Psychology Canadian 2Nd Edition Feist Solutions Manual Full Chapter PDF

Psychology Canadian 2nd Edition Feist
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Chapter 10: Human Development
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LO1 Define developmental psychology and describe the types of research designs
developmental psychologists use.
LO2 Describe the stages and processes of prenatal development and discuss some of the
problems that may arise from teratogens.
LO3 Describe the important events and features of infant and childhood physical development,
including how researchers measure infant perception.
LO4 Describe and explain Piaget’s stage theory of cognitive development, comparing it to
Vygotsky’s theory and theory of mind.
LO5 Present an overview of Kohlberg’s stage theory of moral development, describing the
characteristics of each level, and summarizing the criticisms surrounding this theory.
LO6 Define attachment and explain the contributions of Bowlby, Ainsworth, and Harlow to our
understanding of this aspect of emotional development.
LO7 Define temperament and discuss how infant temperament relates to personality.
LO8 Discuss the development of emotion from infancy to childhood, distinguishing between
social referencing, social competence, and the role of peers.
LO9 Describe the development of gender identity, differentiating between gender constancy and
gender roles.
LO10 Define adolescence and summarize the main physical, cognitive, and social-emotional
changes that occur during this period.
LO11 Explain when adulthood begins in our culture, emphasizing the impact of marriage and
parenthood.
LO12 Describe the important developmental issues of middle adulthood, including the concept
of generativity versus stagnation.
LO13 Discuss how brain function and cognition changes in late adulthood, including the onset
of diseases such as Alzheimer’s.
BRIEF CHAPTER OUTLINE

Studying Human Development
The Developing Fetus
Stages of Prenatal Development
Brain and Sensory Development before Birth
Environmental Influences on Fetal Development
Maternal Nutrition
Teratogens
The Developing Infant and Child
Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood
Early Motor Development
Early Sensory Development
Early Brain Development
Instructor’s Manual to accompany Feist/Rosenberg/Stamp/Poole, Psychology: Evaluating Connections, 2ce

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Psychology in the Real World: Musical Training Changes the Brain
Early Cognitive Development
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Theory of Mind
Development of Moral Reasoning
Early Social-Emotional Development
Attachment
Developing Temperament and Personality
Developing Social Relationships and Emotions
Development of Emotions
Peer Interaction
Developing Gender Identity
Groundbreaking Research: How Touch and Comfort Influence Development
The Importance of Comfort and Physical Contact
Touch Therapy
The Developing Adolescent
Physical Development in Adolescence
Cognitive and Brain Development in Adolescence
Social Development in Adolescence
The Developing Adult
Early Adulthood
Emerging Adulthood
Career Identity
Sexual Identity
Ethnic Identity
Young Adulthood
Marriage
Parenthood
Early Adult Personality Development
Middle Adulthood
Sensory and Brain Development
Personality Development during Middle Adulthood
Late Adulthood
Brain Development and Cognition
Personality Development in Late Adulthood
Evaluating Connections in Development: Impact of Technology across the Life Span
Chapter Review
EXTENDED CHAPTER OUTLINE

STUDYING HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
 Human development: the study of both change and continuity in the individual across

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the life span. This process begins before birth, in the prenatal environment of the
mother’s womb.
 Research in human development seeks to answer three questions:
o Does development occur in distinct, discontinuous stages or is it a gradual,
continuous process?
o How do nature and nurture interact?
o To what extent do we stay the same over time versus change?
 To answer these questions there are several different approaches:
o Cross-sectional design: research design in which different people of various ages
are studied at one point in time to find age-related differences.
o Longitudinal design: research design in which the same people are studied over
time at various ages to find age-related changes.
o Longitudinal-sequential design: research design in which two or more age
groups of people are studied repeatedly over time.
THE DEVELOPING FETUS
 We pass more biological milestones before birth than we will in the rest of our lives.
Stages of Prenatal Development

1. Germinal stage: begins at conception and lasts for two weeks.
o Zygote: At conception, the fertilized egg forms a single-celled zygote.
o By day 7 the multi-celled organism is now called a blastocyst, which travels down
the fallopian tube and attaches to the uterine wall.
o Between 30% and 50% of the blastocysts do not attach properly and the
pregnancy ends without the woman having known she was pregnant.
o If implantation was successful, the second stage of prenatal development begins
two weeks later.
2. Embryonic stage: marked by the formation of the major organs: the nervous system,
heart, eyes, ears, arms, legs, teeth, palate, and external genitalia. Embryonic development
continues until about 8 weeks after conception.
o Embryo: the bundle of rapidly multiplying cells (the blastocyst) that has
implanted in the uterus.
3. Fetal stage: the fetal stage is the formation of bone cells at 8 weeks after conception. By
this time, all of the major organs have already begun to form. Between 8 and 12 weeks
into development, the heartbeat can be detected with a stethoscope. During the fetal stage
the organs continue to grow and mature while the fetus rapidly increases in size.
Brain and Sensory Development Before Birth

 The first major organ to develop, the brain is still growing rapidly at birth.
 By the time an infant is born, its head has grown to 25% of its adult weight, whereas its
body is only 5% of its adult weight.
 During the fetal stage, the rate of new neural growth can be approximately 3 million
neurons per minute at its peak! From months 3 through 5 of pregnancy, neurons move
from one part of the brain to their more permanent home in a process known as neural
migration.

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 Factors that interfere with migration include teratogens, such as prenatal exposure to
certain toxins or viruses, which can increase the risk of psychological disorders.
 Generally, male fetuses are more active than females, suggesting their greater activity
levels after birth may be inborn.
Environmental Influences on Fetal Development

 What a pregnant mother eats, drinks, smokes, feels, and experiences plays an important
role in fetal development.
 Prenatal programming: the process by which events in the womb alter the development
of physical and psychological health.
Maternal Nutrition
 For example, doctors prescribe folic acid and other vitamins to women who are pregnant
or trying to become pregnant because they reduce the rates of abnormalities in the
developing nervous system.
 Poor prenatal nutrition increases the risk of various types of problems for the unborn
child. E.g. schizophrenia and antisocial personality disorder
 Iron deficiencies can lead to cognitive impairment, motor deficiencies, and poor
emotional functioning.
 “Morning sickness” may act as a protective mechanism to protect the pregnant woman
from teratogens, as it often occurs with foods that are susceptible to mould (E.g., cheese,
mushrooms)
 Certain types of maternal diets can also predispose children to obesity.
Teratogens
 Teratogens: substances that can disrupt normal development and cause long-term
effects. Examples include smoking, drinking alcohol, viruses, illness, chemicals, etc.
 Because all major body parts are forming and growing during the embryonic and fetal
stages, the fetus is quite susceptible to birth defects during these stages. Known
teratogens include viruses, such as those that cause rubella (measles) and the flu; alcohol;
nicotine; prescription drugs, such as the antidepressants Prozac and Zoloft; and radiation.
 Timing determines how detrimental the effects of any given teratogen will be. In general,
the earlier in pregnancy the woman is exposed, the more serious the effects.
 Maternal substance use can also cause serious prenatal and postnatal problems. Pregnant
women who drink alcohol take chances with their developing baby, as there is no known
safe level of alcohol consumption during pregnancy – don’t drink!
 Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD): causes damage to the central nervous system;
low birth weight; physical abnormalities in the face, head, heart, and joints; mental
retardation; and behavioural problems.
 The effect of fetal alcohol exposure is described as a spectrum of disorders because the
types and degrees of deficits can vary tremendously among individuals. FASD affects
about 9 of every 1000 children born in Canada and is a leading cause of intellectual
disability in the Western world.

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 FASD has been reported in babies of women who drink excessively as well as in infants
whose mothers have only occasionally had drinks during pregnancy, although binge
drinking and heavy drinking appear to increase the severity of FASD.
 Smoking: Nicotine exposure from maternal smoking interferes with the oxygen supply to
the fetus. It can lead to premature and low-birth-weight babies as well as increased risk
for stillbirth (delivery of a dead fetus).
 Prescription drugs: Some studies on animals and humans indicate that the antidepressants
Zoloft and Prozac can cause respiratory problems, increased risk of premature birth, and
short-lasting effects on motor development, but others suggest there are few risks to the
developing fetus.
 CONNECTION: How does having the flu virus while pregnant change the way neurons
grow in the developing fetus and increases vulnerability to schizophrenia later in life?
(See Chapter 15.)
THE DEVELOPING INFANT AND CHILD
 Because the brain is still developing immediately after a child is born, the environment
the child is brought up in can shape it.
 The newborn human brain is more responsive than that of other animals to the specific
world it is in, allowing nurture to shape human nature more than is the case for most
animals.
Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood

 When we speak of motor development, we are referring to changes in physical movement
and body control.
 Children’s motor development follows a cephalocaudal trend (development proceeds
from the head downwards), as well as a proxomodistal trend (growth proceeds from the
centre of the body outwards).
 Early in infancy, babies start to show intentional movements.
 Then we see a fairly regular sequence: at 4 months, they can hold objects; at 6 months,
many babies can sit by themselves; at 7 months, they move themselves around; at 8 to 9
months, babies start walking with assistance; and late in the first year many babies will
take their first step. By 17 months, most babies walk with ease.
 Other motor responses are more specific. A newborn baby will grasp a finger, if you
stroke a newborn’s cheek it will turn in a feeding reflex called rooting, and if you put
something in its mouth it will suck. These are three of several reflexes present at birth.
 It takes a while before babies develop fine motor skills which involve the coordination of
the actions of smaller muscles as well as information from the eyes.
Early Sensory Development

 Hearing is almost fully developed at birth, but a newborn’s vision is only about 20-600.
Visual sharpness, or acuity, continues to improve during infancy, and by 6 months of age,
vision is 20-100. By age 3 or 4, a child’s vision is similar to an adult’s.
 Newborns are best able to see black and white edges and patterns. Colour vision develops
by around 6 months of age.

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 Habituation-dishabituation paradigm: research method used to test babies’ abilities to
discriminate between a novel and familiar stimulus.
o Habituate: to pay less attention to a stimulus when it is repeatedly presented
o Dishabituate: to spend more time looking at a stimulus that is novel
 Preferential looking: research technique used to test an infant’s perceptual abilities by
measuring which stimulus an infant gazes at longest.
 Experience is crucial in the development of vision, in regard to vision; the occipital
cortex of the brain has to be stimulated by visual input in order to develop the proper
synaptic connections needed to process visual information.
 Critical period: specific period in biological development when individuals are most
receptive to a particular kind of input from the environment (such as visual stimulation
and language learning).
 CONNECTION: Language acquisition depends on exposure to a language-stimulating
environment during the first 12 years of life when the brain’s neural connections are
forming. Limited exposure to language during this sensitive period can lead to permanent
problems in language development. (See Chapter 8.)
 All babies who have normal vision in both eyes see the world in three dimensions. Soon
after birth, they demonstrate the ability to detect depth in the real world.
 The visual cliff: a test of depth perception in babies who have learned to crawl.
Researchers placed clear Plexiglas over one end of a crawl area to make it look as though
there was a steep drop in the middle of the crawl area. They put a baby on the other end
of the crawl area and asked the mother to stand at the end with the drop. The mother’s
role was to encourage the baby to crawl across the Plexiglas to her. The baby would stop
crawling when he or she reached the visual cliff, indicating that at least by the time
babies learn to crawl, they can perceive depth.

