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Name: Class: Date:
CHAPTER 10 - Interest Groups

Multiple Choice
1. In a poll cited in the text, _____ percent of Americans said they favored universal background checks for gun
ownership.
a. 8
b. 21
c. 52
d. 76
e. 92
ANSWER: e
REFERENCES: 271
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: CHDM.JAND.16.10.1 - LO1
NOTES: F
2. With no one taking the lead in an interest group’s traditional agenda building role, in the wake of the Newtown
massacre the only legislation that passed was ______________.
a. prohibiting those younger than 18 from possessing firearms without a gun-handling skills test
b. closing the loophole in current law whereby people buying firearms at gun shows and in the internet are not
subject to a background check
c. clarifying the definitions of medical and mental health conditions that disqualify a person from handgun
ownership
d. expanding the list of laws for which convictions may disqualify a person from handgun ownership
e. No legislation was passed in response to the Newtown massacre.
ANSWER: e
REFERENCES: 271
NOTES: A
3. The primary goal of interest groups is to

a. educate the public about issues.
b. sponsor candidates for elections.
c. fight corruption in government.
d. influence public policy.
e. provide campaign donations.
ANSWER: d
REFERENCES: 272
NOTES: F
4. Alexis de Tocqueville believed that the American tendency to join associations

a. would decline as the country grew.
b. was a threat to democracy.
c. reflected a strong democratic culture.
d. could lead to factionalism.
Cengage Learning Testing, Powered by Cognero Page 1
Name: Class: Date:

e. would cause increased protests.
ANSWER: c
REFERENCES: 273
NOTES: F
5. James Madison made all but which of the following arguments in his essay, Federalist No. 10?
a. The development of differences between interest groups is inevitable.
b. The fundamental causes of faction are sown into man’s nature.
c. In a democratic republic, government can mediate among opposing factions.
d. Factions can be eliminated without removing Americans’ freedoms.
e. The size and diversity of the nation is an important factor restraining majority factions.
ANSWER: d
REFERENCES: 273
NOTES: F
6. Individual lobbies spend vast sums as they try to influence legislation and recent filings with the Congress listed at
_________ in annual spending through lobbying.
a. $100 million
b. $500 million
c. $750 million
d. $1 billion
e. more than $3 billion
ANSWER: e
REFERENCES: 273
NOTES: C
7. One might say of Americans that "We hate interest groups, except those that ________________."
a. oppose terrorism
b. speak on our behalf
c. support environmental issues
d. include children among their beneficiaries
e. advocate reduced government spending
ANSWER: b
REFERENCES: 273
NOTES: C
8. Which of the following is not a role of interest groups?

a. Representation
b. Program monitoring
Name: Class: Date:

c. Agenda building
d. Electing their members to public office
e. All of these choices are roles of interest groups.
ANSWER: d
REFERENCES: 273-275
NOTES: C
9. Which of the following is not an argument made by the authors for why interest groups benefit our political system?
a. Interest groups represent people before government.
b. Interest groups always form when the corresponding need for them develops.
c. Interest groups are vehicles for political participation.
d. Interest groups educate their members, the public at large, and government officials.
e. Interest groups bring new issues into the political limelight.
ANSWER: b
REFERENCES: 274-276
NOTES: C
10. What role do interest groups play in educating policymakers about political issues?
a. Interest groups are never considered a valid source of information because they are so biased.
b. So few people are members of interest groups that any communication policymakers receive from such groups
is considered insignificant.
c. They are an important source of political information.
d. They tend to confuse policymakers and often alienate them.
e. They serve to overwhelm policymakers with too much information.
ANSWER: c
REFERENCES: 275
NOTES: C
11. Today the largest sector of unionized workers is

a. auto workers.
b. university employees.
c. agricultural workers.
d. municipal government employees.
e. pipefitters and plumbers.
ANSWER: d
REFERENCES: 275
NOTES: F
12. An environmental group publishes scientifically-documented lapses in Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Name: Class: Date:

oversight of toxic-waste-dump monitoring. Which function is the environmental group performing?
a. Education
c. Agenda building
d. Representation
e. Issue definition
ANSWER: b
REFERENCES: 276
NOTES: A
13. _________ believe that interest groups further democracy by broadening representation within the system.
a. Majoritarians
b. Elitists
c. Oligarchs
d. Humanitarians
e. Pluralists
ANSWER: e
REFERENCES: 276
NOTES: C
14. An important idea of pluralist theory is that

a. most interest groups work for the good of the majority.
b. the institutions of government will ignore interest groups regardless of their orientation.
c. interest groups will ultimately fade from the political scene.
d. new interest groups naturally form when the need arises.
e. people join groups for benefits, regardless of current circumstances.
ANSWER: d
REFERENCES: 276
NOTES: C
15. A veterans’ group publicizes reports of excessive wait times at VA (US Department of Veterans Affairs) hospitals and
resulting harm to patients. Which function is the veterans’ group performing?
a. Education
c. Agenda building
d. Representation
e. Issue definition
ANSWER: b
REFERENCES: 276
Name: Class: Date:

