Cane Sugar Handbook - Hugot

HANDBOOK OF
CANE SUGAR
ENGINEERING
E. HUGOT
Ingenieur des Arls el Manufaclures.
Adminislraleur Général des Sucreries de Bourbon.
Sainl·Denis (R éunion)
Revised by the au thor,

with the collaboration of the translator,
and translated by
G.H. JENKJNSt, M.Sc.App.

UniversilY vf Queensland (relired).
SI. Lucia, Brisbane (Australia)
THIRD, COMPLETELY REVISED, EDITION
ELSEVIER
AMSTERDAM - OXFORD - NEW YORK - TOKYO
"',
1986
ELSI::VIER SCIENCE I'UBLlSHERS B.V.
Sarn Hurgerhart:'ltrant 25
1'.0. Box 211.1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Dil'trihulors fo, Ih,' U"il<,ú Slalcs and Canada:
FLSFVIFR SCiENCE PUBLlSHIN(; COMI'ANY INC.

52. V.nderbill Avenuc
New York. NY 10017
I.'irst edítíon 1960

Second Impre"ion J 964
Sccond , cOlllple tcl y rcvised, eJition ¡ 972
Seeond ímpre"ion 1979
Third, completely revísed, edition 1986
ISBN 0-444-42438-5 (Vol. 7)

ISBN 0-444-41897-0 (Series)
© Elsevier Seience Publishers B.V., 1986
AII rights reserved. No part of this publication ma y be reproduced, sto red

In a retricval system, or trnnsmittcd in any form or by any mcans, elcctronic.
mechanical. photocoPyinll. recordinlZ. or ot herwise. without the prior written
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Special regula tions for readelS in the USA - This publica tia n has been registered
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I'rint ed in The Netherlands

v
Preface to the third edition
The techn'ology of sugar manufacture../las evolved so much in the course of the las( twelve
years Ihat the prepara(ion of a third edition has necessitated not only the revision of (he ma-
jor portion of the text but also the addition of lIumerous, entirely new sections, As important
revisions and new sections, there will be found in particular in (his new edition, the following:
Powerful modern shredders
Pressure feeders (o milis, A ustralian type
New formulae for maximal speed of milis
A new formula for mili capacity
A more complete table for calculation of power requirements in milling
New systems of electric drive fOr milis
Mili rollers
The Lotus roller
Calculation of weight of bagasse and weight of juices in the milling tandem
Calculation of material balance in the tandem
A new formula for reduced extraction
A new type of diffuser
Saccharate liming of juice
Rapid c1arifiers
Modification of existing clarifiers for rapid operation,
Dorrclones
New formulae for heat-transfer coefficient in heaters
Evaporator vessels with lateral or annular downtake
Heat balance for the factory
Falling-film evaporators
Formulae for estimating coefficient k for flow in vessel and pan calandria
Formulae for steam consumption of pans
The method of calculating the material balance for the boiling house
Continuous vacuum pans, including Langreney
Verlical-crystallise'r coolers
Continuous centrifugals
Sugar dryers
Standard factory control
Liquid-annulus air pumps
Water requirements of the factory
Forced-draught cooling towers
Rain-type condensers and condenser heaters
Drying of bagas se
vi
~
Steam balance of the factory for\,maxiníurl¡,'ec('morn.y

Pelletisatiol1 01' bagasse,
011 the olher hand, seclions (1);cussing equipmenl or processes which, are oUldalccI or ob-
solete have becn deleted, Readers who are stil! u5ing such ec¡uipment or melhods will rind
thelll described in Ihe second edilion, These include:
Crushers
Reciprocating Sleam engines
Compound clarification
Circulators in evaporators
Reciprocating air pumps,
For basic measures and quanlities, we have adoPled the melric system, which is becoming
more and more general. Among coul1tries which have adopted it recently, some have chosen
t he Internalional System (S, l.), Accordingly, the table of equivalent units has been completed
by adding these but, on account of the practice followed very generally and whiCh retains
the tradilional unils, such as kilogram force, kg/cm', kcal, these have been ulilised for
preference, Conversion wilhin the metric system, moreover, is very simple and immediate,
To avoid any difficulty for those engineers in English-speaking counlries who find lhcmselves
more at case wilh Iheir Aritish unils, 8ncl lO avoid involving our fricncl.\ 01' Ihe Amcrican
hemisphere in conversions which are ,Iomelimes awkward, wc Iwve given in Ihc grcal Olajori-
ty of cases, in formulae and calculations, values in British units alongside those' in melric
units,
Where given, fans and gallans in all cases are long tons (2,240 lb, or 1,016,047 kg) and
IIllPerial g<1llon" (4,546 1), rcspccli"cly ,
Tables 01' l'igul'cs havc in 1110\1 cases becn givcn in bOII! S)'SICIIlS 01' units,
We hope wc IlJVC Ihus given .lugar Icchnologisls a lIsel'ul work 01' reference, p8rticularly
useJ'ul /'or calculations ancl design projects, The introdllction 01' subjects 0'- present-clay in-
terest, such as continuous pans and centrifugals, or steam economy to facilitate sale 01' power
to outside autilorities, should assist those sugar producers exposed to economic or financial
difficulties, We shal! be happy if the sugar world is able to benefit by it.
The chapler on information and aUlolllation in the sugar factory has been written enlirely
by George Windal 01' SNFS, Direclor ol'lhe IRIS, and his colleague J,c. Giorgi, both world
authorities in that field _ This chapter enhances the value and the interest 01' the book, and
we express our deep gratitude to them,
We thank our friends of SAST A, QSSCT and MS 1R (, as well as the directors 01' engineer-
ing firms (FCB, BMA, de Smet and many others), who ha ve replied in clear and fricndly
fashion lo om requcsls for informalion; and we express our deep gratitude lO our friend
George Jenkins who, in his usual fricndly and cooperative way, has interrupted a well-
deserved retirement lO take onthe heavy task of Iranslation , To it he has brought all his com-
petence and knowledge and his clear and pleasanl style,
E, HUGOT
vii
Translator's foreword
Once again it has been a pleasant task to cooperate with my friend Emile Hugot in translation
of a revision 01' the Handbook. The extent of revision has been rather greater than expected,
but this is not surprising in view 01' Mr. Hugm's thoroughness in treatment and revision of
his work. In addition to keeping up wilh the literature very el'l'ectively, he has visited prac-
lically all the leading sugar industries 01' the world in recent years. I have indeed round that
the revision includes much material new 10 me, covering new developmenls in the industry
since 1 was last in contact with sugar technology sorne twelve or fourteen years ago.
Thanks again ro Mrs. Joan Hodgson, who did the typing ror the first edition and has again
done an excellent job withthe present revision.
e.H. JENKtNS
This Ihird edilion of Ihe Handbook of Cane Sugar Technology is

dedicaled /O Ihe memory of George Jenkins, a very good friend and
a valued col/eague, who died suddenly while Ihe volume was in Ihe
final slages of produclion. He was Ihe lranslalor for all Ihree edi-
lions of Ihe Handbook, and il is fitling Ihal Ihis edilion should be
dedicaled lo him in acknowledgemenl of his importanl conlribu-
lion lO Ihe work.
E. HUGOT
íx
'"
List 01 chapter headings
l. Delivery, unloading and handling of 24. Defecation.

