ASSOSA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Course Title: Heavy duty and construction equipment (MEng5411)
Chapter – 4
Construction equipment major systems, operations and
specifications
By: Usman F.
1. Loaders
❑ A Loader: is a piece of heavy machinery used to load and carry materials across a job
site.
❑ It is a heavy equipment/machine used in construction to move or load materials such as
soil, rock, sand, demolition debris, etc. into or onto another type of machinery (such as
a dump truck, conveyor belt, or railroad car).
✓ It is a self-propelled machine with a shovel or bucket at the end of articulated arms,
used to raise earth or other material and load it into a dump truck.
✓ Loaders can haul fine materials like sand or large objects like rock and demolition
debris.
✓ While they're often used in construction, loaders also play a role in agriculture and
industrial cleanup projects.
✓ Loader mechanism contains two hydraulic drives. The first drive is ensuring rotation of
the boom (lifting the bucket) and the other rotation of the bucket.
Types of loaders
❑ There are many types of loaders.
✓ Depending on design and application, various types of
loaders are a bucket loader, end loader, front loader, front-
end loader, payloader, high lift, scoop, shovel dozer, skid-
steer, skip loader, tractor loader or wheel loader.
✓ Depending on propulsion loaders can be classified as:
wheeled loader and track loader.

Wheeled loaders : are lighter than track loaders making them

easier to control around jobsites and more fuel efficient adding
value in decreased operational costs.
✓ Since it uses wheels, it has better mobility on roads, and it
does not give any damage to asphalt or concrete.
Track loaders: The continuous band of treads are driven by a series of wheels.
✓ It offer more operator comfort and are often used on jobsites to increase delivery.
❑ Choosing the best loader type depends on several factors including the traction, ground
pressure, suspension, and steering.
▪ The traction is greater if we use tracks instead of wheels.
▪ The tracks have a lower ground pressure than wheels and are more suited to soft
surfaces. If you want a less ground pressure, you have to choose the tracks. For
example less ground pressure will results in less sinking in the snow.
▪ The suspension system has an important role related to traction. A suspension for a
tracked vehicle is more complicated than for a wheeled vehicle.
▪ The wheels have a significant advantage in steering compared to tracks, and this can be
translated into a good maneuverability for the wheels.
Advantages of using wheels
❑ The wheels are the most common components of the loader hat facilitates the
movement by reducing the friction.
❖ In general the advantage of using wheels are described below.
➢ Easily controlled
➢ Turn around in small places.
➢ Low production costs – this is the case if we compare the prices for wheels and tracks;
➢ Move quickly (better speed) – compared with tracks, the wheels need a lower amount
of torque to move on from stationary.
➢ Maneuverability – the wheels provide high maneuverability compared with continuous
tracks.
➢ Lightweight – continuous tracks are much heavier than wheels, and this is the main
reason why wheels are used especially in cases when the mass is a critical property.
➢ Simplicity – a wheel has less moving parts, which means that there are fewer
components that can get damaged.
➢ Less materials – several materials can be used to build wheels that meet environmental
conditions.
➢ Mobility: Wheels provide better mobility and do not damage paved roads as much as
tracks.
Disadvantages of using wheels
❑ There are some situations where the wheels are not the best choice.
❖ In general, wheels are not used for:
➢ Drive over obstacles – depending on the terrain, a loader needs to pass small or large
obstacles.
▪ For a wheel to get over a vertical obstacle, it has to be at least twice as tall as the
vertical obstacle.
➢ Snow – driving in snow has long been the job of a snowmobile, or a large snowcat.
These are both tracked systems.
▪ Wheels tend to dig in and get stuck because of the lack of surface area.
➢ Less traction is provided by using wheels.
Advantages of using continuous tracks
❑ The continuous band of treads driven by a series of wheels is used when the wheels
cannot be used in area with uneven terrain or when it’s needed high traction.
❖ In general, continuous tracks are advantageous for:
➢ power efficiency – compared with wheels, continuous tracks have high performance
and optimized traction system.
➢ Traction – the traction is high even on slippery surfaces like snow or wet concrete.
➢ Moving on rough terrain – using continuous tracks, a machines can operate on rough
terrain where wheel would get stuck.
▪ They are successful where sharp-edged materials in construction debris would damage
rubber wheels, or where the ground is soft and muddy.
▪ Also, the continuous band of treads can through obstacles, or cross ditches.
➢ Weight growth potential – a machine with continuous tracks has a weight spread over
the entire surface of the track.
Disadvantages of using continuous tracks
❖ In general, continuous tracks are not used due to:
➢ Lower speed – due to more friction and a complex mechanical system, the machines
with continuous tracks have lower speed compared with that of wheels.
Major components of loaders
❑ The major components included in a loader are:
➢ Engine: (diesel in almost all cases)
➢ Hydraulic components (such as pumps, motors and valves)
➢ Transmission components (gearbox, axles, wheels/tracks, pumps, motors, etc.).
✓ The engine runs both the hydraulics and the transmission, and these in turn move the
front attachment (a bucket, forks, sweeper, etc.) to manipulate the material being
handled, and the wheels or tracks to move the machine around the jobsite.
2. Grader
A grader: most commonly known as a motor grader or road grader is a type of
construction equipment that is designed specifically for road construction.
✓ It is a construction vehicle used to maintain unpaved roads and establish the final
grades on construction projects.
✓ In constructing paved roads, they prepare a wide flat base course for the final road
surface.
✓ It can also perform tasks such as grading, levelling a rough surface, evenly spreading
dumped material, trenching and creating smooth roads.
✓ They are designed to create flat surfaces and are best recognized for their long, large
and adjustable blade between the front and the rear twin wheels.
✓ Motor graders are also suitable for different applications, which can be accomplished
by attaching particular units on the machinery.
Application of motor graders
✓Construction: to level a surface before laying the foundation for a home, building or
other structure.
✓Road work: Streets, highways and parking lots. Used to flatten and smooth a surface
before laying asphalt. Also used to maintain unpaved roads.
✓Snow removal: With the right attachment, a motor grader can be used in places that
receive significant snowfall to push snow out of the way.
✓Agriculture: Soil preparation for the new planting season is simple with the use of a
motor grader. It can also used to make roads on farms.
✓Mining: Whether the work is above or below ground, a motor grader can smooth
surfaces for this purpose.
✓Landscaping: Graders are helpful for tasks such as forming drainage ditches and
creating slopes.
Various Operations of motor grader includes:
A. Grading: Grading in road construction means flattening and smoothening the road
surface by the scrapping action of the blade.
B. Spreading: Gravel together with binding material is spread by the motor grader. For
spreading the cutting angle is set at nearly 60°.
C. Finishing and Leveling: In final finishing and leveling, surface have to be finished to
fine limits.
D. Ditch Digging: The front end of the blade is tilted down and the rear end is tilted up
above the road surface. The front end cuts into the ground.
✓ This is used to dig drainage ditches and road side ditches.
E. Cutting: For the purpose of cutting in soft dirt, set the blade to an angle of 40-
55 degree, while in hard dirt an angle of 30-45 degree is proper
Types Of Motor Graders
❑ Nowadays, grading machines can be classified by their size, frame, or uses.
✓ Based on the size of their blades, most modern graders can be classified as “small,”
“medium,” or “large,
➢ Small motor graders: have small blades to fit in small areas and used for small
construction jobs or landscaping.
▪ Most of the time, they have the same controls as larger machines, used for the same
purposes.
➢ Medium motor graders: have longer blades and larger wheels and are used for larger
jobs like highways, roads and large construction sites.
➢ Large motor graders: sometimes called “heavy motor graders” are used to prepare
large areas of land for residential or commercial use.
✓ Depending on the arrangement of their frame, there are two types of grader categories;
rigid frame motor grader and articulated frame motor grader.
➢ Rigid Frame Motor Grader: is the most traditional kind of grader with a long
rectangular frame, and it is usually used for everyday grading tasks like farm or
construction use.
▪ It has four wheels attached to it on the frame (two on the front of the frame and two on
the back).
➢ Articulated Frame Motor Grader: has an articulated frame attached to two larger
wheels and are usually used for larger jobs.
▪ Each wheel has a steering wheel attached to it which is used to steer the blade along
the road’s surface.
▪ The best thing about articulated frame motor graders is that they can go anywhere a
truck can, and go faster than a small framed machine.
Components of a motor grader
❑ A typical common motor grader has three axles (front and rear twin axles), an engine, a
cab and an adjustable blade.
❑ However the most modern motor graders do have a ripper, a loader bucket and a
compactor.
✓ This brings about an added advantage as such an equipment could perform multiple
purposes within a short period of time
➢ Adjustable blade: The main function of the adjustable blade is to cut through uneven
surfaces and produce the desired surface finish.
➢ The cab: is a protective casing to prevent the operators from being subjected to