NOTES: A
16. The issue of urban renewal in Boston’s West End illustrates the point that
a. mass-based interest groups can effectively block government policy.
b. government policies are designed to maintain a political equilibrium.
c. groups faced with policies harmful to their interests often lack the leadership and resources to organize.
d. interest groups will arise whenever there is a need.
e. minority groups, even when organized, often fail.
ANSWER: c
REFERENCES: 277
NOTES: C
17. Cesar Chavez’s work to organize California workers into the United Farm Workers makes him an example of a(n)
a. primary mover.
b. policy maintainer.
c. interest group entrepreneur.
d. monitoring agent.
e. public proponent.
ANSWER: c
REFERENCES: 277
NOTES: C
18. To accomplish the successful organization of the United Farm Workers, Cesar Chavez copied the tactics of
__________.
a. patriots during the American Revolution
b. anti-slavery abolitionists
c. the civil rights movement
d. Franklin Roosevelt’s attempt to create his “New Deal” program
e. anti-globalization activists
ANSWER: c
REFERENCES: 277
NOTES: F
19. Ultimately it was by means of a __________ that the success of Cesar Chavez’s attempt to attain recognition of the
United Farm Workers was achieved.
a. grape boycott
b. bombing campaign of farms
c. occupation of the state capitol building in Sacramento, California,
d. refusal to harvest lettuce throughout California
e. high profile group of Hollywood celebrities applying public pressure

Name: Class: Date:

ANSWER: a
REFERENCES: 277
NOTES: F
20. Which of the following potential interest groups would likely be the most difficult to organize for political action?
a. Social welfare recipients
b. Certified public accountants
c. Alumni of a prestigious college
d. Employees of a manufacturing company
e. Retired social security recipients
ANSWER: a
REFERENCES: 278
NOTES: C
21. Which influential Washington interest group has a membership of 40 million?

a. Sierra Club
b. Catholic Charities
c. Howard Jarvis Taxpayers Association
d. American Association of Retired Persons (AARP)
e. The Masons
ANSWER: d
REFERENCES: 279
NOTES: F
22. Which of the following groups is most dependent on the Internet to gain new supporters?
a. Business associations
b. Labor associations
c. Professional associations
d. Political parties
e. Ideological citizen groups
ANSWER: e
REFERENCES: 279
NOTES: F
23. Groups that rely on ideological appeals for new members have a special problem because
a. most people do not want to join ideological groups.
b. they have to meet special stricter government guidelines.
c. ideological groups do not qualify for tax exemptions.
d. competition in policy areas of these groups is intense.
Name: Class: Date:

e. they have to convince their “purist” members to do the mundane work of recruitment.
ANSWER: d
REFERENCES: 279
NOTES: F
24. The free-rider problem increases the difficulty of attracting ___________.

a. young people
b. paying members
c. media attention
d. votes in Congress
e. cooperation from other interest groups
ANSWER: b
REFERENCES: 279
NOTES: F
25. When the air you breathe is made cleaner as a result of lobbying done by an interest group to which you do not
belong, you are an example of
a. a program monitor.
b. an interest group entrepreneur.
c. the PAC problem.
d. a freeloader.
e. a free rider.
ANSWER: e
REFERENCES: 279-280
NOTES: C
26. Large interest groups are often difficult to organize because

a. many of their potential members prefer to let someone else shoulder the interest groups’ financial burden.
b. as they grow in size, they attract more unfavorable publicity.
c. they usually suffer from diseconomies of scale.
d. the Internet has not made it easier to convince individuals to join.
e. they often do not represent compelling interests.
ANSWER: a
REFERENCES: 280
NOTES: F
27. __________ make sure that people in government know what their members want and that their organizations know
what the government is doing.
a. Cabinet officials

Name: Class: Date:

b. Federal agency administrators
c. Lobbyists
d. Governors
e. Political parties
ANSWER: c
REFERENCES: 280
NOTES: F
28. The greater the potential number of members of a group, the more likely that individuals will ___________________.
a. contribute to the activities of the group
b. see the group as influential
c. make a financial contribution
d. decide to be free riders
e. question the sincerity of commitment to the stated goals of the group of its leaders
ANSWER: d
REFERENCES: 280
NOTES: F
29. A recent study of seventy-seven members of Congress who were defeated for reelection or left voluntarily found that
more than __________ of them took jobs with firms that lobby.
a. 10 percent
b. 25 percent
c. 40 percent
d. 60 percent
e. 80 percent
ANSWER: c
REFERENCES: 281
NOTES: F
30. The lobbyist’s primary job involves

a. passing information on to their employers and to policymakers.
b. assisting campaigns.
c. trading on favors.
d. mobilizing campaign contributors.
e. exchanging goods for services.
ANSWER: a
REFERENCES: 281
NOTES: F

Name: Class: Date:

31. Under current federal law, the amount that the PAC you belong to can donate to its favored candidate running for the
U.S. Senate is
a. unlimited.
b. $2,000 a month during the election cycle.
c. $5,000 per election.
d. $27,500 per year.
e. equal to a percentage of the group’s membership.
ANSWER: c
REFERENCES: 281
NOTES: C
32. There were an estimated __________ PACs contributing to congressional candidates during the 2011–2012 campaign
cycle.
a. 1,000
b. 7,000
c. 25,000
d. 250,000
e. one million
ANSWER: b
REFERENCES: 281
NOTES: F
33. The phenomenon of ______________ is referred to as the “revolving door”.

a. former elected officials taking lobbying jobs
b. movement of experienced workers from one interest group to another
c. interest group success on one issue, followed by identification of a new issue, followed by success on that
issue, etc.
d. interest group officials achieving such a high profile that they are then elected to public office
e. elected officials having to deal with a seemingly endless series of interest groups on some topics
ANSWER: a
REFERENCES: 281
NOTES: C
34. Which of the following PACs contributed the most during the 2012 congressional elections?
a. National Association of Realtors
b. Facebook PAC
c. International Garment Workers Union
d. DEFPAC (Defense Contractors)
e. Letter Carriers Political Action Fund
ANSWER: e

Name: Class: Date:

REFERENCES: 282
NOTES: F
35. Lobbyists have greatly increased their numbers in Brussels, Belgium, a convenient location for international
businesses work on trade issues with the world’s largest economy, ____________.
a. China
b. Russia
c. The European Union
d. the United States
e. the Association of South East Asian countries (ASEAN)
ANSWER: c
REFERENCES: 282
NOTES: F
36. Almost all political contributions made by unions go to

a. Democrats.
b. Republicans.
c. conservatives.
d. independents.
e. challengers.
ANSWER: a
REFERENCES: 284
NOTES: F
37. With regard to PAC contributions and congressional votes, political scientists
a. have found a very strong correlation between the two.
b. have not been able to document any consistent link between the two.
c. have found that contributions have a greater impact on votes in the Senate.
d. have found that contributions have a greater impact on votes in the House of Representatives.
e. have found that votes are determined by contributions when members are up for reelection.
ANSWER: b
REFERENCES: 284
NOTES: F
38. Some sophisticated research has shown that PAC donations

a. can have a greater influence within congressional committees than on affecting floor votes.
b. are influential based on an exponential scale of the actual amount given.
c. have been declining in effectiveness over the past 15 years.
d. influence the behavior of the executive bureaucracy more than Congress.
Name: Class: Date:

e. All of these choices are true.
ANSWER: a
REFERENCES: 284
NOTES: C
39. Nonconnected PACs are highly ideological and tend to give

a. to liberal Democrats.
b. to conservative Republicans.
c. to well-connected incumbent politicians of any ideological stripe.
d. to presidential candidates but not to congressional ones.
e. either to conservatives or to liberals, but not both.
ANSWER: e
REFERENCES: 284
NOTES: F
40. A strategy that relies on a group representative’s personal contact with policymakers is
a. grassroots lobbying.
b. coalition building.
c. information campaigns.
d. direct lobbying.
e. insider lobbying.
ANSWER: d
REFERENCES: 284
NOTES: F
41. Most lobbyists believe that public testimony before congressional committees
a. is the most effective way of influencing legislation.
b. should be televised so that all citizens have access to this information.
c. should be discontinued.
d. is less important than are private one-on-one meetings.
e. should be a matter of public record.
ANSWER: d
REFERENCES: 285
NOTES: F
42. Which of the following involves an interest group’s rank-and-file membership as well as outreach to ordinary people
outside the organization?
a. Direct lobbying
b. Grassroots lobbying
Name: Class: Date:

c. Information campaigns
d. Coalition building
e. Shotgun marketing
ANSWER: b
REFERENCES: 285
NOTES: F
43. Day-to-day direct lobbying is largely an attempt by interest groups to ____________________.

a. ensure that legislators abide by agreements made with interest groups
b. encourage elected officials to follow-through on promises made in exchange for contributions
c. allow members of Congress to have access to interest group members
d. maintain a high profile so they can continue to demand contributions from their members
e. frame issues in terms most beneficial to their point of view
ANSWER: e
REFERENCES: 285
NOTES: C
44. Recently anti-immigration groups have taken to holding public protests on April 15, the day taxes are due, to
emphasize economic consequences of illegal immigration. Your textbook might describe this as an example of
a. agenda building.
b. program monitoring.
c. grassroots lobbying.
d. direct lobbying.
e. coalition building.
ANSWER: c
REFERENCES: 286
NOTES: A
45. The main drawback of protest activity as a tool in influencing the policymaking process is that
a. it is basically a short-term tool, whereas policymaking is a long-term process.
b. it almost always generates more opposition than support.
c. no one pays attention to protest.
d. it is illegal.
e. it often results in the arrest of interest group members.
ANSWER: a
REFERENCES: 286
NOTES: C
46. The __________ defied conventional wisdom regarding political change through a broad and sustained series of
Name: Class: Date:

