Topic 1.

CELL THEORY
Topic Outline AUDIO

 Functions of Life
 Cell Theory
 Microscopes
 Magnification
 Surface Area : Volume Ratio
 Multicellular Organisation
 Cell Differentiation
 Stem Cells

The evolution of multicellular organisms allowed cell specialisation and cell replacement
Functions of Life

All living things carry out 7 basic life functions:

• Metabolism (undertakes essential chemical reactions)
• Reproduction (produces offspring – sexually or asexually)
• Sensitivity (responsive to internal and external stimuli)
• Homeostasis (maintains a stable internal environment)
• Excretion (able to remove toxic waste products)
• Nutrition (exchanges material with the environment)
• Growth / movement (changes shape / size / position) Mnemonic: MR SHENG

Organisms consisting of only one cell carry out all the functions of life
Life Function Examples

Paramecium Chlorella
Heterotrophic M Autotrophic
Asexual (mitosis) R Asexual (mitosis)

Chemotaxis Phototaxis
(towards food) S (towards light)

Keeps equilibrium H Keeps equilibrium

Via anal pore E Via diffusion
Food vacuoles N Photosynthesis
Moves via cilia G Non-motile

Investigate the functions of life in Paramecium and one named photosynthetic unicellular organism
The Cell Theory

The cell theory describes the structural

organization of all living organisms

According to the cell theory:

• Living things are composed of cells
(or cellular products)
• The cell is the smallest unit of life Watch the above video describing the
‘wacky’ history of the cell theory
• Cells only arise from pre-existing cells

According to the cell theory, living organisms are composed of cells

Cell Theory Exceptions

Certain types of cells and tissues do not conform to the standard notion of a cell
Striated Muscle Giant Algae Aseptate Fungal Hyphae

Individual cells fuse to form Certain species can be very Hyphae may be connected
long multinucleated fibres large (Acetabularia: >7cm) by a continuous cytoplasm

Questioning cell theory using atypical examples – striated muscle, giant algae, aseptate fungal hyphae
Cell Scale

In science, objects are typically Cells and their components are usually
measured via the metric system measured in micrometres & nanometres
Unit Prefix Symbol

1 metre m
÷ 1000
10 –3
milli mm
Molecule: 1nm Membrane: 7.5nm Virus: 100nm
÷ 1000
10 –6 micro μm
÷ 1000
10 –9
nano nm
÷ 1000
10 –12 pico pm
Bacteria: 1μm Organelle: 10μm Cell: 100μm
Microscopes

Objects that are too small for the naked eye may be visualized with microscopes

Light Microscopy
• Views living specimens in natural colour
• Has a lower resolution and magnification

Electron Microscopy
• Views dead specimens in monochrome
• Has a higher resolution and magnification Light Microscope Electron Microscope
Light Microscopy

Bacteria Plant Cells Animal Cells Muscle Tissue

Use of a light microscope to investigate the structure of cells and tissues, with drawings of cells
Electron Microscopy

Bacteria Plant Cells Virus (green), bacteria (red), animal cell (blue)

Electron microscopes have a much higher resolution than light microscopes (1.2)
Magnification

To calculate linear magnification of a drawing or image,

use the following calculation:

• MIA: Magnification = Image size ÷ Actual size MIA

To calculate the actual size of a drawing or image,

use the following calculation:

• AIM: Actual size = Image size ÷ Magnification AIM

Calculation of magnification and the actual sizes of structures shown in drawings and micrographs
Magnification – Worked Example

Calculate the magnification of the image:

• Magnification = Image size ÷ Actual size

➜ Image size = 130,000μm (13 × 104)

➜ Actual size = 350μm (50μm × 7)

50 μm ➜ Magnification = 370 (130,000 ÷ 350)

Total length = 13 cm

Calculation of magnification and the actual sizes of structures shown in drawings and micrographs
Surface Area : Volume Ratio

Cells need to produce energy to survive and this requires material exchange
• The rate of metabolism is a function of cell volume
• The rate of material and heat exchange is a function of surface area

As a cell grows in size, volume (units3) increases faster than surface area (units2)
• This leads to a decreased surface area : volume ratio ( SA:Vol)

If metabolic rate exceeds the capacity to exchange materials, the cell will die
• Hence growing cells typically divide and remain small in order to survive

Surface area to volume ratio is important in the limitation of cell size

Surface Area : Volume Ratio

Surface area increases

Volume stays constant

Total surface area

150 (height  width  sides 750
 number of boxes)

Total volume
125 (height  width  length 125
 number of boxes) Cells / tissues may increase their
SA:Vol ratio surface area to optimise transfer
1.2 6
(surface area  volume) (e.g. microvilli = SA:Vol ratio)
Multicellular Organisms

Multicellular organisms form when groups of individual cells function together

These organisms are capable of completing new functions (emergent properties)

due to the collective action of many cells combining to create synergistic effects

Cell Tissue Organ System

(muscle)
cardiac heart cardio
vascular

Multicellular organisms have properties that emerge from the interaction of their cellular components
Cell Differentiation

All cells in a multicellular organism share an identical set of genetic instructions

• Individual instructions (called genes) form a totality called the genome

The activation of different instructions in specific cells will cause these cells to
differentiate and become specialised (possessing distinctive functionality)

Gene A expressed
Identical
cells
Gene B expressed

Specialised tissues can develop by cell differentiation in multicellular organisms

Gene Packaging

Within the nucleus, active genes are packaged in an

expanded and accessible form called euchromatin

The inactive genes are packaged in a condensed

and inaccessible form called heterochromatin

Differentiated cells will have different regions of

DNA packaged according to their specific function

Differentiation involves the expression of some genes and not others in a cell’s genome
Stem Cells

Stem cells are unspecialised cells that possess two key qualities:
• Self-Renewal – They can continually divide and replicate
• Potency – They have the capacity to differentiate into specialised cell types

Embryonic stem cells (totipotent / pluripotent) can form any cell type, whilst adult
stem cells (multipotent / unipotent) have a limited capacity for differentiation

Self-Renewal Potency

The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate is necessary in embryonic development
Stem Cell Therapy

Stem cells can be used to replace damaged or diseased

cells with healthy, functioning ones Harvest

• Stem cells are extracted from an appropriate source

(embryos, umbilical cord blood, certain adult tissues)
Differentiate
• Biochemical solutions trigger cell differentiation
• New cells are implanted into the host’s tissue
• Immune system is suppressed to prevent rejection
Implant
• New cells monitored to ensure they are not cancerous

The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate makes them suitable for therapeutic use
Examples of Stem Cell Therapy

Stargardt’s Disease
• An inherited form of juvenile macular degeneration that leads to blindness
• Treated by replacing dead cells within the retina with functioning ones

Parkinson’s Disease
• A degenerative disorder caused by the death of dopamine-secreting cells (CNS)
• Treated by replacing dead cells in the midbrain with functioning ones

Use of stem cells to treat Stargardt’s disease and one other named condition
Ethics of Stem Cell Use

Harvesting Potency Tumor Risk Limitations

Embryos Are specially Highest Higher Involves destruction

created (SCNT) of an embryo

Umbilical Easy to extract Lower Lower Cells must be stored

Cord Blood cells from cord from birth at cost

Adult Cells obtainable Lowest Lower May be difficult to

Tissues at any life stage extract (and painful)

Ethics of the therapeutic use of stem cells from embryos, umbilical cord blood (newborn) & adult tissues
Topic Review

Can you do the following?

• List the functions of life

• State the cell theory (and exceptions)
• Contrast light and electron microscopes
• Calculate magnification of images
• Explain how SA:Vol ratio limits cell size
• Outline the process of cell differentiation
• Describe stem cell use (ethics and examples)