adverse environmental conditions.
▪ It’s also transparent to provide great visibility to the operator.
▪ It has a front and rear open glass to allow the free circulation of air.
➢ A loader bucket: is attached to the front axle of a motor grader and used for removal of
unwanted material or excess material, and transferring them from one point to another.
➢ The scarifiers/Rippers: are usually used when breaking or tearing up an already
existing pavement during its maintenance phase and can also be used when the road
surface is very hard for the grader blade to cut through.
➢ Snow wings: are used to easily clear snow on road ways.
➢ Tire chains: are helpful for gaining better traction.
▪ They are especially useful during the winter months when a motor grader could
experience sliding and poor traction.
➢ Straight Front Blades: is one of the most versatile attachments for a motor grader and
used for everything from snow removal to leveling and dozing.
➢ Front-Mounted Hydraulic Brooms: attached to the front of motor grader and work
well to remove large and loose materials, such as rocks or debris.
Common parts of a typical motor grader
Components of the most modern motor graders
Fig. shows
different systems of
motor grader.
3. Bulldozer
A bulldozer or dozer: is a large, motorized machine equipped with a metal blade to the
front for pushing material like soil, sand, snow, rubble, or rock during construction work.
✓ Bulldozers are strong construction vehicles that mainly assist with pushing, digging,
excavating, demolition, and leveling materials like soil and debris at a work site.
✓ It travels most commonly on continuous tracks, though specialized models riding on
large off-road tires are also produced.
✓ They come with large, heavy blades in the front that push material, Although
specialized bulldozers come with other modifications, like rippers in the rear, to help
break down the tough ground.
✓ Typically, bulldozers are large and powerful tracked heavy equipment. The tracks give
them excellent traction and mobility through very rough terrain.
✓ Wide tracks also help distribute the vehicle's weight over a large area (decreasing
ground pressure), thus preventing it from sinking in sandy or muddy ground.
✓ Extra-wide tracks are known as swamp tracks or low-ground pressure tracks.
✓ Bulldozers are heavily used in large and small-scale construction, road building,
mining, farms, heavy industry factories, and military applications.
✓ They have transmission systems designed to take advantage of the track system and
provide excellent tractive force.
✓ These powerful machines are suitable for heavy-duty industrial settings, including
mining and highway road construction.
✓ Small dozers that Caterpillar makes include the D1, D2, and D3 dozers; their medium
bulldozers are the D4, D5, D6, D7, and D8; while the D9, D10, and D11 models are all
considered large bulldozers.
Types of Bulldozers
❑ There are many different bulldozer types and sizes depending on different factors.
✓ The type of terrain you’re working on, your project type, and other criteria are key
factors to consider when selecting a bulldozer.
✓ The right machine is also crucial for both the efficiency and safety of your project.
❑ The six most popular bulldozer types include crawler, wheel, ship hold, mulcher,
hybrid, and mini dozers.
Crawler Bulldozer: is sometimes referred to as a track bulldozer and looks most similar to
a tractor.
✓ This heavyweight machine is great for moving heavy materials from one area to
another.
✓ This bulldozer is ideal for traversing dense and irregular terrain since the tracks give it
great traction.
Wheel Bulldozer: This machine is
sometimes referred to as a tire
bulldozer and is normally larger than a
crawler.
✓ A wheel dozer is more
maneuverable than a crawler since
its tires offer better overall handling.
✓ It also has completely articulated
hydraulic steering and moves on a
smaller axis.
✓ This machine is ideal to use for soft
or sensitive ground since the tires
are gentler than tracks.
Shiphold Bulldozers: They are
designed with a compact size and
high maneuverability so that they
can easily operate in small spaces.
✓ These bulldozers are
especially useful for loading
and unloading bulk cargo
shipped overseas, such as
coal.
✓ They are often made with rust-
resistant materials, making them
more suitable for maritime
worksites.
Mulcher Bulldozer:
✓ It is specialized for
clearing land.
✓ Its mulching
attachment easily
grinds and clears
large pieces of
land.
✓ These dozers can
clear trees, brush
and shrubbery to
prepare the land
for development.
Hybrid Bulldozer:
✓ It is ideal for construction and
other tasks where emissions
and fuel consumption are a
concern.
✓ Hybrid bulldozers use
traditional internal combustion
engine technology combined
with electric components.
✓ These machines are as
powerful as your traditional
bulldozer and extremely
versatile.
Mini Bulldozer: This smaller
bulldozer is also known as a
compact bulldozer.
✓ A mini dozer is great for
projects that require more
maneuverability and
versatility than larger
machinery.
✓ Due to its small size, it
can perform well in
different projects that
require tasks like grading
and clearing lots.
Bulldozer Parts and Functions
❑ The main components of bulldozers are described below.
❑ Engine: The engine is the heart of any dozer, providing the power and energy needed
to move the machine and perform various tasks.
✓ Dozers typically have large, powerful gas or diesel engines designed to handle the
heavy loads and demanding tasks the machine is intended for.
✓ Different types of engines fulfill different needs. For example, some newer engines
produce fewer emissions compared to older engines to fulfil certain EPA requirements.
❑ Ripper: is the extended attachment located at the rear of the bulldozer and used to
break up land to allow agriculture or break down rock and earth to be moved.
✓ You can find both single-shank rippers and multi-shank rippers depending on your
project needs.
❑ Final Drive: Modern final drives distribute the load over multiple gear teeth and lift
the drive motor away from suspension.
✓ A bulldozer’s final drive is likely the most used and most replaced part of a bulldozer.
❑ Cab: The bulldozer’s cab is an important part of this machine since it’s where the
operator controls this machine.
❑ Tracks/Tires: greatly impact a bulldozer’s mobility. Tracks are great for navigating
hard, uneven terrain, while tires are better suited for soft ground.
✓ You may also want to consider tires if you’re working in a sensitive area that you don’t
want to damage.
❑ Push Frame: This bulldozer part is responsible for moving the blade.
❑ Bulldozer Blades: are the heavy metal plate located at the front of the bulldozer that is
used to push and dig through materials.
✓ Different types of blades are better suited for different specific purposes, can handle
different types of materials, and can handle a range of load weights.
❑ The most common 5 different bulldozer blade types are described below.
Straight Blades (S-Blade)
✓ It is the shortest type of blade a dozer
can use and does not have side wings.
✓ Due to its shape, the straight blade is
best for fine-grained and medium- to
hard-density materials.
✓ The drawback is that its straight
shape limits the dozer’s lifting and
carrying capabilities.
✓ Some of the best tasks for S-blades
include backfilling, grading, and
evening soil.
Universal Blade (U-Blade)
✓ It has large side wings and a
curved shape that makes it ideal
for pushing materials across long
stretches of land.
✓ The wings keep material from
spilling over when in motion.
✓ It’s the largest blade type in both
height and width and is best used
with soft- to medium-density soil.
✓ Some of the best tasks for U-
blades include ditching, hauling,
pushing and crowning.
S-U (Semi-U) Blade
✓ This blade combines features
from the S-blade and the U-blade
to give it stronger penetration and
better overall versatility.
✓ This design makes it ideal for
pushing soil across long distances.
✓ It’s best for pushing soft- to
medium-density sand and soil.
✓ Some of the best tasks for an S-U-
blade include crowning, moving
heavy material, backfilling, and
ditching.
Angle Blade
✓ Its location is useful for
moving debris to the
side since it can angle
close to 30 degrees left
or right.
✓ It’s a great choice for
projects involving soft-
to medium-hard-density
soils, snow and gravel.
✓ Some of the best tasks
for angle blades include
stumping, shaping,
stripping and ditching.
Power-Angle-Tilt (PAT) Blade
✓ It is one of the most versatile
blades.
✓ The driver controls the blade and
can angle, tilt, and lift in almost
all directions.
✓ It is similar to the angle blade in
that it’s best to use with soft- to
medium-hard-density soils.
✓ Some of the best tasks for PAT
blades include scraping, land
clearing, leveling, backfilling, and
grading.
How to Choose a Bulldozer
❑ The efficiency of your project can be improved if the right bulldozer is selected.
✓ Here are a few things to keep in mind when reviewing bulldozer types for your next
project:
Identify its purpose. Are you leveling the ground? Pushing material?
Analyze the work site. Do you need to maneuver in tight spaces?
Consider the terrain. Are you working on a hard or soft surface?
Pinpoint material types. What type of earth are you moving? What’s its density?
✓ Several bulldozer types can fulfill most of your hauling, pushing, and leveling needs.
4. Excavators
An excavator: is an earth-moving equipment used for digging trenches and lifting away
soil and other materials.
✓ Excavators are applied to a variety of contractor and industrial needs, including
mining, road construction, and building construction.
✓ Excavators are popular earthmoving vehicles that feature a bucket, arm, rotating cab,
and movable tracks.
Functions of excavators include:
✓ Excavating – earthworks
✓ Loading excavated material
✓ Making of drains
✓ Scarification, etc.
Types of excavators
❑ There are many types of excavators, smaller machines handle digging and drilling
functions, while larger excavators have different tools for heavy-duty projects.
I) Based on the type of carriers on which they are mounted excavators can be categorized
as:
A. Crawler mounted excavator
B. Truck-mounted excavator
C. Wheel-mounted excavator