protests and unconventional actions.
a. antinuclear movement
b. antilobbying association
c. civil rights movement
d. gun control faction
e. right-to-life association
ANSWER: c
REFERENCES: 286
NOTES: F
47. The most common form of grassroots lobbying is

a. telephone calls.
b. picketing.
c. e-mailing.
d. letter writing.
e. web page building.
ANSWER: d
REFERENCES: 286
NOTES: F
48. ___________ was the primary reason for failure of the Occupy movement to achieve a lasting organizational
existence.
a. Inability to agree on issues, goals, and means
b. A law enforcement crackdown
c. Pervasive rioting in cities with Occupy encampments
d. Lack of intent to do more than provide an emotional outlet for young people
e. Inability of the public to understand the sophistication of their arguments
ANSWER: a
REFERENCES: 287
NOTES: A
49. Organizing public relations campaigns and sponsoring research are examples of
a. coalition building.
b. information campaigns.
c. grassroots lobbying.
d. direct lobbying.
e. marketing strategies.
ANSWER: b
REFERENCES: 288
Name: Class: Date:

NOTES: F
50. The recent effort by AT&T to take over T-Mobile shows that
a. direct lobbying campaigns work best when combined with PR campaigns.
b. U.S. courts can be lobbied as effectively as the U.S. Congress.
c. public opinion and grassroots campaigns can be easily manufactured by well-funded corporate interests.
d. large corporations do not achieve all their desired ends in Washington D.C.
e. Congress typically accedes to the wishes of a well-organized lobby, if no opposing lobbies swiftly counter-
mobilize.
ANSWER: d
REFERENCES: 288
NOTES: F
51. In interest group lobbying, coalitions are often

a. informal arrangements.
b. temporary.
c. formed only for the purpose of lobbying on a single issue.
d. informal arrangements, temporary, and formed only for the purpose of lobbying on a single issue.
e. None of these choices is true.
ANSWER: d
REFERENCES: 289
NOTES: C
52. Which of the following is not necessary for the pluralist model of interest groups to be fair?
a. All significant interests in the population should be represented by groups.
b. Government should listen to the views of all major interests.
c. Lawmakers should attempt to balance perfectly the views of all competing interests.
d. Lawmakers should pay attention to the concerns of lobbyists.
e. The majoritarian model’s emphasis on competitive elections should be viewed as compatible with pluralism.
ANSWER: c
REFERENCES: 290
NOTES: C
53. Elections inject some of the benefits of _________ into our political system because the winning party will have a
stronger voice than its opponent in policy decisions.
a. economics
b. majoritarianism
c. liberalism
d. pluralism
e. republicanism

Name: Class: Date:

ANSWER: b
REFERENCES: 290
NOTES: F
54. People who ___________ are most likely to belong to interest groups.
a. have low income
b. have the most urgent need for government benefits
c. have high income
d. are retired
e. have an interest in ideological issues
ANSWER: c
REFERENCES: 290
NOTES: F
55. A group that has as its purpose issues unrelated to its members’ vocations is a(n)
a. grassroots coalition.
b. interest collaboration.
c. targeted partnership.
d. professional interest group.
e. citizens group.
ANSWER: e
REFERENCES: 291
NOTES: F
56. Interest groups that lobby for poor people often gain key financial support from
a. philanthropic foundations.
b. government grants.
c. corporations.
d. wealthy individuals.
e. All of these choices are true.
ANSWER: e
REFERENCES: 292
NOTES: F
57. A critical thing to remember when considering the overrepresentation of business interests in Washington is that they
a. are frequently divided and mobilize to lobby against each other.
b. are generally concerned about the public welfare.
c. cannot engage in many forms of lobbying during election years.
d. rarely have an influence on legislation except as it affects their narrow interests.
Name: Class: Date:

e. lose a considerable amount of resources during election years.
ANSWER: a
REFERENCES: 292
NOTES: F
58. The money from PAC donations comes disproportionately from

a. religious or ethnic organizations.
b. public interest and consumer groups.
c. labor unions.
d. business and professional interests.
e. foreign countries.
ANSWER: d
REFERENCES: 293
NOTES: F
59. Any increase in lobbying regulations conflicts with

a. Tenth Amendment provisions.
b. the equal access clause of the Constitution.
c. the Fairness Doctrine.
d. Ninth Amendment provisions.
e. the right to petition the government outlined in the First Amendment.
ANSWER: e
REFERENCES: 293
NOTES: C
60. Formation of Super PACs was facilitated by the Supreme Court decision in
a. Chavez v. Nizon.
b. Citizens United v. FEC.
c. Garcia v. Clinton.
d. Brown v. Bd. of Education.
e. Hamdan v. Rumsfeld.
ANSWER: b
REFERENCES: 293-294
NOTES: F
61. Following the Citizens United decision, contributions such as Sheldon Adelson and his wife’s at least _______ million
increased the impression that those already most advantaged in the political system will add to their advantages.
a. $5
b. $25
Name: Class: Date:

c. $60
d. $90
e. $127
ANSWER: d
REFERENCES: 294
NOTES: F
Essay
62. Identify five ways that interest groups benefit our political system.
ANSWER: Answers will vary.
REFERENCES: 274-276
63. Identify and discuss the variables that contribute to ability of interest groups to successfully organize.
REFERENCES: 278
64. Describe how Cesar Chavez changed tactics in his attempt to improve working conditions for farm laborers by
forming the United Farm Workers Union, and why Catholic clergy supported Chavez.
REFERENCES: 277
65. Explain how the free-rider problem makes it difficult to get people to join and contribute to interest groups.
DIFFICULTY: 280
66. Describe lobbyists, their activities, and what they contribute to our political system.
REFERENCES: 280-281
67. What do political scientists know about the relationship between PAC money and votes in Congress?
REFERENCES: 284
68. Explain the difference between direct lobbying and grassroots lobbying.
REFERENCES: 284-286

Name: Class: Date:

69. Discuss the tactics used by interest groups as part of information campaigns.
REFERENCES: 288
70. Explain what citizen groups are, and one of the advantages that business and professional groups have over them in
affecting policymaking.
REFERENCES: 291-292
71. Why has there been a significant increase in Washington, D.C. based health-care lobbyists over the years?
REFERENCES: 292

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CHAPTER XII.
ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION.
All fishes are dioecious, or of distinct sex. Instances of so-called

hermaphroditism are, with the exception of Serranus, abnormal
individual peculiarities, and have been observed in the Cod-fish,
some Pleuronectidæ, and in the Herring. Either the generative organ
of one side was found to be male, that of the other female; or the
organ of one or both sides was observed to have been developed
partly into an ovary partly into a testicle. In the European species of
Serranus a testicle-like body is attached to the lower part of the
ovary; but many specimens of this genus are undoubtedly males,
having normally developed testicles only.
The majority of fishes are oviparous, comparatively few
viviparous; the embryos being developed either in the ovarium or in
some dilated portion of the oviduct. In viviparous fishes actual
copulation takes place, and the males of most of them are provided
with copulatory or intromittent organs. In oviparous fishes the
generative products are, during sexual excitement, discharged into
the water, a very small quantity of semen being sufficient for effectual
impregnation of a number of ova dispersed in a considerable
quantity of water; circumstances which render artificial impregnation
more practicable than in any other class of animals.
In Branchiostoma the generative organs occupy the ventral side
of the abdominal cavity, into which they discharge their contents. No
ducts are developed in either sex.
In the Cyclostomes the generative organ is single, and fixed to or
suspended from the median line of the back of the visceral cavity by
a duplicature of the peritoneum (mesoarium); the testicle and ovary
being distinguishable by their contents only. These escape by
dehiscence of the cells or capsules and rupture of the peritoneal
covering into the abdominal cavity, and are expelled by reciprocal
pressure of the intertwined sexes through the porus genitalis, which
is sunk between two labia of the skin in Myxine, and produced into a
long papilla in Petromyzon.
69.—Ovum of Myxine
glutinosa, enlarged.
The ova of the Lampreys are small, globular, like those of
Teleosteans. Those of Myxine have a very peculiar shape when
mature; they are of an oval form, about 15 millimetres long and 8
millimetres broad, enveloped in a horny case, which at each end is
provided with a bundle of short threads, each thread ending in a
triple hook. Whilst in the mesoarial fold the eggs are attached to one
another by means of these hooks, and after being expelled they
probably fix themselves by the same means to other objects. As in
all fishes producing ova of large size, the number of ova matured in
one season is but small.
In Teleosteans the generative organs are comparatively large. In
some families the ovaries are without closed covering and without
oviducts, as in Salmonidæ, Galaxiidæ, Notopteridæ, Murænidæ, and
others. The surface of such an open ovary—as, for instance, that of
the Salmon—is transversely plaited, the ova being developed in
capsules in the stroma of the laminæ; after rupture of the capsules
the mature ova drop into the abdominal cavity, and are expelled by
the porus genitalis. The ovaries of the other Teleosteans are closed
sacs, continued into oviducts. Frequently such ovaries coalesce into
a single body, or one in which the division is effected internally only
by a more or less complete septum. Fixed by a mesoarium, the
ovaries occupy generally a position outwards of the intestine or air-
bladder; their form varies as well as the thickness and firmness of
their covering, which frequently is an extremely thin transparent
membrane. The inner surface of the ovarian sac is transversely or
longitudinally plaited or covered with fringes, on which the ova are
developed, as in the open ovaries. In the viviparous Teleosteans the
embryons are likewise developed within the ovary, notably in the
Embiotocidæ, many Blenniidæ, and Cyprinodontidæ, Sebastes
viviparus, etc. Among the Cyprinodonts the end of the oviduct is
attached to the anterior anal rays, which are modified into supports
of its termination. In Rhodeus the oviduct is periodically prolonged
into a long oviferous tube, by means of which the female deposits
her ova into the shells of living Bivalves.
Fig. 70.—Ditrema argenteum, with fully developed young, ready for expulsion
by the genital orifice, o; a, folds of the ovarian sac; v, vent.
The ova of Teleosteous Fishes are extremely variable in size,