caneo 25. Sulphitation.
2. The cane carrier. 26. Clarification with phosphoric acíd.
3. Cane knives. 27. Carbonatation.
4. Tramp-iron separators. 28. Use of magnesia in clarification.
5. Crushers. 29. Subsidation.
6. Shredders. 30. Juice heating.
7. Combinations of cane preparators. 31. Filtration.
8. Feeding of milis and conveying of 32. Evaporation.
bagasse. 33. Sugar boiling.
9. Roller grooving. 34. Crystallisation.
10. Pressures in milling. 35. Centrifugal separation.
11. Mili speeds. 36. Storage and drying of sugar.
12. Mili capacity. 37. Sugar.
13. Mili settings. 38. Molasses.
14. Power requirements of milis. 39. Boiling-house control.
15. Electric drive of milis. 40. Vacuum equipment.
16. Mili drive by steam turbine. 4J. Steam production and usage .
17. Mili gearing. 42. Steam turbines.
18. Construction of milis. 43. Electricity.
19. Imbibition. 44. Pumps.
20. Extraction. 45. Piping and fluid f1ow.
21. Milling control. 46. Automation and data processing (by
22. Fine-bagasse separator~. G. Windal and J.e. Giorgi).
23. Di rfusion.
x
R eferen ces
References are lísled al lhe end of each chapler, following lhe usual merhod in English-
language publícalíons. The abbrevialions used are generally self-evidenl, wilh lhe possible ex-
ceplion of lhe following:
ISSCT - Inlernalional SocielY of 511gar Cane Technologisls
QSSCT - Queensland SocielY of Sugar Cane Technologísls
SASFPI - Sourh African Sugar FaclOry Planl Inslallalions
SASTA - Soulh African Sugar Technologists' Associalion
SMRI - Sugar Milling Research Inslilule
TSJ - The SlIgar Journal.
i
xi
Contents
Preface to the third edition, v

Translator's roreword, vii
Lisl of chapler headings, ix
Rererences, x
Chapler 1. Delivery, unloading and handling or cane,
Organis3lion or cane suppl y lhro ughout the day, I
U 1l10'1dillg 01' cane, 3
Cane-handling equipmenl, 6
Lateral feeding tables and carriers, 16
References, 20
Chapler 2. The cane carrier, 21
Chapler 3. Cane knives, 32

Rererences, 48
Chapler 4. Tramp-iron separalO rs, 49
Chapler 5. Crushers, 51
Objecl, 51
2-roller crushers, 51
Value or 2-roller crusher, 56
3-roller cru sher , 56
Ex IraClion of a crusher, 59
Large 3-roller crusher, 59
Rererences, 59
Chapler 6. Shredders, 60
Objecl, 60
Localion, 60
Funclion of lhe shredde r, 60
SearbY-lype pulveriser, 63
Bulk densilY of cane prepared by shredder, 70
TOlal power for cane preparation, 70
Rererences, 72
Xll
Chapler 7. Combinations~ óh:ane preparat o rs, 73
Chapler 8. Fecdi ng of milis and co nvey ing of bagasse, 74

Feed plale to crusher, 74
Feed hopper between crusher a nd rirst mili , 75
In le rmediale carriers, 76
Delivery plate at last mili, 85
Feeding arrange ment s, 85
Bagasse co nveyors, 98
Coerricient of fricti o n for ca ne and bagasse , 99
Rereren ces , 100
Chapter 9. Roller grooving, 101

Objecl, 10 1
Circumferenti al grooves, 101
Messchaert grooves, 107
Chev rons , I I I
Ka y grooving, 113
Wear of rollers, 113
Refe rences, 116
Chap ter 10. Press ures in millin g, 11 7

Hyd raulic pressure, 11 7
Pressure comidered from the ope rali ng viewpo int, 125
Pressu res in milis, 130
Nomenclature, 175
Rcrere nce, 176
-
Chapter 11 . Mili speeds, 178
Linear speed a nd speed of rotation, 178
Max im al speeds empl oyed , 180
Speeds in ge nera l practice, 181
References, 185
Chapler 12 . Mili capacily , 186

Definilion, 186
Factors innuencing capaci ty, 186
Capaci ly rormulae proposed , 188
Capacit y formulae, 188
Relalion of capacity of ribre loading, 195
Tonnage reco rd s, 197
Refe rences, 197
xiii
Chapter 13 . Mili settings-;" 199
Object, 199
A. Feed and delivery openings, 200
Measure of the openings, 200
Java method, 201
Method of calculating operating openings, 206
Delivery openings and fibre loading, 212
Effect of inclined housings, 214
Settings empty and openings in operation, 216
B. Trashplate, 217
References, 226
Chapter 14. Power requirements of milis, 227
Factors in fluencing power requirements , 227

General formula for power consumption oC milis, 229
General relationships, 235
References, 239
Chapter 15. Electric drive or milis, 241
Systems oC electric drive for milis, 244

References, 248
Chapter 16. Mili drive by steamturbine, 249
Turbines for mili drive , 250
Chapter 17. Mili gearing, 253
Speed reduction, 253

Drive to the rollers, 256
Rererences, 258
Chapter 18. Construction of mills, 259
Housings, 259
Rollers, 266
Rererences, 279
Chapter 19. Imbibition, 280
Object, 280
Different systems of imbibition. 280
Mathematical study of imbibition. 281
Relative weights of bagasse and juice. 297
Material balance of the tandem. 299
xiv
General consideratiQJ1s, 304

Methods of application of imbibition, 311
References, 214
Chapter 20. Extraction, 315

Measure of efficiency of milling work, 315
Factors in efficiency of milis, 321
Sanitation at the milis, 326 -
References, 327
Chapter 21. Milling control, 328

Extraction by dry crushing, 328
Brix graphs, 331
Basic equation for mili control, 333
Brix of absolute juice, 335
Fibre, 336
Various relalionships in milling, 337
Sucrose eXlracled % cane, 341
Delermination of the value of ¡he coefficient k, 347
Normal values of efficiency coefficient k, 348
Use of ¡he coefficient, 348
Special use for factory control, 348
References, 350
Chapter 22. Fine-bagasse separaLOrs, 352
References, 358
Chapler 23. Diffusion, 359
Brief historical note, 359

Limilations of milis, 359
Diffusion, 360
Diffusion and lixiviation, 365
Balch diffusion and continuous diffusion, 366
Cane diffusion and bagasse diffusion, 367
Types of di ffusion. 369
General 1 :msiderations on diffusion, 396
Choice of milis or diffusion, 398
References, 398
C hapter 24. Defecation, 399
Clarification of juices, 399

Action of lime on ¡he juice. 399
xv
Defecalion proce{Jures, 401

Reaclion of defecated juice, 404
pH control, 404
Elimination of starch, 404
Other reagents used, 405
References, 406
Chapter 25. Sulphitation, 407,
References, 4 l 4
Chapter 26. Clari rication with phosphoric acid, 4 l 5
References, 416
Chapter 27. Carbonatation, 417
References, 427
Chapter 28. Use of magnesia in clarirication, 429
References, 430
Chapter 29. Subsidation, 431
Clarificrs or subsiders, 432

