ELECTRICAL THEORY

OBJECTIVES
• To know the di erent kinds of generating stations.
• Understand the Phenomenon of electricity and the di erent
types of electrical phenomenon.
• Understand the di erence between conductor, semiconductor,
and insulator.
• Understand the Phenomenon of electricity and the di erent
types of electrical phenomenon.
• To de ne electric current and distinguish between the two
forms of current.
• Understand the di erence between conductor, semiconductor,
and insulator.
• Understanding the notion of current ow generation.
BASIC ELECTRICAL TERMS
• Electric Charge (Q) - Characteristic of subatomic pa icles that determines their
electromagnetic interactions. Unit of Charge is Coulomb.
• Current (I) - e rate of ow of charged pa icles is called current. Current is the
number of electrons that pass in one second(charge/electron). Unit of Current is
Ampere.
• Voltage(V) - Voltage is a measure of the potential energy that causes a current to
ow through a transducer in a circuit. Voltage is always measured as a di erence
with respect to an arbitra common point called ground. Voltage is also known as
electromotive force or EMF. Unit of Voltage is Volts.
• Energy - e energy is the area under the power cu e. e movement of charged
pa icles through a wire or other medium is called current or electricity. Power - e
rate at which energy is transferred from an active source.
• Power - is the rate, per unit time, at which electrical energy is transferred by an
electric circuit. Unit of Power is in Watt/Kilowatt Switchgear - In an electric power
system, switchgear is composed of electrical disconnect switches, fuses or circuit
breakers used to control, protect and isolate electrical equipment.
• Switchgear - is used both to de-energize equipment to allow work to be done and
to clear faults downstream.
INTRODUCTION
How Electricity is generated ?
• Electricity is the energy generated by the movements of electrons (negative charge)
and positrons (positive charge) within conductive materials. Opposites attract.
Positive and negative charges come together, creating two types of energy: Static
electricity (generated by friction) and dynamic electricity (known as a current)
• Generation: electricity is produced in plants capable of drawing electrical energy
from prima energy sources. ese prima energies may be renewable (wind,
solar power, tidal power, etc.) or non-renewable (coal, natural gas, oil, etc.). e
companies which (fully or pa ly) own the various power plants sell the energy
generated to companies which supply it commercially.
• Transmission: once the energy has been processed and turned into electricity, it is
sent through overhead or underground wires from the plants to substations. ere,
transformers ensure su cient electrical voltage, Substations tend to be above
ground near to power plants, or on the outski s of cities, though if they are not too
large, they may also be within the actual city, inside a building.
• Distribution: from the substations, electricity is distributed to the homes in the
surrounding area. As a consumer, you cannot choose your electricity distributor; it is
determined by where you live. at company is responsible for ensuring electricity
reaches your home properly, and takes care of repairs when needed. It is also the
company which owns your electricity meter and sends readings from it to your
commercial energy supplier.
TYPES OF GENEREATING
STATION
HYDROELECTRIC POWER STATION
• Hydroelectric Power stations A generating
station which utilises the potential energy of
water at a high level for the generation of
electrical energy is known as hydroelectric
power station. in a hydroelectric power
station , water head is created by
constructing dam across a river or lake. From
dam water is led to water turbine thus
captures the energy in Rese oir the falling
water changes the hydraulic energy into
mechanical energy in the turbine shaft and
the turbine drives the alternator which
conve s mechanical energy into electrical
energy.
NUCLEAR POWER STATION
• Nuclear Power Stations e generating
station in which nuclear energy is conve ed
into electrical energy is known as nuclear
power station. In nuclear power station,
heavy elements such as Uranium or orium
are subjected to nuclear ssion in a special
apparatus known as reactor. e heat energy
thus released is utilised in raising steam at
high temperature and pressure. e steam
runs the steam turbine which conve s steam
energy into mechanical energy and thus
turbine drives the alternator which conve s
mechanical form into electrical energy.
THERMAL POWER STATION
• ermal Power Station A thermal power
station is a power station in which heat energy
is conve ed to electric power. in most, a steam
-driven turbine conve s heat to mechanical
power as an intermediate to electrical power.
Water is heated, turns into steam and drives a
steam turbine which drives an electrical
generator. After it passes through the turbine
