Foundations Of MEMS 2nd Edition

Chang Liu Solutions Manual

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Instructor Manual

Foundations of MEMS

Chang Liu

Northwestern University

Chapter 7

Visit http://www.memscentral.com, a companion website of the book for additional teaching

materials.

1
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transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. For information
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Problems
Problem 1: Review
Prove that the unit of piezoelectric coefficient is C/N from the governing equation of the inverse effect of
piezoelectricity.
Answer:

The unit of d is
[ s] 1
[d ] = =
[E] V / m
Multiply the numerator and the denominator with the unit of charge, C
[s] 1 Cm
[d ] = = =
[ E ] V / m CV
The product of C and V gives energy, which is equivalent to Newton multipled by distance, meter,
[s] 1 Cm Cm C
[d ] = = = = =
[ E ] V / m CV Nm N
Problem 2: Design
Solution:

For pure torque, the force generated by the piezoelectric actuator should be parallel to the substrate
surfaces to cause the substrate to rotate. For a beam structure, there are two methods to achieve this, as
shown in picture below.

(a) The piezoelectric layer is sandwiched between two top electrodes and a common bottom electrode.
By applying opposite potentials to the two top electrodes with respect to the common bottom electrode,
opposite strains are generated around the two long edges of the beam due to opposite directions of electric
fields. The combination of the opposite deformation (expand and shrink) can cause the beam to rotate.

(b) Similar to method (a), rearranging the top electrodes, opposite strains can be generated at two short
edges of the beam due to opposite directions of electric fields. The combination of the opposite
deformation (expand and shrink) can cause the beam to rotate.

2
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F
piezoelectric layer top electrode

F
bottom electrode
substrate
(a)

piezoelectric layer top electrode

F
bottom electrode

substrate
F
(b)

Problem 3: Design
A piezoelectric force sensor has the following configuration. If a force is applied in the direction shown,
what will be the expression of the output voltage?

Solution:

(a)
Assuming the uniform stress in the cantilever, the stress along axis 1 is
F
T1 =
A
where T1 is the stress generated by force F, and A the cross section area of the cantilever.

3
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transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. For information
regarding permission(s), write to: Rights and Permissions Department, Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.

The electrical strain is

T1 
T 
 D1   d11 d12 d13 d14 d15 d16   2 
 D  = d T 
 2   21 d 22 d 23 d 24 d 25 d 26   3  ,
T
 D3   d31 d32 d33 d34 d35 d36   4 
T5 
 
T6 
F
D1 = d11T1 = d11 .
A

The output voltage is:

D1 d F
V = E1L p = L p = 11
ε εA

(b)

Assuming the uniform stress in the cantilever, the stress along axis 3 is
F
T3 =
A
where T3 is the stress generated by force F, and A the cross section area of the cantilever.

The electrical strain is

T1 
T 
 D1   d11 d12 d13 d14 d15 d16   2 
 D  = d T 
 2   21 d 22 d 23 d 24 d 25 d 26   3  ,
T
 D3   d31 d32 d33 d34 d35 d36   4 
T5 
 
T6 
F
D3 = d 33T3 = d 33 .
A

The output voltage is:

D3 d F
V = E3 L p = L p = 33
ε εA
Problem 4: Design
Solution:

For piezoelectric actuators without external mechanical stress, the strain is induced by actuation voltage
V. According to Equation 6, the electrical strains

4
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 s1   d11 d 21 d31 
s   d 
  2  12 d 22 d 32 
  E1 
 s3  d13 d 23 d 33   
 =  E2 ,
 
 s4   d14 d 24 d 34   E 
 s5   d15 d 25 d35   3 
   

 6   16
s d d 26 d 36 

d 31V
s1 = d 31 E3 = .
tp

From Equation 8, the radius of curvature (r) of bended cantilever is:

1 2 s1 (t p + t e )( A p E p Ae Ee )
=
r 4( E p I p + Ee I e )( A p E p + Ae Ee ) + ( A p E p Ae E e )(t p + t e ) 2
2d 31 E3 (t p + t e )( A p E p Ae Ee )
=
4( E p I p + Ee I e )( A p E p + Ae Ee ) + ( A p E p Ae Ee )(t p + t e ) 2
V
2d 31 (t p + t e )( A p E p Ae Ee )
tp
=
4( E p I p + Ee I e )( A p E p + Ae Ee ) + ( A p E p Ae Ee )(t p + t e ) 2

where tp, te, Ap, Ae, Ep, Ee, Ip, Ie are the thicknesses, cross section areas, Young’s moduli, and moments of
the piezoelectric (p) and elastic (e) layers.