References, 447
Chapter 30. Juice heating, 448
Calculations for heaters, 449

Design of a battery of heaters, 457
Construction of heaters, 462
References, 468
Chapter 3 l. Filtration, 469
Condilions for good filtration, 469

Types of filter, 469
Filter presses, 469
Continuous rotar y vacuum filters, 476
Accessories for continuous rotary filters, 487
Filtration of syrups, 492
. References, 492
xvi
•
Chaprer 32. Evaporation, 494 .".
General, 494
Multiple-effect evaporation, 504
Principie of multiple effects, 504
Construction of multiple effects, 506
Circulation of steam and vapour, 514
Condensa tes, 516
In.condensable gases, 525
J uice circulation, 529
Entrainment, 538
Inversion los ses, 541
Heat losses , 543
1ncrustations, 545
Operation in parallel, 553
Vapour bleeding, 554
Vapour recompression, 555
Operatíon of multíple effects, 561
Hearing surface, 570
Calculations and design of a mulriple effect, 579
Multiple-effect calculations, 588
Evaporator operation, 608
Special muiliple effecrs, 612
Evaporation under pressure, 615
Falling·film evaporators, 617
References, 624
Chapler 33. Sugar boiling, 627
Vacuum pans, 635

Effects of hydrostatic pressure, 647
Massecuite circulation in vacuum pans, 649
Evaporatíon coefficient, 662
Heating steam, 663
Steam consumption at the pan stage , 664
Heating surface and ratio of heating surface lO volume, 667
Height of massecuile, circulation, heating surface and graining volume, 668
Capacity of pans, 669
Sugar-boiling procedures, 670
Molasses, 677
Conduct of the sugar boiling, 681
Central and individual vacuum, 685
Instruments for pan control (G.H.J.), 686
Orher factors, 69.1
Pans wirh mechanical circularion, 707
XVII
....
Continuous vacuum pans, 712
References, 721
Chapter 34. Crystallisalion, 724
Types of crystalliser, 734

References, 756
.
Chapter 35. Centrifugal separalion, 757
Batch centrifugals, 757

Electric drive, 779
Operation of centrifugals, 790
Conlinuous centrifugals, 794
Accessory processes and equipment, 807
References, 816
Chapler 36. Storage and drying of sugar, 817
Sugar stores, 818

References, 830
Chapter 37. Sugar, 832
References, 835·
Chapler 38. Mbl'asses; 836

References, 837
Chapter 39. Boiling-house control, 838
References, 851
Chapter 40. Vacuum equipment, 852
Vacuum systems, 853

The condenser, 855
Weight of vapour to be condensed, 861
Weight of cooling water, 864
Air pumps, 868
Rotary liquid-annulus air pumps, 870
The barometrk column, 880
Water pumps, 883
Spray ponds, 885
Rai n type condensers, 894
Condenser-heaters, 894
Jet condensers, 897
xviii
" 901
Steam-jet ejector· condensers,
References, 905
Chapter 41. Steam production and usage, 906
Steam, 906
Bagasse 911
Combustion of bagasse, 924
Fuels other than bagasse, 940
Furnaces, 942
The grate, 952
Performance of differem furnaces , 956
Heating surface, 958
Superheat and superheaters, 960
Economisers, 965
Air-hea ters,972
Choice between economise r a nd air-heater, 980
Drying of bagasse, 984
Boiler settings, 988
Draught, 989
Fans, 993
Boiler feed water, 995
. Steam accumulalors.; ·1000
Steam-réducing valves;1003
De-superheating, 1004
Types óf boi/er, 1006
Construction of boilers, 1009
Maintenance of boilers, 1012
Steam balance, 1012
Maximum economy - power for extern a l uses, 1016
Sale of power by the sugar factory, 1023
General arrangement of the steam cycle, 1029
References, 1031
Steam tables, 1035
Chapter 42. Steam turbines, 1047
Concise theo[y of the steam turbine, 1047

Impulse turbiíJes a nd · reac tion turbines, 1050
Speci fications for a turbine, 1065
References, 1071
Chapter 43 . Electricity, 1072
Direct current and alternating current, 1072

Three- phase alternating current, 1072
xíx
Generatíon of electl'icíty, 1075

AltcrnalOrs, 1079
Electric motors, 1082
Conductors, 1097
Power house, 1100
References, 1 JO 1
Chapter 44. Pumps, 1102
Centrifugal pumps, 1102

Rotary pumps, 1108
Screw pumps, 1113
References, 1114
Chapter 45. Piping and nuíd now, 1115
General formulae, 1115

Flow of steam and gases, 1123
References, 1125
Cnapter 46. Automation and data processing (by G. Windal and J.C. Giorgi), 1126
A historical example: operation of sugar boiling, 1126

Modern concepts of automation, 1131
A structure of automation, 1134
An example of techriical management, 1140
Managemeilt and control of production processes, 1143
Conversion tables - metric to British units, 1147

Conversion tables - British to metric units, 1149
Equivalents of foreign, British and me trie units, 1153
Subject index, 1155

l. Delivery, Unloading and Handling of Cane
The factory takes delivery of'the c;ne, either directly at the factory weighbridge, or at aux-
iliary weighbridges serving certain important or remote points in the area from which the mili
draws its supplies.
Transport is arranged by the factory, either by railway, or more olten by Jorries, or by
IraCtors and trailers.
The bulk density, or weight per unit vOlume, of cane in the truck depends on the manner
in which il is loaded. In Hawaii, for instance, it may be picked up in bulk in the field by
a 1110bile crane mounled on caterpillar tracks and fitted with a grabo This simply c.lrops the
cane in a tangled mass into the trailer; in this case the bulk density may be laken as about
200 kg/m J (12 Ib ./cu. fl.). 1f the loading is done rather more carefully: 300 kg/m J (18 lb./cu .
fl.). In Hawaii', a figure of 225 - 256 kg/m J (14 - 16 lb./cu. ft.) is used. If the cane is loaded
by hand. the stalks being placed parallel to each other in bundles or packages, as is often
done with small suppliers. the density may be taken as about 350 kg/m J (22 lb ./cu. fl.) and
may reach 400 kg/m J (26 lb. /cu. fl.). If the cane is cut by a chopper harvester and loaded
in bulk. the density is approximately 300-380 kg/ mJ (18-24 lb ./cu. fL). averaging 340
kg/ mJ for pieces 28 cm (11 in.) in length. In Hawaii, figures of 321 - 335 kg/ m J (20 - 21
lb ./c u. fl.) are given; in Janiaica', 300-330 kg/m J (19-21 lb. / cu. fl.).
This bulk density depends on the stand of the cane. Straight and erect stalks will give a
more compact \oading than cllrved or \odged canes.
ORGANISATION OF CANE SUPPLY THROUGHOUT THE DAY
A cane sugar faclory generally opera tes continuously from Monday morning till Saturday
evening. It shuts down for about 36 hours, including Sunday, for cleaning the multiple ef-
fecls and for minar repairs. It operates then for about 132 hours per week.
During Ihe day, cane transport is generally carried on for only 12 hours. from 6 a .m. to
6 p.m. So that the milI wilI not run out of cane, it is necessary that the factory should receive
in 12 hours, during the day, the tonnage which it crushes in 24 hours.
Towards 6 p.m. then there will ha ve accumulated a stock at least equal to halfthe daily
tonnage:
Overnight provision = 12 A + a (l.l)
A = quantity of cane crushed by the factory per hour