 After birth, the brain continues to grow new neurons. By the second year of life, the
human brain has more neurons than it will ever again have. Brain growth continues
throughout the life span, but the rate of change slows down considerably after the age of
6 and then settles again after adolescence.
 After age 2, some neurons and synapses die off. The reason for this is simple: During the
first year of life, neural growth occurs, but it is somewhat random and disorganized. New
neurons and synapses develop because that is what the newborn brain does.
 With learning and experience certain synaptic connections become stronger, whereas
those that do not receive stimulation from the environment die off. This process, known
as synaptic pruning, is nature’s way of making the brain more efficient.
 By adolescence, up to half of the synapses that existed in early childhood have been
pruned.
 The quality of environments influences how our brain develops. Normal and enriched
environments create more complex neural connections, while abusive, neglectful
environments create less developed neural connections.
 Children raised in severely neglectful homes also who decreases in brain size; however,
these deficits can be made up if the child is moved to a different environment.

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 Children’s brains are more plastic than adults due to the time it for myelin to develop on
the neurons in the brain. Myelin speeds up processing, but may also serve to reduce the
brain’s ability to make new connections.
 Young brains are more flexible because they have less myelin. Myelination may close the
window on the critical periods for such skills as learning language or music. In other
words, brains are built in childhood, and those who wish to become musicians or athletes
would do well to start young.
 CONNECTION: Experience is crucial in the formation of synaptic connections
(synaptogenesis) and the growth of neurons (neurogenesis) in the brain throughout the
life span (see Chapter 3).
Psychology In The Real World: Musical Training Changes The Brain
 The brain is most responsive to stimulation during infancy and childhood.

 Early in life there is more opportunity for experience to leave its mark on the brain – for
example, learning to play an instrument.
 Researchers have found that for musicians, the somatosensory cortex shows lateralization
that is not found in non-musicians.
 Musicians who started playing before the age of 12 show the most pronounced effects; so
musical training may change brain organization, especially for people who start training as
children.
 Brain imaging studies also suggest that musical training moulds the structure of the brain.
People who have had intensive musical training have a thicker corpus callosum and increased
brain growth in regions associated with music-related skills than do non-musicians, even
more so if they started their training before age 7.
 This would mean that there is greater communication between the two sides of the brain in
musicians than in people who have not had such training.
 Also, musicians have larger cerebellums (an area involved in motor coordination) than do
non-musicians.
 The findings discussed so far are correlational. They suggest that musical training can shape
the brain, but do not lead to the conclusion that musical training causes brain growth.
 To test the causal nature of this relationship, researchers taught a musical skill to one group
and found that as skill improved, cortical representation for the finger muscles involved in
the task increased.
 They also found in subsequent research that practice has an effect. The brains of those who
ceased practicing returned to the way they were previously. For those who continued
practicing, brain map changes continued. If you don’t use it, you lose it!
Early Cognitive Development

 With growth, especially brain growth, comes cognitive development – advances in the
ability to think, reason, remember, learn, and solve problems.
 An important factor that developmental psychologists have learned about infants in the last
20 years comes from Gopnik’s findings. These findings indicate that infant perception is
more sophisticated than previously thought.

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Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
 Piaget was a strong influence on our understanding of how children’s thinking developed.
 Piaget viewed children as actively constructing knowledge based on schemas (a mental
representation). He considered two mechanisms as important for schema formation:
o Assimilation: a process by which people incorporate new information into
already existing schemas
o Accommodation: a process by which people change existing schemas to
incorporate new information
 Piaget’s 4 stages:
1. Sensorimotor stage: Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development (ages 0–2), so
called because infants learn about the world by using their senses and by moving
their bodies in it.
 One of the hallmarks of thinking at this age would be object permanence:
the ability to realize that objects still exist when they are not being sensed.
Piaget argued this appears around 9 months of age. However, Baillargeon
has found it in infants as young as 4 months using a violation-of-
expectation paradigm.
2. Preoperational stage: the second major stage of cognitive development (ages 2–
7), which begins with the emergence of symbolic thought, or the use of symbols
such as words or letters to represent ideas or objects.
 Symbolic thinking involves using symbols such as words or letters to
represent ideas or objects. Other qualities of preoperational thinking
include animistic thinking, egocentrism, and lack of conservation.
 Animistic thinking: the idea that inanimate objects are alive.
 Egocentrism: the tendency to view the world from one’s own perspective
and not see things from another person’s perspective.
 Conservation: the ability to recognize that when objects change shape or
size, the overall amount stays the same.
3. Concrete operational stage: (ages 7–11) children can perform mental
operations—on real, or concrete, objects and events—but they still have trouble
with abstract ideas and reasoning.
 Reversing events is one type of operation a child masters in this stage.
4. Formal operational stage: During this stage, formal logic becomes possible. In
addition, adolescents develop scientific reasoning and hypothesis-testing skills.
 Some of the criticisms of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development are:
o Some researchers disagree that cognitive development proceeds through stages
o Piaget underestimated children’s cognitive abilities.
o Undervalued the influence of culture on children’s cognitive development
Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development

 Lev Vygotsky emphasized how children learn through their social interactions with
others.
o Zone of proximal development (ZPD): a range of tasks too difficult for a child
to perform aloud but possible with the help of others.
o Scaffolding: adjusting the level of support to fit a child’s current level of
performance on a task.

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Theory of Mind
 Theory of mind refers to our knowledge and ideas of how other people’s minds work. It
involves knowing and understanding what other people are thinking, wanting, or feeling.
 Children under the age of 4 do not realize that people may believe things that are not true.
Adults know that people believe things—such as superstitions—that are untrue.
Psychologists created the false-belief task to determine when children develop theory of
mind and come to know that others can believe something that is false.
 Canadian researchers Victoria Talwar and Kang Lee (2008) have examined the
relationship between children’s lie-telling and theory of mind development using a
temptation-resistance paradigm. Children who demonstrate false-belief are better at
lying.
 CONNECTION: Autism is a childhood disorder characterized by severe language and

social impairment combined with repetitive habits and inward-focused behaviours. How
is autism related to theory of mind? (See Chapter 15.)
Development of Moral Reasoning

 Lawrence Kohlberg did for moral reasoning what Piaget did for cognitive development.
Kohlberg (1981) studied the development of moral reasoning in children and adults by
giving them a moral dilemma and recording the reasons they provided for their responses.
Their responses were less important to him than the reasoning behind them.
 Example, the dilemma of Heinz: “A woman was near death from a special kind of cancer.
There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that
a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make,
but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to produce. He paid $200
for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman’s
husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get
together about $1,000, which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was
dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: ‘No, I
discovered the drug and I’m going to make money from it.’ So Heinz got desperate and
broke into the man’s store to steal the drug for his wife. Should Heinz have broken into
the laboratory to steal the drug for his wife? Why or why not?” (Kohlberg, 1981).
 Based on how people answered, he proposed a three-stage theory of moral reasoning. He
found that moral reasoning moves from being focused on the self to being increasingly
focused on others, with a basis in clear personal principles of morality and ethics.
1. Preconventional level: the first level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning, in
which moral reasoning involves avoiding punishment or maximizing rewards.
2. Conventional level: the second level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning,
during which the person values caring, trust, and relationships, as well as the
social order and lawfulness.
3. Postconventional level: the third level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning,
in which the person acknowledges both the norm and the law, but argues that
there are universal moral rules that may trump unjust or immoral local rules.
 Research supports Kohlberg’s argument that children tend to reason preconventionally
and adults conventionally. This is found cross-culturally, particularly for the first two

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stages.
 The postconventional level appears to be limited more to Western cultures. When one
realizes that Western cultures place a strong emphasis on individualism and individual
values, this finding makes sense, because postconventional moral reasoning is heavily
based in a personal moral code. In contrast, many non-Western cultures emphasize the
group and community, and so the highest level of moral reasoning would be likely to
involve compassion and caring for others, altruism, and family honour.
Early Social-Emotional Development

Attachment
 Some animals, especially birds, follow and imitate the first large creature they see
immediately after birth. This behaviour is called imprinting. The newborn sees this
creature as a protector. Usually this creature also happens to be the protector (mom or
dad), so it is a good strategy. Newborn humans cannot follow around the first large
creature they see, so they do not imprint. They attach.
 Imprinting: the rapid and innate learning of the characteristics of a caregiver very soon
after birth.
 In everyday usage, attachment means “connectedness.” In human development,
attachment refers to the strong emotional connection that develops early in life to keep
infants close to their caregivers.
 John Bowlby (1969) described how infants become emotionally attached to their
caregivers and emotionally distressed when separated from them. He proposed that the
major function of this affection-based bonding system is to protect infants from predation
and other threats to survival.
 In his observations of human infants and primates, Bowlby noted that they went through
a clear sequence of reactions—from protest, to despair, to detachment—when separated
from their caregiver.
 Bowlby defined separation anxiety as the distress reaction shown by babies when they
are separated from their primary caregiver (typically shown at around 9 months of age).
 On the basis of such observations, Bowlby developed his attachment theory, which rests
on two fundamental assumptions:
1. A responsive and accessible caregiver (usually the mother) must create a secure
base for the child. The infant needs to know that the caregiver is accessible and
dependable. With a dependable caregiver, the child can develop confidence and
security in exploring the world.
2. Infants internalize the bonding relationship, which provides a mental model on
which they build future friendships and love relationships. Therefore, attachment
to a caregiver is the most critical of all relationships.
 Influenced by Bowlby’s work, Mary Ainsworth developed a technique for measuring the
attachment of infant and caregiver. The strange situation task: a 20-minute laboratory
session in which a mother and her 12-month-old infant are initially alone in a playroom.
Then a stranger comes into the room, and after a few minutes the stranger begins a brief
interaction with the infant. The mother then leaves for two separate 2-minute periods.
During the first period, the infant is left alone with the stranger. During the second
period, the infant is left completely alone.
 The critical behaviour that Ainsworth and colleagues rated was how the infant reacted

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when the caregiver returned. They presumed that the infant’s reaction reflects the way the
baby has learned to respond to his or her caregiver and that these reactions are based on
the history of comfort and reassurance the caregiver has provided.
 Based on this reunion behaviour, Ainsworth developed a classification system of three
types:
1. Secure attachment: infants show low to moderate distress in the strange situation
and are happy and initiate contact when the mother returns. They will go over to
her and want to be held. After they’ve been reunited with their mothers, they may
return to their play.
 The other two types of attachment represent insecure attachment.
2. Anxious-resistant attachment: infants are ambivalent. When their mother
leaves the room, they become unusually upset, and when their mother returns they
seek contact with her but reject attempts at being soothed. These infants give very
conflicted messages. On the one hand, they seek contact with their mother; on the
other hand, they squirm to be put down and may throw away toys that their
mother has offered them.
3. Anxious-avoidant attachment: infants stay calm when their mother leaves, they
accept the stranger, and when their mother returns, they ignore and avoid her.
 Research suggests that patterns of attachment are consistent across cultures. Two-thirds
of children are believed to be securely attached, but there are some differences in the
prevalence of the insecure attachment types.
 Subsequently a third insecure category was added by Mary Main.
4. In insecure-disorganized/disoriented attachment infants show odd, conflicted
behaviour in the strange situation. The children appear to be frightened. This is
considered to be the most insecure.
 CONNECTION: Attachment styles are stable throughout the life and may set the
blueprint for love relationships in adulthood. (See Chapter 14.)
Groundbreaking Research: How Touch and Comfort Influence Development
 Up until the 1950s, most psychologists assumed that all babies needed to survive was to have
their internal biological needs met – hunger, thirst, and temperature regulation.
 External needs, including love, affection, and social contact, were considered secondary.
According to this view, babies liked being held by their mothers because they had come to
associate mom with the ability to satisfy their primary hunger needs.
The Importance of Comfort and Physical Contact