The vertical displacement at the end of the cantilever is, according to Equation 9:
V
L2 d 31 (t p + t e ) Ae Ee A p E p
tp
δ ( L) ≈ .
4( Ae Ee + A p E p )( E p I p + E e I e ) + (t e + t p ) 2 Ae Ee A p E p

Problem 5: Design
Solution:

The output force is linearly related to the cantilever displacement. From problem 4, the displacement at
the end of the cantilever is
V
L2 d 31 (t p + t e ) Ae Ee A p E p
tp
δL ≈
4( Ae Ee + A p E p )( E p I p + Ee I e ) + (t e + t p ) 2 Ae Ee A p E p

where V, L are the applied voltage and the length of cantilever, and tp, te, Ap, Ae, Ep, Ee, Ip, Ie are the
thicknesses, cross section areas, Young’s moduli, and moments of the piezoelectric (p) and elastic (e)
layers.

5
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transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. For information
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Since the thickness of the piezoelectric layer can be continuously changed within the range of 5% to
100% of the thickness of the elastic layer, assume
t p = xt e , where 0.05 ≤ x ≤ 1 . The cross section areas and moments are
w p t e3
A p = w p t p = xw p t e , I p = x3 ,
12

we t e3
Ae = we t e , I e = ,
12
and
Ae Ee A p E p = xwe t e Ee w p t e E p = xt e2 we w p Ee E p .

Substitute Ap, Ae, Ip, Ie into δ L

V
L2 d 31
tp
( )
t e + t p Ae Ee A p E p
δL ( x) ≈
4( Ae Ee + A p E p )( E p I p + Ee I e ) + (t e + t p ) 2 Ae Ee A p E p
V
L2 d 31 t e (1 + x) xt e2 we w p Ee E p
xt e
=
E p x 3 w p t e3 Ee we t e3
4( we t e Ee + xw p t e E p )( + ) + (1 + x)t e2 xt e2 t p we w p Ee E p
12 12
L2 d 31V (1 + x) we w p Ee E p
=
E p x3w p Ee we
4t e2 ( we Ee + xw p E p )( + ) + (1 + x)t e2 xwe w p Ee E p
12 12

δ L is a function of x, the ratio of the thicknesses of the two layers, and can be evaluated once the other
parameters are known.

Problem 6: Design
Solution:

For piezoelectric actuators without external mechanical stress, the strain is induced by actuation voltage
V. According to Equation 6, the electrical strains

 s1   d11 d 21 d31 
s   d 
  2  12 d 22 d 32 
  E1 
 s3  d13 d 23 d 33   
 =  E2 ,
 s  d d d  
4

14 24 34
E 
 s5 
 d15 d 25 d35   3 
   
 s6   d16 d 26 d 36 

6
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transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. For information
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d 31V
s1 = d 31 E3 = .
tp

From Equation 8, the radius of curvature (r) of bended piezoelectric patch is:
1 2 s1 (t p + t e )( A p E p Ae Ee )
=
r 4( E p I p + Ee I e )( A p E p + Ae Ee ) + ( A p E p Ae E e )(t p + t e ) 2
2d 31 E3 (t p + t e )( A p E p Ae Ee )
=
4( E p I p + Ee I e )( A p E p + Ae Ee ) + ( A p E p Ae Ee )(t p + t e ) 2
V
2d 31 (t p + t e )( A p E p Ae Ee )
tp
=
4( E p I p + Ee I e )( A p E p + Ae Ee ) + ( A p E p Ae Ee )(t p + t e ) 2

where tp, te, Ap, Ae, Ep, Ee, Ip, Ie are the thicknesses, cross section areas, Young’s moduli, and moments of
the piezoelectric (p) and elastic (e) layers.