quite independently of the size of the parent species. The ova of
large and small individuals of the same species, of course, do not
differ in size; but, on the whole larger individuals produce a greater
number of ova than smaller ones of the same species. The larger the
size of the ova is in a species, the smaller is the number produced
during one season. The ova of the Eel are almost microscopic. The
small sized roe in the Herring, Lump-fish, Halibut, and Cod-fish, have
been estimated at respectively 25,000, 155,000, 3,500,000, and
9,344,000. Larger in size and fewer in number are those of
Antennarius, Salmo, Aspredo, Lophobranchs, etc. Comparatively
largest are those of Gastrosteus; and the Siluroid genus Arius, the
males of which take care of their progeny, produces ova from 5 to 10
millimeters in diameter. The ova of all Teleosteans are perfectly
globular and soft-shelled. Teleosteans without oviduct, deposit them
separated from one another; whilst in many Teleosteans with an
oviduct the ova are enveloped in a glutinous substance, secreted by
its glands, swelling in the water and forming lumps or cords, in which
the ova are aggregated.
Fig. 71. Ovum of Arius

boakii (Ceylon), showing
embryo. Nat. size.
Fig. 72.—Abdomen of
Aspredo batrachus, with the ova
attached; at a, the ova are
removed, to show the spongy
structure of the skin, and the
processes filling the interspaces
between the ova. (Natural size.)
Instances of the female taking care of her progeny are extremely
scarce in fishes. At present only two examples are known, that of the
Siluroid genus Aspredo, and of Solenostoma. In the former, during
the time of propagation, the integuments of the lower side of the flat
trunk of the female assume a soft and spongy texture. After having
deposited the eggs, the female attaches them to, and presses them
into, the spongy integument, by merely lying over them. She carries
them on her belly, as the Surinam Toad (Pipa) carries her ova on the
back. When the eggs are hatched the excrescence on the skin
disappears, and the abdomen becomes as smooth as before. In
Solenostoma the inner side of the long and broad ventral fins
coalesces with the integuments of the body, a large pouch being
formed for the reception of the eggs. There is a peculiar provision for
the retention of the eggs in the sac, and probably for the attachment
of the embryo. The inner walls of the sac are lined with long
filaments, arranged in series along the ventral rays, and more
numerous and longer at the base of the rays than in the middle of
their length, behind which they disappear entirely. They are also
more developed in examples in which eggs are deposited in the sac
than in those which have the sac empty. The filaments most
developed have a length of half an inch, and are beset with
mamilliform appendages. A slightly undulated canal runs along the
interior of the filament.
Fig. 73.—Solenostoma cyanopterum ♂ (Indian Ocean).

Fig. 74.—Pouch with ova, formed by
the ventral fins of Solenostoma. Lower
aspect; the edges of the fins have been
pushed aside to allow of a view of the
inside of the pouch. (Natural size.)
The Testicles of the Teleosteans are always paired, and occupy
the same position as the ovaries. Their size varies extraordinarily at
the different seasons of the year. Vasa deferentia are constant. In
the males of viviparous Teleosteans the urogenital papilla is
frequently enlarged, and clearly serves as an intromittent organ. In
Clinus despicillatus the vas deferens widens within the abdomen into
a cavity occupied by a complex network of loose fasciculi, rising from
the mucous membrane. The cavity can be compressed by a special
powerful muscle, the accumulated semen being thus expelled with
considerable force through the narrow aperture of the penis. In many
Cyprinodonts the vas deferens runs along the anterior anal rays,
which may be thickened, and prolonged into a long slender organ.
Many Teleostei take care of their progeny, but with the exception
of Aspredo and Solenostoma, mentioned above (p. 160), it is the
male on which this duty devolves. In some, as in Cottus,
Gastrosteus, Cyclopterus, Antennarius, Ophiocephalus, Callichthys,
the male constructs with more or less skill a nest, and jealously
guards the ova deposited in it by the female. The male of some
species of Arius carries the ova (Fig. 71) about with him in his
capacious pharynx. The species of Chromis, inhabiting the sea of
Galilee, are said to take care of their ova in the same manner. And,
finally, in the Lophobranchs, nature has aided this instinct by the
development of a pouch on the abdomen or lower side of the tail. In
the Syngnathidæ this pouch is formed by a fold of the skin
developed from each side of the trunk and tail, the free margins of
the fold being firmly united in the median line, whilst the eggs are
being hatched in the inside of the pouch. In Hippocampus the pouch
is completely closed, with a narrow anterior opening.
Fig. 75.—Syngnathus acus ♂, with sub-caudal pouch.

