Psychology Research, September 2019, Vol. 9, No.

9, 371-376
doi:10.17265/2159-5542/2019.09.003
D DAVID PUBLISHING

How Children Are Affected by Divorce

Jyoti Aggarwal
University of Lynchburg, Virginia, United States

Divorce can have a significant effect on children’s health emotionally and practically. It can be crucial for the
whole family to deal with divorce. There are many factors that come about when this situation is discussed, for
example, its effect on children, the possible probability of transmission of depression from parent to children, and
its effect on children’s school achievements. This paper focuses on the discussion of the answers to two questions.
Firstly, how does divorce affect the school achievement of children whose parents are divorced? Secondly, how
does divorce affect depression levels among children? The research finds interesting facts that children’s schools
achievements get affected due to divorce but also reveals that gender plays a role as a factor, such as boys are more
likely to suffer an effect on their school achievement more than girls. On the other hand, it is also found that
children, especially girls, can experience depression transmitted from their depressed mothers but divorce in parents
is not the only reason for children’s depression.

Keywords: marital disruption, depression, negative behaviors, school achievements, divorce

Introduction
A child’s world is closely connected to parents. They are dependent on their parents and family members,
whereas the adolescent world is more of an independent one. Adolescents tend to be more self-reliant, distant
from family, and extend their lives into the social world. However, when a child sees their parents together in
the beginning, and suddenly, they start having conflicts between them, it shakes their trust in dependency of
their parents (Pickhardt, 2011). For a child, it is an extremely difficult situation to transit back and forth into
two different households. Thus, this situation can be emotionally, physically, and psychologically difficult for a
child. Divorce affects children in many ways. It brings massive changes in children’s lives regardless of their
age. When children experience loss of love between parents, adjustment of time to commute back and forth
between two different households, getting ready for divorce, and the absence of at least one parent, all create a
challenge for everyone in the family.
Moreover, it is stressful for parents to take care of their children when they get divorced. There are a
number of variations in the handling of children when it comes to the end of marriage (Allan, 2016). It is very
difficult for many parents at the time of divorce to get along with their children because they cannot answer all
their children’s questions related to their divorce. However, this situation can be handled peacefully if both


Acknowledgement: This publication is supported by Schewel Student-Faculty Research Fund, University of Lynchburg,
Virginia, USA. I would like to acknowledge Dr. Andrew Bruce for mentoring this project, Dr. Roger Jones who is the Program
advisor, Dr. Jennifer Strysky, Dr. Holly Gould, and all the members of the Schewel Student-Faculty Research Fund Committee for
their invaluable support to make this project successful.
Jyoti Aggarwal, MEd, Pursuing EdD, College of Education, Leadership Studies, and Counseling, University of Lynchburg,
Virginia, United States.
372 HOW CHILDREN ARE AFFECTED BY DIVORCE

parents decide not to have a bad impact on their children due to their divorce.
Research done by Vousoura et al. (2012) is focused on finding how children are related to high-risk in
their development due to divorce of their parents. This study is helpful to understand the emotional and mental
situation of the children whose parents are divorced. Moreover, another study narrows the research by finding
the effect on behavior of children having depressed mothers (Goodman & Gotlib, 1999). This study is of
interest because after divorce, it is usual that a mother gets custody of their children. And during or after
divorce, a mother could be depressed which might have a bad impact on children’s overall development. On the
other hand, a study by Kinard and Reinherz (1986) tests the effect of divorce on children’s achievement. This
study is significant because children’s behavior gets affected emotionally and mentally due to marital
disruption between their parents, and it affects their capabilities of achievement. There is a need to find the link
between divorce and depression. Divorce is not easily handled by the children. However, they often struggle to
overcome it. Divorce benefits some individuals and brings others in a situation from which they might never
recover. The goal of this literature review is to discuss two questions. Is there any possibility of depression
among children whose parents went through divorce? And how are children’s school achievements affected due
to the marital disruption?