the steam Is condensed in a condenser and
recycled to where it was heated. is is known
as a Rankine cycle. thermal power stations are
so designed to produce heat for industrial
purposes, for district heating. or desalination
of water, in addition to generating electrical
GAS TURBINE POWER STATION
• Gas Turbine Power Station A generating
station which employs gas turbine as the
prime mover for the generation of electrical
energy is known as gas turbine power plant.
In this air is used as the working uid, the air
is compressed by compressor and is led to
combustion chamber where heat is added to
air, thus raising the temperature. e hot and
high pressure air from combustion chamber
them passed to gas turbine where it expands
and does the mechanical wok. e gas
turbine drives the alternator which conve s
mechanical energy into electrical enerav
 THE PHENOMENON OF
ELECTRICITY
EDWIN L. LATA JR. BSCE
3C
ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA
Are commonplace and unusual events
that can be obse ed which illuminate the
principles of the physics of electricity and
are explained by them.
THIS IS A LIST OF ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA.
ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA ARE A SOMEWHAT ARBITRARY
DIVISION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC PHENOMENA.
1. Biefeld–Brown e ect
- is an electrical phenomenon that produces an ionic wind that transfers its momentum to
surrounding neutral pa icles.
2. Electroreception and Electrogenesis
- are the closely related biological abilities to perceive electrical stimuli and to generate
electric elds.
3. Capacitive Coupling
- is the transfer of energy within an electrical network or between distant
networks
by means of displacement current between circuit(s) nodes, induced by the electric
eld.
4. e triboelectric E ect
- describes electric charge transfer between two objects when they contact or
slide against each other. It can occur with di erent materials, such as the sole of a
shoe on a carpet, or between two pieces of the same material.
5. Corona Discharge
- is an electrical discharge caused by the ionization of a uid such as air surrounding
a conductor car ing a high voltage. It represents a local region where the air (or
other uid) has undergone electrical breakdown and become conductive, allowing
charge to continuously leak o the conductor into the air.
6. Dielectric
- is an electrical insulator that can be polarised by an applied electric eld.
7. Direct current (DC)
- is one-directional ow of electric charge. An electrochemical cell is a prime example of DC power.
8. Electromagnetic or Magnetic Induction
- is the production of an electromotive force (emf) across an electrical conductor in a changing
magnetic eld.
9. Electroluminescence (EL)
- is an optical and electrical phenomenon, in which a material emits light in response to the
passage of an electric current or to a strong electric eld.
10. Electrostatic Induction
- also known as "electrostatic in uence" or simply "in uence" in Europe and Latin America, is a
redistribution of electric charge in an object that is caused by the in uence of nearby charges.
In the presence of a charged body, an insulated conductor develops a positive charge on one
end and a negative charge on the other end.
11. Electrical Resistivity
- (also called volume resistivity or speci c electrical resistance) is a fundamental speci c prope y
of a material that measures its electrical resistance or how strongly it resists electric current.
12. Electrical Inju
- is a physiological reaction caused by electric current passing through the body. e inju
depends on the density of the current, tissue resistance and duration of contact. Ve small
currents may be imperceptible or produce a light tingling sensation.
13. Ferranti e ect
- is the increase in voltage occurring at the receiving end of a ve long (> 200 km) AC
electric power transmission line, relative to the voltage at the sending end, when the load
is ve small, or no load is connected.
14. Ferroelectricity
- is a characteristic of ce ain materials that have a spontaneous electric polarization that
can be reversed by the application of an external electric eld. All ferroelectrics are also
piezoelectric and pyroelectric, with the additional prope y that their natural electrical
polarization is reversible
15. e Hall E ect
- is the production of a potential di erence (the Hall voltage) across an electrical conductor
that is transverse to an electric current in the conductor and to an applied magnetic eld
perpendicular to the current. It was discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879.
16. Inductance
- is the tendency of an electrical conductor to oppose a change in the electric current
owing through it. e ow of electric current creates a magnetic eld around the
conductor. e eld strength depends on the magnitude of the current, and follows any
changes in current.
17. Induction Heating