a = margin of safety, which should always be niaintained to avoid being obliged to stop
the mili far lack of cane.
- -
2 DELIVERY, UNLOADINú ·AND HANDLING OF CANE Ch. 1
This margin a is necessary to make provision for accidental fluctuations in supply: rain
retarding the cutting and restricting transport, irregularities in supply by the farmers, etc. It
should not be too small, nor too large. In the latter case, the cane yard wilI be uselessly en-
cumbered, and the delay occurring between the cutting of the cane and its passage through
the mills will be unnecessarily increased. A suitable quantity is that corresponding to three
hours' crushing:
a=3A ( 1.2)
lf this value be adopted, the yard should be able to accommodate an overnight stock of:
P = 12 A + 3 A = 15 A (1.3)
' .. ' _:,
..... '\-.~'
. ~ ..
.....
.,"........ _-:. t :
rt¡
Fig. 1.1. Sling wi th aUlomali c hoo k. Fig. 1.2. Lifting' a bundle of cane o
UNLOADINO OF CANE 3
UNLOADINO OF 'CANE
I
As drays have practically disappeared from the scene, we discuss only can e transported by
mechanical means: trailers, lorries and railway wagons,
Lorries and other vehicles are either unloaded onto a pi le by means of a crane or are self-
discharging,
A, Unloading by erane, This cane is oflen loaded in "packets" or bundles, bound by three
chains or "slings" (Fig, 1.1), At one end these slings slide in a special hook fitted with a pawl,
while a ring is attached to the other end,
The unloading device at the factory, generally a crane, lifts.the bundle of cane with the
aid of a "swingle-bar" or steel bar fitted with three hooks, The crane lifts the bundle and
deposits it on the heap of can e which is called a "stock-pile", The catches of the sling-hooks
are Ihen released, and the crane lifts the swingle-bar with the slings hanging (Fig, 1.2),
Release of the catch may be controlled electrically,
For a 3-tonne crane, each bundle is of the order of 1,500 - 3,000 kg (3,000 - 6,000 lb,) of
cane, generally about 2,500 kg (5,000 lb,), A 4- or 5-tonne lruck carries two such bundles,
When the swingle bar is replaced by a grab (Fig. 1.7), trucks carrying cane in bulk may
also be unloaded. The grab operates mainly at night to transfer to the lateral tables the cane
stacked during the day.
. . . . ...., "" , "- ,'. " ~ ', ' ~:':'.~~' '' ' ,..; ...• ~ ,T:,
'_ 0' _._
. ,
'~ ..
······ '.·X" ··
Fig. 1.3. Unloading by tipping truck.

4 DELIVERY, UNLOAD1NO AND HANDLING Of eANE Ch.
B. Self-discharging vehicles. Several types of these are in use, the main ones being:
(a) Tipping Irucks. These are trucks fítted with a body which is arranged to pivot about
ils lower rear edge, and aCluated by a hydraulic device which tilts lhe truck body towards
lhe back till ilS load of can e slides into the conveyor arranged to receive it (Fig. 1.3). This
conveyor is generally an inclined lateral table, rising towards the front so that it discharges
the cane inlO the carrier from a height of about 1.5 m (5 ft.) abo ve it; its rear end is located
in a pit of approximately 2 m (6ft.) in depth. The cane fa lis into this pit, which is defined
al lhe back by a plate rising about 0.6 m (2 ft.) aboye ground level, low enough not to in-
terfere Wilh lhe tipping of the truck.
The slope of this lateral table is approximately 15° for the slat conveyor type, and 8° for
lhe type Wílh fixed plates and movíng brackets. Its lenglh accordingly depends on the level
of the carrier relalive to the ground, and is generally of the order 6 - 10m (20 - 30 fl.). The
cane slides from the truck body when it reaches an ínclínatíon of about 40-45°.
(b) Trucks with delachable bodies. This is a similar system, except thal the truck body,
called a "bin" or "basket", is separate from the chassis on which it rests, and may be placed
on the ground or lifted onto the chassis by means of either mobile crane jíbs carried on lhe
chassis or a winch placed behind the cabin. In the former case, it can be tipped inlO the carrier
in the same way as a tipping truck. Ir several bins are supplied for each truck, these can be
fiHed in the field while the truck is returning with an empty bin; as soon as the empty bin
is unloaded at a convenient poínl for lhe cane cutters, a full bin can be loaded on the truck
immediately without loss of time. A similar delivery and pick-up can be effecled al the fac-
.. .,. y, ·:I;··~ ~_ .,'

.., : :'
Fig. 1.4. Cane transpon by detachable container (loading in field).

UNLOADlNO OF CANE 5
Fig. 1.5. Unloading by nel.
tory; thus a rapid turnaround ofthe truck is achieyed, and a good capacity in tonnes of can e
transported per day (Fig. 104).
Numerous modifications of this system are in use.
(e) TraelOrs and semi-lrailers wilh neis. Semi-trailers generally of largu-.tonnage (25 - 40
tonnes) are fitted with a body of steel mesh (Fig. 1.5). On one of the sides of the body is
fixed a steel net which drops down that side, passes across the bottom, rises on the opposite
side, to which the end of the net is attached. In the field or at the cane loading station, lhe
cane is loaded in apile on this neto On arriyal at the factory, the tractor stops alongside a.
deep, large-capacity auxiliary carrier, the side of the trailer body carrying the fixedend of
the net being lined up alongside the carrier and directly aboye the side of it. A crane then
- -
6 DELIVERY, UNLOADING AND HANDLING OF CANE Ch. 1
hooks onto the opposite end of the net and lifts it; the contents are thus tipped into the aux-
iliary carrier (Fig. 1.5).
(d) Flat-topped bulk trailers. Small trailers that can be attached behind light field tractors
are often used, especially in South Africa. The cane is placed in piles on the ground with the
stalks as far as possible Iying parallel to each other. A cable is placed under the pile, and
brought back aboye it; a winch placed on the tractor then hauls in the cable, thus hauling
the pile of can e up on to the trailer. Many versions of this device are used, with rear or lateral
loading. Such devices are inexpensive but, the canes being loosely packed, the width of the
load may.exceed the maximum permitted on the roads, and their use should be limited to
fields directly connected to the factory by private roads (Fig. 1.6).
CANE-HANDLING EQUIPMENT
The principal types of equipment used at the factory cane yard are:
(1) The cane crane, or "derrick"
(2) The travelling crane
(3) The tipping platform or truck tip
(4) The cane rake.
Fig. 1.6. Loading cane in bulk by mean, or cable (Bell 'ysrem).