A) Crawler-mounted excavators: are mounted on the crawler system and are very
suitable for carrying out large works in rough terrain.
❖ Crawler excavators have the following main characteristics;
✓ Work on soft or wet grounds
✓ Can be used on sharp rocks or
other adverse conditions
✓ Can be shifted from one site to
another only on trailers.
✓ It can climb steep grades (even
up to 40 percent)
✓ Requires very less turning
space
✓ Have very less speed for Adv: Provide greater balance and
travelling stability on uneven ground
❖ It is preferable to shift the crawler- Disadv: Slower than some other
mounted excavators from one site to the excavators
other on trailers only.
B) Truck mounted excavators:
❑ These are excavators mounted on
truck chassis and have the
following main characteristics:
✓ High road speed and mobility is the
main advantage.
✓ Lower stability over sides and
hence require counter-weight.
✓ Require more operating space.
✓ Tires or outriggers give high ground pressure and hence it require firm and smooth
operating locations.
✓ Have two engines and two cabs, separately for truck chassis and excavator.
C) Wheel mounted excavator: are
similar in size and appearance to
crawlers but run on wheels instead of
tracks.
✓ Replacing tracks with wheels makes
them faster and easier to maneuver
on asphalt and other flat surfaces
while still offering the same power
capabilities. Adv: Fast and easy to maneuver on
flat surfaces
✓ Because wheels offer less stability on
uneven ground than tracks, wheeled Disadv: Perform poorly on uneven
excavators are commonly used for terrain
roadwork and urban projects.
II. Based on the working mechanism, Excavators could be either hydraulic or mechanical.
✓ Amongst the two, the hydraulic excavators are more popular for efficient mobility and
productivity.
1. Hydraulic Excavators: provide smooth
and shock-free operations while digging.
✓ They have a rotating superstructure and
need a slightly larger engine than the
cable-operated excavators to facilitate
easy operation.
✓ The digging action in hydraulic
excavators is backed by hydraulic motors
and cylinders that can be controlled with
hydraulic pumps or valves. Fig: Hydraulic Excavator
a) Backhoe loader
A backhoe loader or
excavator-loader is a digging
and loading machine.
✓ The rear arm of the
backhoe loader has a
digging bucket, while the
front has a loader bucket,
both can be operated
hydraulically.
✓ Adding attachments can Fig: Backhoe loader
improve the functionality
of the excavator loader.
b) Dredgers: are very effective
when excavation is to be carried
out in lakes, riverbeds, and sea.
✓ This machine can perform the
dredging operation standing on
one bank.
✓ Dipper dredger, ladder dredger,
and suction dredger are types
of dredging excavators.
2. Mechanical Excavators: The mechanical excavators or the cable-operated excavators
are of two types: the hoe and the shovel family.
✓ In the hoe-type excavators, the bucket faces and digs towards the machine while in the
shovel-type excavator, the bucket faces and digs away from the machine.
a) Power shovel: is also known as dipper
shovel.
✓ This equipment can dig very hard
materials like hard rocks and remove big
boulders.

b) Bucket-wheel Excavator: It has a digging

wheel with buckets mounted on a boom that
can be adjusted vertically.
✓ Bucket-wheel Excavators are preferred
for mining work.
c) Dragline Excavators: is a larger excavator that operates with a different process.
✓ The equipment utilizes a hoist rope system that attaches to a bucket via a hoist coupler.
✓ The other side of the bucket is attached to a dragline that runs from the bucket to the
cab.
✓ The hoist rope raises and lowers the bucket while the dragline pulls the bucket toward
the driver.
✓ Due to their weight, draglines are often assembled on-site.
Adv: Dragline system is ideal for underwater excavating and canal dredging
Disadv: Weight and size make it impractical for smaller jobs
d) Clamshell: It has the properties of both, a crane
and a dragline so that clamshell bucket digs like a
dragline and lifts the filled bucket like a crane.
✓ The bucket has a shape similar to a clam fish and
has two shells hinged together.
✓ This machine can handle soft/ loose and
medium-hard materials.
e) Drag-Shovel/Pull-Shovel:
✓ It is used in quarries where tough digging conditions prevail as the machine has the
potential to penetrate the toughest materials.
Attachments and Parts of Excavator
❑ The following figure shows the common parts of hydraulic excavators.
✓ Hydraulic cylinders, booms, arms and attachments provide digging and holding
functionalities, while a house-like cab provides the driver with controls to direct the
excavator.
✓ A rotating platform and wheels provide the necessary mobility to lift and remove
debris from the worksite.

Common attachments:
❑ Excavators use a variety of
hydraulic attachments that
serve different purposes.
✓ In addition to a bucket,
other common attachments
include an auger, breaker,
clamp and quick coupler.
a) Buckets: are the most common attachments seen on excavators. These steel
attachments have teeth-like edges that can provide digging and scooping capabilities.
b) Augers: Attaching an auger allows you to bore into the ground. Powered by hydraulic
circuits, these helical attachments can reach over objects and drill deep holes.
c) Breaker: Breakers are similar to jackhammers but are much larger in size.
These attachments can break into tougher surfaces like stone and concrete.
d) Clamps: allow excavator operators to pick up large materials that are too oversized for
a bucket, such as tree stumps and concrete.
e) Couplers: allow you to quickly switch between tools and attachments without a crew.
Main components of the excavator
❑ A typical excavator has three main components; an undercarriage for mobility, a 360-
degree rotating cabin, and hydraulic articulated arms with a bucket.
A) Undercarriage: is the bottom portion of the excavator. Its purpose is to propel and
support the machine while playing a vital role in its overall performance and stability.
✓ It contains various moving parts as described below.
1. Excavator Tracks: Typically made with steel-reinforced rubber and used to move the
machine. Some excavators are wheeled but function similarly to those with tracks.
2. Track Frame: is where the excavator tracks attach to the undercarriage, functioning
similarly to axels.
3. Track Pad: used to help prevent excess noise, vibration and damage, as well as provide
better traction during operation.
4. Track Chains: are what allow an excavator to move efficiently. They function similarly
to bicycle chains in that they’re made up of connected flexible links.
5. Track Shoes: are the individual parts of the track that dig into the ground and pull the
excavator along.
6. Track Bolts: It link each track shoe together to form the entire track.
7. Rock Guards: are attached to the tracks of the excavator to protect the machine from
debris and stray objects.
8. Sprockets: are the mechanisms that run between the excavator track chain links. They
behave like a giant bicycle sprocket, moving the chain along to propel the machine.
9. Rollers: are the metal wheels on an excavator undercarriage used to align the chains and
move them between the sprocket and idler. There are two sets of rollers, bottom and top to
facilitate chain functionality.
10. Idlers: Bigger than rollers, idlers are large metal wheels within the undercarriage that
help guide the excavator tracks.
✓ Idlers are the final mechanism that keep tracks running smoothly, along with the rollers
and sprockets.
B) Cab: is the excavator’s “nerve center.” It is the mission control of an excavator.
✓ It’s where the operators sit as they run the machine, and it provides access to all the
primary controls.
✓ Depending on the model, the cab can rotate 360 degrees for maximum visibility.
✓ Within the cab, there are the main control mechanism, which will vary from model to
model, as well as the following components.
1. Main Controls: are the mission control of the excavator, where basic controls, steering
mechanisms, safety measures and more are found.
2. ROPS: ROPS stands for “rollover protective structure” and is an important safety
feature. It’s meant to protect the operator in the event of a rollover.
3. Counterweight: it counterbalances the excavator when digging, providing leverage and
preventing the excavator from tipping.
4. Engine: is the heart of the excavator, typically powered by diesel fuel.
5. Hydraulic Fluid Tanks: As many excavators are controlled with hydraulic mechanisms,
the tanks themselves are housed in the cab.
6. Fuel Tank: is where
the excavator’s fuel
(typically diesel) is stored.
7. Main Control Valve: It
connects the engine and
the hydraulic
mechanisms, controlling
oil pressure and powering
hydraulic devices like the
arm and boom.
C) Arm/Boom: The boom and arm work together to perform the actual earthmoving work
or digging functions.
✓ The boom attaches to the excavator’s cab and controls the movement of the connected
arm. The arm holds and manipulates the bucket that performs the digging tasks.
1. Boom: The excavator boom is the front part that’s attached to the cab itself and holds
the arm.
2. Arm: Sometimes referred to as the dipper or stick, is attached to the boom and holds the
bucket.
3. Bucket: is the digger on the end of the arm, responsible for all the earthmoving needs.
4. Cylinders: There are typically three types of cylinders on an excavator: boom, arm and
bucket cylinders.
✓ The cylinders connect between each section and are responsible for articulating each.
✓ For example, the bucket cylinder connects between the arm and the bucket, and helps
move the bucket back and forth.
5. Attachments: This will
vary depending on the project
needs.
✓ Some excavator
equipment attachments
include: augers, hammers,
breakers, mowers and
brush cutters, pipelayers,
and tree shears, Grading
buckets Rotators for the
bucket etc.
5. Rollers/Compactors
Roller/Compactor: is special construction equipment used to properly compact and
smooth the ground. It's a vehicle that can compact the soil, asphalt, gravel, stone, etc.
✓ One of the most common types of compaction equipment is the road roller.
✓ Road rollers are large, heavy wheels used to compact and smooth out dirt, ground, soil,
asphalt, or other base materials
✓ It is a cylindrical structure made of heavy metal, enabling effective compaction.
✓ The weight of the drum forces the material particles close together, eliminating air
voids.
✓ Their primary function is creating firm foundations in the road construction industries.
Single-drum and double-drum rollers are just two of the many varieties available
Different types of road rollers and their function
❑ Based on their operation mechanisms, road rollers are classified into two main types;
these are static road rollers and vibratory road rollers.
❑ Static road rollers: This type of road rollers relies solely on the weight of the drum to
compact material.
✓ The absence of vibration mechanisms makes static road rollers easy to operate and
maintain.
✓ Static rollers are suitable for most materials apart from cohesive soils.
❑ Vibratory road rollers: are ideal for compacting granular materials.
✓ The drum on these rollers is fitted with eccentric weights that are activated
electronically to generate vibrations.
✓ The vibrations, coupled with the weight of the drum affect compaction to the required
✓ Vibratory road rollers require fewer passes to attain the required compaction. While
passing over the material, the vibrations eliminate more air from the particles resulting
in a denser material.
❑ There are 6 main types of rollers commonly used in construction projects. These are:
Cylindrical Rollers, Grid Rollers, Pneumatic Rollers, Sheepsfoot, Smooth Wheeled or
Static Rollers, Vibratory Rollers
1) Cylindrical Rollers: are the type of walk-behind roller. These are traditional in that they
are relatively lightweight and are pushed by a person.
✓ Cylindrical rollers are used mainly for small and private projects.
✓ Cylindrical rollers are typically 1 meter in diameter and are generally made of iron,
stone, or concrete.
Cylindrical Rollers
2) Grid Rollers
❑ These are a type
of roller that has
a network of
steel bars, which
create a grid-
like pattern on
the steel drum.