- is the process of heating electrically conductive materials, namely metals or semi-
conductors, by electromagnetic induction, through heat transfer passing through an
inductor that creates an electromagnetic eld within the coil to heat up and possibly melt
steel, copper, brass, graphite, gold, silver, aluminum, or carbide.
18. Joule Heating
- also known as resistive, resistance, or Ohmic heating, is the process by which the passage
of an electric current through a conductor produces heat.
19. Lightning
- is a natural phenomenon formed by electrostatic discharges through the atmosphere
between two electrically charged regions, either both in the atmosphere or with one in the
atmosphere and on the ground, temporarily neutralizing these in a near-instantaneous
release of an average of one gigajoule of energy.
20. Noise and Electromagnetic Inte erence
- Unwanted and usually random disturbance in an electrical signal. A Faraday cage can be
used to attenuate electromagnetic elds, even to avoid the discharge from a Tesla coil.
21. Photoconductivity
- is an optical and electrical phenomenon in which a material becomes more electrically
conductive due to the absorption of electromagnetic radiation such as visible light,
ultraviolet light, infrared light, or gamma radiation.
22. Photoelectric E ect
- is the emission of electrons when electromagnetic radiation, such as light, hits a material.
Electrons emitted in this manner are called photoelectrons.
23. Photovoltaic E ect
- is the generation of voltage and electric current in a material upon exposure to light. It is a
physical and chemical phenomenon.
24. Piezoelectricity
- is the electric charge that accumulates in ce ain solid materials—such as c stals, ce ain
ceramics, and biological matter such as bone, DNA, and various proteins—in response to
applied mechanical stress. e word piezoelectricity means electricity resulting from
pressure and latent heat.
25. Plasma
- is one of four fundamental states of matter, characterized by the presence of a signi cant
po ion of charged pa icles in any combination of ions or electrons.
26. Proximity E ect
- is a redistribution of electric current occurring in nearby parallel electrical conductors
car ing alternating current (AC), caused by magnetic e ects.
27. Pyroelectricity
- is a prope y of ce ain c stals which are naturally electrically polarized and as a result
contain large electric elds.
28. Redox
- is a type of chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of substrate change. Oxidation
is the loss of electrons or an increase in the oxidation state, while reduction is the gain of
electrons or a decrease in the oxidation state.
 ere are two classes of redox reactions:
1. Electron-transfer
- Only one (usually) electron ows from the atom being oxidized to the
atom that is reduced. is type of redox reaction is often discussed in
terms of redox couples and electrode potentials.
2. Atom transfer
- An atom transfers from one substrate to another. For example, in the
rusting of iron, the oxidation state of iron atoms increases as the iron
conve s to an oxide, and simultaneously the oxidation state of oxygen
decreases as it accepts electrons released by the iron. Although
oxidation reactions are commonly associated with the formation of
oxides, other chemical species can se e the same function.
29. Skin E ect
- is the tendency of an alternating electric current (AC) to become distributed within a
conductor such that the current density is largest near the su ace of the conductor and
decreases exponentially with greater depths in the conductor.
30. Static Electricity
- is an imbalance of electric charges within or on the su ace of a material or between
materials. e charge remains until it is able to move away by means of an electric current
or electrical discharge.
31. Static Electric
- can be created whenever two su aces contact and or slide against each other and then
separated.
32. Telluric current
- is an electric current that ows underground or through the sea, resulting from natural and
human-induced causes.
33. ermionic Emission
- is the liberation of electrons from an electrode by vi ue of its temperature (releasing of
energy supplied by heat).
34. ermoelectric E ect
- is the direct conversion of temperature di erences to electric voltage and vice versa via a
thermocouple. A thermoelectric device creates a voltage when there is a di erent
temperature on each side.
35. Thunderstorm
- also known as an electrical storm or a lightning storm, is a storm characterized by the
presence of lightning and its acoustic e ect on the Ea h's atmosphere, known as thunder.
Relatively weak thunderstorms are sometimes called thundershowers.
36. Whistler
- is a ve low frequency (VLF) electromagnetic (radio) wave generated by lightning.
Frequencies of terrestrial whistlers are 1 kHz to 30 kHz, with maximum frequencies usually
at 3 kHz to 5 kHz.
 ELECTRICAL CURRENT
ANGELIQUE JANE B. JIMENEZ BSCE 3
 WHAT IS ELECTRIC
CURRENT?