Fig. 76.—Sub-caudal pouch of
Syngnathus acus, with the young, ready
to leave the pouch. One side of the
membrane of the pouch is pushed aside
to admit of a view of its interior. (Natural
size.)
The genital organs of Ganoids show similar diversity of structure
as those of Teleosteans, but on the whole they approach the
Batrachian type. The ovaries are not closed, except in Lepidosiren;
all Ganoids possess oviducts. In the Sturgeons the oviduct as well
as the vas deferens is represented by a funnel-shaped prolongation
of the peritoneum, which communicates with the wide ureter. The
inner aperture of the funnel is on a level of the middle of the testicle
or ovary, the outer within the ureter; and it is a noteworthy fact that
only at certain periods of the life of the fish this outer aperture is
found to be open,—at other times the peritoneal funnel appears as a
closed blind sac within the ureter. The mode of passage of the
semen into the funnel is not known.
In Polypterus and Amia, proper oviducts, with abdominal
apertures in about the middle of the abdominal cavity, are
developed; they coalesce with the ureters close to the common
urogenital aperture.
In Ceratodus (Fig. 77), a long convoluted oviduct extends to the
foremost limit of the abdominal cavity, where it opens by a slit at a
considerable distance from the front end of the long ovary; this
aperture is closed in sexually immature specimens. The oviducts
unite close to their common opening in the cloaca. During their
passage through the oviduct the ova receive a gelatinous covering
secreted by its mucous membrane. This is probably also the case in
Lepidosiren, which possesses a convoluted oviduct with secretory
glands in the middle of its length. The oviduct begins with a funnel-
shaped dilatation, and terminates in a wide pouch, which posteriorly
communicates with that of the other side, both opening by a common
aperture behind the urinary bladder.
The ova of Ganoids, as far as they are known at present, are
small, but enveloped in a gelatinous substance. In the Sturgeon
have been counted as many as 7,635,200. Those of Lepidosteus
seem to be the largest, measuring 5 millimetres in diameter with their
envelope, and 3 millimetres without it. They are deposited singly, like
those of Newts.
Fig. 77.—Ovaries of Ceratodus.
a, Right ovary shown from the inner
surface, which is covered by the
peritoneum; a’, Left ovary, showing
its outer surface; l, Portion of liver;
o, Oviduct; p, the lower part of the
oviduct is opened to show the folds
of its inner membrane; q, Opening
of the left oviduct into the right; r,
Abdominal orifice of the oviduct.
In Chondropterygians (and Holocephali) the organs of
reproduction assume a more compact form, and are more free from
a lengthened attachment to the back of the abdominal cavity. The
ovaries of the majority are paired, single in the Carchariidæ and
Scylliidæ, one remaining undeveloped. But the oviducts are always
paired, beginning immediately behind the diaphragma with a
common aperture. They consist of two divisions, separated by a
circular valve; the upper is narrow, and provided within its coats with
a gland which secretes the leathery envelope in which most of the
Chondropterygian ova are enclosed; the lower forms the uterine
dilatation, in which the embryoes of the viviparous species are
developed. Generally the vitelline sac of the embryoes is free, and
without connection with the uterus, which in these cases has merely
the function of a protecting pouch; but in Carcharias and Mustelus
lævis a placenta uterina is formed, the vascular walls of the vitelline
sac forming plaits fitting into those of the membrane of the uterus.
The ends of the uteri open by a common aperture behind the ureter
into the cloaca.
Fig. 78.—Ventral fins and claspers of Chiloscyllium trispeculare.
The testicles are always paired, rounded, and situated in the
anterior part of the abdominal cavity, covered by the liver. Vasa
efferentia pass the semen into a much-convoluted epididymis, which
is continued into the vas deferens; this, at the commencement of its
course, is spirally wound, but becomes straight behind, and has its
end dilated into a seminal reservoir. It opens with the urethra in a
papilla within the cloaca.
The so-called claspers of Chondropterygians (Fig. 78) are
characteristic of all male individuals. They are semi-ossified
appendages of the pubic, with which they are movably joined, and
special muscles serve to regulate their movements. Sometimes they
are armed with hook-like osseous excrescences (Selache). They are
irregularly longitudinally convoluted, and, when closely ad-pressed to
each other, form a canal open at their extremity. A gland, abundantly
discharging a secretion during the season of propagation, is situated
at, and opens into, the base of the canal. It is still doubtful whether
the generally-adopted opinion that their function consists in holding
the female during copulation is correct, or whether they are not
rather an intromittent organ, the canal of which not only conducts the
secretion of their proper gland but also the impregnating fluid.
Fig. 79.—Egg of a Scyllium

from Magelhan’s Straits (? Sc.
chilense). Natural size.
Fig. 80.—Egg-shell of Cestracion
philippi, half natural size, linear.
I. External view. II. Vertical section.
a, One spiral ridge; b, The other
spiral ridge; c, Cavity for the ovum.
The ova of the oviparous Chondropterygians are large and few in