 Harry Harlow thought there might be more to infants’ desire for contact than a need for
nourishment. In his early work, Harlow (1958) noticed that baby monkeys whom he had
separated from their mothers became very attached to cloth diapers that lined their cages.
This strong attachment to cloth made Harlow think that a baby primate needs something soft
to cling to. It reminded him of the attachment babies have for their blankets.
 To test his hunch, Harlow and his colleagues carried out a series of studies with newborn
monkeys whom they separated from their mothers. They housed them with surrogate mothers
constructed of wire and wood. One was just a wire frame with a crude head. The other was a
wire frame covered with soft terry cloth. Both mothers were heated and either could be

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hooked up to a bottle of milk.
 In the first study, Harlow removed eight monkeys from their mothers shortly after birth.
Cloth and wire mothers were housed in cubicles attached to the infants’ cages. Half the
monkeys were randomly assigned to get milk from the wire monkey; the other half got their
milk from the cloth monkey.
 Harlow used the amount of time spent with a surrogate mother as a measure of the affection
bond. He found that contact comfort was much more important than the source of food in
determining which surrogate mother the monkeys preferred. Regardless of whether a baby
monkey nursed from the cloth mother or the wire mother, it spent most of its time with the
cloth mom.
 Harlow’s findings suggested that the view that babies preferred being with their moms
because the mothers provided food was at least partially incorrect. Harlow went so far as to
say that a primary function of nursing in humans was contact as much as nutrition.
 Field and her colleagues (1986) decided to test whether regular touch might help tiny
premature infants. She randomly assigned 40 preterm infants from a hospital’s newborn
intensive care unit to either receive touch therapy (experimental group) or not (control
group). All of the premature infants lived in isolettes, plastic-covered bassinets designed to
prevent infection. This touch therapy involved gently stroking the baby with warmed hands
(no gloves) through portholes in the isolette for 15 minutes, three times a day for 10 days.
 Over the treatment period, babies who received touch therapy gained significantly more
weight than those who did not, even though they did not eat more.
 Later research showed the same effect in weight gain when mothers touched their preterm
infants. Touch also leads to reduced stress levels in premature babies and to fewer diarrheas.
 Touch therapy has also been used to improve motor skills in children with cerebral palsy, a
movement disorder. So touch in this case, makes for better health!

 Temperament: the biologically based tendency to behave in specific ways. It makes up
the building blocks of personality.
 After birth, some infants soon settle into a predictable routine. Others do not. Some are
generally happy, and others aren’t. And some infants have lower thresholds for
stimulation than others.
 Thomas and Chess developed a classification of three types of personality based on
differences in temperament:
1. Easy: predictable in daily functions, is happy most of the time, and is adaptable.
About 40% of children fall into this category.
2. Difficult: unpredictable in daily functions, is unhappy most of the time, and is
slow to adapt to new situations. About 10% fall into this category.
3. Slow-to-warm-up: mildly intense in his or her reactions to new situations and
mildly irregular in the daily patterns of eating, sleeping, and eliminating.
Although his or her first response to new situations might be negative, after
repeated exposures, he or she develops an approaching style. About 15% of the
children fall into this category.
 These three dimensions do not classify about 35% of children.
 One longitudinal study evaluated 1000 New Zealand children on many temperamental,
cognitive, medical, and motor dimensions at age 3 and then again about every 2 to 2.5

10-12
years until they were 21 years old.
 Ratings by parents at age 3 revealed three basic types of temperament: well-adjusted,
undercontrolled, and inhibited.
 Eighteen years after the initial assessment, the individuals whose parents had classified
them as “undercontrolled” (impulsive and prone to temper tantrums) at age 3, were
impulsive and likely to engage in thrill-seeking behaviours, more likely to be aggressive
and hostile, to have more relationship conflict, and to abuse alcohol.
 At age 21, “inhibited” children were less likely to have social support and were more
likely to avoid risk and harm, to be non-assertive and overcontrolled, and to suffer from
prolonged depression.

 Developmental psychologist James Sorce studied one-year-old babies and their mothers’
reactions to the visual cliff. In his study, the mom would place her baby on the visual cliff.
She would stand at the other end, put a toy down, and pose one of five facial expressions
of emotion: fear, anger, sadness, interest, or happiness. She said nothing and did nothing
else. When mom’s facial expression showed fear or anger, the baby did not move to the
deep side. But most babies went willingly over the cliff when the mom smiled.
 What this means is that by the age of one, children can make sense of their mothers’
emotional facial expressions and use them to know what to do. This ability to make use of
social information from another person is known as social referencing.
 CONNECTION: One way we learn is by imitating someone else’s behaviour. This type
of learning, seen also in infant mimicry, may be based on mirror neuron systems. (see
Chapter 7.)
Development of Emotions
 All humans, including babies, respond to cues in their social environments. Exposure
to aggressive conflict between parents, for example, changes babies’ behaviour.
Specifically, 6-month-old babies who have witnessed aggressive conflict between
their parents tend to withdraw when presented with a novel stimulus, such as a new
toy.
 Emotional competence: the ability to control emotions and to know when it is
appropriate to express certain emotions.
 The development of emotional competence starts as early as preschool and continues
throughout childhood. The better children do in school and the fewer stressful and
dysfunctional situations they have at home, the more emotionally skilled and
competent they are.
 One aspect of emotional competence is learning to regulate emotion. By age 9,
children are more aware of the impact of their reactions on others. Social smiling
(smiling without sincerity), only occurs with maturity and age.
Peer Interaction
 As children get older, their social world expands from the intimate environment of the
home to include play with other children. Although attachment to the primary
caregiver is important for the baby and young child, relations with other children have
a big impact after early childhood.

10-13
 Nothing influences the behaviour of children like other children – their peers.
 Peers: persons who share equal standing or status.
 Gender differences in peer interactions have been found:
o Children tend to flock to same-sex playmates
o Gender differences in play are universal
o Boys prefer rough-and-tumble play
o Girls opt for cooperative play
Developing Gender Identity

 Gender identity: the perception of oneself as male or female.
 Gender roles: the behaviours, attitudes, and personality traits that are associated
with being male or female.
 Gender constancy: the realization that gender is fixed and does not change over
time.
 Children construct knowledge about their gender through their interactions in their
social world. Cultural stereotypes can subtly influence gender identity.
 Biological forces also guide gender development. For example, research with
primates suggests that toy preferences may reflect biologically based predis-
positions towards certain types of play, such as aggressiveness or caregiving.
THE DEVELOPING ADOLESCENT
 Adolescence: the transition period between childhood and adulthood, beginning at about
age 11 or 12 and lasting until around age 18.
Physical Development in Adolescence

 Puberty: the period when sexual maturation begins, marking the beginning of
adolescence.
 During puberty, major hormonal changes prepare the body for reproduction. On average,
girls reach puberty at about age 11 and boys at about age 13.
 The beginning of puberty stems from the release of sex hormones.
 First, the pituitary gland sends hormonal signals to the sex glands, telling them to mature.
The sex glands, or gonads, then release sex hormones.
 The male gonads are called testes; they release the male sex hormone testosterone,
 The female gonads are the ovaries; they release estradiol.
 In girls, breast development can start as early as age 10. The next major change is the
onset of menstruation, known as menarche. The age of menarche is highly variable, but
it often occurs by age 12. In most Western cultures, the age of menarche has dropped
from about age 16 during the 1800s to 12 or 13 today, known as the secular trend.
 In boys, the event that signals readiness to reproduce is spermarche, or the first
ejaculation. Usually occurs unexpectedly as a nocturnal emission (wet dream).
Cognitive and Brain Development in Adolescence

 During adolescence, children gain the ability to reason about abstract concepts and
problems. This is the stage of cognitive development that Piaget termed the formal

10-14
operational stage.
 In this stage, teens may show the ability to engage in scientific reasoning and hypothesis
testing. Adolescents and even adults do not all develop this reasoning ability to the same
degree.
 The extent to which people develop scientific reasoning skills is related to their ability to
think and solve problems systematically, rather than relying on the trial-and-error method
that children use. It is also related to the ability to distinguish one’s thoughts about how
the world works from the evidence for how it really works.
 Neuroscientists have only recently uncovered how changes in thinking correspond with
changes in the adolescent brain. Indeed, many of the cognitive developments of
adolescence, such as abstract reasoning and logical thinking, may be a consequence of
brain development.
 In particular, the last part of the brain to fully develop—the frontal lobes—continues to
mature until late adolescence or early adulthood.
 The frontal lobes are involved in planning, attention, working memory, abstract thought,
and impulse control. It is not so much that the frontal lobes are growing in size as that
they are growing in complexity.
 Specifically, the adolescent brain develops more myelin around the axons as well as more
neural connections.
 Myelination proceeds from the back of the brain to the front, where the frontal lobes are,
during the period from childhood to adolescence.
 The onset of formal operational and scientific thinking occurs after the frontal lobes have
developed more fully.
 Neural synchrony (how certain types of brain waves work together to coordinate brain
activity) also matures through adolescence.
 Synaptic pruning reaches its final stages.
 What effect does brain development have on intelligence? Researchers have known for
decades that overall brain size is not correlated with overall intelligence. As it turns out,
however, intelligence does seem to be associated with how the brain develops and, in
particular, how the cortex develops.
 At age 7 the highly intelligent children had thinner frontal cortices, but by mid-
adolescence their cortices had become thicker than those of the children of average
intelligence. Moreover, by age 19 the thickness of the cortex in the two groups was the
same. These results suggest that the brains of highly intelligent people are more elastic
and plastic and trace a different developmental path.
Social Development in Adolescence

 An important part of social development in adolescence is the search for identity.
 Puberty brings profound changes not only in the body but also in relationships. Family
becomes less central, and peer and sexual relationships become paramount. Having close,
intimate friends during adolescence is associated with many positive social and emotional
outcomes, such as self-confidence, better relationships with parents and authority figures,
and better performance in school.
 Compared to childhood, the most obvious change in adolescent social development is the
emergence of sexual interest and sexual relationships. Teens not only become interested
in sexual relationships, but sexual thoughts and feelings also occupy much of their

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attention and time.
 The average age for first sexual intercourse for men and women is around 17.5 years old,
although there is quite a bit of variability in when people start having sex.
 Sexuality contributes to identity formation. Roughly 88% of teens describe themselves as
heterosexuals, 1 – 4% describe themselves as homosexual or bisexual
 Teens also explore their identity through experimenting with drugs and alcohol. Both
peer and parental behaviour influence whether someone will start drinking and how their
drinking behaviour develops.