CANE·HANDLINO EQUIPMENT 7
Fig. 1.7. Grab loader.
1. Cane crane
This is by far the most-used device. It is often called by its American name: "derrick". It
consists (Fig. 1.8) of a mast of fabricated steel, mounted on a pivot, so that it can rotate
through a full circle. At a suitable heigh t this vertical mast carries a horizontal arm forming
a track on which a trolley, carrying two pulleys, can run to and fro. A cable passes over these
two pulleys and hangs between them, thus forming a loop which carries a snatch block, on
which may be hung either the swingle-bar or the grab o
The driver works in a cabin, which is located at the base of the mast or below the arm
and houses the motors for the various movements: rotation, traversing, raising or lowering
of the hook . Jt also generally houses the winding drums .
These cranes are driven gene rally by electric motor. They are classified according lO their
mode of support, into:
(a) Guyed cranes (Fig. 1.8), now used less and less .
(b) Self-supporting cranes (Fig. 1.9).
(a) Guyed cranes. This is the lighter form, the stability of the crane \being ensured by re-
taining cables or guy ropes attached to a ring at the top of the mast (Fig. 1.8) .
These guys must permit of rotationof the horizontal arm, and so must be fixed in the
ground at a considerable distance from the axis of the crane.
Number 01 guys. Strictly speaking, 3 guy ropes, arranged at an"angle of 120 0 to each other,
would be sufficient. .However , the number of guys is generally chosen so that breakage of
8 DEUVERY, UNLOADINO AND HANDLING OF CANE Ch. I
Fig. 1.8. Cane derrick with guys.
:· ~;r:i:~~~~f::~f~:.~~~~-~ ;
'" ... ( . :.'.;.,.. ~ :.
,.:~ ..
'.- ,.'.~ ....
Fig. 1.9. Ten-tonne self-supponing derrick .

...
one of them does not cause the derrick to fallo This condition requires a minimum of 5, at
72°. For preference 6 or 8 should be used, if possible.
It would be necessary then to fix 5, 6, 7, or 8 anchor blocks, placed symmetrically on a
circle of 55 -75 m (180 - 240 ft.) radius with the axis of the crane as centre, to which the
guys are attached. The presence of factory and office buildings makes the solution of this
problem very difficult. If it is necessary to modify the ~pacing of two cables to avoid in par-
ticular the factory buildings, it is nec~ssary to ensure that a breakage of one of these widely
spaced cables wil\ not leave a sector of more than 150 0 , which is the limit permissible for
stability of two adjacent cables.
Obviously, in case of breakage, it will be necessary to stop the crane immediately until the
damaged cable is replaced, since the remaining guys would noto be able to ensure stability
under lhe dynamic loading of the crane in operation.
Tension of Ihe cables. To obtain maximum rigidity, the cables must be tightened so that
the mast describes only a ver y small cone as the derrick is rotated, but without increasing
unduly the tension of the cables themselves. This tension should be checked frequently. The
cables should be painted or tarred every two or three years (to prevent corrosion).
Thickness of the cables. For a crane of 3 tonnes capacity, 5 - 8 cables of 25 mm (l in.)

diameter. are provided.
(b) Self-supporting cranes. These are obviou~ly heavier and more massive (Figs. 1.2 and
1.9), but avoid the nuisance and danger of guys, which restrict movement at the cane yard
and which are sometimes very difficult to locate conveniently.
In countries subject to cyclones, these cranes should be designed for a wind pressure of
at least 350 or preferably 400 kg/m 2 (80 Ib./sq. ft.) (live load).
Capacity of eraRes. The important characteristics of an unloading crane are:

(1) The lifting force
(2) The radius of operation
(3) The maximum height of lift of the grabo
(1) Lifling force. This is the maximum weight which the crane can lift, at the end of the
armo It is the most important factor, which serves to specify its capacity. For instance, one
speaks of a 3-tonne or 5-tonne crane. The usual values are 3, 5 and 10 tonnes.
(2) Radius of operation. This is the horizontal distance between the pivot of the crane and
a verticalline through the pulley of the snatch block (corresponding to the centre of the grab)
when the trolley is at its extreme position at the end of the crane armo Typical values are:
IS,25 and 30 m (60, SO, 100 fL).
(3) Maximum heighl of tift. This is the height from the end of the tines of the grab aboye
the platform level, when the grab is raised to its maximum heighL
To increase this height, and at the same time to enable the driver to oversee the operations
-
la DELlVERY, UNLOADINO AND HANDLING OF CANE Ch. I
and traffie of the platform, the base of a small (3 t.) derriek is generally raised by placing
it on a truneated eone of masonry about 2 m (6 ft.) in height.
The height of lift .is generally of the order of 6 - 8 m (20 - 25 ft.).
As a general rule, for a faetory having only one derriek at its unloading station, the
eharacteristics adopted are approximately as follows:
(1) Lifting force:
F = 0.1 A (lA)
F = lifting force, in tonnes

A = erushing rate of the faetory, in I.c.h.
(2) Radius of operation:
(R = 10,,(A) (1.5)
R =
radius of operation, in m (fL).
(3) Maximum height of lift:
H = 8 m (25 fl.) (1.6)
When two derrieks (or two unloading deviees) are available, the total tonnage A is divided
between them by allotting the tonnages A, and A 2 respeetively, sueh that
A, + A 2 = A
Speeds and power requirements. The speeds adopted for the various movements of the
erane, and the power required for the eorresponding motors, are gene rally of the following
order:
(1) Lifting:
Lifting speed 20 - 50 m/min (80 - 150 ft./min)
Power required 7.5 kW (la h.p.) per tonne nominal capaeity
(2) Rotation:
Rotational speed 1.5 - 2.5 r.p.m.
Power required 1.0 kW (1.5 h.p.) per tonne nominal eapaeity
(3) Traversing:
Speed of the trolley 30 - 60 m/min ,O 00 - 200 fL/min)
Power required 0,75 kW (1 h.p.) p~r tonne nominal eapaeity
When the erane is driven by eompressed air, the single motor requires approximately 7.5
kW (la h.p.) per tonne nominal eapaeity.
-==
CANE-HANDLlNO EQI.HP.MENT 1I
Latera/lab/es. In large or medium factories, it is necessary to provide one or more lateral

tables, on which the crane or cranes deposit the caneo In this case, the carrier does not receive
the cane directly, but is fed by these lateral tables, controlled by an operator who regulates -
their speed as required. The feeding of a carrier supplied in this way is much more regular
than in the case of direct feed.
Bulk density of cane in the pile. Tbis density is similar to that of cane loaded mechanically,
or about 200 kg/m J (12Ib./cu.ft.), if it refers to cane dumped at random. It increases to 300
kg/ m J (18 Ib./cu.ft.) if the pile is made up of bundles of parallel stalks, deposited by lhe
swingle-bar. Tromp3 estimates 400 kg/m J (25 Ib./cu.ft.).
For cane cut in smaIl pieces 0.3 - 0.6 m (1 - 2 ft.) in length, as produced by certain
mechanical harvesters, a figure of 350 kg/m' (22 Ib ./cu. ft.) may be taken 4 •
2. Transporter crane
Factorics handling more than 150 or 200 I.c.h. may find the derrick barely adequate for
sLOrage and handling of lhe cane. They then resort to use of the transporter crane, which has
grealer capacity and is more easily accommodated.
The system is closely analogous to that of the derrick. Instead of a cirele, it serves a rec-
tangle, the length and breadth of which may be fixed at will. For this reason, it will be in-
dicated for certain long and narrow cane yards which have not sufficient space for a crane
to swing. The transporter crane must obviously span the cane carrier which it serves (Fig.
1.10).
Fig. 1.10. Travelling erane (Fives Cail- Babeoek).

