance. 4 varieties of rice namely
SARO 5, IR 64, WAHIWAHI and SUPER INDIA were tested by random sample of 100
farmers.
The results were tabulated as follows
Variety Number of farmers preferred
SARO 5 36
IR 64 18
WAHIWAHI 26
SUPER INDIA 20
significance.

72
 Conclude that farmers differ significantly in varietal preference at 5 % level of
significance.
Q3. Trial was conducted by DGA 2010 at MATI Ilonga to determine whether there is
relationship between treatment with antibiotic and the incidence of disease.
100 animals were treated with an antibiotic and after a period of time examine for
symptoms of disease. There were 88 animals that were healthy and 12 showed disease
symptoms.
Another group of 200 animals was given no antibiotic (Control) and when examined later,
143 were found to be healthy and 57 diseased.
significance.
 Reject the hypothesis of independence and conclude that there is a real relationship
between antibiotic and the incidence of diseases
Q4. Trial was conducted by DGA 2010 at MATI Ilonga to determine whether there is
relationship between Feed ration and Animal health
Four groups of 25 cattle were each fed with a different ration and the condition of health of
each animal was measured by recording the number of time it had to be treated for
sickness.
The trial results were tabulated as follows

Number of Number of animal fed feed ration
time treated A B C D
0 15 5 10 20
1-3 5 10 5 3
4-5 3 5 5 2
6-10 2 5 5 0
.
significance.
 Reject the hypothesis of independence and conclude that there is a real relationship
between Feed ration and Animal health.
 Animal health is related to type of Feed ration at 10 % level of significance
SUB-ENABLING OUTCOME
8: PLAN ON-FARM RESEARCH ACTIVITIES BY APPLYING THE FARMING SYSTEMS
APPROACH
RELATED TASKS
73
a) Discuss the concept of Farming Systems Approach (FSA) and Farming
Systems Research
The concept of Farming Systems has been defined differently by different people. In
order to avoid confusion, it is important to clarify the understanding of the terms
‘System’ and ‘Farming Systems’
 A system can be defined as a set of components that work together as aims to
achieve the overall objectives of the whole System
 The System approach is the way of identifying the components of the whole
system and the environment in which the system performs for the achievement of
the overall objectives.
 Farming systems is defined as a unique and reasonably stable arrangement of
farming enterprises that the household manage according to well defined
practices in response to physical, biological and socio-economic environment
and in accordance with the output and production methods.
 Therefore, The farming systems is the part of larger systems eg the local
community and can be divided into subsystems eg cropping systems
 A specific farming system arises from the decisions taken by a small
farmer or farming family with respect to allocating different quantities and
qualities of land labour capital, and management to crop, livestock, and
off-farm enterprises in a manner which, given the knowledge the
household possess, will maximize the attainment of the family goal(s).
Farming Systems Approach ( FSA) is defined as a set of procedures conducted under
farmer field conditions with the participation of farmers, with the aim of developing relevant
technologies or recommendations to solve priority problems for an identified group of
farmers.
Farming System Research ( FSR) is defined as an approach designed to generate relevant
technologies for specific clients (the resource-limited farm households).
b) Carry out the process of problem diagnosis in preparation for conducting
research with farming systems perspective
The process of problem diagnosis involves four mainly steps
i) Identifying problems limiting the productivity of the farming system
 Define and list problems that limit the productivity of the farming system under
study. For instance, if farmers lose maize to season drought when the crop is
planted late, the problem is late-season drought and not late planting which is
one of the causes.
 Describe the problems as biological limiting factors or as inefficiencies in
resources use
 Describe the problems in a way that clearly illustrates their relationship to low
yields, low income or inefficient resource use
 Evidence for problem should be presented i.e Previous experiments, Survey
Field observations
ii) Rank the problems

 Problems that have been identified are ranked using either of the following
well defined criteria
74
 The distribution of the problem, including a definition of which farmers
in a research area are affected ie number of farmers with similar
enterprise affected by problems
 The importance of the enterprise to the farming system i.e enterprise is
a significant source of income or subsistence for the farmers or utilises
significant amount of farmer’s land, labour or capital
 The loss of yield or income for which of the problem is responsible.
iii) Identify the causes of the problems

 Develop enough information related to a particular problem in order to identify
appropriate solution.
 The causes of a problem can be either management practices , natural or
social-economic conditions or even other problems
 If causes are not well understood, it is necessary to conduct other
investigation to clarify them.
 Causes and problems
 Causes of causes of the problems
iv) Analyze interrelations among problems and cause
CAUS PROBLEM
E
Farmers use crop Farmers remove Low organic Nitrogen

residue for crop residue matter Deficiency
 forage
One way to make interrelations among problems and causes evident is to try
combining the individual diagrams of problems and causes into single summary
diagram.
 When there are many problems and associated causes, one summary diagram may
be too large and complicated to be useful.
 If different problems are associated with different groups of farmers, separate
summaries may be necessary or useful.
 Analysing interrelations is useful in