✓ These types of rollers are generally towed or pulled behind a tractor or another heavy
machine.
✓ They’re most suitable on well-graded, coarse soils, weathered rocks, etc.
3) Pneumatic Rollers
Sometimes called
pneumatic tired
rollers, are a type of
large, ride-on rollers
with several rows of
rubber tires on the
front or rear end.

✓ They are typically used for pavements and can help smooth out and polish a project.
4) Sheepsfoot Rollers:
Otherwise known as padfoot or
tamping rollers, are rollers with
many rectangular-shaped lugs,
or “feet.”
✓ They’re great for compacting
soil and silty clay in road
construction work.
✓ They are utilized for the
purpose of compacting soil
✓ The areas compacted by sheepsfoot rollers can
that consists of a
be finished by going over them with a
combination of sand-gravel
pneumatic roller.
and fine-grained clay.
5) Smooth wheeled or Static rollers
There are generally two types of
smooth wheeled rollers: single and
double drum roller.
i) Double drum or tandem roller:
The tandem, or double drum roller,
has one steel drum in the front and
one in the back.

✓ The efficiency of the tandem roller comes from the two drums.
✓ These rollers are great for flat or gradual surfaces like asphalt, but because they have
very little traction, they’re not recommended for anything specialized.
ii) Single drum rollers: also
called three-wheeled rollers are
some of the most common
pieces of heavy-duty machinery.
✓ They typically have a steel
drum in the front and two
special wheels in the back.
✓ Single drum rollers can
work in tighter spaces and
more specialized projects
due to their smaller size.