Literature Review: Discussing the Link Between Divorce and Depression

In 1982, Yale commenced research titled, “Children at low and high-risk of depression”. This research
was a three-generation study that was accepted by Institutional Review Board at New York State Psychiatric
Institute/Columbia University. In Group 1 (G1), a set of grandparents (G1) were selected from a community
survey and were interviewed to rule out their lifetime history of psychiatric illnesses. In Group 2 (G2), parents
were selected who identified at least one depressed grandparent (G1) at high-risk of depression; others who did
not have depressed grandparents (G1) were defined as at low-risk. In Group 3 (G3), grandchildren were
selected. In this group, grandchildren who were not biologically related with G1 were eliminated but others
were eligible to participate in the study. Children who were aged between five and 17 were assessed by using
the schedule for affective disorder. Doctorate and master’s level mental health students and professionals
supervised the diagnostics assessments. All the generations were assessed holistically by two experienced
clinical observers. The rates of depression and divorced were analyzed. G3’s age and sex and G2’s
socio-economic levels were considered in the analysis. To find out the G3’s children’s risk for depression and
anxiety, a hazard ratio (HR) was calculated based on their family risk of divorce and depression. Hazard ratio is
used to figure out how often a particular situation happens in one group compared to how often the same thing
is happening in another group.
The results from this research showed that from the total of 176 G3, there were 53 families where neither
G1 nor G2 were depressed. However, no sex or age differences were found between depressed G3 and
non-depressed G1. The analysis showed that there was no relationship between G3 whose parents and
grandparents had no lifetime diagnosis of depression and anxiety, and their parental divorce and grandchild’s
psychopathology. Similarly, there was no relationship found between G3 whose parents and grandparents had a
lifetime diagnosis of depression, and G2 divorce and G3 psychopathology. G2 divorce was accompanied with
an increased risk for an internalizing disorder and threefold increased risk of anxiety disorder among G3 whose
grandparents, but not parents, had a lifetime diagnosis of depression. Thus, children with high-risk of
depression were not a result of their parents’ divorce. Likewise, children with low-risk of depression had no
 HOW CHILDREN ARE AFFECTED BY DIVORCE 373

impact on child’s psychopathology (Vousoura et al., 2012). This study was very helpful to find out about stress,
depression, and anxiety a child can have due to their parents’ and grandparents’ history.
On the other hand, a research done by Goodman and Gotlib (1999) focused on finding an increase of risk
in misbehavior among children of depressed mothers. This research introduces a model of risk which can be
helpful in providing factors that could resolve the issue of children adverse behavior outcomes and parental
depression. This model is an assimilation of transference of risk to the children of depressed mothers. The
model suggests that the risks for depressed mothers are associated with characteristics of the child, such as
temperament, gender, and intellectual skills, father’s availability, and timing and course of mother’s depression.
These risks follow the mechanism, such as exposure of child to stressful environment. According to this
mechanism, depressed mothers’ show sad, irritable, aggressive, and discoidal nature to their child. Another
mechanism is exposure of mother’s negative behaviors and maladaptive cognitions to the child. This
mechanism is associated with transfer of depression from parent to the children. Parents who are dealing with
negative cognitive behaviors and are depressed are disappropriate for the child’s emotional development.
Hence, an infant follows its mother’s negative functioning and exhibits cognitive effects. Moving further to
explain the model, these mechanisms are directly related to the vulnerability to develop depression, abnormal
stress response, behavioral inhibition, and negative behavioral traits. The outcomes from these vulnerabilities
are childhood or adolescent depression (Goodman & Gotlib, 1999). However, these results are in alignment of
the issue of having depressed mothers and their interaction with their children. If this study were to be
compared to the previous study in this article, the two studies do not align with each other. First study mentions
that divorce in parents is not the reason of children’s depression, but it means that parents are satisfied after
getting divorced. But mothers who are depressed are of high-risk in the development of the children. Although
second study does not mention the reasons why mother is depressed but from these two studies, it may be
concluded that divorce in parents is not a reason of high-risk of depression among children but depressed
mothers can have a transmission of negative behaviors, which can lead children to depression.

A Study: Effect of Marital Disruption on Children’s School Achievements

There are many factors which impact children when their parents get divorced. For example, children’s
gender, marital discord, and personal adjustment play an important role in children’s development. In a study
done by Kinard and Reinherz (1986), it has been observed that children who live in different family situations
suffer with pronounced and multidimensional effects: no focus in classroom, lowered classroom achievements,
withdrawal, and independency. Marital disruption has an adverse effect on children’s school aptitude and
achievement. A set of children were selected who participated in a state-mandated screening three months prior
to entering kindergarten (Kinard & Reinherz, 1986). There were 215 boys and 217 girls participating in this
study. The research was done in three stages. First stage was preschool screening, then Grade 3 performance of
same children, and lastly Grade 4 performance. To collect the data, parents’ questionnaires were completed at
preschool screening and by the end of third grade. Children were given standardized tests of cognitive ability at
preschool screening and in fourth grade. Teacher questionnaires were administered in third grade. Information
on socio-demographic characteristics was obtained from parents and preschool children. More than 90 percent
of the respondents were mothers.
Results from this study showed that the gender of a child had a significant effect on his or her school
performances, like reading, writing, and mathematics achievements. Teachers rate boys with more problems
374 HOW CHILDREN ARE AFFECTED BY DIVORCE

with respect to productivity in comparison to girls. Marital disruption had adverse effects on language
achievement, total achievement, and teacher rating of productivity. From Grade 3 to 4, it was found that as
mother’s education increased, their children’s education increased as well (Kinard & Reinherz, 1986).
Moreover, boys are more negatively affected than girls due to divorce (Kinard & Reinherz, 1984). It is common
with girls to show their emotions to others easily. Conversely, it is very difficult for boys to cry or be emotional
in front of others. Boys’ nature is more aggressive than girls. They also do not have enough patience like girls
do. Another reason for boys being more affected by divorce than girls may be because boys are closer to their
fathers. Boys can get upset if their father is going away from them (Kinard & Reinherz, 1984).
On the other hand, Bandura (1986) conducted a study on how children of depressed mothers are affected
with the help of a social cognitive theory. The research found that mothers have a stronger impact on girls than
boys because girls tend to follow their mother’s depressed state and get attached more quickly than boys. This
study agrees with another study which states that daughters of depressed mothers follow their mother’s mood
more than the sons (Radke-Yarrow & Nottelmann, 1989). If these two studies are compared with the study
done by Kinard and Reinherz (1986), there is a big contrast between the two. Kinard and Reinherz’s (1986)
study states that boys have more problems in productivity than girls, but studies done by Bandura (1986) and
Radke-Yarrow and Nottelmann (1989) says that girls are more likely to follow their depressed mother’s notion.
As these two studies do not seem to complement each other, but it may be concluded that girls who get
emotionally disturbed by the situation at home because of depression in their mothers want to perform better at
school than boys.

Limitations of the Research

The questionnaire done with the teachers, preschoolers, and parents may not be accurate because
sometimes people do not tell correct or complete information about their experiences following the divorce.
Because of many children whose parents experience divorce do not get professional help, such studies can be
misleading to know the consequences of divorce for the majority of children. Sometimes, these surveys are not
designed to investigate the consequences of divorce, therefore several important variables are either excluded
or poorly operationalized (Demo & Acock, 1988).

Conclusion
For the majority of families, separation and divorce provoke a time of crisis and minimize the stability.
The consequences are devastating and hard to recover. Divorce not only has a lot of complicated causes, but
also has a wide range of effects. Each child and each family is unique, with different strengths and weaknesses,
different personalities and temperaments, and varying degrees of social, emotional, and economic resources. As
well as differing family situations prior to divorce, the effects of divorce differ by situation and personal
circumstances and may be different for parents and children. Furthermore, in any divorce, it is the child who is
most likely to be affected psychologically, as a child experiences the effects of parental divorce and problems
of different levels. The child may lose opportunities of spending time with each parent which influences
development. A child may lose emotional attachment with one of the parents which can lead to a weak
relationship. The child may have decreased social and psychological maturation which makes him more likely
to experience verbal aggression and violence from parents. Children of divorced parents may have lower scores
on self-esteem and behavior. A child may drop his/her faith and may have a higher risk of emotional stress.
 HOW CHILDREN ARE AFFECTED BY DIVORCE 375

Couples that are divorced are also benched with added responsibilities and roles, particularly about the
care of the children. Each parent must be both father and mother to the children. After an initial period of
distress, most adults and children can adapt effectively to new family structures and dynamics. Health care
professionals are well placed to assist families in making the adjustments to a new set of demands and
challenges. Parents are typically concerned about how divorce may affect their children; thus, it can be very
reassuring for them to learn about the common reactions that children have to divorce. They learn that
strengthening their support systems, developing a non-contrary co-parenting relationship, and maintaining a
quality parent-child relationship will help their child adapt.
The results from the studies discussed show that marital disruption in parents had adverse effects on
children’s achievements. For example, a child is no longer able to concentrate in the classroom, and therefore,
his/her performance in math and language is affected the most. And, children with high-risk of depression were
not related with their parent’s marital background. Moreover, depressed mothers can have transmission of bad
behaviors to their children which affect their academic achievements. It was also found that daughters’ may
have bad effect from their stressed mothers rather than the sons’. But son’s perform badly in schools than
daughters in schools.

What Can Be Done? Suggested Studies for the Future

To address any limitations that current research has, there is a need to consider the interaction between the
gender of the child and gender of stepparent (Vousoura et al., 2012). The effects due to the interaction between
the gender of the child and gender of parent/stepparent need to be routinely considered. Overall, there is little
information about the interaction between gender of parent/stepparent and gender of child. A research needs to
be done to find out the relationship of gender with the risk of getting depression. For example, grandchildren
whose parents are divorced and whose parents are not can be considered for this research. An equal number of
boys and girls can be chosen, and a questionnaire can be prepared to ask from them. On behalf of their answers,
their feelings about divorce in parents can be determined and along with that, they can be diagnosed with the
level of depression they have had when their parents get divorced. In this way, some interesting results can be
expected which would relate gender along with the level of depression.

References
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