 Erik Erikson proposed a model of personality development with 8 stages, each defined by
an identity crisis or conflict. According to Erikson, an identity crisis is an opportunity or
adaptive or maladaptive adjustment.
 The onset of puberty has teens entering the identity versus identity confusion stage.
Testing different identities is the norm for adolescents. The basic strength that develops
in adolescence is fidelity – a sense of faith and commitment to a belief system.
THE DEVELOPING ADULT
Early Adulthood
Emerging Adulthood
 The phase between adolescence and young adulthood emerging adulthood, which
spans the ages 18–25 years. Emerging adulthood is a phase of transition between
teenhood and adulthood.
 The key changes during emerging adulthood center around coping, with increased
responsibility and recognizing the need to make decisions about some of the things
they have been exploring.
 Numerous issues figure into identity formation. The primary three are: career identity,
sexual identity, and ethnic identity.
Young Adulthood
 People enter young adulthood more by having made it through certain life transitions
than by reaching a certain age, but usually this transition occurs in the 20s.
 Marriage: Over the past 40 years, the average age at which Canadians marry has
increased from early to mid 20s to late 20s to early 30s.
 Parenthood: Approximately 15% of people never become parents for a number of
reasons:
o Longer periods of settling down incurred by people during college years in
industrializes societies
o Personality may be a factor; shy men become fathers later than men who are not
shy.
Early Adult Personality Development

 Having a solid sense of self and identity is important for early adulthood— the period
during one’s 20s. In this stage, Erikson believed the primary conﬂict is between

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intimacy and isolation. Erikson deﬁned intimacy as the ability to fuse one’s identity
with another’s without the fear of losing it.
Middle Adulthood
Sensory and Brain Development
 Many people experience some loss of vision or hearing or both by middle adulthood.
 Hearing declines, too, with age. A recent large-scale study found that as many as 50% of
older adults (mean age of 67) experience some degree of hearing loss.
 CONNECTION: Mosquito ring tones for cell phones were developed by young people
to exploit older adults’ decreasing ability to hear high-pitched sounds. Why can’t older
adults hear this frequency? (See Chapter 4.)
 Some people also experience a loss of sensitivity to taste and smell, though these changes
vary considerably among individuals.
 Losing one’s sense of smell can dampen the sense of taste to the point that food no longer
has much appeal, somewhat like what happens when you have a bad cold. As many as
half the people over 65 demonstrate significant loss of smell.
 The brain remains plastic. The rate of neurogenesis slows, but new neurons still form.
Personality Development
 Erikson proposed that in midlife we confront the crisis between generativity versus
stagnation.
o Generativity: the creation of new ideas, products, or people
o Stagnation: when the adult becomes more self-focused than oriented toward others
and does not contribute in a productive way to society or family.
o Mid-life crisis: a popular notion that people quite their jobs, get divorced, buy a sports
car, contemplate the meaning of life and become aware of the passage of time and
their impending death. Evidence that a mid-life crisis is universal is lacking.
Late Adulthood
Brain Development and Cognition
 The older brain does not change as rapidly as the younger brain. Yet new experiences and
mastery of new skills continue to give rise to neural branching and growth throughout
life.
 Mastering new skills stimulates neural growth and the formation of new synapses
throughout the life span.
 Although some abilities decrease in adulthood, others increase.
o Expertise in a given area reaches a peak in middle adulthood.
o Verbal memory peaks after age 50.
o Memory for processing information and maintaining information while making
decisions declines, but not noticeable until the 60s or 70s.
 Healthy older people who receive training in memory skills show.
improvements in cognitive performance and their ability to manage tasks
of daily living.
o Fluid intelligence declines, but crystallized intelligence increases.
o Exercise and physical activity helps to reduce cognitive decline with aging.
o One benefit of aging is wisdom – the ability to know what matters, to live well,

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and show good judgment.
 Most normal cognitive declines with aging results in brain changes to the frontal lobes
(working memory, planning, and abstract reasoning) as brain mass decreases.
 Dementia: a loss of cognitive functions, including memory problems and difficulty
reasoning, solving problems, making decisions, and using language. Several neurological
conditions, including stroke and Alzheimer’s disease, can lead to dementia in the elderly.
 Alzheimer’s disease: a degenerative disease marked by progressive cognitive decline
and characterized by a collection of symptoms, including confusion, memory loss, mood
swings, and eventual loss of physical function.
 Alzheimer’s accounts for 60–70% of the cases of dementia among the elderly.
o Early onset Alzheimer's affects people younger than 65
 The defining anatomical feature of Alzheimer's is the presence of patches of dead tissue
in the brain, especially the hippocampus and areas of the cortex. This causes periods of
memory lapse, confusion, and other cognitive impairments. Some evidence suggests that
neurogenesis in the adult brain might offset or even prevent the kind of neural
degeneration seen in Alzheimer’s and other age-related brain disorders.
 Aerobic exercise appears to protect against a decline in higher mental processing among
aging adults and may actually make the brain grow.
Personality Development in Late Adulthood

 The final stage of Erikson’s theory is old age where the conflict is between integrity and
despair.
 Integrity: the feeling of being whole and integrated. The core strength is wisdom.
EVALUATING CONNECTIONS IN DEVELOPMENT: Impact of Technology Across the

Life Span
 From the moment we are born until our death technology shapes who we are, how we
behave, and with whom we interact. Technology has changed how humans develop.
Infancy and Toddlerhood

 A recent survey suggests that 4% of infants and toddlers have used a computer. How does
this impact brain development?
 Cognitive and Brain Development:
 Computer use can help and hinder cognitive development.
 Infants who learn to use the computer and do tasks other than play games are more likely to
be able to read later on than children who use the computer to just play games.
 Other studies suggest that early media use is associated with some attention deficits later in
childhood.
Childhood
 66% of Canadian parents say education is the biggest benefit of their children being on the
internet. 94% of Canadian children ages 9 – 16 report having internet access at home.
 Cognitive and Brain Development and Technology:

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 Certain types of video training may have positive effects on the brains of young children.
When children use attention-training computer programs, their brains show more efficient
processing in the frontal lobes.
 However, children who use TV, DVD, and computers heavily tend to have problems paying
attention and keeping focus, they also exercise less and show poor school performance.
Adolescence
 Teens have been labelled the “Net Generation” or the “NetGeners”. Using online media
increases through the teen years and is primarily used for communication with family and
friends, as well as entertainment.
 Social-Emotional Development and Technology:
 Although in the 1990’s research reported that the more time teens spent online, the lower
their degree of social connectedness and well-being, more recent research suggests that
online communication bolsters and strengthens existing friendships. There are negative
impacts as well:
 When teens receive negative feedback on their profiles, they experience lower self-esteem
which affects their overall well-being.
 Introverted and socially anxious teens prefer to disclose personal information online more
than offline, and use online to compensate for face-to-face social skills.
 Extraverted teens use online communication to enlarge their already large social network.
Early Adulthood
 75% of emerging adults have a profile on a social networking site and 83% sleep with their
cell phone near or on the bed.
 Social-Emotional Development and Technology:
 Approximately 11% of all adults and 18% of millennial adults use online dating services.
Views on online dating have shifted to become more positive.
 Although online relationship users share many things with traditional date seekers, there are
also some differences
 Online daters put more emphasis on communication and physical attractiveness than offline
daters.
Middle Adulthood
• The literature on middle adulthood clearly points to the positive benefits of having both face-
to-face and electronic networks.
Late Adulthood
 The generation of older adults has also incorporated technology into their lives. A recent
survey suggests that Internet usage by Canadians aged 65 years and older has increased from
24 percent in 2005 to 48 percent in 2012.
 Cognitive and Brain Development and Technology:
 Training programs that stimulate the brain and help it to resist or at least slow down normal
cognitive decline have become popular. Research suggests that those who learned to play
video games that required strategy improved their cognitive skills in that they became faster
at playing the game; their problem solving became more flexible, and those skills that were

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trained by the game (i.e., executive function, reasoning, attention, and working memory)
improved.
 Internet searching activates more brain areas than did simple reading, particularly those areas
involved in decision making and reasoning.
EVALUATING THE CONNECTIONS

Teratogens
 CONNECTION: How does having the flu virus while pregnant change the way neurons
grow in the developing fetus and increase vulnerability to schizophrenia later in life? (See
Chapter 15.)
o Video: The Mind 12: Teratogens and their Effects on the Developing Brain:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XTh2-eWfcXI
o An overview of birth defects and teratogens can be found at the Merck Manual
homepage: http://www.merckmanuals.com/home/sec23/ch265/ch265a.html
o Discussion: You might want to ask how many people have a cat. Remind them
that toxoplasmosis is from cat feces and thus pregnant women should not change
the litter box.
 CONNECTION: Language acquisition depends on exposure to a language-stimulating

environment during the first 12 years of life when the brain’s neural connections are
forming. Limited exposure to language during this sensitive period can lead to permanent
problems in language development. (See Chapter 8.)
o Video clip - Critical periods of brain development:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uJxkcszgKzU
o Discussion: You can lead students in a discussion of how knowing about
sensitive periods in development (like for language) should influence
recommendations for parents’ (and others’) interactions with children.
 CONNECTION: Experience is crucial in the formation of synaptic connections

(synaptogenesis) and the growth of neurons (neurogenesis) in the brain throughout the
life span (see Chapter 3).
o Discussion: This is a good time to discuss the concept of epigenisis. A great site
on pruning is: http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/plast.html.
o Video: I typically show clips from the PBS series “The Secret Life of the Brain”:
An overview of the series:
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/teenbrain/work/adolescent.html
and the video for the infant: http://www.pbs.org/wnet/brain/episode1/video.html,

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the child: http://www.pbs.org/wnet/brain/episode2/video.html, and the teenager:
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/brain/episode3/video.html.
Theory of Mind
 CONNECTION: Autism is a childhood disorder characterized by severe language and

social impairment combined with repetitive habits and inward-focused behaviours. How
is autism related to theory of mind?
o Discussion: Have students watch
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XDtjLSa50uk before coming to class. Ask
them to write down 3 or 4 examples they have seen in their lives of theory of
mind (or lack thereof) in children. Begin the discussion by asking them to provide
examples and then discuss what it would be like without that knowledge in
adulthood.
Attachment
 CONNECTION: Attachment styles are stable throughout life and may set the blueprint
for love relationships in adulthood (Chapter 14).
o Discussion: Have students read: Hazan, C., and Shaver, P. (1987). Romantic love
conceptualized as an attachment process. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 52 (3), 511–524. This article is about the relationship between adult
attachment and child attachment. Have students discuss in class if they think this
adequately represents their attachment style. There is a clip with Mary Main
discussing therapy and adult attachment:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YJTGbVc7EJY.
 CONNECTION: One way we learn is by imitating someone else’s behaviour. This type
of learning, seen also in infant mimicry, may be based on mirror neuron systems (see
Chapter 7).
o Discussion: This is a great time to discuss social learning theory (see Chapter 7).
If you are not prepared to go into discussing Bandura’s work on media effects on
aggressive behaviour in depth, it still can be a useful example of modeling and
imitation.
Sensory and Brain Development in Middle Adulthood
 CONNECTION: Mosquito ring tones for cell phones were developed by young people
to exploit older adults’ decreasing ability to hear high-pitched sounds. Why can’t older
adults hear this frequency? (See Chapter 4.)
o Discussion: Although we often characterize aging in terms of deficits (i.e.,
abilities that decline or we can’t perform anymore), there are many positive
aspects of getting older. Ask students to identify some, using the text for
guidance.