The vertical displacement at the end of the piezoelectric patch is, according to Equation 9:
2 V
l p d 31 (t p + t e ) Ae Ee A p E p
tp
δ (l p ) ≈ .
4( Ae Ee + A p E p )( E p I p + Ee I e ) + (t e + t p ) 2 Ae Ee A p E p

The angular displacement at the end of the piezoelectric patch is

lp
2d 31V (t p + t e )( A p E p Ae Ee )
lp tp
φ(l p ) = = .
r 4( E p I p + Ee I e )( A p E p + Ae Ee ) + ( A p E p Ae Ee )(t p + t e ) 2

The rest of the cantilever does not curve and remains straight. The vertical displacement at the end of the
cantilever is

[
δ ( L) = δ (l p ) + ( L − l p ) sin φ(l p ) . ]
Problem 7: Analysis
Solution:

From Equation 9,
x 2 d 31 E3 (t p + t e ) Ae Ee A p E p
δ ( x) = r − r cos(φ) ≈
4( Ae Ee + A p E p )( E p I p + Ee I e ) + (t e + t p ) 2 Ae Ee A p E p
where tp, te, Ap, Ae, Ep, Ee, Ip, Ie are the thicknesses, cross section areas, Young’s moduli, and moments of
the piezoelectric (p) and elastic (e) layers, and E3 the electric field in piezoelectric layer. Assuming same
width w for the piezoelectric and the elastic layers,

7
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transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. For information
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wt 3p
A p = wt p , I p = ,
12

wt e3
Ae = wt e , I e = ,
12
and
Ae Ee A p E p = wt e Ee wt p E p = w 2 t e t p Ee E p .

Substitute Ap, Ae, Ip, Ie into δ (x)

x 2 d 31 E3 (t p + t e ) Ae Ee A p E p
δ ( x) ≈
4( Ae Ee + A p E p )( E p I p + Ee I e ) + (t e + t p ) 2 Ae Ee A p E p
x 2 d 31 E3 (t p + t e ) w 2t e t p Ee E p
=
E p wt 3p Ee wt 3e
4( wt e Ee + wt p E p )( + ) + (t e + t p ) 2 w 2 t e t p Ee E p
12 12
x 2 d 31 E3 (t p + t e )t e t p Ee E p
=
1
(t e Ee + t p E p )( E p t 3p + Ee t e3 ) + (t e + t p ) 2 t e t p Ee E p
3
Problem 10: Review
Solution:

(a)
When the proof mass is bent down, the stress is compressive (-) around the proof mass and tensile (+)
around the outer frame.

D3 = d 31T1 ,
D3 d 31T1
E3 = = ,
ε ε
d 31t p
V = E3 t p = T1 .
ε
Since the voltage generated at the top electrodes are of same signs with the stresses, the voltage is positive
(+) at the outer ring, and (-) at the inner ring.

8
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transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. For information
regarding permission(s), write to: Rights and Permissions Department, Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.

(a)
When the proof mass is bent up, the stress is tensile (+) around the proof mass and compressive (-) around
the outer frame.

Again, since the voltage generated at the top electrodes are of same signs with the stresses, the voltage is
negative (-) at the outer ring, and positive (+) at the inner ring.

Problem 11: Fabrication

Hint:
The etching agents and the selectivities are changed from the single crystal silicon case.

Problem 12: Challenge

Solution:

For a circular plate with a radius of a and a thickness of t, the deformation profile and stress (radial) under
a distributed pressure p is easy to solve. The maximum displacement is
pa 4
wmax =
64 D
where
Et 3
D=
12(1 −ν 2 )
where D is called the flexural rigidity and ν is the Poisson’s ratio. The distribution of radial stress is
12 M r z 12 z p 2
σr = 3
= 3 [a (1 + ν ) − r 2 (3 + ν )]
t t 16
where z is the distance to the center (neutral) plane of the membrane.
Problem 13: Fabrication
Hint:

There is little change compared to the case discussed in the text. In reality, the process is simplified.
Problem 15: Design
Solution:

The piezoelectric coefficient matrix for PVDF is

9
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0 0 0 0 < 1 0

d =0 0 0 < 1 0 0 pC / N
20 2 − 30 0 0 0
The coefficients associated with shear loading are generally very small (being zero or less than 1 pC/N).
This device will not be sensitive to shear loading.