✓ They’re great for creating foundations for buildings and paving highways or sidewalks,
but because of the extra weight in the front, they won’t roll over some surfaces.
6) Vibratory Rollers:
✓ Vibratory rollers are almost
identical to smooth wheel rollers
(including the single and double
drum) except for one major
difference: (They come with a
specialized vibrating
component).
✓ The primary use of vibratory
rollers is in highway and road
construction. When soil or ✓ A Construction sites can use this roller to
asphalt need to compact loose, a discover application for ground compaction
vibratory rollers are widely used. or stabilization.
✓ Vibratory rollers require an experienced driver to handle the most difficult road and
highway construction where a single mistake can make a dangerous accident.
❑ Rollers aren’t the only construction tools used for compaction work. Other types of
compactor equipment include the rammer and the vibratory plate.
Rammers compactors: are handheld and are best used for small jobs in tight areas.
✓ Due to their comparatively lightweight, they can be hand or machine operated, which
allows deep vibratory compaction.
Vibratory plate compactors: are used to increase the density of a variety of soils and fill
any voids.
✓ Because they are walk-behind compactors and are smaller in size, these compactors are
best used for tight spaces where large equipment can’t reach.
Parts of a compactors
❑ The working of a road roller is facilitated by several components, each playing a vital
role in its operation. The essential parts and features of road rollers are discussed
below.
1. Drum: is a cylindrical structure made of heavy metal, enabling effective compaction.
✓ It serves as the compaction interface between the roller and the material being
compacted.
✓ The weight of the drum forces the material particles close together, eliminating air
voids.
✓ In vibratory rollers, the drum contains eccentric weights that generate vibrations.
✓ There are different types of drums available: (Smooth drum, Padfoot drums and
Pneumatic drums)
Smooth drum: These drums have a smooth surface and are ideal for compacting granular
soils. They exert uniform pressure, making them suitable for cohesive materials as well.
Padfoot drums: These drums have cylindrical or rectangular shapes with protruding pad
or feet-like structures.
✓ The pads create concentrated pressure points on the surface, making padfoot drums
effective for compacting cohesive soils, clay, or other cohesive materials.
Pneumatic drums: Pneumatic drums are hollow and made of rubber. The rubber material
prevents surface damage and offers better traction.
✓ They are filled with air or water and used for compacting asphalt and provide a smooth
and uniform surface finish.
2. Cab: is where the operator sits and control the heavy machinery.
3. Engine and power train: are vital components of a road roller. The engine serves as the
power source, commonly powered by diesel, gasoline, or electric motors.
✓ The transmission system transfers power from the engine to the wheels, enabling
movement and control.
✓ Hydraulic controls play a crucial role in operating various functions, such as steering,
braking, and vibrating mechanisms.
✓ Together, these components ensure the efficient operation and maneuverability of the
road roller on construction sites.
4. Frame and axles: are crucial parts of a road roller, providing structural integrity,
stability, and maneuverability.
✓ The frame serves as the backbone, supporting the weight of the roller and its
components.
✓ Axles are responsible for transmitting power to the wheels and ensuring even weight
distribution.
5. Suspension systems: play a vital role in absorbing shocks and vibrations, enhancing
stability, and ensuring consistent compaction performance.
❑ In general,Rollers are equipped with basic features such as diesel engine, canopy to
protect the driver, drum(s), which can be a vibratory, smooth or a static smooth drum,
tires, a compaction meter to measure the level of compaction, Articulated Joint and a
water system.
Working Principles road rollers
The working principle of a static road roller: involves applying static weight to compact
the surface.
✓ The roller’s heavy drum exerts pressure on the material beneath, compressing it and
eliminating air voids.
✓ As the roller moves forward, the drum’s weight creates a downward force, increasing
soil density.
❖ The static road roller does not have vibrating or oscillating mechanisms. It relies solely
on its weight and gravity to achieve compaction.
❖ This method is effective for compacting cohesive soils and achieving a smooth and
stable surface suitable for road construction and other applications.
The working principle vibratory road rollers: utilizes both vibrations and the drums
weight for compaction.
✓ The roller’s drum contains eccentric weights that rotate rapidly, creating vibrations.
✓ These vibrations are transferred to the material being compacted, causing the particles
to rearrange and settle closely together.
✓ The high-frequency vibrations help in densifying the soil, eliminating air voids, and
enhancing compaction efficiency. These vibratory action of the roller improves
compaction in granular soils, and the frequency of vibrations can be adjusted to suit
different soil types and compaction requirements.
6. Scrapers
 Scrapers: are the earth-moving equipment used to provide flatten soil surface through
scrapping.
✓ Scrapers are used to move or remove dirt, gravel or other material from the ground
surface.
✓ Though they are specially designed for this purpose, they can also perform tasks such
as: Excavation, Levelling, Loading, Hauling, Dumping and Cutting to a grade.
✓ While they can perform the core tasks of a worksite, they can also do things no other
machine can do. One of these is scraping wet soil without waiting for it to dry.
✓ Because of this, scrapers are considered both a specialized and versatile machine
✓ Scrapers can thus be used as an all-rounder machine in the agriculture, construction and
mining industries.
✓ Scrapers remove layers of earth by dropping a horizontal blade (bowl) from their trailer
into the soil below.
✓ When a scraper moves forward the blade scrapes the material into the bowl.
Types of Scrapers
❑ Based on propulsion, scrapers can be classified as: a towed (pull-style scraper) or self-
propelled scraper.
Self-propelled scrapers are more popular than towed scrapers overall because they don’t
require a vehicle to pull them along.
Pull-style scrapers: are considered to be more versatile than self-propelled ones.
✓ However, pull-style or towed scrapers generally have less capacity for rocky
conditions and larger aggregates than motored or self-propelled scrapers.
❑ Other types of scrapers include:
a) Single engine wheeled scrapers: are the most common scrapers, designed with a bowl
and apron, which keeps the material from flying out the top of the scraper.
b) Dual engine wheeled scrapers: includes a powerful engine in the front of the vehicle
and in the trailer.
✓ These are the best for worksites on rough terrains and for wet soil and sand soil.
c) Elevating scrapers: It can remove, mix and homogenize soil, and complete fine
finished work. These are best for clay, topsoil and sand.
Applications of Scrapers
✓ The versatility of scrapers makes them ideal for a variety of applications including
heavy earthmoving, agriculture, construction and mining industries.
❑ Some of the applications of scrapers include:
Excavation and site preparation: Scrapers are perfect machines for excavation and site
preparation.
✓ They are used to move dirt and other materials from one location to another.
✓ They are efficient and can move a large amount of material within a short period.
✓ This makes them ideal for preparing a site before construction or mining operations
begin.
Material handling and transportation: They are used to transport materials such as coal,
ore, and sand from one location to another.
✓ They are efficient machines, and their high load capacity means that one machine can
transport, haul and dump a large amount of material within a short period.
Mining operations: Scrapers are used in mining operations to move dirt and other
materials from one location to another.
✓ They are efficient and can move a large amount of material within a short period,
making them ideal for mining operations where large amounts of material need to be
moved within a short period.
benefits of scrapers
✓ The mining benefits of scrapers are known to offer numerous benefits that make them
the ideal choice for any job.
✓ The benefits of scrapers in heavy earthmoving and mining applications includes: safety
considerations, versatility, durability, reduced environmental impact, power unit cost-
effectiveness, and maneuverability.
Improved safety and efficiency : With the ability to work in harsh conditions and
challenging terrain, scrapers are designed to provide maximum safety for operators by
keeping them out of harm's way.
✓ These machines are also equipped with various attachments such as blades, rippers and
other machines which can help increase their efficiency and productivity.
✓ By using these attachments, operators can reduce the risk of injury and perform tasks
with greater speed.
✓ The combination of safety features and productivity enhancements make scrapers an
essential tool in mining operations.
Versatility: Scrapers are extremely versatile pieces of equipment on a job site.
✓ They can be used in a variety of applications, from excavation and site preparation to
material handling and transportation.
✓ This versatility makes them ideal for heavy earthmoving and mining operations, as
they can be used to complete a wide range of tasks quickly and efficiently.
✓ These machines can also be modified to better suit a particular application.
Durability: Scrapers are designed to withstand the toughest conditions.
✓ The machines are built in a way that they can easily handle the demands of heavy
earthmoving and mining operations.
✓ The scraper's construction is designed to handle the rough and loose material and tough
terrain of the mining site.
✓ The durable construction of scrapers engines also means that they require minimal
maintenance on the job site.
Reduced environmental impact: Scrapers can help reduce the environmental impact of
using heavy machinery in earthmoving and mining operations.
✓ They have a lower carbon footprint compared to other pieces of equipment, such as
haul and articulated dump trucks.
✓ Moreover, scrapers can reduce the amount of fuel consumed during a project, which
minimizes emissions and saves costs.
✓ This means that scrapers are environmentally friendly, making them an ideal solution
for heavy earthmoving and mining applications.
Cost-effectiveness: Their durability and low maintenance requirements significantly
reduce operating and maintenance costs, making them more cost-effective than other types
of heavy equipment used.
✓ This cost-effectiveness results in increased profitability, making scrapers an excellent
investment for any heavy earthmoving and mining operation.
Maneuverability: The maneuverability of scrapers is one of the most significant
advantages they offer in both earthmoving applications, and mining applications.
✓ These machines are designed to move smoothly in tight spaces, which makes them
perfect for working in challenging and restricted areas due to their compact size.
✓ They can also make tight turns and have a short turning radius, which means that they
can change direction quickly and easily, improving their overall efficiency.
✓ Their ability to move around obstacles and work effectively in tight spaces means that
they can achieve a high level of accuracy, which is essential for achieving the desired
results.
 7. paving material
✓ Paving work: Means any work on a driveway like installing, constructing,
resurfacing, sealing, repairing, expanding or altering a driveway, lane, roadway or
parking area.
✓ Pavements are often made of materials such as asphalt or concrete. But they can also
be constructed from artificial stone, flagstone, cobblestone, bricks, tiles or even timber.
✓ Paving serves to protect surrounding structures and the underlying surfaces against
elements related to load bearing and weather.
✓ Paving materials: include asphalt, concrete, stones such as flagstone, cobblestone,
artificial stone, bricks, tiles, and sometimes wood.
Purpose of paving
❑ Paving serves several purposes as discussed below:
i) Protection of the underlying surface area: Wind, rain, vehicles driving over the area,
and foot traffic cause weathering of a surface if it is not covered by a solid and well-
compacted overlay.
ii) Solid drive and parking surface: Vehicles operating on uneven surfaces are exposed
to unnecessary wear and tear and heavy vehicles can end up stuck in sandy areas.
✓ Solid and even surfaces that can handle the particular load and traffic are thus
essential.
✓ To this end, proper installation of the appropriate concrete pavers provides for the
ideal solution.
iii) Reduce dust and mud in the area: paved areas help to keep areas free from sand and
mud. Sand particles are easily blown into buildings during windy days.
✓ Rainy weather causes unpaved areas to become muddy and the splash-back of the
muddy water causes excessive dirt collection on the vehicle bodies.
✓ The installation of concrete pavers thus helps to create a cleaner outdoor setting at a
particular property.
iv) Low maintenance drive and park area: Keeping compact surfaces neat can be labor
intensive and repairs may be costly.
✓ Instead of simply applying loose gravel on a large parking area, concrete pavers can be
installed. These pavers don’ require new protective coats every few months.
v) Aesthetic appeal: is the stunning and stylish look and feel that can be attained through
concrete pavers.
✓ Whether for residential or commercial areas, paving is the solution if you want a
robust, yet, attractive surface that can add value to a property.
❑ In general concrete pavers offer the following distinct advantages:
✓ Highly durable and thus able to withstand extreme traffic and weather.
✓ Low maintenance and low cost of ownership over the lifespan of the product.
✓ Excellent load-bearing capacity.
✓ Versatile as many surface designs can be created through the various colors and
placement.
✓ Non-slip surface which makes it perfect for wet weather driving or walking.
✓ Repairing a damaged paver doesn’t involve the removal and replacement of the entire
section.
✓ Installation is relatively quick in comparison with many other types of surfaces.
Types of pavement in road construction
❑ There are two main types of road surfaces and pavement construction methods:
i) Rigid pavement (consisting of one layer) and
ii) Flexible pavement (typically made up of multiple layers).
8. Material Handlers
Material Handlers/Material Handling Equipment: these are any piece of equipment
that deals with the transportation, storage and control of materials at any stage of the
processing of the materials.
✓ Any material that helps in situations where it’s critical to move large and heavy
materials in a production environment can be classified as material handling equipment
or material handlers.
❑ If you work in the construction industry, you are likely to use machinery and
equipment that help to lift, carry, and move heavy loads to complete projects quickly,
efficiently, and safely.
❑ The most common types of lifting equipment used in the construction industry are the
forklift and the telehandler.
Industrial trucks/Lift trucks/Forklift: is a type of powered material handlers used to lift
loads vertically and move materials over short distances.
✓ Forklifts are primarily used indoors in warehouses and factories where space is
limited.
❑ Common functions of forklifts include:
➢ Loading and unloading loads from lorries
➢ Transporting cargo from one place to another
➢ Lifting pallets up and down from tall warehouse racking and shelving
➢ Order picking
How does a forklift work?
❑ Forklifts can be powered by either battery power or fuel. Electric forklifts powered by
batteries don’t emit any emissions and so are much better for the environment.
✓ Forklifts powered by fuel like LPG or diesel are usually more heavy-duty pieces of
equipment with greater lifting capabilities.
✓ Different types of forklifts may operate in slightly different ways. However, most
forklifts operate using roller chain pulleys and hydraulic cylinders.
✓ The hydraulic cylinder is a hollow tube with a piston on one end and used to create
physical equilibrium.
✓ When the forklift operator pushes the lift handle forwards, more air is pumped into the
cylinders to lift the load.
✓ When the operator pulls the handle backwards, a valve gently releases air from the
cylinder to lower the load.
✓ Using cylinders alone, the forklift would not be able to reach very high.
✓ Roller chain pulleys are used to help the forklift reach higher. A forklift’s forks are
attached using a pair of roller chain pulleys.
Types of forklift
❑ The most appropriate type of forklift for the job varies from one environment to the
next, depending on what the project’ requirements are. There are over 20 types of
forklift, each with different functions and capabilities.
❑ The most popular types of forklift are:
Counterbalance forklift: This type of forklift uses a weight to counterbalance the load it
is lifting.
Rough terrain forklift: Large, pneumatic tyres and a powerful engine make the rough
terrain forklift ideal for working outside on rough or uneven terrain.
Side loader forklift: These forklifts have forks attached to their side instead of their front.
Ideal for working in narrow areas and lifting long objects.
Reach forklift: It has an extended height and can reach up to 10 meters. Usually used
inside warehouses.
Major parts of a forklift
❑ There are three major parts of a forklift: The chassis, the mast, and the overhead guard.
The chassis: is comprised of 4 major components:
1. The counterweight
2. The engine or battery compartment
3. The operator compartment
4. The wheels and tires
A forklift counterweight: is a weight mounted on the rear of a forklift.
✓ Any weight ahead of the front wheels needs to be balanced by weight behind the
wheels.
✓ Without that counterbalance, a loaded forklift would become too heavy on the front.
The mast: is the front part of a forklift.
✓ A forklift mast, also called upright, is the part of the forklift that lifts, positions, and
lowers the loads that forklifts handle.
✓ There are two main types of forklift counterweights:
Bulk-Type: is the most common type of counterweight designed with a hollow body that’s
typically lead-filled.
Stack-Type: Stack counterweights are usually used on high-capacity forklifts.
Telehandlers: also called “telescopic handlers” are the more versatile machine primarily
used in construction, industry, and agriculture to carry heavy loads from one place to
another.
✓ It is somewhat like a forklift but has a boom (telescopic cylinder), making it more a
crane than a forklift, with the increased versatility of a single telescopic boom that can
extend forwards and upwards from the vehicle.
✓ The boom can be fitted with different attachments suitable for different operation.
✓ The compact frame and impressive maneuverability make it possible to access tight
areas that large forklifts are not able to.
❑ Functions of a telehandler
❑ The innovative telehandler is essential equipment for an extensive range of industries
and applications.
✓ Telehandlers combine the lift capacity of a hydraulic forklift with the reach and
elevation of a crane.
Functions of a telehandler include:
Material handling: A primary use for telehandlers is carrying heavy loads from one place
to another
Elevated positioning: The telescopic reach of a telehandler boom allows businesses to
safely position personnel high above the ground. It’s also a less labor-intensive way to
deliver tools and materials to heights.
Snow removal: Among the many uses of a telehandler is the ability to plow snow in the
winter months.
Sanitation and recycling: Telehandlers are used in waste removal and recycling centers.
❑ There are typically three main telehandler sizes: light to medium-duty, heavy-duty, and
high capacity.
✓ Light to medium-duty telehandlers, also known as 6k or 8k telehandlers, have lifting
capacities between 5,000 and 9,000 lbs. This machine size range reaches between 19 to
42 feet and often does not require outriggers or stabilizers.
✓ Heavy-duty telehandlers, commonly known as 10k or 12k telehandlers, can lift up to
12,000 lbs. They have a reach of 54 feet and come with outriggers or stabilizers for
added stability.
✓ High-capacity telehandlers are specialized machines. They can lift between 14,000 and
24,000 pounds and reach between 33 and 56 feet. Outriggers can come as an optional
feature.
How does a telehandlers work?
❑ Just like the forklift, the telehandlers can be powered either by environment-friendly
electric energy or by gas or diesel.
✓ Electric telehandlers are generally only suited to jobs where lighter loads are being
lifted.
✓ For more heavy-duty jobs you are likely to require a more powerful gas or diesel-
powered telehandler.
❑ Telehandlers typically use hydraulic valves to operate their most important functions,
including:
➢ Steering
➢ Frame levelling
➢ Extending and retracting the stabilizers
➢ Lifting the boom up and down
➢ Extending and retracting the boom