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INNOVATIVE INSTRUCTION
Additional Discussion Topics
1. Gender and Moral Development: Gilligan argues that psychology has underestimated
sex differences in development and thinking. Specifically, she argued that the traditional
view of moral development (Kohlberg’s) was unfair to women. She argued for a “caring”
vs. “justice” orientation as opposed to the Kohlbergian view. For more information, see
http://www.stolaf.edu/people/huff/classes/handbook/Gilligan.html.
2. Piaget: This is a great time to discuss the educational implications of Piaget’s work.
Remind students that Piaget felt that peers only offered a state of disequilibrium and that
was the only benefit. You may want to tie in Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development
as a counter-perspective to this. Also point out to students that Piaget believed children
cause their own development. Montessori based her educational work on this perspective.
You can show Montessori and her work:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q7a3Br6kPbU
3. Harlow: Start by showing a clip of Harlow’s work:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_O60TYAIgC4
4. Teratogens: Have students do a web search for different teratogens and bring a list to
class. Then have students volunteer information they found. Some of this is obvious
(FAS, smoking, crack, etc.); however, some of the things like lunch meat may lead to a
lively discussion.
5. The Developing Infant and Child: The newborn human brain is especially responsive to
the specific world around it, allowing nurture to shape human nature. You may want to
stress the idea of epigenetics. This is also a good time to point out that Piaget’s theory is
epigenetic in nature. That is, he believes that children are active and cause their own
development as they interact with the world. Thus an impoverished environment (one
with little chance for exploration with the baby stuck in a playpen or bounce seat all day)
should lead to limited cognitive development. On the other hand, an environment that has
many opportunities for exploration should lead to a more complex level of thought. You
may want to have students discuss the ways to have a rich environment.
6. Human attachment is based on an affection-based bonding system that protects an infant

from threats to survival. This is a great time to discuss the evolutionary adaptive value of
imprinting and attachment. Here is a clip from the movie Fly Away Home showing the
imprinting of Canada Geese: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xZeH-cGOTRI You may
want to tie this in to how infant attachment most likely operates on a similar level. You
could also relate this to Harlow and his monkeys showing autistic behaviours when left in
isolation.

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7. Extend your lecture on parenting to include helicopter parents and tiger moms. Ask
students what these labels mean to them. Have they had any experiences surrounding
helicopter parents and tiger moms? Ask them to describe those experiences.
Activities
1. Download the Kohlberg dilemmas from:

http://www.haverford.edu/psych/ddavis/p109g/kohlberg.dilemmas.html. Place students in
small 4-5-person groups and pass out different dilemmas to each group. Give students 20
minutes to read the scenario and fill out the questions according to each of the three
levels of thinking. Then have each group provide a brief 5-minute synopsis to the class
of their dilemma and how each level would respond.
2. Have students ask their parents what they were like as an infant and child and write two
paragraphs – one reporting what their parents said and the second on how it maps onto
the way they are today. That is, in their case was personality stable over time?
3. Have students look at http://www.psych.uiuc.edu/~rcfraley/attachment.htm, which has a

great overview of how infant attachment correlates with adult attachment styles. Then
have them go to http://www.web-research-design.net/cgi-bin/crq/crq.pl to take a quick
survey on adult attachment style (it even plots where they are on the graph). Then have
them write a paragraph summarizing infant attachment styles, a paragraph on adult
attachment styles, and finally a paragraph on if they feel this assumption of adult effects
is correct, based on their score.
4. This is a nice tie-in with the “Psychology in the Real World” section of the text. Have
students read “Music Lessons Enhance IQ”:
http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/ps/musiciq.pdf , and the article at
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/09/060920093024.htm and write a brief 2-
paragraph summary of the research described on the relationship between music and
intelligence.
5. Have students complete the worksheet on Piaget’s stages at:

http://psychology.about.com/library/quiz/bl_piaget_quiz.htm. Review with students that
these stages are integral to Piaget’s work. You may also want to point out that Piaget’s
stages revolve around being able to think a certain way – not necessarily the age itself.
That said, Piaget firmly believed that chronological years were important, as that should
dictate the amount of experience.
6. Observe ways that you experiment with different identities. Pay attention to situations in
which you are presenting yourself to others, such as choosing what clothes to wear, or
when you post on a social network site. Do you notice whether you present a consistent
image or play with more than one image?
7. Musicians have better communication between the two sides of the brain than do people
who have not had musical training. This finding suggests that the skills of music training

10-23
enhance connectivity—in white matter—between the hemispheres. You may want to
have students read: http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/26388.php and then a
BBC article on a disorder that strikes musicians to a greater extent than non-musicians at:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3490158.stm. Ask students what they think about these
lines of research that show both advantages and disadvantages of musical training.
Discuss what they think the reasons for these results are. Ask students how many of them
took music lessons and for how long. Do they think they have advantages because of it?
8. Ask students to reflect on parenting. Ask them to describe three advantages of being a
parent and three disadvantages of being a parent. Furthermore, ask them to describe three
mistakes parents make when disciplining their children.
9. Ask students to describe themselves at age 75. What will they be like physically,
cognitively, socially, and emotionally? How do they feel about aging? Have students
share their answers. Look for similarities, differences, and myths about aging in students'
answers.
Suggested Media
1. A brief clip on Vygotsky’s theory: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-p_-0n2f35o

2. A brief overview of Mary Ainsworth and attachment:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4HHTohtXEq8 and
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QZdlLS2eTPU and
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9HG05AIlH6Y
3. The strange situation task: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QTsewNrHUHU
4. Erik Erikson’s work: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FpOtpuBnjbo
5. Montessori's work: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rZLq5Uttq8M
6. Cute clip of a conservation task: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YtLEWVu815o
7. NOVA clips on life’s greatest miracle:
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/miracle/program.html
8. Martin Seligman on positive psychology:
http://www.ted.com/index.php/talks/martin_seligman_on_the_state_of_psychology.html
9. The Forgetting: A Portrait of Alzheimer’s (Warner Home Video—PBS special)
10. The Baby Human: Geniuses in Diapers (Discovery Health)
11. Discovering Psychology—The Developing Child (Annenberg):
http://www.learner.org/series/discoveringpsychology/05/e05expand.html
12. Gender Identity and Gender Roles http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-VqsbvG40Ww
(Children describe their identity and roles)
13. Egocentrism: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OinqFgsIbh0
Suggested Websites
1. The student page is great as a resource of Piaget’s work: http://www.piaget.org/

2. Educational implications of Piaget’s theory:
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VD4-40V4CM7-

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8&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_version=1&_urlVersi
on=0&_userid=10&md5=9b8ba4e000130888c49d5efa3c628b7f
3. A great site on cognitive development: http://cogweb.ucla.edu/
4. An overview of Piaget’s theory:
http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cognition/piaget.html
5. An overview of Erikson’s theory:
http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/affect/erikson.html
6. An overview of Kohlberg’s stages:
http://psychology.about.com/od/developmentalpsychology/a/kohlberg.htm
7. An overview of Harlow’s work:
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/bhharl.html
8. Another Kohlberg page: http://www.vtaide.com/blessing/Kohlberg.htm
9. A great Piaget page: http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/piaget.htm
10. A great overview of developmental theories:
http://tigger.uic.edu/~lnucci/MoralEd/overview.html
11. Are you a super ager? https://www.livingto100.com/
12. The Child Development Institute http://childdevelopmentinfo.com/
Suggested Readings
Ainsworth, M., Blehar, M.C., Waters, M., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of Attachment: A
Psychological Study of the Strange Situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Beilen, H. (1992). Piaget’s enduring contribution to developmental psychology.
Developmental Psychology, 28, 191-204.
Bruner, J. (1966). Studies in cognitive growth: A collaboration at the Center for Cognitive
Studies. New York: Wiley & Sons.
Buss, D. (2011). Evolutionary psychology: The new science of the mind. Pearson.
Elkind, D. (1988). The Hurried Child: Growing Up Too Fast Too Soon. New York: Addison-
Wesley.
Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and Society. New York: Norton.
Galvan, A. (2013). The teenage brain: Sensitivity to rewards. Current Directions in
Psychological Science, 22, 88–93.
Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women's development.
Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Gopnik, A. (2010). The philosophical baby: What children's minds tell us about truth, love,
and the meaning of life. Picador.
Legerstee, M., Haley, D. W., & Bornstein, M. H. (2013). The infant mind: Origins of the
social brain. Guilford Press.
Pearce, N. (2011). Inside Alzheimer’s. New York: APG Sales.
Piaget, J. (1990). The child’s conception of the world. New York: Littlefield Adams.
Piaget, J. (1965). The moral judgment of the child. The Free Press: New York.
Power, F. C., Higgins, A., & Kohlberg, L. (1989). Lawrence Kohlberg's Approach to Moral
Education. New York: Columbia University Press.
Shwalb, D. W., Shwalb, B. J., & Lamb, M. E. (2013). Fathers in cultural context.
New York: Routledge.

10-25
Vygotsky, L. (1986). Thought and Language. Boston: MIT Press.