Problem 16: Challenge

Hint:

Review literature for methods that can be used to pattern and etch PVDF films.

10
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 The Important Parts of a Canoe, Giving Names for the Information of the
Novice

Points to be Considered

The particular shape, combined with the dimensions, of the canoe

is commonly called the model, and since many canoe builders offer
several different models it is a comparatively easy matter to find a
craft which fully meets one’s ideas of a canoe. Canoes can be had
as small as 10 ft. long and weighing as little as 18 lb., while others
are built all the way up to 35 ft. and ranging around 50 in. wide. For
all-around use, that is for cruising, hunting, and fishing, the 16-ft.
length, with 32-in. beam, 12 in. deep amidships, and weighing about
60 lb., will meet the approval of the experienced canoeist. In a good
canoe of this size a flat floor, medium-high ends, and a fair amount
of tumble home—to add stability and keep the water from shooting
inboard—may be reckoned the “earmarks” of a general-purpose
craft. For exclusive river work, where many rapids are encountered,
a lightly rounded bottom, a trifle lower in the center than at the ends,
will be easier to handle in white water, while comparatively narrow
ends will give more speed under the paddle.
All canvas-covered canoes are provided with brass bang plates, or
irons, at stern and bow, and if wanted, an outside keel may be
furnished. In most cases this is not essential, but when the canoe is
largely used in rocky rivers a broad keel of ¹⁄₂-in. oak, or ash, 2¹⁄₂ in.
wide in the center and tapered at both ends to fit the brass bang
irons, will protect the bottom from hard knocks. The narrow 1-in. keel
is an out-and-out nuisance, making the canoe slow to turn and
furnishing but scant protection for the bottom. Any keel adds to the
weight of the craft, and weight is a factor that must be considered
when much portaging is done. So far as capacity is concerned, a
canoe, 16 ft. long, 32-in. beam, and 12-in. amidship depth, will
accommodate two men and the usual amount of camp duffle,
weighing from 350 to 400 lb. On short trips, a 15-ft. canoe may be
made to accommodate two men, while on very long cruises, where a
larger amount of duffle must be taken along, an 18-ft. canoe may be
needed. For three persons, the 17 or 18-ft. canoe, of 34-in. beam, is
about right, but for a party of four it is better to use two 16-ft. canoes
than one large craft. In fact, canoes longer than 18 ft. are more
properly regarded as freight craft and only used on special trips.
Moccasins, or rubber-soled footwear, are most suitable for the
canoeist’s wear, but since heavy-heeled shoes are often worn, it is a
good plan to protect the thin planking by running a slatted floor, 8 or
10 in. wide, in the center of the canoe. Provide this grating with brass
buttons, and it will be held firmly in place, but removable at any time.
For convenience in towing, a small but flexible rope—braided cotton
is always soft and pliable—about 20 ft. long, should be tied at both
bow and stern. The ordinary “painter eye,” which fastens with a bolt
screwed to the under side of the breast hooks, is good, but a small
hole, through which the rope is securely knotted, will serve as well.