➢ Tilting the fork backwards and forwards
❑ The telehandler’s hydraulic system is made up of several important elements
including:
➢ A tank containing hydraulic fluid.
➢ A hydraulic pump that pushes the fluid around the system
➢ A control valve for regulating the flow direction
➢ A relief valve to protect from excess pressure
➢ A cylinder that helps the flow of hydraulic fluid to lift the load
➢ A return line that sends the fluid back to the tank
Components of a Telehandler
❑ With only a few main components, telehandlers perform the work of several devices.
The three main parts are:
The Cab: is the most straightforward component of the telehandler where the user sits and
operates the machine.
Extendable Boom: Also known as a telescopic cylinder is what sets telehandlers apart
from devices like forklifts. The boom extends above and in front of the cab. It also lets
telehandlers lift materials to a higher elevation.
Attachments: Telehandlers hold attachments at the end of their extendable boom. Most
telehandler brands offer different attachments to carry a variety of materials, which allows
for versatility.
✓ Depending on the industry and scale of a project, several attachments could be useful.
❑ Examples of attachments include:
Pallet forks: These tines perform the same function as forks on a forklift.
✓ They carry loads such as pallets, raw materials or piping and are sometimes referred to
as forklift carriages.
Crane jibs: This type of hook lets telehandlers operate more like a crane.
Buckets: These containers scoop up loose materials like soil or sand. These buckets are
one of the most common attachments in the agriculture sector.
Work cages: This kind of platform lets telehandlers lift workers to higher elevations.
Types of telehandler
❑ The three main types of telehandler are:
Fixed boom rough terrain telehandler: This is the most common type of telehandler, it
features a fixed cab and a standard boom.
Rotating telehandler: The cab and attached boom can be rotated 360 degrees on a rotating
telehandler, making this piece of equipment both versatile and efficient.
Heavy-duty telehandler: If you require more power, heavy-duty telehandlers can lift
weights of up to 16,000 lbs
Difference Between Forklifts and Telehandlers
✓ Forklifts typically lift loads vertically whereas telehandlers are used to lift loads
forwards, backwards and side to side.
✓ Forklifts can only transport materials at one elevation while telehandlers can lift
materials to another floor or transport them diagonally.
✓ Forklifts offer less flexibility and can only lift materials a few feet off the ground and
drive them across a flat surface.
✓ Conversely, telehandlers stay level on rough terrain, but they can lift cargo without
moving their base.
Telehandlers Forklifts
9. Crushers
A crusher: is a machine designed to reduce large rocks into smaller rocks, gravel, or dust.
✓ Crushers may be used to reduce the size.
✓ Crushing devices hold material between two parallel or tangent solid surfaces, and
apply sufficient force to bring the surfaces together to generate enough energy within
the material being crushed.
Types of crushers
The most commonly used types of crushers are: Jaw crushers, Gyratory crushers, Cone
crushers and Impact crusher.
Type Hardness Moisture content
Jaw crushers Soft to very hard Dry to slightly wet, not sticky
Gyratory crushers Soft to very hard Dry to slightly wet, not sticky
Cone crushers Medium hard to very hard Dry or wet, not sticky
Compound crusher Medium hard to very hard Dry or wet, not sticky
1. A jaw crusher: It is a type of crusher in which mechanical pressure is achieved by the
two jaws of the crusher (one is fixed while the other reciprocates).
✓ A jaw or toggle crusher consists of a set of vertical jaws, one jaw is kept stationary
and is called a fixed jaw while the other jaw, called a swing jaw, moves back and forth
relative to it, by a cam or pitman mechanism
✓ The volume or cavity between the two jaws is called the crushing chamber.
✓ The inertia required to crush the material is provided by a weighted flywheel that
moves a shaft creating an eccentric motion that causes the closing of the gap.
✓ Jaw crushers are heavy duty machines and hence need to be robustly constructed.
✓ The outer frame is generally made of cast iron or steel.
✓ The jaws themselves are usually constructed from cast steel.
❑ Jaw crushers are classified on the basis of the position of the pivoting of the swing jaw
Blake crusher: The swing jaw is fixed at the upper position.
✓ The Blake type jaw crusher has a fixed feed area and a variable discharge area.
✓ Blake crushers are of two types- single toggle and double toggle jaw crushers.
Dodge crusher: The swing jaw is fixed at the lower position.
✓ The Dodge jaw crusher has a variable feed area and a fixed discharge area.
✓ In the Dodge type jaw crushers, the jaws are farther apart at the top than at the bottom,
forming a tapered chute so that the material is crushed progressively smaller and
smaller as it travels downward until it is small enough to escape from the bottom
opening.
Universal crusher: The swing jaw is fixed at an intermediate position.
2. A gyratory crusher: is one of the main types of primary crushers in a mine and ore
processing plant.
✓ It is similar in basic concept to a jaw crusher, consisting of a concave surface and a
conical head; both surfaces are typically lined with manganese steel surfaces.
✓ As with the jaw crusher, material travels downward between the two surfaces being
progressively crushed until it is small enough to fall out through the gap between the
two surfaces.
✓ Gyratory crushers can be used for primary or secondary crushing. The crushing action
is caused by the closing of the gap between the mantle line (movable) mounted on the
central vertical spindle and the concave liners (fixed) mounted on the main frame of
the crusher.
✓ The gap is opened and closed by an eccentric on the bottom of the spindle.
✓ The vertical spindle is free to rotate around its own axis.
3. A cone crusher: is similar in operation to a gyratory crusher, with less steepness in the
crushing chamber and more of a parallel zone between crushing zones.
✓ A cone crusher breaks rock by squeezing them between an eccentrically gyrating
spindle and the enclosing concave hopper.
✓ As rock enters the top of the cone crusher, it becomes wedged and squeezed between
the mantle and the bowl liner or concave.
✓ Large pieces of ore are broken once, and then fall to a lower position (because they are
now smaller) where they are broken again. This process continues until the pieces are
small enough to fall through the narrow opening at the bottom of the crusher.
✓ It has the advantage of reliable construction, high productivity, easy adjustment and
lower operational costs.
✓ The cone crusher can be divided into four types: compound cone crusher, spring cone
crusher, hydraulic cone crusher and gyratory crusher.
❑ According to different models, the cone crusher is divided into vertical shaft cone
crusher (VSC), series cone crusher (compound cone crusher), Symons cone crusher,
PY cone crusher, single cylinder hydraulic cone crusher, multi-cylinder hydraulic cone
crusher, gyratory crusher, etc.
a) Compound cone crusher: can crush materials of over medium hardness. It is mainly
used in mining, chemical industry, road and bridge construction, building, etc.
✓ There are four crushing cavities (coarse, medium, fine and superfine) to choose.
b) Symons cone crusher: also called (spring cone crusher) can crush materials of above
medium hardness. And it is widely used in metallurgy, building, hydropower,
transportation, chemical industry, etc.
✓ When used with jaw crusher, it can be used as secondary, tertiary or quaternary
crushing.
✓ Generally speaking, the standard type of Symons cone crusher is applied to medium
crushing, the medium type is applied to fine crushing and the short head type is applied
to coarse fine crushing.
✓ As casting steel technique is adopted, the machine has good rigidity and large high
strength.
c) Single cylinder hydraulic cone crusher: is mainly composed of main frame,
transmission device, eccentric shaft, bowl-shaped bearing, crushing cone, mantle, bowl
liner, adjusting device, adjusting sleeve, hydraulic control system, hydraulic safety system,
dustproof ring, feed plate, etc.
d) Multi-cylinder hydraulic cone crusher: is mainly composed of main frame, eccentric
shaft, crushing cone, mantle, bowl liner, adjusting device, dust ring, transmission device,
bowl-shaped bearing, adjusting sleeve, hydraulic control system, hydraulic safety system,
etc.
✓ The electric motor of the cone crusher drives the eccentric shaft to make periodic
swing movement under the shaft axis, and consequently surface of mantle approaches
and leaves the surface of bowl liner now and then, so that the material is crushed due to
squeezing and grinding inside the crushing chamber.
4. Impact crusher: involve the use of impact rather than pressure to crush material.
✓ The material is contained within a cage, with openings on the bottom, end, or side of
the desired size to allow pulverized material to escape.
✓ There are two types of impact crushers: horizontal shaft impactor and vertical shaft
impactor.
A) Horizontal shaft impactor (HSI) / Hammer mill: The HSI crushers break rock by
impacting the rock with hammers that are fixed upon the outer edge of a spinning rotor.
✓ These can be Stationary, trailer mounted and crawler mounted configurations.
✓ HSI’s are used in recycling, hard rock and soft materials.
B) Vertical shaft impactor (VSI): VSI crushers use a different approach involving a high
speed rotor with wear resistant tips and a crushing chamber designed to 'throw' the rock
against.
✓ The VSI crushers utilize velocity rather than surface force as the predominant force to
break rock.
✓ They generally utilize a high speed spinning rotor at the center of the crushing chamber
and an outer impact surface of metal anvils.
✓ Utilizing velocity rather than surface force allows the breaking force to be applied
evenly both across the surface of the rock as well as through the mass of the rock.
✓ As rock is 'thrown' by a VSI Rotor against a solid anvil, it fractures and breaks.
❖ Final particle size can be controlled by:
i. The velocity at which the rock is thrown against the anvil and
ii. The distance between the end of the rotor and the impact point on the anvil.
✓ Using this method also allows materials with much higher abrasiveness to be crushed
than is capable with an HSI and most other crushing methods.
✓ VSI crushers can be used in static plant set-up or in mobile tracked equipment.
❑ The following table describes typical uses of commonly used crushers:
 Type Hardness Abrasion limit Moisture content Main use