10-26
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accompanied Mr. Cavendish on his late expedition through
Somaliland to Lake Rudolph. He was a tall, sinewy, well-set-up man
with clean-cut, regular features, extremely intelligent, thoroughly
trustworthy, honourable, polite, and hospitable—a man whom it was
really a pleasure to meet. He was about thirty years of age.
Ismail Robli was a short stout man with a shifty eye, and decidedly
prognathous jaws, very plausible, and, when he had an object in
view, very hospitable; but he hid a craven spirit under a show of
bluster and bullying. Noor Adam was a little slim man, with narrow
eyes and ferret-like features. He was reported to have shot some of
his porters on his journey across West Kenia, for attempted
desertion. He somehow provoked an instinctive feeling of dislike,
and we never got on with him. His two partners, Bhotan and
Abdallah Arahalli, were much of the same kidney. All three were
Ogaden Somalis, a tribe who have not the best of reputations. There
were sundry other lesser lights who are not of sufficient importance
to deserve notice.
When they came into camp we received them with due ceremony,
and asking them to be seated, interchanged greetings in the
Mohammedan manner. For a moment the air resounded with such
remarks as “Sabal Kheir” (God bless you), “Salaam Aliekoum”
(Peace be on you), and “Aliekoum Salaam” (And on you peace),
mingled with the Swahili “Uhali ghani? Habari ghani?” (How are you?
What news?), till etiquette was satisfied. We then got to business,
and discussed the Embe affair in all its bearings. El Hakim cross-
questioned Noor Adam and some of his men very severely, but could
find no discrepancy in their various accounts. We discussed the
matter very fully, and finally, for the good and sufficient reasons I
have already enumerated, we determined to punish the Wa’Embe in
co-operation with the Somalis. We instructed them to provide thirty-
five men carrying Snider rifles, while we undertook to supply twenty-
five men similarly armed, which, with ourselves, made up a strong
force of sixty-three men, a number we considered amply sufficient
for the purpose in hand. We despatched a nephew of N’Dominuki’s
to Embe as a spy, to find out a good road and the position of the
villages, etc., and he started the same evening.
On the following day we held another “shaurie” with the Somalis to
discuss the modus operandi of our projected expedition.
N’Dominuki’s nephew had been instructed to return from Embe
within two days, and we decided to start on the afternoon of the next
day—by which time, bar accidents, he would have returned—and
march immediately on receiving his report. We intended to start just
before dusk, pass through M’thara in the darkness, and be over the
Embe border unperceived at midnight. A short rest and a dash on
the Wa’Embe at dawn would complete the operation. It was a good
plan, and would have answered admirably but for one of those little
accidents that make “the best-laid schemes o’ mice and men gang
aft agley.” As will be seen, it suited the enemy admirably.
Embe on this side (the west) consists of a range of steep
mountains, where it rains nearly all the year round. It has, therefore,
a very moist climate and fertile soil, and its steep slopes and deep
valleys are covered with dense jungle interspersed with banana
plantations, making it a very nasty country to fight in, especially
against natives who know every inch of the ground and every turn of
the paths. We did not tell N’Dominuki of our plans—a very grave
oversight that nearly cost us our lives and those of the whole
expedition.
On the following morning, as we really could not stand the wind
any longer, we shifted our camp to the inside of the forest, and while
we were about it we fortified it as well as we were able by felling
thorn trees, etc. We were much more sheltered in this new position,
though, to be sure, it was rather damp. This wind had a nasty cold
nip with it night and morning, which was the reverse of agreeable.
When we had our camp satisfactorily settled, we made our simple
preparations for the expedition to Embe. We took one tent with us in
case we were away more than a day or two. A loaf of bread and a
hind quarter of boiled mutton were also included; and, of course, a
plentiful supply of ammunition. The men had thirty rounds of Snider
cartridges each, which was all we could spare. The Somalis’ men
had fifty rounds each, and they, in addition, had a reserve chest of
six hundred rounds for emergencies.
At 5 p.m. we started. The natives in our immediate vicinity had,
with their usual unerring instinct in such matters, smelt a row, and
about fifty of them turned up armed with spears and shields. We did
not want them, but could not very well turn them away, and at the
last moment it occurred to us that they might prove useful as scouts,
and we therefore allowed them to remain. When our force had
assembled, it made quite an imposing array with the sixty men with
rifles and the fifty others with spears. Altogether, we commanded
upwards of a hundred men, and had no doubt but that we should
teach the Wa’Embe a severe lesson.
N’Dominuki’s nephew had not returned, and we concluded that he
had been discovered and killed, and were consequently rather
nonplussed for the lack of a guide. At the last moment a Masai
warrior came forward and volunteered to guide us. On the Somalis
saying that he was known to them, we accepted his services. Soon
after we started, N’Dominuki’s nephew unexpectedly returned and
joined us, and he and the Masai took the head of the column.
Darkness had fallen as we marched through M’thara, the road
continually ascending. The path at last grew extremely difficult, and
on several occasions El Hakim expressed doubt as to whether we
were going right. However, we were now committed to whatever the
Fates had in store for us; it was impossible to withdraw.
Onward we stumbled in the darkness, now up steep hillsides, and
anon down deep and gloomy valleys clothed in thick jungle where
the deep booming note of a mountain torrent growled hoarsely from
somewhere out of the pitchy blackness below. Soon the path
became so narrow that we could advance only in Indian file, which
weakened us considerably, as our fighting line was thereby stretched
out for some two hundred yards, being consequently out of our
immediate control, while the jungle, meeting overhead, blotted out
what little light the stars provided. It was impossible, on account of
the denseness of the vegetation, to place men out on our flanks, and
in addition we were counting on taking the Wa’Embe by surprise,
and so did not wish to make too much noise. At 10 p.m. we were
well within the Embe border, and we then looked for a place to rest
awhile and prepare for our rush at dawn. We could not find a suitable
spot, however, and eventually decided to halt on the path. A drizzling
rain came on, which did not improve matters. One of our men found
a place a little distance from and below the path, that did not slope at
such an acute angle as the rest of the landscape, and we as
noiselessly as possible pitched the tent. El Hakim, George, and I
partook of a frugal meal, but we were without water, and naturally we
felt ever so much thirstier than we would otherwise have done. We
placed sentries, Jamah Mahomet doing the same where he had
halted on the path. We three Wasungu then dropped off to sleep.
Somewhere about midnight we awoke with a start, reaching for
our rifles as the sound of a shot floated down to us from where
Jamah Mahomet’s sentries were posted. It was followed by a
second, and then a third. Then all was silent again, except for the
subdued hum of suddenly wakened men. On sending for
explanations, we found that some Wa’Embe, coming down the path,
had stumbled right on to the sentries, and were instantly fired upon.
All hope of a surprise was thus abolished, but on consultation we
decided that if we started an hour or so earlier, possibly 3 a.m., we
might take the enemy at a disadvantage. Accordingly, at that time we
once more set out.
It was dark as Erebus. As we noiselessly formed up on the path, a
sort of half sense of impending disaster seemed to have fallen on the
men. We did our best to dissipate it, and apparently succeeded. The
Masai guide and N’Dominuki’s nephew led the way; next came four
of the Somalis as advance-guard; then Jamah Mahomet, who was
wearing a waterproof coat over his khaki costume; finally George, El
Hakim, and myself. A few yards farther on we found a spear in the
path, probably dropped by one of the Wa’Embe in their flight, when
fired at by the sentries. If possible, the path grew worse as we
advanced, and presently we reached a deep ravine with a swift
torrent roaring and tumbling at the bottom. It was spanned by a
single tree-trunk, which served as a bridge. Beyond the ravine the
path sloped upwards with many twists and turns. On each side the
jungle prevented anything being seen more than a yard or two away.
We advanced slowly and cautiously in the order described, when a
shot rang out almost under our feet; another followed; and then a
volley from the advance-guard showed that something serious was
toward. A terrific howl and the long repeated U-u-u-i (the A’kikuyu
war-cry) showed us that we were very skilfully ambushed, and the
realization was not pleasant. The firing at once became general all
along the line. It was a very fierce fusillade while it lasted; the reports
of the rifles and the cheers of our men, mingled with the war-cries of
the enemy, sounding weird and ghastly in the dense blackness of the
early morning (it was then 4 a.m.).
For a few moments pandemonium reigned supreme. Neither El
Hakim nor I could see a single native. George, though only a yard or
so away, was hidden from us, both by the darkness and by a turn in
the path. El Hakim clutched my arm and dragged me into a sitting
position on the ground as the whirring, hissing rush and plaintive
whine of bullets in unpleasant proximity to our ears warned us that
we were in considerable danger of being shot by our own men.
Owing to the serpentine winding of the path, they were firing towards
every point of the compass, and we were therefore much safer on
the ground. In a few moments the war-cries of the enemy died away
as suddenly as they came, and the spiteful crackle of the rifles
lessened a little. As soon as we were able to make ourselves heard,
we gave the order “Cease fire,” and endeavoured to find out what
damage had been done. I called to George, and, to my great relief,
he answered me.
El Hakim and I then advanced, and turned the corner. We could
then dimly discern George amid the gloom. He came towards us
saying that Jamah Mahomet was wounded, and was lying on the
path a yard or so away. Hastening to the spot, we saw Jamah
stretched upon the ground, moaning pitifully. He had a great spear
driven right through him. A native had concealed himself in a pit dug
on the side of the path and lain in wait, letting both the guides and
the advance-guard go past him in the hope of bagging one of the
Wasungu. In the darkness he mistook Jamah Mahomet’s tall form,
clad in European clothes, for George, and as Jamah passed he
thrust upwards with all his strength. Jamah instantly fell. George,
who was only a yard behind, saw the thrust, and, raising his rifle, he
shot the native through the stomach, but did not drop him. This was
the shot which gave us the first alarm.
El Hakim made a hasty examination of the stricken man, and
pronounced the wound fatal. The broad spear-blade, over two feet in
length, had entered the right side just below the ribs, and, passing
through the body, emerged just under the left arm, protruding several
inches. Jamah was semi-conscious, and apparently in great pain.
Grouped round him, on the alert, were the four Somalis who formed
the advance-guard. As El Hakim concluded his examination, Ismail
Robli, Noor Adam, and others of the Somalis, came up. When they
learnt what had happened to Jamah, such a wail of grief and dismay
went up as I hope never to hear again. Ismail behaved like one
demented. He wept and cried upon “Allah” in the most frenzied
accents.
As we were crowded together in the path over the dying Jamah,
N’Dominuki’s nephew crept out of the bush, and, with shaking limbs
and horror-stricken countenance, approached El Hakim, attempting
to say something which his trembling lips refused to utter. The other
guide had disappeared. El Hakim seized him, and was trying to
understand what he was saying, when Ismail Robli caught sight of
the palsied wretch. His face changed instantly from an appearance
of pious supplication to one of demoniacal fury, and, crying “This
man is a false guide; he has caused Jamah’s death,” placed his rifle,
a ·577 express, against the other’s side, and, before I could raise a
hand to interfere, pulled both triggers, literally blowing the poor
wretch to pieces.
It was a hideous and revolting exhibition of savage ferocity. Ismail
did not even put the rifle to his shoulder—we were too crowded for
that—he simply pushed the barrels past me and fired from his hip.
The murdered man collapsed in a writhing, moaning heap on the
ground. Ismail turned away and reloaded his rifle.
It was no time for recrimination, as at the report of Ismail’s rifle, a
fresh burst of firing broke from our men in the rear, which we
instantly quelled. It was a dastardly act on Ismail’s part, even though
at the time he was almost frenzied with grief at Jamah’s injury, as we
had no reason to believe that the unfortunate guide had played us
false. As we found out afterwards, the real culprit was the Masai
volunteer, who, it appeared, was a native of Embe, who had been
sent for the purpose of betraying us. At the same time, N’Dominuki’s
nephew had neglected to warn us, or point out that we were going by
a bad road. A great deal remained to be explained, but his untimely
end put further explanation out of his power for ever.
However, there we were in the dark, stuck on a path eighteen
inches wide, with a wounded man and no guides. The question now
was how to get out without further loss. We called a council of war,
first posting the Somali advance-guide a few yards up the path. We
decided to wait till daylight, as we could not move while Jamah was
living, and he was too far gone to be carried. It was a ghastly wait.
After the firing and shouting, the silence could almost be felt; it
seemed absolutely deathlike. We strained our ears to the utmost at
the slightest rustle of a leaf, as, for all we knew, the bush might be
swarming with natives waiting their opportunity for a rush.
A curious sight we should have presented to a spectator. The
Somalis, led by Ismail, were grouped, praying, round the dying
Jamah, who was sinking fast and moaning softly at intervals. El
Hakim, revolver in hand, stood bolt upright, and intensely on the
alert, his face showing faintly white through the gloom. Beside him
stood George, drumming with his fingers on his rifle—a habit of his—
softly humming an air from “Cavalleria Rusticana.” Crouched down
on the path were the men, motionless as bronze statues, conversing
in low whispers now and then, while they strained their eyes in the
endeavour to pierce the surrounding bush. A yard or so away lay the
dead body of N’Dominuki’s nephew; his dirty cotton waist-cloth
smouldering where it had caught fire from the explosion of Ismail’s
rifle, nearly choking us with the smell of singed flesh and the pungent
odour of burning cloth. We tried several times to put out the cloth,
but we had no water, and it was in vain we attempted to smother it;
so it smouldered all night, and uncommonly unpleasant we found it.
We were parched with thirst, having had no water since the
previous afternoon. Once in a while the flash of a sentry’s rifle would
momentarily light up the surrounding jungle, and the sharp report
stabbed the silence. I laid down on the path and slept—fighting
sometimes affects me that way—and woke up at dawn, just as
Jamah died. We were exceedingly sorry, as he was one of the best
of his race we ever had to do with. At the first glimmer of daylight we
dug a grave on the side of the path, and he was buried with all the
ordinances proclaimed by Mohammedan law that were possible
under the circumstances. Prayers and lamentations in Arabic
resounded on all sides from the deceased’s assembled compatriots.
There being now no signs of the enemy, El Hakim, George, and I
were for continuing the advance and pulling the fat out of the fire
somehow, but Ismail and the other Somalis would not hear of it.
They said that the enemy were now fully prepared for us, and
instanced the numerous freshly dug pits that had been found on
each side of the path when digging Jamah’s grave. Another
argument they employed was that our respective camps were almost
entirely unprotected, and it was more than likely that the Wa’M’thara
or the Wa’Chanjai would attack and loot them in our absence, more
especially as they (the Somalis) had a large number of cattle, which
are particularly tempting to a native. In addition, we were now
entirely without guides, while the path ahead seemed worse than
ever.
We saw the force of this reasoning, and common prudence
directed that, for the present at any rate, we must abandon the
attack; which decision, though gall and wormwood to we
Englishmen, we were reluctantly compelled to admit was the wisest
possible under the circumstances. We made up our minds, however,
that we would return under more favourable auspices, and wipe out
the disgrace of our defeat, for defeat it was, and so with that
understanding we acquiesced in the retreat, and gave the necessary
orders to retire.
It was with very mixed feelings that we travelled back over the
difficult path we had trodden a few hours before with such
confidence. We found out afterwards that our sudden retreat
disconcerted the Wa’Embe, who were massed in force further along
the path at a place where they had dug a large number of pits, in
which they had kindly placed sharpened spikes for our reception.
At eight o’clock we were met on the road by an M’thara man
named Koromo, who handed us a jar of honey as a present. When
we got within a mile or two of our camp large numbers of fully armed
natives slunk past us, going towards Chanjai. They were coming
from the direction of our camp. Hurrying on with sinking hearts, we
soon arrived at the camp, and to our great relief found all safe,
though Jumbi was full of some report or other about armed natives
who had been round the camp during the night. We said he could tell
us about it afterwards, as at present we wished to eat. It was then
one o’clock in the afternoon, so we set to and made a hearty meal,
and afterwards retired to our blankets and slept the sleep of the just
until dinner-time.
FOOTNOTES:
[3] “Through Jungle and Desert,” by William Astor Chanler,
A.M. (Harv.), F.R.G.S., pp. 168-177.
[4] “Elephant Hunting in East Equatorial Africa,” by Arthur H.
Neumann, pp. 42, 43.
CHAPTER VI.
OUR MOVEMENTS IN M’THARA AND MUNITHU.
Attempt of the Wa’M’thara to loot our camp—“Shauri” with Ismail—