Paddles

The best material for paddles is good selected spruce, and while
this material is not so heavy nor will stand hard knocks so well as
maple or birch, its lightness makes it the choice of many paddlers.
For rough work the maple paddle may be chosen, and while heavier
than spruce, it possesses greater elasticity, and this spring offsets to
a great extent the larger weight of material. Cedar, ash, and pine
make excellent paddles, and the Indians often fashion them from
these woods.
In selecting a single-blade paddle, it is well to remember that the
length will depend on the paddler’s height, for it is self-evident that a
tall man will require a longer paddle than a short person can
conveniently swing. Hence the usual rule is to pick out a paddle as
long as the paddler is tall, and is a sensible one to follow, although
there are exceptions. Personal preferences differ, and, also, a longer
paddle will be required when paddling from seats than when a
kneeling position is adopted. For general use, the stern paddle of
5¹⁄₂-ft. length will be long enough, while the bow paddle of 5 ft. will
probably suit the average man. Ladies, boys, and girls will need
shorter lengths.
 The shape of the paddle blades varies somewhat, and while some
prefer a broad blade and others a narrow one, it is well to pick out
one of medium size. Large blades are tiresome for long trips, while
the narrow blade balances best in the hand, but affords less
resistance in the water. When picking out a spruce paddle, see that
there is plenty of wood at the juncture of the blade and shaft, for it is
at this point most paddles break. Spruce being a comparatively soft
wood, it will fur badly, and the blades should be fitted with copper
tips to prevent splitting. Maple paddles do not need this protection,
but most builders err in making them too thick and heavy. Pick out
the lightest and thinnest maple paddle that can be found, one that is
fashioned of straight-grained wood, and test it for elasticity before
making the purchase. A couple of coats of spar varnish will keep the
paddles in good shape, but as a varnished surface is hard on the
hands, most veteran canoeists varnish the blades and finish the
shafts with oil. An extra paddle will, of course, be carried on all long
trips.

Canoe Yoke Equipped with Adjustable Shoulder Pads, and the Pneumatic
Carrier That Serves Two Purposes

The single-blade paddle is quite universally used, but the double-

blade gives more spread for the lone paddler. Although the double-
blade was designed for the “Rob Roy” type of canoe—a one-man
craft, decked both fore and aft, the paddler sitting in a cockpit in the
center—it is sometimes used for propelling the open Canadian
canoe, and when the canoeist travels alone, the double-blade is a
good choice, especially on open waters where much wind and high
seas are likely to be encountered. Spruce is the best material for
double paddles, and 10 ft. is the best length. As all double-bladed
paddles are provided with a ferrule, or friction joint, in the center,
they may be unjointed and each used as a pair of single paddles. In
case the open end of the metal ferrule is objectionable, a wood plug
may be fitted to provide a palm grip, similar to the grip of the single
paddle.

Portages for Carrying the Canoe

When the weight of the canoe does not exceed 65 lb., it is easily
carried by placing the paddle blades over the center thwart, the ends
under the next after thwart and lashing them securely in place; then
placing a sweater or coat over the shoulder to form a pad on which
to rest the paddles to carry the canoe in an inverted position.
However, when long portages must be undertaken the “neck yoke,”
or the pneumatic canoe yoke, may be used. The neck yoke is
fashioned from a block of pine, or other soft wood, to fit the curve of
the shoulders, and the ends fit in the grooves made in the gunwales;
or small pieces of wood may be screwed to the under side of the
gunwale to serve the same purpose. The pneumatic cushion, which
fits around the neck and is provided with straps to secure the
paddles in position, is well-liked by some canoeists, but the wood
neck yoke fits so well that it is hard to find a good substitute. A large
and heavy craft can be easily carried by two men by turning the craft
bottom side up and resting the weight on the back and shoulders. If
the man at the stern lets the gunwale rest on his shoulders and his
companion lower the front thwart to rest against his neck and
shoulders, both may carry a light pack of duffle and will have a clear
view of the trail ahead.
To Practice Batting for Baseball Playing

Learning to Strike a Ball without the Aid of a Pitcher or Fielder

 A boy with a very great desire to make a good ball player found
that he could not hit a ball tossed to him. Try as he might, the bat
never hit the ball. Some one suggested that a ball hung by a cord
would help to a great extent, and it was tried out with excellent
results. An inexpensive ball was suspended from the limb of a tree
so that it would be at the proper height for the batter. In striking at the
ball it was not necessary to make home-run hits, as this is liable to
break the cord, or get it tangled to its support. If the strikes are made
properly, the ball will swing out and come back in a perfect curve, or
can be made to come back bounding and in no straight line. This will
teach the eye to locate the ball and make hits where it cannot be
taught by having some one toss the ball to the striker.
 Making Impressions of Leaves
A very true and artistic impression of a leaf, or similar object, can
be made as follows: Grease a piece of heavy writing paper with
linseed oil, and smoke the surface well by lighting a small piece of
camphor gum and holding the paper over the flame. Place the leaf
on the smoked surface of the paper and cover it with several
thicknesses of newspaper, then press the leaf into the blackened
surface. Remove the leaf and lay it with the blackened surface on a
piece of white paper, then cover again with the newspaper and press
evenly and thoroughly. A beautiful and permanent impression of the
leaf will be transferred to the paper.
Care should be taken not to move the leaf the least bit either in
coating it with the smoke or in transferring it to the paper. Be careful
not to use too much oil. This process can be used to stamp cloth for
embroidery. A candle can be used in place of the camphor if care is
exercised, but the camphor gives a very dense smoke with a
minimum of heat.—Contributed by J. H. Beebee, Rochester, N. Y.
 Making T-Squares
By J. B. Murphy