12 DELlVERY, UNLOADING ANO HANDLING OF CANE Ch. I
Normal speeds are approxilllalely:
Raising the hook or grab 15 - 30 m/ min (50 - lOO ft./min)

Longitudinal movement of the crane 50-lOO m/ min (150-300 ft./min)
Traversing movement of the trolley 30- 60 m/ min (100-200 ft./min)
In addition, two minutes must be allowed for each movement for detaching the chains and
returning for the next load'.
The corresponding power requirements of the motors are approximately:
Lifting: 4.5 kW (6 h.p.) per tonne nominal capacity

Longitudinal movement: 1.0 kW (1,5 h.p.) per tonne nominal capacity
Traversing movement: 0.25 kW (0.3 h,p,) per tonne nominal capacity
Often both the derrick and transporter crane are used, and this combinar ion is readily
adaptable to all types of unloading area. One advantage of the transporter crane is that the
storage capacity can be readily increased, by increasing its length of trave!. When it becomes
very long, it may be of advantage to provide the length o,f track by means of lWO transporter
cranes, which can then work simultaneously, each one serving one end of the carrier. The
work is further facilitated if each one is provided with its own lateral table.
The width of transporter cranes is of the order of 20-30 m (60-100 fL), Their cost in-
creases much more rapidly with increasing width than with increasing length, The length may
have almost any value up to 100 m (300 fL) for a double transporter crane. The height of
lift is 8 -13 m (25 -40 ft.) and the capaci¡y generally 6-10 tonnes.
3. Tip for trucks or trailers

When the cane arrives by railway ¡rucks, it is more practical to empty ¡he truck in one action,
r---~--t'-'/'....-, ..........
. )-"
. )
I .
/
. /
I .
.1
Fig. 1. 11 . Lateral tip for trucks. Fig. 1.12. Small truck for end-[ipping.
'~
CANE-HANDLlNG EQUlPMENT 13
Fig. 1.13. "Wícks" rake (Mirrlees- Walson).
rather than to !ift separately, with the crane, the bundles of cane piled in the truck.
This presents several advantages:
(1) Saving in time
(2) Saving in slings (this is by no means negligible)
(3) Less handling, because the cane is emptied directly into the carrier, as with drays
(4) Thanks to the absence of slings, the risk of passing pieces of chain or ratchet hooks
-
14 OEllVERY, UNLOADING ANO HANDLING OF CANE Ch. 1
through the mili is avoided. Wilh a crane and slings, il is ve ry rarely Ihal a seasoll is com-
pleled, in lhe absence or a magnelic separalor, without remo ving two or three such pieces
rrom Ihe milis; the roller grooving surrers severely as a result.
There are IWO lypes or tip:
(l) The lateral lip, ror large waggolls (Fig. l.11)
(2) Th e endwise tip, ror small trucks.
The trucks (Fig. 1.12) are rnovided wilh a U-sllaped iron fral11e rormin~ a cradle, in which
the cane is placed lenglhwise parallello Ihe ¡rack . The ends are free, 3nd the cane, \Vell C0111-
pacted during Ihe journey rrom the fields lO Ihe i'aclory, ralls out when [he lip reaches Ih e
desired inclinalion (40-45°).
Tips are somelimes installed ror lorries also. The lorry is generally [ipfled endwise, lowa rd
t he rear.
The angle 01" discharge, ror whole or chopped cane loaded in bulk, is approximalel y 42°.
Tips are designed for a maximum inclinalion of approximately 48°.
4. Rakes
These rorm an auxiliary unloading device, which is used moslly in Java and in some Brilish
counlries. Figure l.13 gives a view which will make descriplion superrIuous.
II will be nOled Ihal the rake has nOI only a "picking" movemem and a lo·and·rro mOl'e·
ment in a mea n plane, bUI Ihal il can also make Ihe same movemenl in a greal number oi'
planes, rorming a dihedral angle oi' sorne 30 - 40° 10 one si de or Ihe Olher 01' lhis mean plane.
tI: . . jQ ' 1fl""• .: ....:!;¡. , ".j¡"';':t:."f{,\IIII"".!'.,,:~ .. ¡

",.:·rt ¡ .:", .,'> "·=tit~,_\'!·. , ~l;'
. :' . , - " '),'::
Fi g. I 14 . Loadin g canes in billcls Legras lraikr.

CANE-HANDLING EQUIPMENT 15
Chopper-harvested cane
Mechanical harvesting of cane is generally carried out by chopper harvesters such as the Mas-
sey-Ferguson, Toft, Claas, Cameco, Thomson, J. & L. (Fig. 1.14). These are machines which
cut the cane, chopping it into pieces 25 - 30 cm (10-12 in.) in length, and discharging it into
a truck or trailer moving alongside the harvester. When the vehicle is filled il is removed and
replaced by another. These trucks or trailers circulate in the field, holding 5 - 10 tonnes of
cane, and then transfer their load J.o a road (or rail) vehicle which runs the length of the field,
holding 25 - 30 tonnes of can e and transporting its load to the factory (Fig. 1.15). One such
Fig. t.15. Trailer wilh moving bOllom (Legras).
ti-. ~
: ·~ r~~l
Fig. 1.16. Transfcrring cane in the ricld (Legras).

-
16 DELlVERY. UNLOADINO AND HANDLING OF CANE Ch. 1
transport widely used in French countries. and elsewhere, is the Legras trailer with conveyor
bottom. This trailer has a slat conveyor which forms the floor, and a door at the back. On
arrival at the factory, it stops aboye a pit, the door is opened and the conveyor set in motion;
the chopped cane falls onto atable at the bottom of the pit (Fig. 1.16).
Storage in containers
Among newly established sugar enterprises, some produce themselves the greater part of the
cane which they crush. These have adopted the following system: the cut cane is stacked in
containers of large volume, for example, 12 m (40 fL) in length, 2.50 m (8 ft.) in width, 2.50
m (8 ft.) in height and of 75 m J (255 cu. fL) in volume, holding about 22 - 25 tonnes of cane.
These containers are transported from the field to the factory on flat-top trucks and
deposited in rows on the unloading area at the factory. They are unloaded in the order in
which they arrive, onto the lateral tables, either by tips or by discharging nets.
Pusher - stacker transfer