The Somalis accuse N’Dominuki of treachery—He vindicates
himself—That wicked little boy!—Explanation of the Embe
reverse—Somalis lose heart—Attacked by ants—El Hakim’s visit
to Munithu—Robbery of his goods by the Wa’Gnainu—I join him
—We endeavour to recover the stolen property from the
Wa’Gnainu—The result.
Ismail’s apprehensions for the safety of our respective camps
seemed to have been well founded. Jumbi, whom we had left in
charge of our boma, reported that on the evening of our departure
for Embe he had noticed that large numbers of armed natives were
concealed in the surrounding bush. He unostentatiously put the
camp in as good a state of defence as possible, and kept his few
men moving about inside the boma to give an appearance of
numbers. He then noticed that the long grass in the clearing was
also crowded with concealed warriors, to the number of several
hundred. Presently some of them showed themselves. He shouted
to them, asking what they wanted. They answered by inquiring if the
“Wasungu” were in camp. He, with ready wit, shouted back that one
of the Wasungu had gone away somewhere, but the other two were
in camp. Did they wish to see them? They apparently did not, and he
saw no more of them, though they still remained within easy
distance; and consequently he passed a very anxious night. Our
unexpected return next morning disconcerted the warriors, who
hastily retreated. They were the fighting men we had passed on our
way back. Jumbi said they were Wa’M’thara, which, if true, was a
very serious matter.
The men in charge of the Somalis’ camp made a similar report.
Without doubt the natives’ plan was to wait till news arrived of our
defeat and massacre in Embe, and then to rush and loot the camps,
after spearing the few defenders. These preparations seemed to
indicate a deep-laid plan on the part of some one, and some one,
also, who was sure of success.
Ismail Robli, with several of the other Somalis, came into our camp
in the afternoon showing every sign of terror, which they
endeavoured, unsuccessfully, to conceal. They asked for a “shaurie,”
and when we granted their request, they came out with a ridiculous
story of treachery on the part of N’Dominuki. They declared he was a
traitor, ignoring the fact, which we pointed out to them, that
N’Dominuki had been kept in ignorance of our plans. They further
stated that he was even now preparing to attack us at the head of
the Wa’M’thara, reinforced by a strong body of Wa’Embe. We
refused point-blank to believe a word of it. On questioning them as to
their source of information, they said that a man from Chanjei, who
had come into their camp to sell food, had told them. We were
disgusted with their credulity, and said as much. El Hakim told them
that he had known N’Dominuki for years as the most trustworthy of
natives, and so had other Englishmen before him, and he would not
believe that he had turned traitor, on the more than doubtful word of
a casual native, whom nobody knew, and who was of no
consequence or position.
Ismail was obstinate. He persisted in his assertion that N’Dominuki
was a traitor, and instanced the armed Wa’M’thara who had
concealed themselves round about our camps the night before, as
proof of his words. We were a little troubled, as, though we would not
for a moment believe N’Dominuki to be the traitor, we did not know
what his people might do without his knowledge, or in spite of him. At
all events, the presence of armed men round our camp needed
explanation. As we did not quite understand matters, we sent for
N’Dominuki, asking him to come to our camp, as we wished
particularly to see him. Our messenger returned in the course of the
day with a message to the effect that N’Dominuki was suffering from
fever, and was unable to come. We sent up again, with some
medicine, asking him to come if possible. He again returned an
answer that he was ill, but would come to-morrow.
His non-appearance seemed proof positive to Ismail and his
following that N’Dominuki was actively hostile. They were, in
consequence, in a perfectly frantic state. Of course, had N’Dominuki
turned traitor we should have been in a very bad fix, though it was
only what could have been expected after the double reverse in
Embe. However, we were very loth to believe it of him in the absence
of direct and conclusive evidence.
Ismail returned to his own camp, but visited us an hour or so later
with a fresh budget of news to the effect that N’Dominuki had
received the Embe chief in his house, and had killed a sheep in his
honour. Once more we sent to N’Dominuki, this time detailing the
charges alleged against him, and saying that, although we did not
believe them, we should be obliged if he would visit us as soon as
possible. He sent back to say that he would come to-morrow without
fail.
All these conflicting accounts caused us considerable anxiety. As
for the Somalis, they were in a most pitiable state; that is, it would
have been pitiable had it not been so thoroughly contemptible. They
appeared panic-stricken, and worked with feverish energy in
strengthening their boma, felling huge trees and cutting thorn bush
till long after sundown. We ourselves did not neglect obvious
precautions, and strengthened our boma a little, more especially for
the purpose of reassuring our men, amongst whom the Somalis’
stories had created something like alarm. We then sent a
peremptory message to the Somali camp, warning them that if their
frightened sentries, through a false alarm or any such cause, fired in
the direction of our camp, we should not hesitate to return the fire
with interest. This message had the effect of calming their nerves a
little.
Next morning they again came over to our camp, still with the
same old tale of N’Dominuki’s treachery. These repeated allegations
against N’Dominuki caused us to suspect some ulterior motive. Still
another urgent message was sent to N’Dominuki, and this time he
sent back word that he was coming with his people, bringing food.
He arrived an hour or so after the message, and sending for Ismail
and the other Somalis, we held a big “shaurie.”
First we asked N’Dominuki why he had not appeared in answer to
our frequent messages the day before. He replied that he and his
people had fled to the hills with all their cattle and goods, under the
impression that we were going to attack them!
We inquired who gave him that idea, and he said that a boy from
the Somali camp had told him so.
Then we began to see daylight. We inquired where the boy was.
N’Dominuki replied that as far as he knew he was still in the Somali
camp, so we ordered Ismail to produce him. In a few minutes he was
delivered, bound, at our feet. A cross-examination of the Somalis
elicited the fact that the boy had deserted from their camp, taking
with him one of their sheep. On being again questioned, N’Dominuki
stated that the boy had come to him for shelter. He had told the boy
that he would not allow him to stop there, but would send him back
to his masters, but the artful little boy said, “I have done it for your
sake, N’Dominuki. I wished to warn you that the Wasungu and the
Wa’Somali are about to attack you.” N’Dominuki believed him, and
fled forthwith.
In a little while the boy, not liking the life with the natives, and
yearning for the flesh-pots of the camp, returned to the Somalis, after
having concocted a satisfactory explanation of his absence. He
made out to the Somalis that he had gone as a spy on N’Dominuki,
who was an “el moruo torono” (a wicked old man), as he had heard
that he was hostile to his dear masters, and that at great risk and
personal inconvenience he had carried out his plan successfully. He
then solemnly warned them that N’Dominuki was preparing to attack
them. He counted on the gravity of his announcement averting any
unpleasant inquiries about the stolen sheep—a ruse which was
completely successful.
Now we had got hold of the truth. Small boys will be small boys all
the world over, whether white or black, and this little untutored
specimen of his genus had kept a hundred and fifty armed men, in
two camps, in a state of intense anxiety for two days, and had driven
a tribe with all its cattle and goods in mortal terror into the hills for the
same period, in order to cover his impish escapade. He was treated
in the same way as from time immemorial other small boys have
been—for equally reprehensible escapades, and forthwith received
the thrashing he so richly deserved.
We gently chided N’Dominuki for believing “that little vulgar boy,”
and asked him why he had not come into camp and found out the
truth for himself. He was afraid, he said, that we should bind him and
kill him at our leisure! El Hakim represented that it was very unkind
to think that of him, who was such an old and proved friend.
N’Dominuki’s only reply was “The boy told me so!” That is a savage
all over! They believe the first story that comes to hand, even against
their better judgment. In N’Dominuki’s case, although his experience
of white men had always been of the best and pleasantest, he had
met them late in life, and had never quite lost the savage’s innate
distrust of strangers.
We dismissed the crestfallen Somalis, and advised them to give
less credence to casual reports in future. They seemed very sulky,
and were, we were beginning to believe, rather sorry that
N’Dominuki had successfully vindicated himself.
From that old savage we afterwards gathered a great deal of
information, which threw considerable light on the recent events in
Embe. It was now shown beyond the shadow of a doubt that the
Masai volunteer guide was an Embe native who, while spying round,
had seized the opportunity offered him of serving us to our
disadvantage. The Somalis were greatly to blame for saying that
they knew him. So they did, but in the hurry of the moment they had
neglected to tell us that they had merely seen him knocking about
their camp for a day or two.
When we passed through M’thara in the darkness we were
observed by some of the Wa’M’thara, who were friendly to the
Wa’Embe, and who immediately sent off a runner with the news of
our advance, thus giving the enemy time to skilfully prepare the nice
little trap into which we all walked. Our escape throughout was due
more to good luck than good management, as the party who
ambushed us and killed Jamah Mahomet were only an advanced
post of the Wa’Embe, the main body being posted a mile further on,
where they had dug numbers of pits in the path, in which they, with
great forethought, had placed sharp-pointed stakes. It was their
intention to attack us when we were floundering about in these pits.
We had sadly underrated the skill and courage of the enemy, and
altogether had had a very narrow escape from irretrievable disaster.
If we had underestimated their capabilities, however, they had also
paid us the same compliment. The terrific fire which instantly greeted
their first onslaught must have surprised them greatly. It certainly
daunted them, and probably considerably disarranged their plans,
preventing them from bringing their main body up and surrounding
us. Before they had formed any fresh plan we had made good our
retreat, which, in the light of subsequent knowledge, proved to be a
wise, if somewhat humiliating step.
N’Dominuki said we should have told him of our plans. He only
heard of our intention to attack Embe after we had passed his
village, and it was then too late to warn us. He offered, if we wished
to renew the attack, to personally guide us into Embe by a much
better path, with open country on either side; the road we had
followed being the very worst one we could have chosen. His
proffered assistance was gladly accepted, and we communicated
with the Somalis, expecting they would jump at this opportunity of
avenging the death of their leader. To our intense surprise, they did
nothing of the kind, but replied that they only wished to buy food
peaceably, and go their way northward. We were simply astounded,
and could not at first believe that Somalis, above all people, could be
so craven-spirited; besides, a successful punitive expedition had
now become a vital necessity if we were to preserve the lives of our
party, and render the country safe for those travellers who might
come after us.
Already there were ominous mutterings among the surrounding
tribes, begotten of our reverse in Embe, but we could not get Ismail
to see the matter in the same light, argue as we would. Jamah’s
death seemed to have thoroughly discouraged him. We reasoned,
we begged, but to no purpose. George and I went over to his camp
in the evening in order to make a final effort to rouse a little spirit in
him. George has a wonderful knowledge of Arabic, and he used it
then with vigour and fluency. I also possess a rudimentary
knowledge of vituperation in that language, and employed it to the
utmost; but in vain. We argued, threatened, cajoled, and insulted, but
could get no response, beyond the statement from Ismail that he
was a man of peace, and wished to go his way and trade. I pointed
out to him with some emphasis that it was not because he was a
“man of peace” that he did not fall in with our views, as I had had
ocular demonstration of the fact that he was the very reverse when
he felt inclined. The reason, I told him, that he did not wish to avenge
the blood of Jamah, which was crying aloud for vengeance, was a
cowardly fear of a few naked savages, who were not even
Mohammedans. I called Allah to witness that he was a traitor to his
blood and his religion, and that Jamah, from among the “houris” in
Paradise would look down and curse him for “an unclean dog without
religion.”[5] He smiled a sickly smile, and repeated that he was a
peaceful trader, not a man of war. I then spat upon the ground to
show my utter contempt for him, and left him.
The following day we bought a large quantity of food from
N’Dominuki’s people, and packed it in loads in preparation for our
march to the Waso Nyiro. In the afternoon Koromo, the man who met
us with the honey when we were returning from Embe, came into
camp with N’Dominuki and requested the honour of blood-
brotherhood with El Hakim, and that interesting though disgusting
ceremony was accordingly performed. That night George and I had a
very disagreeable experience. We and the puppy had gone to our
tent for a good night’s sleep after the worry and trouble of the last
three days. The pup was very restless, and ran whining about the
tent in a most annoying manner. At first we thought it was only his
“cussedness,” and scolded him well; but he got worse instead of
better, and finally rolled frantically on the ground, yelping most
dismally. Suddenly George said “D——n!” in a loud voice, and
sprang up from his bed, which was on the ground, and after a little
searching pulled a black insect from some part of his anatomy. He at
once examined his blankets, and found that they were literally
covered with tiny black ants, which, in spite of their small size, bit
most ferociously. I also turned out and found the ground under my
bed was a seething black mass of ants, which instantly attacked the
unprotected portions of my person with an earnestness and attention
to business which, under other circumstances, would have
commanded my highest admiration. Mine was a camp-bed standing
a foot off the ground, and consequently there were comparatively
few on my blankets. We turned our attention to the agonized puppy,
and found that the poor little brute was black underneath with the tiny
pests, who had bitten into his flesh and held on like limpets. We
brushed him free and put him out of harm’s way, swept out the floor
of the tent, getting innumerable bites on our naked feet and legs in
the process, and sent for some ashes, with which we liberally
sprinkled the ground, and also spread them in a circle round the tent,
which to some extent mitigated the nuisance. I did not suffer so
much, as my bed, as already explained, was some inches above the
ground, and consequently George, who slept on a heap of rushes,
bore the brunt of the attack. I was aroused several times during the
night by a muttered exclamation from the darkness on his side of the
tent, followed by the slap which signalled the hurried exit of another
of our tiny enemies from this world of woe. We found in the morning
that we had not been the only sufferers. Round all the men’s tents a
broad band of ashes testified to the defensive measures they had
been compelled to adopt. The cry of “siafu” (ants) in camp is at all
times a signal for instant action. Red-hot ashes are hastily gathered
and sprinkled in the path of the advancing horde, and the greatest
excitement prevails till the foe is finally vanquished. I was compelled
to shift our tent during the day to another spot some distance away.
By first beating down the earth into a hard concrete-like floor and
then strewing it with ashes, we hoped to prevent a recurrence of the
attack of the previous night, an arrangement we found to answer
admirably.
ELDERS OF M’THARA.
DIRITO AND VISELI (on the right) AND TWO FOLLOWERS. (See
page 132.)
The same day the Somalis left M’thara for Chanjai, where they
desired to purchase food. They promised that on their return in four
days’ time they would accompany us on another expedition into
Embe—a result I should have attributed to my eloquence of the night
before had we not been perfectly aware of the unreliability of their
promises. El Hakim, however, decided to wait on the off-chance of
their returning, and resolved to fill in a day or two by a journey back
to Munithu to collect food, and also to try to get news as to how far
our Embe reverse had affected native feeling towards us in those
districts. He took eight men with rifles with him. I amused myself all
the morning trying to make toffee from native honey and butter. The
resulting compound, though palatable enough, could not be induced
to harden, so we were compelled to devour it with a spoon. George
gave in at midday to a nasty touch of fever. I administered a couple
of phenacetin tabloids, and sweated him well, which towards evening
reduced his temperature. Next morning he was decidedly better, and
together we made a tour of inspection round the camp. We saw a
peculiar striped rat in the boma, which we nicknamed the zebra rat. It
was mouse-coloured with black stripes, but as we had not a trap we
could not secure a specimen. At midday George was down again
with the fever, and I dosed him once more. At 12.30 two men came
back from El Hakim with a note for me. He asked for some fresh
bread and a bottle of milk, also for six more men with rifles. It
seemed that the Wa’G’nainu, the people of a district west of Munithu,
on hearing of our Embe reverse, had come down and looted some of
the trade goods which El Hakim had left in Bei-Munithu’s charge,
and that he intended to try to recover them. He also asked for my
company if I could leave camp. As George was so queer I did not
feel justified in leaving him, but on his assurance that he was quite
able to look after himself while I was away, I decided to go.
I took no baggage or blankets, and with six men and four donkeys,
which were required to bring back the balance of El Hakim’s goods
still remaining with Bei-Munithu, started at one o’clock, intending to
try to reach Munithu the same evening, though it had taken the safari
two days to reach M’thara from Munithu on the outward journey. At
sundown, after a toilsome and seemingly interminable march, my
party and I arrived at El Hakim’s camp outside Bei-Munithu’s village,
where El Hakim, pleased at our rapid journey, forthwith ministered to
my material wants in the way of towels, soap, and supper. After our
meal he summoned Bei-Munithu, and bade him recapitulate for my
benefit the story of the pillaged goods. Briefly it amounted to this: A
large party of the Wa’G’nainu had come on a friendly visit to Bei-
Munithu. During their sojourn with him a report came to hand that the
Wasungu had been driven out of Embe with great loss, and one of
them had been killed. The news caused some excitement, and, as
was only natural, the assembled natives discussed in what way the
Wasungu’s supposed misfortunes could be turned to profitable
account. It was already well known that Bei-Munithu had one of his
huts filled from floor to roof with the trade goods and equipment of
the chief Wasungu, and it did not require much persuasion to induce