 Helping to decide which problems and cause should receive more
attention
 Planning process when considering the design of experiment
 There are four kinds of associations among problems and causes

 A particular cause is involved in more than one problem
 Two problems are interrelated
 Problems are interrelated
75
 Problem has no causes in common with other problems
Example
Cause-Effect Flow Diagram-Nitrogen Deficiency
Early season Drought Little fertilizer Applied Risk Avoidance
risk Labour
Risk Shortage
Avoidance
Late Application
NITROGEN Lack of
Weed of N-Fertilizer
DEFICIENCY Transport
Competition
Lack of Late Credit

Weed Not Knowledge
Weeded Properly
Fertilize are not Profitable under

Farm Condition
Labour
Shortage
Low Output Price Fertilizers are an Expensive Poor Plant

source of N Stand
C) Carry out the process of selecting potential solution for production problems
The process of selecting potential solution involves two mainly steps
i) Identify possible solutions to the problems
 When researchers have enough confidence in the evidence available for a problem
and its cause (s) then possible solutions to the problem are identified.
 The proposed solutions can be
 Inputs
 Varieties
 Cropping patterns
 Cultural practices
 Etc
 Solutions should be specified as clearly as possible eg type of herbicide, but exact
dosage or levels will be determine when designing the experiment
 In considering solutions to problems, the place to start is their causes. Causes help
suggest ways of attacking problems.
76
 Examining the causes of a problem can help rule out some possible solutions as
well.
ii) Evaluate possible solutions

 Evaluating each solution according to seven criteria narrows the list of the identified
solutions
 Seven criteria for evaluating the identified solutions are
 Probability that the technology will function under the agro-ecological
conditions and management practices of target farmers
 Profitability of the new technology
 Compatibility of new technology with the farming systems
 Contribution to reducing risk i.e new technology will help reduce risk in
farming operations or increase the stability of farmer’s incomes
 Need for institutional support i.e solution requires inputs that are unavailable
in the area, credit is available for a proposed solution
 Ease of testing by farmers i.e the more complex the recommendation, the
more difficult it will be for farmers to adopt it.
 Ease of carrying out the experimental program i.e solutions are more costly or
less costly
a) Explain the stages of the experimental phase of FSR
77

Principal Crop Experimentation 2

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Principal Crop Experimentation 2

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HORTICULTURAL RESEARCH AND

PRINCIPLES OF CROP EXPERIMENTATION

Prepared by: L. Tairo

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF RESEARCH AND EXPERIMENT

 Farming system is the total of production and consumption decisions of the

 Technologies is the combination of all the management practices used for

 Technological component is a specific part of a technology such as variety,

 On farm experiments (OFE) are experiments conducted in farmer’s field usually

 Recommendation domain is a group of roughly homogeneous farmers with

 Target area/region is a relatively homogeneous area/region chosen for an on farm

SYSTEM COMPONENT INTERACTION

Types of interaction in farming system are

FARMING SYSTEM APPROACH TO RESEARCH AND EXTENSION VS TRADITIONAL

COMPLEMENTARY BETWEEN FARMING SYSTEM APPROACH TO RESEARCH AND

RECOMMENDATION AND DIFFUSION

Methods of disseminating/diffusion research recommendations

ii) Group methods

(c) Farmers exchange visit

(d) Agricultural shows

(f) Visual material

(a). Farmers approach

(b) Telephone conversation

(c) Office visits

(d) House visits

TERMS RELATED TO EXPERIMENT AND SURVEY

STAGES OF FARMING SYSTEM APPROACH TO RESEARCH AND EXTENSION

Steps involved in diagnosis stage

a) Identification of target group of farmers

b) Collection, analysis and interpretation of back ground information

 Social and cultural circumstances

Interview should be conducted in a relaxed manner it is best conducted in a place which

Advantages of informal survey

Steps involved in informal survey

Objectives of formal survey

Steps involved in the formal survey

Data collection procedure in Formal survey

Logical sequence in producing a good questionnaire involves 7 steps

Questions can be factual/or opinion open or closed.

Open –ended questions

Close –ended /multiple choice questions

Dichotomous questions /parallel questions –

Order questions within each section and then order section.

v) Collect data using questionnaire

S/ Problems identified in crop production Ranking

ii) Single list ranking by many respondents or a groups-Method A

S/No Problems identified in Respondents Total Ranking

S/No Problems identified in Respondents Total Ranking

iv) Weighted respondents scores

S/No Problems identified in Respondent response

vii) Paddy ranking preference by respondent

viii) Paddy ranking preference of varieties by many respondents

ix) Frequency of fertilizer application for paddy varieties

x) Paddy yields for different varieties

xi) Paddy yields for different frequency of fertilizer application

xiii) Frequency of weeding on paddy varieties

S/No Variety Farmer reported frequency of weeding

xiv) Paddy yields for different frequency of weeding

S/No Problems Respondent response

S/No Problems Respondent response

S/No Problems Respondent response

S/No Problems Respondent response

vi) Supervision of enumerators

-Enumerators are the people who administer the questionnaire