Other establishments, equally new, are content with discharging the cane on a reserved sec-
tion of the cane yard which is concreted and on which one or two specialised machines,
equipped with a pusher blade or large scoop, push the cane into a regular heap 2 or 3 m (6
or 9 ft.) in height. These same machines later bring the cane back to feed the cane carrier
tables. Generally, there are two such machines, one receiving the can e and stacking it, the
other bringing it back and feeding the conveyor. This arrangement permits the formation of
two stacks, on opposite sides of the yard; thus it is possible to finish one stack before com-
mencing on the other and so to avoid leaving one portion of the canes longer in the yard than
the other. Delivery of the cane may be carried out around the clock or over 12 hours per day.
In the lalter case, the area of the unloading yard should consequently be calculated as a func-
tion of the height of the stack, arranging the space necessary for manoeuvring the two mobile
machines. These are gene rally provided with four-wheel steering, to give a very small turning
circle.
LATERAL FEEDING TABLES AND CARRIERS
When the number of trucks is insufficient (which may occur at certain fixed times of day,
or accidentally at any moment), the crane makes up the cane supply to the carrier with the
aid of the grabo
However, variations occur in the quantity of cane so deposited per unit length of the car-
rier; there are gaps which cannot be filled in time. On the other hand, a bundle of cane from
a lorry, deposited almost intact on the carrier, can cause an overload at the knives, in the
case of electric drive, opening the circuit breaker.
When such dense bundles of parallel canes occur, it is necessary to slow down the carrier
and practically stop it, otherwise there is a risk of choking the knives. Even with close alten-
tion, the attempt is not always successful.
These difficulties, due to the direct feeding of the carrier, have led to the adoption of aux-
iliary carriers. Many of these disadvantages are indeed overcome by providing a second or
LATERAL FEED1NG TABLES AND CARR1ERS 17
auxílíary carrier at rigllt angles 10 the main carrier. Such a carrier may lake the form of:
(1) A wide and relatívely shon platform or "Ialeral lable"
(2) A carrier identícal wíth lhe maín carríer, bul al right-angles to il. This is often ca\led an
"auxiliary carrier".
1. Lateral la ble
This is in effect a very wide anctshon carrier, driven by an independent motor. In plan it
is rectangular or approximately square in shape. The upper run of the lateral table should
end at approximately 2 m (6 ft.) aboye that of the main carrier and íts discharge end almost
venically aboye the side plate of the carrier.
The crane deposits the can e on this table, and keeps up the supplytü it as it discharges.
An attendant, conveniently located 10 watch the whole of the cane yard, and handy to the
speed control of the motor which drives the lateral lable, starts it up whenever he sees that
Ihe main carrier would otherwise be insufficiently loaded. The can e falls from the lateral
lable into the carrier, and one advantage of this syslem is that the cane I'alls in a more or
less tangled condilion, greatly I'acilitating the work 01' the cane knives. As soon as lhe desired
quantity 01' cane has fallen Ol1to the carrier, the lateral table is slowed down or slOpped. The
movement of the latter is lhus very irregular, interrupted and jerky, and il is advantageous
to drive il by means of a very flexible variable-speed device, such as the French "Elcotron"
or rhe English "Heenan and Froude" drive. These províde a drive wirhout solid contact: a
steel flywheel coupled 10 the motor transmits rhe drive, by induced Foucault currents, 10 a
sieeve surrounding it and connected to the driven shaft.
The lateral table is panicularly useful in counrries where payment for cane ís made accor-
ding to sugar content or recoverable sugar. The cane to be tested from a particular supplíer
may then be accumulated on a special lateral table, without ínterfering with the feeding of .
the milis. When the table is fi\led, its load of cane is fed to the milis without interruptíng
Fig. 1.17. Canc lumbler (Fives Cail- Babcock).

18 OELlYERY, UNLOADINO ANO HANDLING OF CANE Ch. J
the movemenl of lhe main carrier; ¡he beginning and end of the batch to be analysed are
simply marked with lime, in such a way that the juice sample boy can see clearly the beginn-
ing and end of the batch.
Tumbler. The lateral table is much more effective if fitted with a "tumbler". This is a
horizon tal shaft (Fig. 1.17), placed aboye the axis of the front drum of the table , and which
rotates slowly in the reverse direction. 11 is provided with arms arranged in a heli x along its
length, which ensure lha! the cane falls into the carrier in small lots, avoiding a heavy fall
of large mas ses which would be liable to provoke chokes at the knives .
High-speed tumblers may also be used, running aL 80- 100 r.p.m. and furnished with small
knives at the end of the arms; these give a more regular feed and cut sorne of the cane stalks,
thus assisting the work of the knives.
Area of the lateral table. The dimensions of the table vary considerably according to in-
dividual cases. A good dimension, designing for ample capacity, is:
s = 2 A/3 (S = 6 A) ( 1.7)
S = area of the lateral table, in m' (sq. fL)

A = crushing rate of the factory, in I.c.h.
For example, atable of 5 x 7 m (16 x 20 fL) for 50 I.c.h.
For crushing rates greater than 70 I.c. h., it is of advantage to provide two laleral tables
rather than one large one. The dimensions of lhese will be arranged to follow the same rule :
S, + S, = 2 A/3 (S, + S, = 6 A) ( 1.8)
Three or four tables may be used for one cane carrier.
Speed of the table. By rea son of its widlh , the speed of the latera llable is made much lower
than thal of the main carrier. A value of 3 - 6 m/ min (lO - 20 ft .lmin) may be adopled. With
a higher speed, there is a risk that lOO much cane will be dropped on the carrier at a time.
Power required feir the motor. A motor should be provided of power roughly equal to
T = 0.25 S (T = 0.023 S) (1. 9)
T = power of the driving motor, in h.p. (h .p.)

S area of the table, in m' (sq.ft.).
=
This value is obviously appreciably greater than the mean po wer absorbed by the motor
in operation.
Slope. Lateral tables may be horizontal, or may have a slight forward slope of about 5°,
or a slope of 15° towards the rear. This last arrangement allows th e lenglh to be extended
to the point where tipping trucks ca n deliver lheir load directly onto the table , lhus avoiding
extra handling and loss of lime.
.. LATERAL FEEDlNG TABLES AND CARRIERS 19
Fig. 1.18 . Unloading calle - lravcJling ¡;ranc <.111<..1 laleral rceu wbk!i (BMA).
2. Auxiliary carrier (cross carrier)

This is a carrier of the same dimensions as the main carrier, but with its axis at righl-angles
10 that of the latler, and discharging to it. Jt supplies the main carrier in lhe manner of a
regulating tributary which feeds and evens out the main stream.
Speed. It will be driven at a speed about half thal of the main carrier.
Power. Since it is subjecl 10 so mewhat more fri ction, we may provide, if lhe conveyor is
horizontal:
T = 0.34 S (T = 0.05 S) (1. I O)
T = power absorbed by Ihe auxiliary carrier, in kW (h.p.)

S = area loaded with can e on the auxiliary carrier, in m' (sq.fL).
Conslruction of cross conveyors

These tables or carriers should move between two lateral sleel plales, designed 10 guide Ihe
cane and prevent it from falling beside the carrier. These side plales can convenienlly be given
a lO° batter.
-
20 DELIYERY, UNLOADINO AND HANDLINO OF CANE Ch, 1
REFERENCES
I L. FOLEY, Sugor Amcor, 7 (1977) 46.