Dry to slightly wet, Heavy mining, quarried materials,

Jaw crushers Soft to very hard No limit
not sticky sand & gravel, recycling

Dry to slightly wet,

Gyratory crushers Soft to very hard Abrasive Heavy mining, quarried materials
not sticky
Medium hard to very
Cone crushers Abrasive Dry or wet, not sticky Quarried materials, sand & gravel
hard
Medium hard to very
Compound crusher Abrasive Dry or wet, not sticky Mine, building materials
hard
Horizontal shaft Quarried materials, sand & gravel,
Soft to medium hard Slightly abrasive Dry or wet, not sticky
impactors recycling
Vertical shaft
Medium hard to very
impactors (shoe and Slightly abrasive Dry or wet, not sticky Sand & gravel, recycling
hard
anvil)

Vertical shaft
Soft to very hard No limit Dry or wet, not sticky Quarried materials, sand & gravel
impactors (autogenous)

Mineral sizers Hard to soft Abrasive Dry or wet and sticky Heavy mining
10. Concrete mixer
A concrete mixer: (also commonly called a cement mixer) is a device that
homogeneously combines cement, aggregate such as sand or gravel, and water to form
concrete.
✓ A typical concrete mixer uses a revolving drum to mix the components. For smaller
volume works portable concrete mixers are often used so that the concrete can be made
at the construction site, giving the workers sufficient time to use the concrete before it
hardens.
types of mixer
1. Industrial mixer: provides consistent homogeneity and short mixing times for the
industrial production of ready-mix concrete.
✓ This has resulted in refinement of mixing technologies for concrete production.
The most common mixers used today fall into 3 categories:
Twin-shaft mixers: known for their high intensity mixing, and short mixing times. These
mixers are typically used for high strength concrete.
Vertical axis mixers: most commonly used for precast and prestressed concrete.
✓ This style of mixer cleans well between batches, and is favored for colored concrete,
smaller batches and multiple discharge points.
Drum mixers: (reversing drum mixer and tilting drum mixers), used where large volumes
are being produced.
✓ This type of mixer is capable of high production speeds, ideal for collapse concrete,
and where overall cost of production is important.
✓ Drum mixers have the lowest maintenance and operating cost of the three styles of
mixers.
❖ All the mixer styles have their own natural strengths and weaknesses, and all three
styles of mixers are used throughout the world to varying degrees of popularity.
Twin shaft concrete mixer for concrete plant
2. Concrete mixing transport truck: Special concrete transport trucks (in–transit mixers)
are made to transport and mix concrete up to the construction site.
✓ They can be charged with dry materials and water, with the mixing occurring during
transport.
✓ They can also be loaded from a “central mix” plant, with this process the material has
already been mixed prior to loading.
✓ The concrete mixing transport truck maintains the material’s liquid state through
agitation, or turning of the drum, until delivery.
✓ The interior of the drum on a concrete mixing truck is fitted with a spiral blade.
✓ In one rotational direction, the concrete is pushed deeper into the drum. This is the
direction the drum is rotated while the concrete is being transported to the building site
and it is known as charging the mixer.
✓ When the drum rotates in the other direction, the screw- arrangement discharges or
forces the concrete out of the drum.
✓ From there it may go onto chutes to guide the viscous concrete directly to the job site.
✓ If the truck can- not get close enough to the site to use the chutes, the concrete may be
discharged into a concrete pump, connected to a flexible hose, or onto a conveyor belt
which can be extended some distance.
✓ A pump provides the means to move the material to precise locations, multi-floor
buildings, and other distance prohibitive locations.
✓ Buckets suspended from cranes are also used to place the concrete.
Rear discharge trucks require both a driver and a “chute man” to guide the truck and
chute back and forth to place concrete in the manner suitable to the contractor.
Front discharge trucks have controls inside the cab of the truck to allow the driver to
move the chute in all directions.
Concrete mixing transport truck
3. Concrete mixer trailer: A variant of
standard concrete transportation is the
concrete or cement mixing trailer.
✓ These small versions of a transit-
mix truck are used to supply short
loads of concrete.
✓ These cart-away style trailers have a
concrete mixing drum with a
capacity of between (0.76 and 1.34
m3).
✓ Cart-always are usually pulled
behind a pick-up truck and batched Cart-Away Mixing Trailer
from smaller batching systems.
4. On-site and portable concrete mixers: Used
for smaller jobs, such as residential repairs,
renovations, or hobbyist-scale projects.
✓ To service this small-batch concrete
market, there are many types of small
portable concrete mixers available.
✓ A typical portable concrete mixer uses a
small revolving drum to mix the
components.
✓ Portable concrete mixers may be powered by a gasoline engine, although it is more
common that they are powered by electric motors.
✓ For smaller jobs the concrete made at the construction site has no time lost in transport,
giving the workers ample time to use the concrete before it hardens.
 11. Asphalt Plant
Asphalt plants for
road construction
An asphalt plant: is a plant used for the manufacture of asphalt, concrete and other forms
of coated roadstone, sometimes collectively known as blacktop or asphalt concrete.
✓ The manufacture of coated roadstone demands the combination of a number of
aggregates, sand and a filler (such as stone dust), in the correct proportions, heated, and
finally coated with a binder.
✓ Asphalt mixing plants use sand and gravel aggregates, bitumen, water, mineral powder,
etc. as raw materials to produce different types of asphalt mixtures, such as modified
asphalt mixtures, colored asphalt mixtures, etc.
✓ The temperature of the finished product must be sufficient (in the range of 100 - 200
degrees Celsius) to be workable after transport to the final destination.
✓ It is mainly suitable for the construction of highways, graded roads, airport, etc.
✓ It has the advantages of wide application range, high efficiency, large output, stable
operation, and good quality of finished asphalt.
✓ Recycled asphalt pavement (RAP) is used as part of the mix. The binder used is
flammable, and the heaters are large liquid or gas fired burners.
Types of asphalt mixing plant
❑ There are three main classes of plant: Forced mix Asphalt plant, drum mix Asphalt
plant, and Mobile Asphalt plant.
❑ There are many different types of asphalt mixing plants that are suitable for different
projects.
✓ According to different classification standards, asphalt mixing plants can be divided
into different types.
➢ According to mobility, it can be divided into stationary type and mobile type;
➢ According to different mixing methods, it can be divided into continuous drum mixing
type and intermittent forced mixing type;
➢ According to different production capacity, it can be divided into small, medium and
large asphalt plants.
Forced mix asphalt plant: is a kind of equipment that uses a forced mixer to mix asphalt
mixture. It is also called asphalt batch mix plant.
✓ It is mainly suitable for projects with high requirements on project quality and output,
such as municipal roads, graded roads, airport roads, etc.
Its advantages
➢ Modular design, reasonable layout, quicker and more convenient disassembly
transportation installation.
➢ reduces the equipment failure rate and prolongs the service life of the equipment.
➢ Mass production and large output range can meet the needs of projects of different
scales.
➢ It. The dust removal effect is good, because it is equipped with a two-stage dust
collector and it is suitable for areas with higher environmental protection requirements.
Drum mix asphalt plant: use drying drums to complete the mixing of asphalt mixture.
✓ It is mainly suitable for projects with limited budget and low quality requirements for
finished products, such as township roads and country roads.
✓ In addition, it is also suitable for road repair work.
Its advantages
➢ Compact structure and small footprint to work well even in tight spaces.
➢ The operation is simple and convenient as well as easy to transport and transition.
➢ It can be equipped with a movable chassis and can be towed away directly by a trailer.
➢ Its internal structure of the drying drum is optimized, the heating speed is fast, and the
stirring effect is good.
➢ The price is relatively cheap and the investment cost is low. It is cost-effective.
➢ The production process is simple and continuous production can be realized.
Mobile asphalt mixing plant: It is mainly suitable for projects with a short construction
period and frequent transitions because of its convenient movement and flexible transition.
Its advantages
➢ The main components are equipped with trailers and chassis, which can realize quick
relocation.
➢ Compared with the stationary asphalt plant, there is no need to lay the foundation in
advance before installation, and it is more convenient to use.
➢ The core components are made of wear-resistant materials for longer service life.
➢ The main equipment is concentrated on the mobile frame, which occupies a small area
and saves space.
➢ Adopt PLC control system, automatic control, higher precision.
Difference between batch mix plant and drum mix plant
❑ The difference of the two plants mainly depends on the : Components, dust removal
systems, quality of finished asphalt mixtures, capacities, prices, weighing systems and
mixing systems.
Components
❖ The components included in both kinds of asphalt mixing plants are: cold aggregate
batching machine, drying drum, belt conveyor, asphalt tank, burner, finished asphalt
storage bin, control room, dust collector, and finished product elevator.
✓ In addition, the batch mix asphalt plant has more components than the drum mix
asphalt plant: forced mixer, two different dust collectors, vibrating screen, electric
control system, and hot aggregate elevator.
✓ Because the components are different, their workflows are also different.
Dust removal systems
✓ Batch mix asphalt plants are generally equipped with two-stage dust removal.
Commonly used dust collectors are gravity dust removal and bag dust removal, which
have good dust removal effect and reduce pollution.
✓ The drum mix asphalt plant is generally only equipped with a first-stage dust removal.
The commonly used dust collector is water dust removal, which is cheap, but the dust
removal effect is average.
Quality of finished asphalt mixtures
✓ Because of the accuracy of weighing and the configuration of high-performance
mixers, compared with the drum mix plant, the finished asphalt quality of the batch
mix asphalt plant is better.
Capacities
✓ The production range of the forced mix asphalt plant is 40t/h to 400t/h, while the
production range of the drum mix asphalt plant is 20t/h to 100t/h.
Prices
The price of forced mixing asphalt plant is slightly higher than that of drum mix asphalt
plant.
Weighing systems
❖ Batch mix asphalt plants need to weigh the material twice.
✓ The first weighing is done after the cold aggregate is fed into the aggregate batching
machine.
✓ The second weighing is done before the hot aggregate is discharged into the mixer
from the temporary storage bin. This is done to ensure the accuracy of the raw material
ratios.
❖ The weighing of the drum mix asphalt plant is relatively simple, only a rough weighing
is required after the cold aggregate is sent into the batching machine.
Mixing systems
✓ The drying drum of the forced mix asphalt plant is used to dry and heat the materials. It
is also equipped with a forced mixer for mixing materials.
✓ The drying drum of the drum mix plant integrates the functions of drying, heating and
mixing materials.
Main Structure asphalt plant
❑ The asphalt plant is mainly composed of cold aggregate supply system, drum dryer,
coal burner, coal feeder, dust collector, hot aggregate elevator, vibrating screen, filler
supply system, weighing and mixing system, asphalt storage, bitumen supply system.
12. Ditching and Trenching Equipment
Trenching: involves digging narrow trenches in the earth. Trenchers range in size from
handheld instruments to heavy equipment and which you need depends on your project
requirements.
A trencher: is a piece of earthmoving equipment designed to create ditches with flat
bottoms and smooth walls. It is a piece of construction equipment used to dig trenches,
especially for laying pipes or cables, for installing drainage, or in preparation for trench
warfare.
Types of trenching machines
✓ Trenchers come in different sizes and may use different digging implements,
depending on the required width and depth of the trench and the hardness of the
surface to be cut.
❑ Machine trenchers are often categorized by their blade type:
Wheel: Uses a toothed metal wheel that can cut through rocks
Chain: Has a chainsaw-like design best for digging narrow and deep trenches
Micro: Uses a thin metal blade for cutting “micro trenches” from 0.5 to 2 inches wide.
Wheel Trencher: a wheel trencher or rock wheel is composed of a toothed metal wheel.
✓ It is cheaper to operate and maintain than chain-type trenchers.
✓ It can work in hard or soft soils, either homogeneous (compact rocks, silts, sands) or
heterogeneous (split or broken rock).
✓ Due to its design the wheel may reach variable cutting depths with the same tool, and
can keep a constant soil working angle with a relatively small wheel diameter.
✓ A system of spacers and ejectors allows the excavated materials to be moved away
from the edges of the trench to avoid possible “recycling”.
✓ Wheel trenchers may be mounted on tracks or rubber tires.
Chain Trencher: cuts with a digging chain or belt that is driven around a rounded metal
frame, or boom. It resembles a giant chainsaw.
✓ This type of trencher can cut ground that is too hard to cut with a bucket-type
excavator, and can also cut narrow and deep trenches.
✓ The angle of the boom can be adjusted to control the depth of the cut. To cut a trench,
the boom is held at a fixed angle while the machine creeps slowly.
✓ The chain trencher is used for digging wider trenches (telecommunication, electricity,
drainage, water, gas, sanitation, etc.) especially in rural areas.
✓ The excavated materials can be removed by conveyor belt reversible either on the right
or on the left side.
✓ There are various methods for excavating trenches in rock; principally drill and blast,
hydraulic breakers and chain trenchers.
Micro Trencher: is a “small rock wheel” specially designed for work in urban area.
✓ It is fitted with a cutting wheel that cuts a micro trench with smaller dimensions than
can be achieved with conventional trench digging equipment.
✓ Micro trench widths range from about 30 to 130 mm (1.2 to 5.1 in) with a depth of 500
mm (20 in) or less.
✓ Owing to the reduced trench size, the volume of waste material excavated is also
reduced.
✓ A micro trencher can work on sidewalks or in narrow streets of cities, and can cut
harder ground than a chain trencher, including cutting through solid stone.
✓ They are also used to cut pavement for road maintenance and to gain access to utilities
under roads.
Portable Trencher: These
machines are lightweight and
portable which is easily
maneuverable compared to other
types of trenchers.
✓ The cutting implement may be
a chain or a blade similar to a
rotary mower blade oriented so
that it rotates in a vertical plane.