Theinmaking of a single article of any kind presents a distinct problem

itself, but the production of a large number of the same article
must be done in a different way, if efficiency and uniformity in the
product are desirable qualities. Taking, for instance, the making of a
large number of T-squares, the material is not made up in the same
manner as for one. Where a number of these instruments was
required, they were made as follows, with no other Equipment than
bench tools and a band saw. The squares were made of mahogany
having both stock and blade edged with maple. The blades were
fastened to the stock with five ³⁄₈-in. button-head screws.
 Dimensions for a T-Square of Which a Number where to be Made in
Duplicate

The material for the heads and the blades was glued up and
finished to the sizes given at A and B. The material was cut to gauge
lines on the band saw, the blades being a scant ¹⁄₈ in. in thickness,
and the stocks, ³⁄₈ in. Two of each were cut from each prepared
piece, first from one side and then from the other. They were then
faced off on both sides, and two more pieces cut. With careful
cutting, six blades and six stocks were made from each piece. This
left one side of each piece to be planed after sawing. The holes for
the screws were drilled with a small hand drill.

Stock and Blade Material for Making the Parts, and the Jig for Assembling

For assembling, a jig was made by nailing a piece of stock, ³⁄₈ in.
thick, to a straight drawing board. One end of the piece was planed
straight and true before it was fastened in place. Stops were
provided to locate the stock and hold the blade square with it.
Wedges were used to keep both stock and blade against the stops
while the screws were inserted. The wedges were not driven with a
hammer, but pushed in firmly with the fingers.
¶Insert a scratch awl in common hard soap for hardening, and it will
need no drawing after the plunge.
 Paddling Your Own Canoe
by
Stillman Taylor
PART II—The Knack of
Handling the Paddle

T he knack of paddling a canoe as the majority of amateurs paddle is

quickly learned, but to handle a paddle as the expert woodsman
and the Indian wield it requires not a little practice and experience. In
the birch-bark and canvas-covered craft, used by the guides of
Maine and Canada, there are no seats, and the stern paddler kneels
with his back against the rear thwart, while the bow paddler usually
kneels with his back against the second thwart from the bow.
However, the builders of modern canoes furnish a seat for each
paddler, and while it is more comfortable to use them, it is better to
take the kneeling position, which brings the weight lower in the
canoe, as it is safer, and the paddler is better able to control his craft.
Again, the use of the seat makes it impossible for the paddler to put
much of his body into the stroke, and he propels the craft largely
through the muscles of his arms and shoulders. But when paddling
from the knees they are spread out to brace the body firmly, and the
back resting against the thwart enables the paddler to use his back
and thigh muscles to drive his craft ahead with much less exertion
and waste of energy than when sitting erect. Of course, the kneeling
position is a source of discomfort at first, but after a little practice it
will be easy to keep the position for several hours.
The stroke of the paddle is made with the body motionless, one
hand grasping the shaft of the paddle and the other holding it a short
distance above the blade. The paddle is now carried forward, dipped
into the water in front, Fig. 1, A and B, and carried downward past
the paddler’s body, Fig. 2, A and B, and the stroke is finished in the
rear, Fig. 3, A and B. The paddle is recovered by turning the wrist so
that the blade is turned edgewise as it is swung through the air to
begin the second stroke. The swing of the paddle should be smooth
from the beginning to the finish of the stroke, that is, free from undue
jerkiness, but the long and slow sweep of the paddle is amateurish,
pure and simple. The canoemen of the North woods do not use this
stroke, but prefer a shorter stroke, quick recovery of the blade, and
the “accent” of the stroke is much the same as that the expert axman
uses when felling a tree. Therefore one’s energy should be
concentrated upon the first part of the stroke, easing up quickly as
soon as the blade is opposite the body, and finishing the stroke
smartly as it is carried backward. The driving power of the paddle
diminishes rapidly as the blade is carried backward, and if the full
force of the stroke is continued with a long backward sweep, a way
of most amateurs, much energy is wasted, since it adds nothing to
the forward momentum of the canoe, but rather retards it, by forcing
down the stern, and also causes the craft to drag more water after it.
For a short afternoon paddle almost any kind of a stroke will suffice
to drive the canoe ahead, but upon long trips, or when head winds
and rough water are encountered, the quick, short stroke will save
both time and muscle. The long sweeping stroke of the summer idler
will probably average about 26 to 30 strokes per minute, while the
North-woods guide and Indian will dip their blades almost twice as
often, a fair cruising average being about 45 strokes per minute.
Short strokes, with the accent at the beginning of the stroke, will
push the canoe faster and with less effort, and the paddler has better
control over his craft.

