Section 5c – Genetic Modification (Genetic Engineering)

5.12 Describe the use of restriction enzymes to cut DNA at specific sites and ligase enzymes to join
pieces of DNA together
5.13 Describe how plasmids and viruses can act as vectors, which take up pieces of DNA, then
insert this recombinant DNA into other cells
5.16 Understand that the term ‘transgenic’ means the transfer of genetic material from one
species to a different species
Genetic engineering is the removal of a gene from one organism and its insertion into the DNA of
another organism so the gene is expressed.

Steps in genetic modification:

1. A restriction enzyme is used to cut the sequence of base pairs in a gene. The restriction
enzyme is specific to a sequence of bases – there are several different ones

2. The same restriction enzyme is used to cut the sequence of base pairs in the gene that has
the desired characteristics

3. A ligase enzyme is used to join the two genes together. It is now known as recombinant DNA

4. The recombinant DNA is inserted into a vector. A vector is something which carries genetic
material into the nucleus of a cell. This is usually a bacterial plasmid

5. The bacteria multiply, producing more cells with the desired gene, which will be expressed
when inserted into the cells of humans, or other organisms. The organism is known as being
transgenic, as it contains genetic material from a different species.

5.14 Understand that large amounts of human insulin can be manufactured from genetically
modified bacteria that are grown in a fermenter

Bacteria can be genetically modified, to contain the gene for human insulin.
Section 5c – Genetic Modification (Genetic Engineering)

The bacteria can be cultured in a fermenter, where they will multiply, so that they can be harvested
and used for diabetic patients.

Once the recombinant DNA has been inserted into bacteria, they are put in an industrial fermenter,
so that they can be harvested.

The liquid in the fermenter contains a sterile growth medium. This contains the nutrients required
for growth, including glucose, amino acid and other vitamins.

The bacteria in the fermenter will be respiring, and therefore producing heat. It is important for the
temperature to not get too high, as the enzymes could denature, killing the bacteria.

Carbon dioxide is also produced as a waste product of respiration. Carbon dioxide could make the
contents of the fermenter acidic, which would also denature the enzymes.

There are temperature and pH probes. These measure the temperature and pH. If the temperature
probes detect a rise in temperature, water will be sent through the water cooling jacket. The cooling
jacket surrounds the fermenter, and cold water circulates through it, cooling the bacteria in the
fermenter down. When the pH probes detect a decrease in pH, an alkali such as NaOH, may be put
in the fermenter to neutralise the acid.

Sterile air is pumped into the fermenter. This provides the oxygen required for respiration. It is
filtered to prevent contamination.

There are paddles inside the fermenter. These stir the contents of the fermenter, keeping the
bacteria in suspension. This means that they get the maximum exposure to the nutrients. The heat is
also evenly distributed, meaning that respiration happens evenly throughout the fermenter.

The exhaust outlet allows waste gases, like carbon dioxide, to leave the fermenter.

5.15 Evaluate the potential for using genetically modified plants to improve food production
(illustrated by plants with improved resistance to pests)
If plants were genetically modified to become pest resistant, larger quantities of crops could be
produced cheaply because the farmer would not have to buy pesticides. This would also have health
benefits as the farmer doesn’t have to be exposed to pesticides, and there will be no
bioaccumulation of the chemicals in food chains.

Making crops frost resistant or drought resistant would help to increase the yield as it means that
crops can be grown in colder conditions and for longer seasons. Potentially, crops would not have to
be imported as the weather resistant crops could be grown in the country they are sold in.

Plants can be genetically modified to become disease resistant. This makes them less susceptible to
disease, and less likely to be damaged. There will be more crops that can be sold resulting in a
greater yield.

Farmers can use herbicides to kill weeds, which would have been competing with the crop for root
space and nutrients in the soil. If crops were made herbicide resistant, they would not be killed by
herbicides, and since the weeds are, there would be less competition. This would result in a larger
yield.
Section 5c – Genetic Modification (Genetic Engineering)

Golden rice is a type of rice that is genetically modified to contain carotene, which converts vitamin
A in the body. In poorer countries, deficiencies in vitamin A are frequent, resulting in blindness.
Genetically modified golden rice provides people with enough carotene, and also with the
carbohydrates they need. This is helpful because one food source provides two essential nutrients.

However, there are some potential disadvantages of genetic modification. For example, there could
potentially be a transfer of the GM genes to other wild weeds, resulting in them becoming resistant
to disease or herbicides as well. The use of GM crops could reduce biodiversity, which could result in
all of the plants dying as a result of a disease.

GM can be expensive.