PHCHEM 201 LAB - Jeremiah Ben Godines

PHARM. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY LAB

EXPERIMENT 1: LABORATORY APPARATUS AND TECHNIQUES USED IN QUALITY
CONTROL FOR PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, AND IDENTIFICATION TESTS
 An acid (HCl) – gives of H+
 A base (NaOH) – gives of OH-
PH DETERMINATION AND CALIBRATION
This is only applicable for Inorganic Compounds (Arrhenius).
pH – is the measure of hydrogen ion concentration. It expresses
Organic compounds follow Lewis and Bronsted-Lowry Theory.
the acidity or basocity of a solution.

PH SCALE ACIDS BASES

Sour Taste Bitter Taste

Is used to measure and identify whether a substance is an acid
(acidic) or base (akaline) or neutral. Ranges from 0 to 14. Litmus: Litmus:
Blue to Red Red to Blue
● 0 to 6.9 – acids (acidic)
Red to Red Blue to Blue
● 7 – neutral
Phenolphthalein: Phenolphthalein:
● 7.1 to 14 – base (basic) Colorless Pink to Violet

Methyl Orange: Pink/Red Methyl Orange: Yellow

Identifying the pH of some common chemicals and preparations
in the laboratory are through the use of litmus paper, pH
indicator strip, and pH Meter ACID SAMPLES IN THE EXPERIMENT

Feminine wash and vinegar were used as samples and were

ACID-BASE THEORY found to be acids.

ACIDS (H+) FEMININE WASH

Is known to be hydrogen-containing substance that is capable of Feminine Wash are and should be acidic as Female parts are
donating a proton Acidic.
● Compounds that break up, in a solution of water to form ● Female parts should be acidic because a human body
hydrogen ions (H) and negatively charged ions. (including vagina) has Normal Flora.

BASES (OH-)
NORMAL FLORA
Is known to be hydroxide-containing substance that is capable of
donating an electron. Are good bacteria that is present in one’s body that helps in
maintaing normal homeostasis.
● Compounds that dissociate in water to produce
negatively charged hydroxide (OH) and positivelt ● Homeostasis – a self-regulating process by which a
changed ions. living organism can maintain internal stability while
adjusting to changing external conditions.
● Bases are slippery in nature
VAGINA’S NORMAL FLORA
THEORY ACIDS BASES A vagina’s normal flora thrives in an acidic environment. Thus, one
should maintain the vagina’s normal pH (which is Acidic).
ARRHENIUS H+ Donor OH- Donor
YEAST INFECTIONS
LEWIS Electron Acceptor Electron Donor
If, for instance, the pH level becomes a base (from being acid),
BRONSTED-LORY Proton Donor Proton Acceptor balance is offset, and the good bacteria are killed, causing yeast
infection.
AQUEOUS SOLUTION
Why should feminine wash be Acidic?
Requirement that is evident in Acids and Bases: It should be Because, as established, feminine wash is for vaginal care.
soluble in Water (H2O) so when testing it should be in an Naturally, vaginas are acidic. Thus, to maintain the pH level of
aqueous solution. the vagina, women should use feminine washes that are acidic.
● When dissolved in water it undergoes through
Dissociation (separation of something). VINEGAR
Through Dissociation;

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Vinegar is an acid that has an active ingredient namely that Acetic

OPTHALMIC SOLUTION
Acid (CH3COOH).
● Acetic Acid (CH3COOH) – is an organic compound. It is a Eyedrops can be neutral or slightly Acidic. It contains an active
proton donor and an electron acceptor. ingredient namely the Boric Acid.
● Boric Acids – used as preservative or anti-microbial
agent

BASE SAMPLES IN THE EXPERIMENT Sterile – a human eye should be sterile. Sterile is free from all
life form (including bacteria). It is not just clean.
Facial wash and Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) or Liquid Sosa
were used as samples and were found to be bases.
NORMAL SALINE SOLUTION
FACIAL WASH
NSS should be neutral. The standard concentration of NSS is 0.9%
Facial washes are strong bases. However, its pH level depends on Sodium Chloride (NaCl).
the active ingredient the facial wash has.
ISOTONIC
● For example, a facial wash that contains kojic is an acid,
as kojic is an acid. The solution (solvent and solute) is balance

HYPERTONIC
HARD SOAPS LIQUID SOAPS
The solution is saturated with solute particles.
NaOH KOH
(Sodium Hydroxide) (Potassium Hydroxide) ● In a hypertonic solution, cells tend to shrink

HYPOTONIC
Note that, facial washes are strong bases but soaps are only
considered as “slight bases” The solution lacks solute or unsaturated with solute particles.
● In a hypotonic solution, cells tend to swell
SODIUM HYDROXIDE – LIQUID SOSA
The difference is identified when cells are attempted to be
Liquid Sosa is a base, as based on the theory, in water it separates submerged
Na+ and OH-. Given that it contains and can give off OH-, then it is .
a base.
OSMOSIS

Liquid Sosa and Muriatic Acid are both used as cleaning Is the movement of water molecules from a solution with a high
agents. Liquid Sosa is a base while Muriatic Acid is an Acid. concentration of solvent to a solution with a lower concentration.
Note that, Base is more lethal than Acid.
● ↑ Solvent = ↓ Solute
Coagulative Necrosis ● ↓ Solvent = ↑ Solute
s a type of cell death that occurs when blood flow to cells stops or
slows (ischemia). SOLUBITY
● Acids can cause Coagulative Necosis
Refers to the quantity of solute that dissolves in a given amount
● Appearance: Skin Burn of solvent.
● Solid Solute and Liquid Solvent
Liquefactive Necrosis
● Polar dissolves Polar
Is a pattern of cell death caused by several etiological factors.
● Bases can cause Liquefactive Necrosis ● Nonpolar dissolves Nonpolar

● It liquifies organic matter (such as organs)

MISCIBILITY
NEUTRAL PH SAMPLES IN THE EXPERIMENT Ability of one substance to mix with another substance. This
term is used for liquid.
Opthalmic Solution (Eyedrops) and Normal Saline Solution ● Liquid Solute and Liquid Solvent
(NSS) were used as samples and were found to be neutral in pH.

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The solvent used in this experiment:

● Solubility – maximum amount of solute expressed in
● Distilled Water grams that can be dissolved in 100 g of water. (S+L)
● Ethanol / Ethyl Alcohol ● Miscibility – ability of one substance to mix with another
substance. (L+L)
● Hexane
(2) TEMPERATURE
The solute used in this experiment:
In both solids and liquids: When temperature increases,
● 1 mL of Glycerol solubility increases (directly proportional)
In Gas: When temperature increases, solubility decreases
● Two Iodine Crystals (indirectly proportional)
● Small Pinch of Sodium Chloride Crystals ● Exothermic – solubility decreases with increase in
temperature
Sodium
Glycerol Iodine ● Endothermic – solubility increases with increase in
Chloride
Distilled temperature
Soluble Insoluble Soluble
Water
When the temperature goes up, the molecules move faster. The
Ethanol Soluble Soluble Soluble kinetic energy – movement of particles – increases.
Hexane Insoluble Soluble Insoluble Thus, with the movement, there is a high tendency for the
molecules to meet the solute.
When it comes to gas, its molecules cannot be trapped; hence, it
is hard for the molecules to meet making the relationship
SOLUBILITY TABLE
indirectly proportional.
Solubility – maximum concentration to which a solution can be
formed
(3) PRESSURE
TYPE OF SOLUBILITY RANGE
For Gases only. Henry’s Law is applied.
Very Soluble <1
● The solubility of a gas increases as pressure increases.
Freely Soluble 1 – 10
(4) PARTICLE SIZE/SURFACE AREA
Soluble 10 – 30
Decreased particle size = Increased surface area = Increased
solubility
Sparingly Soluble 30 – 100
(5) PRESENCE OF SALTS
Slightly Soluble 100 – 1,000

Very Slightly Soluble 1,000 – 10,000 ● Salting Out – presence of salt decreases solubility

Practically Insoluble >10,000 ● Salting In – presence of salt increases solubility

Computation Sodium Ascorbate – salf form of Ascorbic Acid

Note that the table is 1g in every x mL

( x1mLg ) in which “x” is the CONCEPT OF EFFERVESCENSE

determinant for solubility A phenomenon in which when, acid is subject to carbonate or/and
bicarbonate, it will releases carbon dioxide.
Concentration: 1g in 25 mL – Soluble (Because of the x = 25 mL)
Examples:
Concentration: 40g in 20 mL  Berocca
 Cola Cola
40 g 1 g
= x=0.5
20 mL x Tablets in effervescense reaction are made for its taste, making
it sweet (and not bitter)
Thus, it is very soluble as x = 0.5

FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY MOISTURE CONTENT

Is simply how much water being is in a product. Influences the

(1) NATURE OF SOLUTE AND SOLVENT physical properties of a subtance including weight, density,
viscosity, and conductivity.
Like dissolves like.

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TITRAND/ANALYTE
● Determined by weight loss upon drying.
One being analyzed
● When there is moisture, there is an area of microbial
INDICATORS
growth.
Weak acids or bases that change color in pH
Computation
Similar to weighting by difference INDICATORS

(1) Weigh the initial sample ACIDIC BASIC

(2) Weigh after conducting an experiment
(3) See if there is a decrease in weight. The decrease in Phenolphthalein Color Less Pink
weight is the actual moisture
Phenol Red Yellow Red

Why is mosture important in consideration in Methyl Red Red Yellow

Pharmaceutical Drug Development?
Methyl Orange Pink Yellow
- Too much water – liquifies easily
- Too little water – crumbles easily
Malachite Green Yellow Green
- Microbrial Growth
- Stability and Longevity of Drugs Bromotymol Blue Yellow Blue

Thymol Blue Yellow Blue

STANDARD ROOM TEMPERATURE FOR DRUGS

25 degree celcius is the standard room temperature for drugs.

This will ensure quality medicine.
● Pharmacies (Botika) should have room temperature
reader, to record the temperature for ensuring quality
drugs.

ASSAY PROCEDURE AND TECHNIQUES

KNOWN ACIDS
Assay – is an analytical procedule for a qualitavely assessing or
quantitavely measuring the presense and amount of a target CHEMICAL FORMULA CHEMICAL NAME
quantity of a substance.
HNO3 Nitric acid

TITRATION HNO2 Nitrous acid

Also known as Volumentric Analysis H2SO4 Sulfuric Acid

● Before the end point – Stoichiometric Point/Equivalence H2SO3 Sulfurous Acid

Point/Theoretical Endpoint
H2CO3 Carbonic acid
● End of titration or Experimental – End point
CH3COOH Acetic acid
PHENOLPHTHALEIN
HClO3 Chloric acid
used as an indicator in titration experiments to indicate the
endpoint of the titration. HCl Hydrochloric Acid
● The endpoint is indicated by the formation of a pink
colour since this compound dissociates to form pink
anions when dissolved in water.
KNOWN BASES
REACTANTS CHEMICAL FORMULA CHEMICAL NAME

TITRANT/STANDARD SOLUTION Al(OH)3 Aluminum Hydroxide

Known concentration (determined by Standarddization-uses) NH4OH Ammonium Hydroxide

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Ca(OH)3 Calcium Hydroxide

NaOH Sodium Hydroxide

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