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Psychology Canadian 2nd Edition Feist

BRIEF CHAPTER OUTLINE

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Feist/Rosenberg/Stamp/Poole, Psychology: Evaluating Connections, 2ce

EXTENDED CHAPTER OUTLINE

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Feist/Rosenberg/Stamp/Poole, Psychology: Evaluating Connections, 2ce

THE DEVELOPING FETUS

Stages of Prenatal Development

Brain and Sensory Development Before Birth

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Feist/Rosenberg/Stamp/Poole, Psychology: Evaluating Connections, 2ce

Environmental Influences on Fetal Development

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Feist/Rosenberg/Stamp/Poole, Psychology: Evaluating Connections, 2ce

THE DEVELOPING INFANT AND CHILD

Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood

Early Sensory Development

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Feist/Rosenberg/Stamp/Poole, Psychology: Evaluating Connections, 2ce

Early Brain Development

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Feist/Rosenberg/Stamp/Poole, Psychology: Evaluating Connections, 2ce

Psychology In The Real World: Musical Training Changes The Brain

 The brain is most responsive to stimulation during infancy and childhood.

Early Cognitive Development

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Feist/Rosenberg/Stamp/Poole, Psychology: Evaluating Connections, 2ce

Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Feist/Rosenberg/Stamp/Poole, Psychology: Evaluating Connections, 2ce

 CONNECTION: Autism is a childhood disorder characterized by severe language and

Development of Moral Reasoning

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Feist/Rosenberg/Stamp/Poole, Psychology: Evaluating Connections, 2ce

Early Social-Emotional Development

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Feist/Rosenberg/Stamp/Poole, Psychology: Evaluating Connections, 2ce

Groundbreaking Research: How Touch and Comfort Influence Development

The Importance of Comfort and Physical Contact

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Feist/Rosenberg/Stamp/Poole, Psychology: Evaluating Connections, 2ce

Developing Temperament and Personality

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Feist/Rosenberg/Stamp/Poole, Psychology: Evaluating Connections, 2ce

Developing Social Relationships and Emotions

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Feist/Rosenberg/Stamp/Poole, Psychology: Evaluating Connections, 2ce

Developing Gender Identity

THE DEVELOPING ADOLESCENT

Physical Development in Adolescence

Cognitive and Brain Development in Adolescence

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Feist/Rosenberg/Stamp/Poole, Psychology: Evaluating Connections, 2ce

Social Development in Adolescence

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Feist/Rosenberg/Stamp/Poole, Psychology: Evaluating Connections, 2ce

Developing Temperament and Personality

THE DEVELOPING ADULT

Early Adult Personality Development

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Feist/Rosenberg/Stamp/Poole, Psychology: Evaluating Connections, 2ce

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Feist/Rosenberg/Stamp/Poole, Psychology: Evaluating Connections, 2ce

Personality Development in Late Adulthood

EVALUATING CONNECTIONS IN DEVELOPMENT: Impact of Technology Across the

Infancy and Toddlerhood

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Feist/Rosenberg/Stamp/Poole, Psychology: Evaluating Connections, 2ce

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Feist/Rosenberg/Stamp/Poole, Psychology: Evaluating Connections, 2ce

EVALUATING THE CONNECTIONS

Early Motor Development

 CONNECTION: Language acquisition depends on exposure to a language-stimulating

Early Brain Development

 CONNECTION: Experience is crucial in the formation of synaptic connections

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Feist/Rosenberg/Stamp/Poole, Psychology: Evaluating Connections, 2ce

 CONNECTION: Autism is a childhood disorder characterized by severe language and

Developing Social Relationships and Emotions

Sensory and Brain Development in Middle Adulthood

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Feist/Rosenberg/Stamp/Poole, Psychology: Evaluating Connections, 2ce

3. Harlow: Start by showing a clip of Harlow’s work: