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Contents v
2 Kinds of Test Questions 203 3 Three Specific Reading Systems 248

Important Terminology for Objective Questions 204 SQ4R 248
True-False Questions 204 The Outline Reading System 249
Multiple-Choice Questions 204 A Customized Reading System 253
Matching Questions 205
4 Reading Processes for Online E-Books 255
Important Terminology for Recall Questions 205
Advantages of E-Textbooks 255
Fill-in-the-Blanks Questions 205
E-Textbook Challenges 256
Listing Questions 207
Navigating the Essential Study Skills E-Textbook 257
Definition Questions 207
Effective Reading Strategies for E-Textbooks 257
Short-Answer Questions 207
Learning Objectives Review 260
Important Terminology for Math Questions 208
Problem-Solving Questions 208 Terms to Know 260
Important Terminology and Test Formats for Essay Review Questions 262
Questions 209
Essay Questions 209
Chapte r 9
3 Essential Test-Taking Strategies and Tips 213
Creating a Plan of Action to Begin a Test 213
Strengthening Reading
Answering Questions 214
Learning from Your Tests 216
and Notetaking Skills 264
Computerized Tests 218 1 Active Reading 267
4 Test Anxiety Management Skills 220 2 Paragraph-Level Skills 269
Sources of Test Anxiety 222 Paragraph Elements 269
Strategies to Reduce Test Anxiety Before a Test 223 Terminology and Definitions 271
Strategies to Reduce Test Anxiety During a Test 224 Definition Cards and Vocabulary Sheets 276
Learning Objectives Review 226 3 Annotating: Highlighting and Marking
Terms to Know 226 Pages 279
Review Questions 227 Marking Paragraph Elements 279
Enumerating Steps or Lists of Information 280
Writing Marginal Notes 281
Studying from Annotations 282
Chapter 8
4 Index Card Notes 284
Selecting a Reading System 230 A Comprehensive Set of Index Card Notes 284
Studying from Index Card Notes 285
1 First Steps of the Reading Process 233
Developing Positive Attitudes and Behaviors 233 5 Cornell Notes 287
Identifying Purposes for Reading 234 The Five R’s of Cornell Notetaking 288
Adjusting the Reading Rate 236 Preparing to Take Notes 288
Surveying a Textbook 237 Step One: Record Notes 289
Surveying an Article or an Essay 239 Step Two: Reduce 290
Step Three: Recite 290
2 Essential Textbook Reading Processes 241
Step Four: Reflect 293
Using a Reading System 241
Step Five: Review 294
Surveying a Chapter 241
Writing Focus Questions 243 Learning Objectives Review 295
Reading Carefully 244 Terms to Know 295
Reviewing 246 Review Questions 297
Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has
deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
vi Contents
Kinds of Listening 341

Chapter 10 An Effective Listening Plan 343
Analyzing and Organizing 2 Listening and Notetaking Strategies 346

Chapter Content 298 Listen for Six Kinds of Information 346
Speaking, Thinking, and Writing Rates 348
1 Reading in the Content Areas 300 Strategies to Manage Rate Discrepancies 349
Composition Textbooks 302 Strategies to Strengthen Notetaking Skills 352
Literature Textbooks 302
Social Science Textbooks 304 3 Notetaking Systems for Lectures 355
Science Textbooks 305 Two-Column Notetaking System 355
Mathematics Textbooks 305 Three-Column Notetaking System 359
The Book Notes System 361
2 Organizational Patterns 308 Partial Outline Notes 362
The Chronological Pattern 309 PowerPoint Notes 363
The Process Pattern 309
The Comparison-Contrast Pattern 310 4 Working with Your Notes 366
The Whole-and-Parts Pattern 311 Learning Objectives Review 367
The Definition Pattern 312 Terms to Know 367
The Examples Pattern 312 Review Questions 368
The Cause-Effect (Causal) Pattern 313
3 Graphic Materials 315

Photographs, Illustrations, and Diagrams 316
Chapt e r 12
Pie Charts 316
Flow Charts 318
Using Technology 370
Tables 318
Bar Graphs 319 1 Basic Computer Concepts 373
Line Graphs 321 Computer Literacy 373
Computer Skills for Online Courses 376
4 Visual Notetaking Systems 323
Visual Mappings 324 2 Online Courses 377
Hierarchies 328 Rigors of Online Courses 378
Comparison Charts 330 Online Math Courses 379
Learning Objectives Review 333 Discussion Boards 380
Online Conduct and Etiquette 381
Terms to Know 333
Review Questions 335 3 The Internet and Websites 382
Internet Search Strategies 382
Evaluating Online Materials 385
Plagiarism 387
Chapter 11
4 Technology, Resources, and Applications 391
Strengthening Listening New Technology and Digital Devices 392
and Lecture Notetaking Skills 336 Applications 393
1 The Listening Process 339 Learning Objectives Review 398

Listening and Memory Processes 339 Terms to Know 398
Influencing Factors 340 Review Questions 400
Contents vii
Exercise 6.4 Memory Principles Inventory C12

Appendix A Exercise 7.1 Academic Preparation Inventory C15
Exercise 7.9 Test-Anxiety Inventory C16
Essential Test-Taking Skills A1 Exercise 8.3 Reading Process Inventory C17
Exercise 9.1 Active Reading Inventory C18
Exercise 9.5 Annotation Checklist C19
Exercise 9.8 Part I: Cornell Notetaking Self-Assessment
Appendix b Checklist C20
Exercise 9.8 Part II: Cornell Notetaking Instructor
Answer Keys B1 Assessment Form C21
Master Profile Chart B1 Exercise 10.2 Organizational Patterns C22
Profile Answer Keys B2 Exercise 10.5 Visual Notes Checklist C23
Chapter Answer Keys B2 Exercise 11.1 Classroom Listening Factors Inventory C24
Exercise 11.5 Lecture Notetaking Checklist C26
Appendix C Appendix D
Exercises, Inventories, Excerpts

D1
and Checklists C1 Excerpt 1: Understanding Stress and Stressors D1
Exercise 1.1 Learning Styles Inventory C1 Excerpt 2: Practice Visualization D3
Exercise 3.1 Time-Management Inventory C4 Excerpt 3: Adopting a Healthy Lifestyle D4
Exercise 3.2 How You Use Time: Three-Day Time Log C5 Excerpt 4: Semantic Networks D6
Exercise 3.5 Part I: Weekly Time-Management Schedule C7 Excerpt 5: Building Blocks of Medical Language D7
Exercise 3.5 Part II: Time-Management Self-Assessment Excerpt 6: Professional Leadership D10
Checklist C8 Excerpt 7: The Scientific Method D11
Exercise 4.1 Goal-Setting Inventory C9 Excerpt 8: How to Listen Critically D12
Exercise 4.6 Social Adjustment Scale (Stress Test) C10
Exercise 5.7 Working Memory Inventory C11 Index I1
viii Contents
Preface
Welcome to the new edition of Essential Study Skills. As in the Seventh Edition, the
Eighth Edition empowers students to excel by using a metacognitive, multisensory
approach throughout the textbook to provide them with essential study skills to
increase their academic performance. Changing behaviors occurs most successfully
when students understand how they learn, what skills they need to learn to use to
perform specific tasks, and which strategies work most effectively to achieve desired
outcomes. In the new world of ever-increasing technological distractions, the Eighth
Edition of Essential Study Skills specifically shows students how to refocus on
student-oriented strategies that work and how to consider ways to use technology
to their advantage when studying. The textbook is designed to encourage all
students—freshmen, nontraditional, and returning—to take greater responsibility
for their learning, increase their self-confidence and motivation, discover strategies
that work for them as individuals, and implement plans of action to achieve their
academic and personal goals. The majority of students want to learn! This Eighth
Edition provides students with exciting tools to turn wants and desires into reality
and academic success.
Helping Students Study and Learn

Essential Study Skills, Eighth Edition, is a student-friendly textbook that builds
a strong foundation of essential study skills strategies designed to boost memory,
integrate skills and concepts, and excel in the classroom. The following chart
highlights the book features in the Eighth Edition that make this edition unique,
engaging, appealing—and most important of all—highly effective.
Book Features to Help Students
Features to Help Students Clear chapter Learning Objectives

Grasp Key Concepts and Chapter Outline
Main Ideas in Chapters Chapter Visual Mapping to expand with details
of topics
Concise Learning Objectives Review
A Wealth of Step-by-Step Direct, easy–to-read and learn strategies
Approaches Clear steps for using memory tools
Concise bulleted points to clarify important concepts
Clear examples to explain new concepts
Features to Enhance List of chapter terminology to learn
Learning Marginal notes with definitions of terms to know
Visually appealing charts that summarize strategies
Multicolor format showing levels of information
Exercises that reinforce learning strategies
(continued)
viii
Preface ix
Book Features to Help Students (continued)
Self-Assessment Tools Chapter Profiles to examine attitudes and behaviors

Checklists in the textbook to assess skills and
progress
Concept Checks to strengthen comprehension
Self-correcting Check Points to verify understanding
End-of-the-chapter Review Questions
Activities to Engage Textbook exercises
Students Textbook Case Studies
Group Processing activities
Reflective Writing assignments
Critical Thinking activities
Appendix A A comprehensive Essential Test-Taking Skills guide with
fifty-two test-taking strategies and tips to apply to all
kinds of test questions and test-taking situations
Appendix B Answer keys for Chapter Profiles, Check Point quizzes,
and Chapter Review Questions
Appendix C Inventories and checklists to self-assess performance
and skill levels
Appendix D Textbook excerpts from a variety of content areas to
reinforce skills used throughout the textbook
Online Features to Help Students

The Eighth Edition recognizes that technology motivates many students and
provides them with multisensory approaches for working with course materials
and skills. Many online materials and options are available for students to use to
enhance the learning process. Students will be delighted to see the following online
materials available for the Essential Study Skills, Eighth Edition textbook:
The online textbook in the student College Success CourseMate
Self-correcting Chapter Profile questions
Printable Chapter Visual Mapping to expand with details
An expanded Chapter Outline to use for studying and reciting
Complete list of Concept Check questions to use for self-quizzing
Textbook Case Studies and Reflective Writing assignments
Topics In-Depth that present information that is only available online
Practice Quizzes available only online for each chapter Check Point
Enhanced Quizzes that link to sections of the online textbook
Flashcards and an online glossary of terminology
New Chapter Study Guides for each chapter
x Preface
Helping Instructors Teach with Resources

Essential Study Skills, Eighth Edition, is an instructor-friendly textbook that provides
the pedagogy and resources to help students build a strong foundation of essential
study skills strategies, heighten their understanding of the learning process, and
increase their performance and excellence in the classroom. The Eighth Edition
recognizes instructors’ needs to have a wealth of resources available at their fingertips
to use to create a dynamic, engaging, and highly effective study skills course. The
following chart highlights the book features in the Eighth Edition that make this edition
ideal for instructors who want a textbook packed with resources and instructional
options oriented to active learning.
Book Features to Help Instructors
Chapter Sequencing Flexible format allows you to select the most effective
order of chapters to teach
Instructor options for best time to teach Appendix A,
Essential Test-Taking Skills
Structured Chapters Color-coded headings related to the chapter Learning

Objectives
Clear subheadings to identify specific topics
Bulleted points to identify important details and steps
Consistent chapter format with Concept Checks, Check
Points, definitions in margins, and types of chapter
exercises
Ready-to-Use A variety of exercises in the textbook that you can use for
Classroom Activities class activities for which only you have the answer keys
Concept Check questions in margins for small group or
class activities, writing assignments, or short pop quizzes
List of Terms to Know for partner vocabulary drills and
quizzing
Group Processing activities designed to use with small
groups
Critical Thinking activities for homework assignments,
small group activities, or whole class discussions
Ready-to-Use Checklists within chapters for students to engage in the

Self-Assessment Tools topics
Self-scoring Checklists in Appendix C for students to
complete, reflect on, and discuss in class
Inventories for students to analyze their behaviors and skills
Instructor Resource A printed version and an online version available

Manual (IRM) Suggestions for organizing your course and grading system
Step-by-step teaching tips
Answer keys for chapter exercises
Reduced images of PowerPoint slides
Reduced images of transparency masters that you can use
in class or as handouts
(continued)
Preface xi
Book Features to Help Instructors (continued)
Excerpts in Appendix D Use the following excerpts to practice reading, annotating,

to Use for Instructional notetaking, and test-taking skills:
Purposes Excerpt 1: Understanding Stress and Stressors
Excerpt 2: Practice Visualization
Excerpt 3: Adopting a Healthy Lifestyle
Excerpt 4: Semantic Networks
Excerpt 5: Building Blocks of Medical Language
Excerpt 6: Professional Leadership
Excerpt 7: The Scientific Method
Excerpt 8: How to Listen Critically
Self-Scoring Activities Students have answer keys to score Chapter Profiles

Students have answer keys to score Check Point quizzes
Students have answer keys to score chapter Review Questions
Online Features to Help Instructors

The Instructor Website is a comprehensive website that puts teaching tools and
resources at your fingertips. By logging in at CengageBrain.com, you will find the
following valuable instructor resources:
The complete Instructor Resource Manual online, which includes teaching tips,
answer keys to chapter exercises, and ready-to-use tests. (A printed version is
also available upon request.)
The transition guide that helps you move from the Seventh Edition to the
Eighth Edition
Expanded Chapter Outlines and Lists of Concept Checks
Ready-to-use tests and answer keys for each chapter
Grading rubrics to use for inventories, writing assignments, and homework
exercises
Full-size transparency masters and PowerPoint slides to download for
classroom lectures, presentations, and handouts for each chapter
The twelve new Chapter Study Guides to print for students, make available on
your class website, or request students to download and print from the College
Success CourseMate
Answer Keys for the new Chapter Study Guides
The Cognero Online Testing Program is the flexible online testing system
that allows you to author, edit, and manage test bank content. You can create
multiple test versions instantly and deliver them through your Learning
Management System from your classroom, or wherever you may be, with no
special installs or downloads required.
What’s New in the Eighth Edition of Essential Study Skills

The Eighth Edition has a new chapter on technology (Chapter 12); a revised chapter
organization that puts earlier emphasis on self-management or self-regulatory
skills; new pairings and integration of related topics; new topics in chapters; and
more comprehensive coverage of high-demand topics.
xii Preface
Reorganized Chapters
As you examine the full table of contents for the Eighth Edition, you will discover the
new lineup of chapters, topics, and study strategies:
Chapters 1 through 4 Focus on Personal Preferences and Self-Management

Skills
Working with learning style and personality preferences and multiple
intelligences
Developing a powerful mindset that includes attitudes and beliefs
Strengthening critical thinking skills
Managing time and increasing concentration
Achieving goals and increasing motivation
Reducing stress and procrastination
Chapters 5 and 6 Focus on Strengthening Memory

Exploring how memory works in the Information Processing Model
Learning how to use new memory processes and strategies
Understanding ways to combat six kinds of forgetting
Applying the Twelve Principles of Memory
Using mnemonics effectively
Chapter 7 Focuses on Preparing for Tests

Organizing materials and time to prepare for upcoming tests
Understanding different kinds of test questions
Using Appendix A, the Essential Test-Taking Skills pull-out guide
Managing test anxiety
Chapters 8 through 11 Focus on Reading, Notetaking, and Listening Skills

Improving textbook reading skills by understanding the reading process
Using different reading systems for different kinds of textbooks
Learning skills for reading online (digital) e-textbooks
Working with paragraph-levels skills, such as vocabulary and organizational
patterns
Annotating (highlighting, marking, and making marginal notes) in textbooks
Using a variety of notetaking systems to take textbook and lecture notes
Adjusting reading strategies for reading in a variety of content areas
Creating and using visual notes to learn course content
Strengthening listening skills and developing effective lecture notes
NEW: Chapter 12 Focuses on Using Technology

Understanding basic computer concepts and computer literacy skills
Learning about the structure, requirements, bulletin boards, and etiquette for
online courses
Preface xiii
Exploring the Internet and websites; using online resources and research
skills
Evaluating online materials
Avoiding intentional and unintentional plagiarism
Exploring new digital devices and apps (applications) for tablets, iPads, and
smartphones
New Topics in the Eighth Edition

The following topics are new for the Eighth Edition, so taking time to familiarize
yourself with the topics is recommended.
Eight Personality Types: Chapter 1 now includes descriptions and checklists

to estimate individual personality preferences that result in eight possible
personality types based on the Myers-Briggs Type IndicatorÒ assessment.
A personality preference refers to a way of doing or responding that feels more
natural, automatic, or comfortable, and which produces better results in the
following four categories: (1) where you focus your attention, (2) how you take
in information, (3) how you make decisions, and (4) how you approach or
structure your life. Understanding the basic characteristics of the following eight
personality preferences provides insight about oneself, friends, and classmates:
Extraversion–Introversion, Sensing–Intuition, Thinking–Feeling, and Judging–
Perceiving.
Time Management and Personality Preferences: Chapter 2 discusses ways the

personality preference styles of Sensing, Intuition, Judging, and Perceiving affect
the way students perceive and use time-management strategies.
GPS Strategy for Setting Goals: Chapter 4 introduces a new, simplified strategy
for setting goals or creating plans of action. This strategy consists of three steps:
1. G = Goal Set a specific, realistic goal with target dates and times.
2. P = Purpose Identify the purpose, intention, or significance of the goal.
3. S = Steps Identify specific steps to achieve the goal.
Twelve Memory Processes: Chapter 5 identifies twelve specific memory

processes that play an active role in developing memory. The twelve processes
summarize important information, but do not need to be memorized or learned
as a set of twelve processes. These processes include: selective attention,
deeper levels of encoding, immediately working with stimuli, Magic 7 ± 2
Theory, schemas, factual and procedural information, elaborative rehearsal,
multisensory strategies, selectivity, feedback, associations and retrieval cues,
and not rushing the learning process.
Six Forgetting Theories: Chapter 6 includes information that explains why

forgetting sometimes occurs in our information processing system and memory.
The seventh edition had one excerpt in Appendix D that discussed five forgetting
theories; for the Eighth Edition, the Emotional Blocks Theory has been added to
xiv Preface
explain why some learned information cannot be accessed or located in long-

term memory.
Outline Reading System: In Chapter 8, students learn to use an outline reading
system by creating informal outline notes during the reading process. These
notes become excellent guides for reciting information, writing summaries, and
using as review tools.
Organizational Patterns and Graphic Materials: Chapter 10 uses an integrative
skills approach with the organizational patterns. After reading the new paragraph
examples, students annotate and create diagrams to show the details. In the
graphic materials section, new graphics to analyze are followed by comprehension
and discussion questions.
An Effective Listening Plan: Chapter 11 introduces students to a listening
plan that helps increase the quality of listening experiences. The steps include:
(1) attitude, (2) purpose, (3) image, (4) depth, (5) notes, (6) refocus, (7) feedback,
and (8) open-ended, closed, probing, and leading questions.
Top Twenty Technology Picks: Lucy MacDonald, an expert in online education
and digital materials, offers her top twenty technology picks for students
to explore. This resource in Chapter 12 provides students with a variety of
applications, videos, and comprehensive websites to enhance the use of
technology.
Online Chapter Study Guides: Comprehensive Chapter Study Guides
(available only online) require students to return to the chapter to use the “cloze
reading technique” that requires students to locate specific words to complete
statements. The Study Guides also include closed and open-ended questions
for topics throughout the chapter. These study guides provide a thorough review
of chapters.
What’s Revised in the Eighth Edition

of Essential Study Skills
Examples, exercises, and excerpts are updated with more current topics to engage
students in the study skills processes and to better prepare them for a broader range
of academic challenges that they will encounter in their classes. More details about
revisions are available on the Instructor Website, Transitioning to the Eighth
Edition. The following chart summarizes major revisions.
Revisions to the Eighth Edition
Early Introduction of Teaching students to think on higher levels, to interpret,

Critical Thinking Skills to evaluate, and to apply what they are learning to
and New Activities other content areas as well as to their personal lives is
emphasized in each chapter.
Critical thinking now introduced in Chapter 2
New Critical Thinking activities for each chapter
Preface xv
Transfer These Skills Teaching students to transfer skills to other courses is

Activities valuable and essential for meaningful, long-term learning.
New exercises to transfer skills include:
Chapter 1: Using the See-Say-Do Strategy
Chapter 2: Personalizing the Self-Efficacy Cycles
Chapter 3: Prioritizing and Creating a Task Schedule
Chapter 4: Planning a Term-Long Project
Chapter 5: Drawing Semantic Networks and Schemas
Chapter 6: Using The Loci Method
Chapter 7: Developing Summary Notes and a 5-Day
Study Plan
Chapter 8: Surveying a Chapter and Applying SQ4R
Chapter 9: Applying Vocabulary Skills
Chapter 10: Creating a Visual Mapping
Chapter 11: Developing Two-Column Notes and
PowerPoint Notes
Chapter 12: Conducting Internet Searches
Appendix A: Essential Being prepared for tests and knowing how to perform well
Test-Taking Skills on tests are valuable skills for all college students.
Appendix A has been condensed to fifty-two strategies.
The strategies in Appendix A are reinforced throughout
the textbook. Each Check Point quiz and Chapter
Review quiz refers students to specific strategies in
Appendix A for responding to the type of question
posed in the quiz.
The Information Metacognition involves understanding the basic processes

Processing Model involved in learning and developing memory.
The memory model has been condensed and is now
presented in a more direct, easy-to-understand model.
Twelve memory processes reinforce the processes
used in the Information Processing Model and working
memory.
Bloom’s Taxonomy Understanding and using the six cognitive levels in Bloom’s
Taxonomy is a foundation for critical thinking skills.
Emphasis in Chapter 2 is on the six revised levels in
Bloom’s Taxonomy: Remembering, Understanding,
Applying, Analyzing, Evaluating, and Creating.
A website appears in the Twenty Top Technology Picks
for students to explore descriptions and prompt words
for questions.
Revised Critical Thinking Activities

Each chapter ends with a Critical Thinking activity that you can use for class or
small group discussions or for homework writing assignments. These activities are
open-ended and engage students in the process of paying closer attention to the
integration of concepts, to relationships beyond those stated in the textbook, and to
analysis of information they are studying.
xvi Preface
Chapter 1 Critical Thinking: Examine the fairness of employers using

personality tests to find applicants who fit specific jobs. A new excerpt,
“Personality Tests Help Employers Find Applicants Who Fit,” is included.
Chapter 2 Critical Thinking: Discuss relationships among cognitive learning
styles, multiple intelligences, and personality types described in Chapter 1.
Chapter 3 Critical Thinking: After reading a new excerpt, “The Power of
Chunking,” define the term and compare and contrast the processes of chunking
up and chunking down.
Chapter 4 Critical Thinking: Use Excerpt 3 in Appendix D, “Adopting a Healthy
Lifestyle,” for writing long-term, intermediary, short-term, and immediate goals
applicable to the content of the excerpt.
Chapter 5 Critical Thinking: Select one of several multisensory options to create
a product that shows understanding of the Twelve Principles of Memory.
Chapter 6 Critical Thinking: Identify relationships between the Twelve
Principles of Memory and the three memory centers introduced in Chapter 5;
identify ways each principle of memory activates other principles of memory.
Chapter 7 Critical Thinking: Write practice test questions using all six levels in
Bloom’s Taxonomy. Questions may be discussed in class, presented as a review
activity, or used on an upcoming test.
Chapter 8 Critical Thinking: Locate an online news article. Use the criterion
provided to evaluate the article in terms of reliability, quality, and usefulness.
Chapter 9 Critical Thinking: Apply and create a set of two-column notes for
their choice of subject matter.
Chapter 10 Critical Thinking: Apply different forms of test-taking questions to
the information in Excerpt 7 in Appendix D, “The Scientific Method.”
Chapter 11 Critical Thinking: Read Excerpt 8 in Appendix D, “How to Listen
Critically” and the table “Guidelines for Critical Listening,” and then compile
key words and key actions used in critical reading, critical listening, and critical
thinking processes.
Chapter 12 Critical Thinking: Optional activities are designed by the instructor
to interact with online discussion boards, Internet research, forums, wikis, blogs,
tweets, and mobile device applications.
Features Retained from the Seventh Edition

Instructors who have used previous editions of Essential Study Skills will find many
familiar features that continue to be an essential part of this student-oriented textbook:
Chapter Learning Objectives and Chapter Outlines provide students with the
“big picture” of a chapter before they begin more in-depth reading.
Your Chapter Mapping is a study tool that students expand by adding important
details for each heading of the chapter that appears on the visual mapping.
Chapter Profiles provide students with a self-correcting series of ten questions
to assess their current attitudes and behaviors at the beginning and at the end of
the term.
Essential Strategies Charts that appear throughout each chapter highlight and
summarize essential strategies presented in the chapter.
Preface xvii
Concept Checks in the margins provide students with questions to assess their
understanding of concepts discussed in the adjacent paragraphs.
Definitions in the Margins provide students with course-specific definitions for
all the key terms that appear in bold colored print.
Case Studies in every chapter present students with real-life student situations
to analyze and then suggest strategies to address the problems posed in the case
studies.
Reflective Writing assignments provide students with opportunities to
personalize the chapter content, discuss their current skills and attitudes, and
integrate the chapter’s skills with other study skills and personal experiences.
Group Processing: A Collaborative Learning Activity in each chapter provides
a small-group activity that enhances student interest and creates a forum
for student interaction, brainstorming, discussion, problem-solving, critical
thinking, and cooperative work.
Student exercises reinforce skills that appear throughout each chapter.
Instructors may select appropriate exercises to use for homework assignments,
class discussions, or for small-group activities in the classroom. Answer keys
appear in the Instructor Resource Manual; students do not have access to answer
keys for exercises.
Check Points at the end of each main heading provide students with several
questions to assess how well they comprehended the textbook information.
Students can refer to Appendix A if they need help answering specific kinds of
questions. Students self-correct by using the answer keys in Appendix B.
Practice and Enhanced Quizzes in the College Success CourseMate provide
students with additional practice working with course content and test-taking
skills. Quizzes are scored online and can be repeated multiple times.
Learning Objectives Review at the end of each chapter uses bulleted points to
summarize the most important points for each of the chapter’s objectives.
Terms to Know identify the key terms in the chapter that students need to be
able to define.
Chapter Review Questions provide students with a tool to assess their
understanding and recall of essential concepts, skills, and strategies discussed in
the chapter. Answer keys appear in Appendix B.
Appendix A provides students with a comprehensive resource for developing
test-taking skills. The direct, step-by-step approach for true-false, multiple-
choice, matching, fill-in-the-blanks, listing, definition, short answer, math, and
essay test questions is easy to use.
Appendix B provides students with answers to their Profile Charts, a Master
Profile Chart to record their results, and answer keys for Check Point quizzes and
Chapter Review questions.
Appendix C provides students with an array of exercises and self-assessment
inventories or checklists to use to assess their strengths and weaknesses and
adjust their strategies.
Appendix D gives students the opportunity to apply critical thinking and study
skills to materials that originated in a variety of textbooks from across the
curriculum.
xviii Preface
Dedication
I dedicate this new edition to the thousands of educators who demonstrate an
endless commitment to providing high-quality, valuable educational experiences
for their students, and to all students who strive to excel and benefit from their
educational opportunities.
Acknowledgments
My appreciation is extended to the following reviewers who dedicated their time
and expertise to contribute ideas to enrich this textbook and further strengthen
the effectiveness of this instructor-friendly and student-friendly textbook. Thank
you all for your contributions: Melanie Abst, Cynthia Avery, Judith Colson, Valerie
Cunningham, Karen Fenske, SusAnn Key, Lucy MacDonald, Pamela Moss, Janet
Moynihan, Amanda Nimetz, Brenda Wallace, and Alice Warner.
I extend my sincere appreciation for the outstanding editorial and production
staff that has worked diligently with me through all the phases of creating the Eighth
Edition of Essential Study Skills. Most readers of this textbook are unaware of the
high degree of coordination, teamwork, time commitment, and resources required
to produce a new edition of a textbook and all its companion resources. The process
is extensive and requires the utmost attention to details. I acknowledge your level of
dedication and your utmost commitment to the development of this Eighth Edition.
I appreciate and value you for your contributions. Thank you!
To the Student
Essential Study Skills, Eighth Edition is a valuable resource designed to provide

you with an array of study skills strategies that will unlock your learning potential
and empower you to improve your academic performance. Reading the following
section carefully will provide you with important information that explains how to
get the most out of Essential Study Skills, Eighth Edition.
Quick Start Checklist

Go to the College Success CourseMate for a Quick Start Checklist to use to prepare for
an upcoming term. Look for the Quick Start Checklist link on the left side of the home
page screen. Click on it to learn about the following topics:
Creating class schedules Steps to Access the College Success
Familiarizing yourself with your campus CourseMate
Organizing your notebooks Go to CengageBrain.com to access these
resources, and look for this icon to find
Selecting a system to record homework assignments
resources related to your textbook in
Getting off to a good start on the first day of class College Success CourseMate. You will be
Planning sufficient study time for your classes prompted to enter the required CourseMate
Other suggestions and tips for getting off to a good start access code. If you do not have an access
code, you will be able to purchase one at
Starting the Term: CengageBrain.com.
Getting an Overview
As soon as you purchase this book, begin familiarizing yourself with the textbook.
Read through the Preface and this introductory To the Student section carefully,
examine the Table of Contents, and familiarize yourself with the end matter that
follows Chapter 12: Appendix A: Essential Test-Taking Skills; Appendix B: Master
Profile Chart and Answer Keys; Appendix C: Exercises, Inventories, and Checklists;
Appendix D: Excerpts; and the textbook index.
Essential Study Skills, Eighth Edition, has a College Success CourseMate to
enhance your learning experience and strengthen your understanding of course
materials. Each time you see this icon in your textbook, visit the College Success
CourseMate for interactive quizzes and online materials. Your instructor may assign
these activities, or you may complete the activities independently to strengthen your
comprehension and learn content more thoroughly. Take time now to familiarize
yourself with the wealth of online resources available to assist you throughout the
term. As you click on the main menu for each chapter, you will see the following
categories of your online materials:
Chapter E-Book
Chapter Profile
Chapter Visual Mapping
Expanded Chapter Outline
xix
xx To the Student
Chapter Concept Checks

Reflective Writing Assignments
Textbook Case Studies
Topics In-Depth
Practice and Enhanced Quizzes
Chapter Study Guide
Glossary
Flashcards
Essential Study Skills E-Book

The College Success CourseMate for Essential Study Skills, Eighth Edition, has an
interactive e-book for you to use with this textbook. If you have not yet experienced
using an e-book, you are in for an exciting new learning experience! You can go to
Chapter 8, pages 255–258 to learn about reading e-books and the Chapter 8 online
Topics In-Depth to learn more about this book’s e-textbook and the online features
associated with it.
Starting Each Chapter

Surveying is an effective study strategy that provides you with an overview of a
chapter before you begin the process of careful reading. Surveying familiarizes you
with the topic, creates a mindset for studying, and prepares your memory to receive
new information. Use the following steps for surveying a new chapter:
1. Read the Chapter Objectives that list learning goals or objectives for the
chapter. The chapter objectives clearly indicate the skills you will learn
and will be able to demonstrate when you finish studying the chapter. The
color-coding used for the chapter objectives correlates with the color-coded
headings throughout the chapter.
2. Read through the Chapter Outline for an overview of the organization and
content of the chapter. You will find an expanded chapter outline on CourseMate.
3. Glance at the main topics in the Your Chapter Mapping to get a clear, visual
image of the main headings in the chapter. After reading the chapter information
under a heading, return to your visual mapping. Attach key words to show
subheadings and important details for each heading on the visual mapping.
4. Complete the Chapter Profile before continuing to survey the chapter. This
is not a graded assignment; answer the questions honestly. The profiles are
designed to examine your current attitude and habits in specific skill areas.
These scores will be compared to end-of-the-term scores to show your
progress and growth. You can complete the profile in the textbook, or you can
complete it online in the College Success CourseMate.
5. Survey or skim through the chapter by examining the following items and features:
All of the bold headings and subheadings
The information in the margins, which includes Concept Check questions
and definitions of terminology
To the Student xxi
Terminology that appears in bold colored print in paragraphs

Graphic materials, which include figures and charts
Check Point questions at the end of information under each main heading
6. Read the Learning Objectives Review at the end of the chapter. Key points
for each of the objectives provide you with additional insights about the
content of the chapter.
7. Read through the Terms to Know that lists the course-specific terminology.
The definitions for these terms appear in the margins of the chapter.
8. Read through, but do not answer, the Chapter Review Questions. Plan
to answer these questions after you have read the chapter carefully. For
immediate feedback, you will be able to check your answers with the answer
keys in Appendix B.
Using Chapter Features

The following chapter features are designed to increase your comprehension and
reinforce key concepts and skills in each chapter. Using these features consistently
facilitates the process of mastering the concepts and skills in the chapter.
Your Chapter Mapping shows you the basic skeleton or topic and the main head-
ings used in the chapter. To create a visual study tool, expand the chapter visual
mapping by connecting key words to show important details for each of the main
headings. Chapter visual mappings also appear in the College Success CourseMate.
Definitions in the margins provide a quick view of key terminology and definitions
to learn. Review these definitions when you study for tests. Practice reciting the full
definition without looking at the textbook, and then check the accuracy of your
definition.
Concept Checks in the margins provide you with study questions to assess your com-
prehension and promote critical thinking skills. For each Concept Check, answer
the questions on paper, mentally, or out loud to yourself. At times, your instructor
may ask you to write responses, or these questions may be used for short pop quiz-
zes or on chapter tests. Return to these questions when you prepare for tests.
Check Points in each chapter provide you with short assessment tools to check your
comprehension of information presented under each main heading in the chapter.
Refer to the Appendix A strategies to review answering specific kinds of questions.
Answer keys in Appendix B provide you with immediate feedback.
Exercises appear throughout each chapter. Your instructor will assign some, but
usually not all, of the exercises in the chapter. Notice that some exercises appear
in the chapter, and other longer exercises appear in Appendix C. For practice and
enrichment, you may complete any of the exercises that your instructor does not
assign you to complete.
Case Studies are exercises that describe student situations or problems. After read-
ing a case study, identify the key issues or problems that appear in the case study.
Answer the question at the end of each case study by providing specific answers
or suggestions that deal with the problem. Use specific strategies and terminology
xxii To the Student
from the chapter in your answers. Case studies use open-ended questions, mean-
ing there are many possible answers. They can be completed on paper or in your
College Success CourseMate.
Practice Quizzes in the College Success CourseMate consist of self-correcting quiz-

zes that provide you with additional practice and reinforcement of the skills in the
chapter. You can complete these quizzes as many times as you wish. You will receive
feedback and brief explanations with each answer.
Essential Strategy Charts highlight key strategies to use to improve the way you
study, process information, and master course content. Applying the essential strat-
egies in these charts will increase your performance and academic success. Refer to
these charts when you want to brush up on essential study skills or review for tests.
Terms to Know list the course-specific vocabulary terms that you should know how
to define. Practice defining these terms. You can go to the College Success Course-
Mate to practice flashcards and to review the online glossary.
Chapter Review Questions provide you with practice test questions to assess your
memory or recall of chapter concepts and key terms. Refer to the Appendix A strate-
gies to review answering specific kinds of questions. Complete the Chapter Review
Questions without referring to your textbook pages or your notes. Check your an-
swers with the answer keys in Appendix B.
Enhanced Quizzes in the College Success CourseMate provide you with additional
practice answering objective test questions and assessing your level of comprehen-
sion of chapter skills and concepts. The Enhanced Quizzes link you to the heading
in the e-textbook that covers the content of the quiz question.
Chapter Study Guides in the College Success CourseMate provide you with a de-
tailed study guide to complete for a thorough review of each chapter.
Appendix A: Essential Test-Taking Skills

Many college students feel overwhelmed and underprepared for the variety of test-
taking situations and test questions that they encounter in their courses. Do you
experience any of the following test-taking issues or concerns?
Do you sometimes struggle with taking tests because you have never really learned
how to take tests? Appendix A provides you with a direct, step-by-step approach
as well as clear explanations and examples for learning fifty-two essential test-
taking strategies.
Do you sometimes have difficulty answering certain kinds of test questions? Easy-
to-use strategies provide you with the skills to answer true-false, multiple-choice,
matching, fill-in-the-blanks, listing, definition, short-answer, math, and essay
test questions.
Do you sometimes have difficulty understanding or interpreting questions?
Through easy-to-read bulleted points, Appendix A teaches you strategies for
reading, understanding, and interpreting objective, recall, math, and essay test
questions.
To the Student xxiii
Do you sometimes get confused and waste valuable test-taking time trying to
figure out how to move through a test? In Appendix A, you will learn the value
of using systematic approaches for answering questions. These approaches
increase your accuracy rates and lead to higher grades on tests.
Appendix A, the Essential Test-Taking Skills guide, is a valuable resource that
provides a flexible format for acquiring essential test-taking skills whenever the need
arises. You can use this pull-out guide for independent study at any time during
the present or future terms to prepare for upcoming tests. You may go directly to
a specific section in Appendix A to prepare for a specific kind of test or to answer
questions in the textbook’s Check Points and Chapter Review Questions.
Your instructor will provide you with additional information about using
Appendix A. Your instructor may choose to discuss Appendix A in conjunction with
Chapter 7, “Preparing for Upcoming Tests,” or your instructor may choose to discuss
Appendix A at a different time during the term. Refer to your course syllabus or list
of chapters and topics for the term.
Appendix B: Answer Keys

Use Appendix B to score and chart your Chapter Profile questions, and use the
chapter answer keys for all Check Points and Chapter Review Questions.
Appendix C: Exercises, Inventories,

and Checklists
For some exercises in the textbook chapters, you will be directed to Appendix C.
Follow the directions for completing the exercises, inventories, and checklists. Use
these self-assessment tools to strengthen your study skills strategies and improve
your approaches to learning.
Appendix D: Excerpts
For some exercises, you will be directed to Appendix D to use excerpts from a
variety of content areas to practice reading, annotating, notetaking skills, and other
textbook study skills.
A Note to You from the Author

Your goal is not to learn about study skills, but to learn to use powerful study skills
to consistently achieve your goals and experience success. Learning is a lifelong
process. Each time you are faced with a new learning situation—whether at school,
at home, or at work—you can draw upon the skills you have learned in this textbook.
By applying the skills of time management, goal setting, concentration, processing
information, strengthening memory, test taking, reading comprehension, and an
array of additional strategies in this textbook, you will be prepared to experience
the rewards of success … again and again and again. May my commitment to you,
belief in you, and support of you in the learning process be reflected in the pages of
this textbook.
—Linda Wong
1 Discovering Your
Learning Styles
and Preferences
© Digital Vision/Getty Images
D
o you know your learning style preference, your strongest intelligences,
and your personality type? In this chapter, you will gain insights about
yourself as a learner. You will learn skills that empower you and utilize
your personal preferences so learning feels more natural and effective. By
identifying your learning style preference, you are able to select powerful
multisensory strategies to increase academic performance. As you explore
multiple intelligences, you will realize that you already have skills and abilities in
all eight intelligences. Finally, as you explore your personality type, you will gain
insights about where you focus your attention and how you take in information,
make decisions, and structure your life. After completing this chapter, you will
understand more about yourself and about people you encounter at school, at
work, and in your personal life.
Chapter Outline
1 THREE COGNITIVE LEARNING Your Chapter Mapping

STYLES
Learning Style Preferences After reading information under each heading, return to the chapter visual mapping below.
Characteristics and Essential Add key words to show subheadings and important details related to each heading.
Strategies
Access Chapter 1 Visual
Multisensory Learning Strategies Mapping in your College
Success CourseMate,
2 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES accessed through
Subintelligences CengageBrain.com.
Linguistic Intelligence
Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
Musical Intelligence
Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
Spatial Intelligence
Interpersonal Intelligence
Intrapersonal Intelligence
Naturalist Intelligence
Three Cognitive Multiple
3 PERSONALITY TYPES Learning Styles Intelligences
Eight Personality Preferences of
MBTI Personality Types
Four Core Building Blocks of
MBTI Personality Types
Discovering Your Learning
Sixteen Personality Types Styles and Preferences
Extraversion and Introversion
© Cengage Learning 2015

Sensing and Intuition
Thinking and Feeling
Judging and Perceiving
Personality Types
Understanding Yourself and Others
Access Chapter 1 Expanded

Chapter Outline in your College
Success CourseMate, accessed
through CengageBrain.com.
Learning Objectives
1 Identify your preferred cognitive learning style and describe learning strategies you can
use to utilize your preferred learning style and strengthen your other modalities.
2 Define the term intelligences and describe the common characteristics of each of
Howard Gardner’s eight intelligences.
3 Identify the eight personality preferences defined by Myers and Briggs and discuss the
use of opposite preferences in their theory. 3
4 Chapter 1 Discovering Your Learning Styles and Preferences
Discovering Your Learning Styles and Preferences

Chapter 1 Profile
ANSWER each profile question honestly. Your answers should reflect what you Access Chapter 1
do, not what you wish to do. Check YES if you do the statement always or most Profile in your College
of the time. Check NO if you do the statement seldom or never. Success CourseMate,
accessed through
SCORE the profile. To get your score, give yourself one point for every answer CengageBrain.com.
that matches the answer key on page B2 in the back of your book. If you
complete the profile online, the profile will be scored for you.
RECORD your score on the Master Profile Chart on page B1 in the column that
shows the chapter number.
ONLINE: You can complete the profile and get your score online in this
textbook’s College Success CourseMate. YES NO
1. I am aware of my learning style preference as a visual, auditory, or
kinesthetic learner. _________ _________
2. I can describe the modality involved in four or more learning strategies that
I use on a regular basis. _________ _________
3. Instead of using a multisensory learning strategy such as the See-Say-Do

Strategy, I select one learning activity or process and use that to study
material in all of my courses. _________ _________
4. I usually study new information in a straightforward manner without

spending time making creative study or review tools. _________ _________
5. I recognize which of Howard Gardner’s eight intelligences are my strongest. _________ _________
6. I have the potential to acquire new skills that will increase my abilities in
the eight intelligences. _________ _________
7. I understand the differences between Extraversion and Introversion

personality preferences, and I know which preference is mine. _________ _________
8. I understand how my “Thinking” personality preference or my “Feeling”

personality preference affects the way I make decisions. _________ _________
9. I understand basic ways in which different personality preferences can

affect people’s attitudes, behaviors, and decision-making processes. _________ _________
10. I am confident that I can adjust my learning strategies to meet the demands
of new learning situations or tasks. _________ _________
Questions Linked to the Chapter Learning Objectives:

Questions 1–4: objective 1 Questions 7–9: objective 3
Questions 5–6: objective 2 Question 10: all objectives
1 Three Cognitive Learning Styles 5
Three Cognitive Learning Styles

1 Identify your preferred cognitive learning style and describe learning strategies
you can use to utilize your preferred learning style and strengthen your other
modalities.
Learning is an individualized process; different educational and background expe-

Cognitive learning styles refers to
riences, personality traits, levels of motivation, and numerous other variables affect the general ways people prefer to
the way you learn. The term cognitive refers to thinking and reasoning processes, have information presented in order
so cognitive learning styles refers to the general ways people prefer to have infor- to problem solve, process, learn, and
mation presented in order to problem solve, process, learn, and remember new remember new information.
information. Three commonly recognized cognitive learning styles, or learning
modalities, are visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. Figure 1.1 shows these three main
Learning modalities refers to
cognitive learning styles. cognitive learning styles such as
visual, auditory, and kinesthetic.
Learning Style Preferences

Most people have a learning style preference, which is a tendency to use a visual,
auditory, or kinesthetic modality when there is a choice of ways to learn and process Learning style preference indicates
new information. For example, a visual learner may prefer to read a manual or a a tendency to use a visual, auditory,
or kinesthetic modality when there
textbook or learn from pictures, charts, or graphs. An auditory learner may prefer to is a choice of ways to learn and
be told how a new process or piece of equipment works. A kinesthetic learner may process new information.
prefer to be given an opportunity to perform each step as he or she learns a new
process or operation of equipment.
Your learning style preference started in your childhood. As you matured,
entered into the educational system, and were exposed to new learning situations,
you learned to use, strengthen, and integrate all of your modalities. The childhood
modality preference may still be dominant, but as an adult with broadened skills, in
most situations, you are able to learn even when information is presented in a form
that is not based on your preferred method of learning. Your learning style prefer-
ence is just that—a preference—and not a limitation as to your ability to process
information. Concept Check 1.1
Understanding your cognitive learning style preference can guide your selection In general terms, how do you go about
of effective learning strategies that capitalize on your strengths, boost your memory, learning something new? What study or
and strengthen your ability to recall information. As you take in and process infor- learning techniques generally work best
for you?
mation, your brain uses visual, auditory, and kinesthetic (motor) codes to accept
Figure 1.1 Cognitive Learning Styles
1. Visual learners learn and remember best by seeing and visualizing

information.
© 2015 Cengage Learning.
2. Auditory learners learn and remember best by hearing and discussing

information.
3. Kinesthetic learners learn and remember best by using large and small
body movements and hands-on experiences.
and move the information into different locations in your memory system. The fol-
lowing points are important to understand:
When you use your strongest modality or your preferred learning style to take
in and process information, learning can occur more efficiently and recalling
information at a later time may occur more smoothly.
Many learning strategies involve the use of more than one modality. In other
words, more than one kind of coding into memory occurs. Multisensory
strategies, such as the See-Say-Do Strategy (page 13), utilize all three modalities
to process information into memory.
When you use more than one sensory channel to process information, you
create a stronger imprint or impression of the information in your memory, so
recalling information often occurs more rapidly and accurately.
Situations that require you to learn information using one of your less developed
learning modalities may be more difficult than anticipated and may require you
to activate a modality that does not use your preferred learning style.
Learning Styles Inventory

Directions: Go to the Learning Styles Inventory in Appendix C, pages C1–C3, to identify your learning style
Exercise 1.1
preference and strength of your modalities. After reading each statement carefully, you will select a YES or a NO
answer. Directions for scoring your inventory are included. Return to this page to write your scores on
the following lines:
_____ VISUAL _____ AUDITORY _____ KINESTHETIC
Analyzing Your Scores:

Highest Score = Preferred modality and way to process new information
Lowest Score = Weakest or least frequently used modality
Scores > 10 = Frequently used modality
Scores < 10 = Less frequently used modality
If your two highest scores are the same, you use both modalities equally well.
Your weakest modality and any modalities with scores lower than 10 may be the result of limited experiences
that utilize this modality.
Your weakest modality and any modalities with scores lower than 10 may be due to physical or neurological
impairments, which may include learning disabilities.
© Cengage Learning 2015
Characteristics and Essential Strategies

As you read through the following common characteristics for each of the three
types of learners or learning style preferences, relate this information to what you
learned about yourself in the Learning Styles Inventory (Exercise 1.1). Do you have
the same or similar characteristics? Note that a person does not necessarily possess
abilities or strengths in all of the characteristics but may instead demonstrate

strengths in specific characteristics. Your strengths may reflect your educational
or personal background. For example, an auditory learner may be strong in the
area of language skills but may not have had the experience or the opportunity to
develop skills with a foreign language or music. Finally, pay close attention to the
variety of essential learning strategies that you can incorporate into your approach
to learning. Figure 1.2 summarizes essential strategies for each modality.
Visual Learners
Visual learners are learners who prefer to process and learn information in visual Visual learners are learners who
forms such as pictures, charts, lists, paragraphs, or other printed formats. They prefer to process and learn
information in visual forms such as
learn and remember best by seeing and visualizing information. The following are pictures, charts, lists, paragraphs, or
additional characteristics of visual learners: other printed formats.
Can easily recall information in the form of numbers, words, phrases, or sentences
Can easily understand and recall information presented in pictures, charts, or
diagrams
Figure 1.2 Essential Strategies for Visual, Auditory,

and Kinesthetic Learners
VISUAL Highlight textbooks and notes.
Write notes in textbooks.
Create movies in your mind.
Create visual study tools.
Use color coding.
Visualize information.
Add pictures.
Write to remember.
Make writing a habit.
Be observant.
AUDITORY Participate in discussions.
Paraphrase and summarize.
Ask questions.
Verbalize.
Recite frequently.
Tape lectures.
Create study tapes or recordings.
Create rhymes, jingles, or songs.
Use technology.
KINESTHETIC Use hands-on learning.
Create hands-on study tools.
Get out of the chair.
© Cengage Learning 2015.
Work standing up.

Use action-based activities.
Create action-oriented games.
Use creative movement.
Use a computer or electronic devices.
Have strong visualization or visual memory skills and can look up (often up to
the left) and “see” information
Make “movies in their minds” of information they are reading
Have strong visual–spatial skills that involve sizes, shapes, textures, angles, and
dimensions
Have a good eye for colors, design, visual balance, and visual appeal
Pay close attention and learn to interpret body language (facial expressions, eyes,
stance)
Have a keen awareness of aesthetics, the beauty of the physical environment,
and visual media
Visual learners often favor creating and using visual strategies when they study.
Concept Check 1.2 Having something that they can see, examine for details, and memorize as a mental
Visual learners can easily recall which image is important and effective for visual learners. The following essential strate-
kinds of visual information? What other gies for visual learners strengthen and utilize visual skills. Check YES if you already
abilities do visual learners exhibit? use the strategy. Check TRY if you are willing to try using this strategy. Check NO if
the strategy does not interest you. Check a response for each bulleted point.
YES Try NO
Highlight textbooks and notes. Use colored
highlighter pens to create a stronger visual
impression of important facts, definitions,
formulas, and steps. ______ ______ ______
Write notes in textbooks. Write questions
in the margins, highlight the answers, and
then picture the answers as you review the
questions. ______ ______ ______
Create movies in your mind. Use your
visual memory as a television screen with the
information that you read (and hear) moving
across the screen as a “movie with the cameras
rolling.” Practice reviewing or replaying the
movie in your mind. ______ ______ ______
Create visual study tools. Create visual
mappings, hierarchies, and comparison charts
to show levels of detail. Practice visualizing
and recalling the images of the study tools. ______ ______ ______
Use color coding. Color-code different levels
of information in your visual tools, your
textbook highlighting, your time management
schedules, and your notes. Using different
colors facilitates the process of memorizing
and recalling visual images. ______ ______ ______
Visualize information. Visually memorize
pictures, graphs, study tools, or small sections
of printed information. Practice looking away,
visualizing, and then checking the accuracy
and details of your visual images. ______ ______ ______
YES Try NO
Add pictures. As you expand chapter visual
mappings, hierarchies, and other visual study
tools or as you review your notes and study
tools, add pictures that depict the information.
The pictures become association cues to assist
recall of the information stored in memory. ______ ______ ______
Write to remember. Copy textbook informa-
tion into notes because information written in
your own handwriting often is easier to visual-
ize and recall than printed text. ______ ______ ______
Make writing a habit. Create the habit of
writing directions and other important infor-
mation in notebooks, on small note pads,
or in electronic devices as words you write
frequently are easier to visually memorize
and recall. ______ ______ ______
Be observant. Pay attention to details of

objects and people. Observe nonverbal
clues for body language that signal attitudes,
feelings, or important points. ______ ______ ______
Auditory Learners
Auditory learners are learners who prefer to process and learn by hearing and dis- Auditory learners are learners who
cussing information. They prefer to have information presented to them verbally prefer to process and learn by
hearing and discussing information.
instead of, or in addition to, in writing. They learn by listening to others explain,
debate, summarize, or discuss information about topics they are studying. Auditory
learners, however, are not passive. Auditory learners like to talk and listen as they
learn. The following are additional characteristics of auditory learners:
Often engage in discussions and enjoy the process of communication
Learn by explaining information in their own words, expressing their
understanding or opinions, and providing comments and feedback to other
speakers
Can accurately remember details or specific information heard in conversations,
lectures, movies, or music
Have strong language and vocabulary skills and an appreciation of words, their
meanings, and their etymology (word history)
Have strong oral and expressive communication skills and are articulate
Have “finely tuned ears” and may find learning a foreign language relatively easy
Have above average ability to hear tones, rhythms, and notes of music, and often
excel in areas of music
Have keen auditory memories
Auditory learners often select learning strategies that code or process informa-
tion through their auditory channel into memory. The following essential strategies
for auditory learners strengthen and utilize auditory skills. Check YES if you already
use this strategy. Check TRY if you are willing to try using this strategy. Check NO if
the strategy does not interest you. Check a response for each bulleted point.
YES Try NO
Participate in discussions. Actively engage in
group activities, discussions, study groups, and
in tutoring sessions. ______ ______ ______
Paraphrase and summarize. Express your ideas
to others, paraphrase speakers, and summarize
what you learn from lectures, conversations, and
discussions. ______ ______ ______
Ask questions. Show your interest and clarify
information by asking questions. Practice recall-
ing information and answers that you hear. ______ ______ ______
Verbalize. Read out loud to activate your auditory
channel or auditory processes. For difficult mate-
rials, read with exaggerated expression as the
natural rhythm and patterns of language tend to
group words into units of meaning when spoken. ______ ______ ______
Recite frequently. Reciting involves stating
information out loud, in your own words, in
complete sentences, and without referring to
printed information. Reciting provides you with
feedback to gauge how well you remember and
understand information. ______ ______ ______
Tape lectures. In difficult classes, request
permission to tape lectures. Use the tapes to
review and complete your notes after class. ______ ______ ______
Create study tapes or recordings. Tape yourself
reading or reciting main ideas, facts, details,
or lists. Use your study tapes or recordings
to review information and prepare for tests.
Your ability to recall information from tapes
that have your own voice may strengthen your
auditory memory and recall abilities.
Create rhymes, jingles, or songs. Short, catchy ______ ______ ______
sayings or tunes that contain information you
need to remember are effective study tools for
recalling information. Original rhymes, jingles, or
songs work as mnemonics or memory tools and
associations to recall information. To increase
accuracy, practice the rhymes, jingles, or songs
multiple times. ______ ______ ______
Use technology. Check with your learning
labs, library, Internet resources, and electronic
applications for audio materials and products to
use to reinforce learning. ______ ______ ______
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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2 Kinds of Test Questions 203 3 Three Specific Reading Systems 248

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Analyzing and Organizing 2 Listening and Notetaking Strategies 346

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1 The Listening Process 339 Learning Objectives Review 398

Exercise 6.4 Memory Principles Inventory C12

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What’s New in the Eighth Edition of Essential Study Skills

Chapters 1 through 4 Focus on Personal Preferences and Self-Management

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NEW: Chapter 12 Focuses on Using Technology

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explain why some learned information cannot be accessed or located in long-

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Early Introduction of Teaching students to think on higher levels, to interpret,

Transfer These Skills Teaching students to transfer skills to other courses is

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Discovering Your Learning Styles and Preferences

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