number; they are successively impregnated, and the impregnation
must take place before they are invested with a tough leathery
envelope which would be impenetrable to the semen, that is, before
they enter the uterus; therefore, copulation must take place in all
these fishes. The form of the egg-shell differs in the various genera;
generally (Fig. 79) they are flattened, quadrangular, with each of the
four corners produced, and frequently prolonged into long filaments
which serve for the attachment of the ova to other fixed objects. In
Notidanus the surfaces are crossed by numerous ridges. In
Cestracion (Fig. 80) the egg is pyriform, with two broad ridges or
plates, wound edgewise round it, the two ridges forming five spires.
The eggs of Callorhynchus (Fig. 81) have received a protective
resemblance to a broad-leaved fucus, forming a long depressed
ellipse, with a plicated and fringed margin.
Fig. 81.—Egg of
Callorhynchus antarcticus. a,
Cavity for the embryo.
CHAPTER XIII.
GROWTH AND VARIATION OF FISHES.
Changes of form normally accompanying growth (after absorption

of the vitelline sac) are observed in all fishes; but in the majority they
affect only the proportional size of the various parts of the body. In
young fishes the eyes are constantly larger than in adult relatively to
the size of the head; and again, the head is larger relatively to that of
the body. Changes amounting to metamorphosis have been hitherto
observed in Petromyzon only. In the larval condition (Ammocætes)
the head is very small, and the toothless buccal cavity is surrounded
by a semicircular upper lip. The eyes are extremely small, hidden in
a shallow groove; and the vertical fins form a continuous fringe. In
the course of three or four years the teeth are developed, and the
mouth changes into a perfect suctorial organ; the eyes grow; and the
dorsal fin is divided into two divisions. In Malacopterygians and
Anacanths the embryonal fringe from which the vertical fins are
developed, is much longer persistent than in Acanthopterygians. A
metamorphosis relating to the respiratory organs, as in Batrachians,
is indicated in the class of Fishes by the external gills with which
fœtal Plagiostomes (Fig. 58, p. 136) and the young of some
Ganoids, viz. the Protopterus and Polypterus, are provided.
Fig. 82.—Mouth of Larva of Petromyzon
branchialis.
Fig. 83.—Mouth of Petromyzon fluviatilis.

mx, Maxillary tooth; md, Mandibulary tooth; l,
Lingual tooth; s, Suctorial teeth.
Fig. 84.—Armature of præoperculum of young Caranx
ferdau. (Magnified.)
I. Of an individual, 1¼ inch long. II. Of an individual, 2
inches long.
Fig. 85.—Tholichthys osseus. Six times the

natural size.

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Challenge of Democracy American

Government in Global Politics 13th

CHAPTER 10 - Interest Groups

3. The primary goal of interest groups is to

4. Alexis de Tocqueville believed that the American tendency to join associations

CHAPTER 10 - Interest Groups

8. Which of the following is not a role of interest groups?

CHAPTER 10 - Interest Groups

11. Today the largest sector of unionized workers is

CHAPTER 10 - Interest Groups

14. An important idea of pluralist theory is that

CHAPTER 10 - Interest Groups

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CHAPTER 10 - Interest Groups

21. Which influential Washington interest group has a membership of 40 million?

CHAPTER 10 - Interest Groups

24. The free-rider problem increases the difficulty of attracting ___________.

26. Large interest groups are often difficult to organize because

Cengage Learning Testing, Powered by Cognero Page 7

CHAPTER 10 - Interest Groups

30. The lobbyist’s primary job involves

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CHAPTER 10 - Interest Groups

33. The phenomenon of ______________ is referred to as the “revolving door”.

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CHAPTER 10 - Interest Groups

36. Almost all political contributions made by unions go to

38. Some sophisticated research has shown that PAC donations

CHAPTER 10 - Interest Groups

39. Nonconnected PACs are highly ideological and tend to give

CHAPTER 10 - Interest Groups

43. Day-to-day direct lobbying is largely an attempt by interest groups to ____________________.

CHAPTER 10 - Interest Groups

47. The most common form of grassroots lobbying is

CHAPTER 10 - Interest Groups

51. In interest group lobbying, coalitions are often

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CHAPTER 10 - Interest Groups

CHAPTER 10 - Interest Groups

58. The money from PAC donations comes disproportionately from

59. Any increase in lobbying regulations conflicts with

CHAPTER 10 - Interest Groups

Cengage Learning Testing, Powered by Cognero Page 17

CHAPTER 10 - Interest Groups

Cengage Learning Testing, Powered by Cognero Page 18

All fishes are dioecious, or of distinct sex. Instances of so-called

The ova of Teleosteous Fishes are extremely variable in size,

Fig. 71. Ovum of Arius

Fig. 73.—Solenostoma cyanopterum ♂ (Indian Ocean).

Fig. 75.—Syngnathus acus ♂, with sub-caudal pouch.

Fig. 79.—Egg of a Scyllium

The ova of the oviparous Chondropterygians are large and few in

GROWTH AND VARIATION OF FISHES.

Changes of form normally accompanying growth (after absorption

Fig. 83.—Mouth of Petromyzon fluviatilis.

Fig. 85.—Tholichthys osseus. Six times the

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