• Electric current refers to the f low of electricity
in an electronic circuit, and to the amount of
electricity f lowing through a circuit. T he
electric charge carriers moving from one point
to another point in a conductor or
semiconductor will conducts electric current.
• Current means a f low of something from one
place to another place.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VOLTAGE AND
CURRENT

•Voltage is another term that ’ s used in
regards to electronic circuits about as often
as current. Voltage is measured in volts (V).
•Like current, voltage is also related to the
ow of electrons in a circuit.
•Current refers to the ow of electrons, while
voltage refers to the amount of force
pushing the owing electrons.
 TWO TYPES OF CURRENT

DIRECT CURRENT (DC)
• T he terms current and voltage encompass
dif ferent types of phenomena, and one
major distinction that can be made is that
of direct current and alternating current.
Direct current (DC) refers to current and
voltage whose direction does not change.
• A typical example is the electricity provided by
dr ycells and the lithium-ion batteries used in
cars. With a direct current, the voltage is always
positive (or always negative), and the current
always ows in the same direction
ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC)
• Alternating
voltage whosecurrent (AC)
direction refers
and to current
magnitude and
va
regularly over
distinguished time.
by a AC current
variety of waveforms
shapes, are
including
sine waves, square
triangular waves. waves, sawtooth waves, and
 CONDUCTOR,
SEMICONDUCTOR AND
INSULATOR
EDWIN L. LATA JR. BSCE
3C
What is a Conductor?
A conductor is a type of material that
allows the ow of charge otherwise known
as electrical current.
What is Semiconductor?
Semiconductors are materials that have
conductivity in-between conductors and
insulators. ey can block or allow the
current ow providing total control over it.
What is Insulator?
An insulator is a material that has ve
high electrical resistance & it does not
allow the ow of current.
 Di erences Between Conductors,
Semiconductors & Insulators:
CHARACTERISTICS CONDUCTOR SEMICONDUCTOR INSULATOR
De nition A conductor is a A semiconductor is a An insulator is a
material that allows material whose material that does
the ow of charge conductivity lies not allow the ow of
when applied with a between conductor & current.
voltage. insulator.
Temperature e resistance of a e resistance of a Insulator has ve
Dependence conductor increases semiconductor high resistance but it
with an increase in decrease with still decreases with
temperature. increases in temperature.
temperature. us it
acts as an insulator at
absolute zero.
 Di erences Between Conductors,
Semiconductors & Insulators:
CHARACTERISTICS CONDUCTOR SEMICONDUCTOR INSULATOR
e conductors have ve ey have intermediate
Conductivity high conductivity (10-7 Ʊ /m), -13conductivity ((10-7 Ʊ /m to 10 ey have ve low
Ʊ /m), thus they can acts as conductivity (10-13 Ʊ /m), thus
thus they can conduct insulator & conductor at they do not allow current ow.
electrical current easily. di erent conditions.

e conduction in conductors e conduction in ere are no free electrons or

Conduction is due to the free electrons in semiconductor is due to the holes thus, there is no
metal bonding. movement of electron & holes. conduction.
 Di erences Between Conductors,
Semiconductors & Insulators:
CHARACTERISTICS CONDUCTOR SEMICONDUCTOR INSULATOR
e band gap of
ere is no or low energy gap semiconductor e band gap in insulator is
between the conduction & the conductorisbut greater than huge (+5 eV), which need an
Band gap valance band of a conductor. than an insulator i.e.smaller enormous amount of energy
It does not need extra energy eir electrons need a1little
eV. like lightning to push
for the conduction state. energy for conduction state. electrons intoband.
the conduction

Resistivity Low (10-5 Ω/m) Normal (10-5Ω/m to 105 Ω/m) Ve High (105 Ω/m)
 Di erences Between Conductors,
Semiconductors & Insulators:
CHARACTERISTICS CONDUCTOR SEMICONDUCTOR INSULATOR
It has positive coe cient of It has negative coe cient of ane insulator
coe cient of resistivity of
is also negative
Coe cient of Resistivity resistivity i.e. its resistance resistivity. but it has ve huge
increase with temperature resistance.

Some special conductors turn

into superconductors when
Absolute Zero supercooled down to absolute
zero while other have nite
resistance.
e insulator’s resistance
e semiconductors turn into increase
insulator at absolute zero. when cooled down
to absolute zero.
 Di erences Between Conductors,
Semiconductors & Insulators:
CHARACTERISTICS CONDUCTOR SEMICONDUCTOR INSULATOR
Valence Electron in Outer 1 Valence electron in outer 4 Valence electron in outer 8 Valence electron in outer
Shell shell. shell. shell.