Fig. 1-A Fig. 2-A Fig. 3-A

Fig. 1-B Fig. 2-B Fig. 3-B

The Stroke of the Paddle is Made with the Body Motionless, One Hand
Grasping the Shaft of the Paddle and the Other Holding It a Short Distance
above the Blade

The bow paddler usually does nothing more than keep up a

regular stroke and watch for rocks and obstructions, but if he is a
good hand at the paddle he can do much to steer the canoe. For
example, take the usual bow stroke, made by dipping the paddle
quite close and ahead of the canoe. The force of the stroke thus
made forces the bow in the opposite direction, and the man in the
stern will be called upon to use more energy in steering. In contrast
to this faulty handling of the paddle, the experienced bowman will
begin his stroke by dipping his paddle well out from the bow and
pulling it toward him at a greater angle, which keeps the canoe
moving straight ahead without swinging to one side, and the energy
of both paddlers is used in driving the craft steadily ahead. When
paddling in tortuous and rocky streams it is the bow paddler’s duty to
watch out for rocks and snags, and he should always be prepared to
“draw” the canoe whenever it is necessary to clear an obstruction or
assist the stern paddler to shoot the canoe around an abrupt bend.
To do this is simple enough, since the bowman merely reaches his
paddle out at arm’s length over the side and pulls the bow in that
direction, while the stern paddler simply paddles straight ahead.
The stern paddler is the helmsman of the canoe, and while he can
keep his craft on a straight course by trailing his paddle at the end of
each stroke and using it like a rudder, it can only be done when a
long, slow stroke is used. To save time and muscle, the experienced
stern paddler always finishes his stroke with an outward push and a
turn of the wrist, which offsets the swing of the bow and keeps the
canoe on a straight course with much less effort than when trailing
the paddle astern. Paddling from the stern is often considered
difficult, but one soon masters it by a little experience.