Silicon, Germanium, Selenium,

Examples Gold, Copper, Silver, Antimony, Gallium Arsenide Rubber, Glass, Wood, Air, Mica,
Aluminum etc (known as semi insulator), Plastic, Paper etc.
Boron etc.
 Di erences Between Conductors,
Semiconductors & Insulators:
CHARACTERISTICS CONDUCTOR
e metals like iron & copper
etc. that can conduct
Application electricity are made into wires
and cable for car ing electric
current.
SEMICONDUCTOR
Semiconductors are used
eve day electronic devices
such as cellphone, computer,
solar panel etc as switches,
energy conve er, ampli ers,
etc.
INSULATOR
e insulators are used for
protection against high
voltages & prevention of
electrical sho between
cables in circuits.
 PRODUCING CURRENT FLOW

ANGELIQUE JANE B. JIMENEZ BSCE 3

 CURRENT FLOW

• Current
electric f l
o w
chargesbasically
with means
respect tothe f
time. l
o w
In of
an
electric
f ow
lowing circuit,
in one when the
direction,electric
the charge
current is
will
in the opposite direction.
• Tnegative
he electric current
terminal to f l
o
the w star ts
positive from the
terminal
ofthea positive
batter y, asterminal
the electron
to will
the f l
o w from
negative
terminal.


WHAT IS AN ELECTRIC
CHARGE?

•Electric charge is the fundamental
prope y of pa icles such as electrons
and protons. Electric charge can
neither be created nor destroyed. T hat
means, if there is an electron or a
proton then there is a charge.
• Electrons have a negative charge and protons
have a positive charge. Protons are much
heavier than electrons. However, the charge of
a proton is equal to the charge of an electron.
• When a proton is placed
closer to an electron,
they get attracted. On
the other hand, when
two protons or two
electrons are placed
close to each other, they
get repelled.
 HOW ELECTRIC CURRENT IS
GENERATED?

• Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter.
Ever yobject in the universe is made up of
atoms. Atoms are the tiny pa icles. eir size
is in nanometers.
• Each atom consists of subatomic par ticles
such as electrons, protons, and neutrons.
T hese subatomic par ticles are smaller than
the atom
• Electrons are the negatively charged par t
i cles,
protons are the positively charged par ticles, and
neutrons are the neutral pa icles (no charge).
• Protons
electrons.and
So neutrons
the are
protons much
and heavier
neutrons than
always
reside
nuclear at the
force center
between of
thethe atom.
protons T
and h
e strong
neutrons
make them always stick together.
• Electrons always revolve around the nucleus
because of the electrostatic force of attraction
between them.
• Tthehe nucleus
electronshave
revolving
ver at
ylow a close
energy. distance
On the from
other
hand, the electrons revolving at a
from the nucleus have ve high energy. greater distance
• aneatom
electrons
are in the
called outermost
valence orbit
electrons. of
Tattached
he se electrons are
to the parent atom. ver yloosely
• When
form a
of small
heat, amount
light, orof energy
electric f in
ie the
ld is
supplied
gain suf to f
ithe
c ientvalence
energyelectrons,
and they
then
separated from the parent atom.
• Tthehe parent
electronsatom
thatare
are known
separatedas from
free
electrons. T h
e se electrons move
from one place to another place. freely
• Inholes
semiconductors,
are present. both
Free free electrons
electrons are and
the
negatively
negative charged
charge par t
i
(electriccles. So
current).they carr
Holes ya
are
the positively charged pa icles.
a positive charge (electric current). So they car
• Infreeconductors, holes are negligible.
electrons conduct electric current. So the
• Protons
electric also have
current. the
However,ability to
protons conduct
cannot
move
like freely from
electrons. T one
he y place
alwaysto another
held in a place
f i
x ed
position.
 HOW DOES ELECTRIC CURRENT
WORK?

• An
star electric
t
i ng at current
the moment is the
when movement
an of
external par
voltaget
i cles,is
applied
turn, at one
generates of the
an ends
electric off the
ie ld conductor.
on the T h
a
negatively t, in
charged electrons that
terminal of the external voltage. are attracted to the positive
• For
point theto electric
another, current
there to
must bebe transmitted
materials from
with a one
high
amount
their of
nucleus, free electrons
which means located
they arein the
highlylast orbit
susceptible of
tofrommoving due
their nucleusto the weaker attractive force on them
WHAT IS THE FORMULA FOR
ELECTRIC CURRENT?

Ohm ’s Law determines the formula for electric
current:
Current = Voltage / Resistance.
• Resistance represents the obstacle that electrons
in their path. Its unit of measurement is the ohm. face
• Current is a quality of the
measurement is the ampere. electric current. Its unit of
• Voltage represents the power dif f
e rence between one
point and another. Its unit of measurement is the volt.
QUESTIONS:
•A generating station which utilises the
potential energy of water at a high level
for the generation of electrical energy.
•What are the two classes of redox
reactions?
•In your own understanding, what is an
electric charge?
THANK YOU FOR
LISTENING!