Paddling in Open and White Water

 Dangerous for the Novice, but
Experts Win Races in This Position

When traveling in the open waters of large lakes where heavy

winds and seas are commonly encountered, paddling should always
be done on the knees, and the canoeist’s own experience and
judgment must be called upon to meet constantly changing
conditions of the wind and water. To cross a broad stretch of wind-
swept water where whitecaps are running high, means a long, hard
fight, and the stern paddler must be ever alert to ease the canoe
through breaking crests and shift his balance whenever the
necessity arises. When paddling in rough water, many canoeists
make the mistake of driving their craft too hard, consequently the
canoe will “pound” when it reaches the trough of the sea, and much
unnecessary spray is sent flying aboard. Of course, in rough water
some spray is certain to come over the rail, but if the craft is well
balanced by stowing the camp duffle so that the canoe floats on an
even keel, it will, with proper handling, weather a pretty stiff gale.
When paddling against a heavy sea and wind, the regular stroke
must be altered and modified, and the man in the stern may often
balance his craft by holding his paddle in the water while a particular
high comber sweeps by. Short and clean strokes are essential for
handling the canoe in a heavy sea, and while the skillful canoeist can
handle his craft in the trough of the sea when the need arises, it is
hazardous for the novice to attempt it. In heavy weather, it is a good
thing to keep one paddle in the water while the other is in the air,
hence the experienced canoeist will—unconsciously perhaps—
alternate or “split” strokes with his bowman.
To paddle, head on, into heavy seas is slow and tiresome work,
and most canoeists find it easier to take the seas on the quarter, and
the stern paddler must be ever on the lookout, nursing his craft over
the big ones and often turning his bow into the largest combers. To
be sure, the canoe will plunge more or less and yaw about, but the
stern paddler merely checks this side spin, since he cannot prevent it
entirely and drive his craft onward at the same time. When running
before the wind, it is only necessary to keep the canoe balanced or
“trimmed” to keep things dry. Here the bow paddler has the best of it;
his sole duty is to keep paddling steadily ahead, while the balancing
and handling of the canoe rests with the man in the stern. This point
is well worth remembering, for to keep the canoe right side up when
shooting rapids or when bucking heavy seas or a lake, the bow
paddler must stick to his seat. He can, from his position in the bow,
quickly note rocks or other obstructions and pass the word to his
partner, who from his point of advantage can likewise better size up
the effect of a high wave upon the craft. Probably more capsizes
have resulted through the bowman’s mistaken efforts to balance the
canoe by leaning to one side, or attempting to dodge the spray in
rough-water paddling, than through the inability of the stern paddler
to handle his craft.
Running a rapid stream in a canoe is replete with excitement, but it
is likewise a dangerous bit of fun for the inexperienced canoeist who
has not fully mastered the handling of his craft. When running rapids
where the water is fairly deep, the use of the paddle is the better
way, providing both paddlers kneel in the bottom of the canoe.
Unknown streams are naturally the most dangerous, although the
veteran canoeist can “size” up the character of the stream at the first
glance, that is, the trained eye of the woodsman will read the bottom
of the river by the indications on the surface; depth of water, strength
of current, swirl caused by submerged rocks, and many other details
are evident to him. To the novice these signs mean but little. If the
current flow is from three to four miles per hour, rocks or submerged
logs, 4 or 5 in. below the surface, will show very little, but in a 10-
mile or swifter current obstructions 12 or even 18 in. below the
surface will throw up swirling ripples, and in a very rocky stream with
much water flowing, rocks 3 or 4 ft. below will throw up waves of
good size. Again, waves are caused by swift water striking the
comparatively quiet water of a deep pool and the canoeist should be
able to determine the difference between them in order to know what
part of the stretch is dangerous and that which may be run in safety.
The waves in a rapid stream are altogether unlike the rolling
waves of the open lake, in that the crests follow one another closely
and the canoe cannot rise, but plunges through the curling crests.
Rocks on the surface are easily avoided, as they split the current,
and it is only necessary to steer the craft to one side to pass them
safely. The one chief thing to do when shooting the rapids is to keep
the canoe on an even keel and the bow into the current, and when it
is necessary to change channels, the craft must be shot diagonally
across the fast water. To keep the canoe under perfect control in
white water, it must be propelled faster than the current flows, and
the force of the stream must not strike one side of the bow with
greater force than it exerts on the other side. When a canoe swings
around in the current, the power of the paddles will be unable to
cope with the more powerful current, which quickly swings it
broadside and one is struggling in the water in the next instant.
 The Double Blade Is Often Useful When Paddling Single-Handed on a
Broad Reach of Wind-Swept Water

On a long canoe trip where much rapid water must be run, a

“setting pole” should be reckoned a necessity. The pole may be a
stout sapling, 10 ft. long, cut by the stream side, but an iron shoe, or
spike, about 3 in. long, with an iron band or ferrule, should be carried
in the kit, the iron spike being simply driven in the end of the green
pole. The pole may be used to good advantage when running down
shallow rapids, the man in the bow kneeling and using his paddle to
help steer while his partner stands in the stern and wields the pole.
When traveling up shallow and swift streams, the setting pole is
absolutely necessary, and while at first it is an awkward implement to
handle, a little practice will enable the canoeist to pole his craft with