2 U.A. PERALTA, A.A. ABDUKADlKOV, M. FONSECA AND M. DOMINOUEZ, Inl. Sugor J., 83 (1981) 210.
3 L. A . TROMP, Inl. Sugor J .. 60 (1958) 40.
4 Sugor A<ucor, 56 (11) (1961) 28.
5 L. A . TROMP, Inl. Sugar J .. 62 (1960) 67.
6 SMRI, (116) (1978) 114.
•
2. The Cane Carrier
The cane carrier is the moving apron which conveys the can e into the factory and which
assures the feed to the mili s by transporting the cane from the yard lO the crusher.
Since effective feeding of the crusher requires an elevated hopper, and the cane must be
raised to this high level from the level of the yard, where the carrier is generally in a pit, the
carrier always ineludes a sloping portion (Fig. 2.1). We have:
(a) The horizontal portion
(b) The inclined portion
(e) The head where the cane arrives aboye the crusher.
Fig. 2,1, Cane earrier (Five, Cail- Babeoek).
Slope
The .• Iope of the inclined portion varies from 27Cifo (15°) to a maximum of 40 Cifo (22 ° ).
Generally, a value below 27Cifo is not used . If too low a slope is adopted, the cost of the in-
stallation and the space occupied are increased . A value of 40Cifo is not exceeded, otherwise
the cane would be liable lO slip and the conveyor would move forward without picking it up.
The best and commonest values are 30 Cifo (17 °) to 38Cifo (21°).
When no knives are installed, or when the knife set is at the top of the carrier (which
amounts to the same thing), it is ad visable to keep the slope at 33 or 36Cifo, When one or two
sets of knives precede the inclined portion, or are located at the beginning of the latter, a
slope of 38Cifo (21 °) may safely be adopted, and may even attain 40Cifo (22°) if necessary.
Length of inclined portion

This length wilI be that necessary to attain, with ¡he inclination adopted, the desired level
aboye the crusher. GeneralIy, the height from the ground leve! at the milIs lO the highest point
of the carrier wilJ be about:
•
22 THE CANE CARRlER Ch. 2
6 -7 m (20 - 23 n.) in Ihe case of an ordinary (2-roller) crusher, located aboye Ihe firsl mili
4 - 5 m (13 - 16 f1.) in the case of a mill-crusher (3 rollers).
Assuming the f1oor-level of the horizontal portion of the carrier, in the yard, to be 1 m
(3 ft.) below the ground level at the milis, and basing our figures on a slope of 36"70, lhe in-
c1ined portion of the carrier will have a length of:
(a) With an ordinary crusher:
(7~-::-8) 20 - 22 m (64 -72 ft.) (2.1 )

L
0.36
(b) With a 3-roller crusher:
(5 - 6)
L = 14-17 m (45 -56 ft.) (2.2)
0.36
Length of horizontal portion

The length of the horizontal portion is determined by the width of lateral tables or the space
required for other unloading devices.
Width
The width of the carrier is always made equalto the length of the mili rollers. A wider carrier
would not feed the crusher uniformly over its width, since it would necessitate a feed hopper
in the form of a portion of a pyramid, converging lowards the crusher; the ends of the rolJers
will thus receive a heavier feed than the centre. A narrower carrier would ha ve the opposite
disadvantage, which, however, would be less marked on account of the spreading of the cut
canes in the chute.
Speed
The speed of the carrier is not fixed in any absolute fashion. However, il is advisable that
it be related to the peripheral speed of the milis, for example, half 01' the la lter:
v
u = - (2.3)
2
u = mean speed of the carrier

v = mean peripheral speed of the milis, in the same unit.
We shall consider how the thickness of cane on the carrier will vary, under this condition.
The capacity of the carrier has the value:
1,000 A = 60 uLhd (2,240 A = 60 uLhd) (2.4)
A = crushing rate, in t.c.h.

u = speed of the carrier, in m/min (ft. / min)
L = width of the carrier, in m (ft.)
SPEED 23
h = mean depth of the layer of cane on the carrier. in m (fr.)

d = bulk density of the cane on the carrier:
~
d - 150 kg/ m J ( 9 lb .lcu.fl.) (tangled canes)
d : 175 kg/ m' (11 lb.lcu.fl.) (parallel canes)
d = 300 kg/ m J (18 lb.lcu.ft.) (cane afler knife preparation).
We shall assume (he case of (WO seIs of knives and a shredder, lhe knives loca(ed before
(he sloping portion . We ha ve (hen:
A = 18 Luh (A = 0.536 Luh) (2.5)
We shalI see later (eqn . (12 .6» (hat the normal capacity of the milis, A, has a value:
A = 0.9 cnLD' (1 - 0.06 nD) .¡¡y (A = 0.0255 cnLD' (1- ~018 nD) .-J N)
f
A = capacity of milIs with knife prepara(ion, in I.c .h .

n = . speed of rotation of the milIs, in r.p.m.
L = length of rollers, in m (fl.)
D = diameter of rollers, in m (fl.)
N = number of rollers in the tandem
f = fibre per unit weight of caneo
But :
v
v 'lrDn or: Dn (2.6)
'Ir
v = peripheral speed of the milI rollers, in m/min (ft./min).

Whence:
0.285 cLvD (1 - 0.02 v) .¡¡y

A
f
Substituting this value in eqn. (2.5) and taking u = v/ 2, we have:
h =
0.032 cD .¡¡y (1 - 0.02 v) (h = 0 .03 cD ~(l - 0.06 V)) (2.7)
f
h = being in m (fl.)
e = coefficent for preparatory plant.
lf we neglec( the correction ter m (1 - 0.06 v), which varies only slightly with v and causes
a slight decrease in the cane layer with increasing milI speeds, we see that the thickness of
cane, for normal operation of the milis, will vary:
24 THE CANE CARRIER Ch. 2
In versely as fibre in cane

Directly proportional to roller diameter
Proportíonal to the square root of the number of rollers.
If, instead of a carrier speed proportional to that of the mills, we had adopted a constant
speed, independent of that of the mílls, for example, 5 m/min (15 fL/mín), we would have
found that h would vary as:
nD' .,¡-¡;¡
f
that is, the thickness of the can e layer would be proportional to the square of the roller
diameter, and we would arrive at excessive thicknesses in the case of large mills and long
tandems, working at high speeds.
Por this reason it is preferable to relate the speed of the cane carrier to the mean peripheral
speed v of the milI rollers. The thickness of the cane layer is then proportional to D, which
is logical since it varies proportionally to a linear dimension of the milI.
In general, we adopt:
u = 0.3 - 0.5 v (2.8)
Carrier sIats
Cane carrier slats were previously made of wood. This material is no longer found except
in certain lateral tables; it is unsuitable for use with knives, on account of the stresses impos-
ed on the carrier apron in its passage below the knives, and especially because pieces of cane
would fall through the spaces between the boards.
Fig. 2.2. Sleel carrier slats (Fives Cail- Babcock).
Carrier aprons (Fig. 2.2) are made up of steel slats which overlap by a rounded edge in
the form of a cylinder concentric with the rollers which carry the chain and the pins which
join successive links of the chain together. This rounded edge permits a passage of the slats
over the sprockets at the head and foot of the earrier, while maintaining the overlap, and
gives the apron the necessary flexibility.
The apron is gene rally supported by two chains, sometimes three in very wide milis.
Power
The mean power absorbed by the cane carrier eonsists of two terms:
(a) The power necessary to overcome friction. It has the value:
p¡ = (Q + K) f + Kj' UA p = (Q + K)f + Kj' UA) (2.9)

60 x 75 ( ¡ 60 x 550
POWER 25
Pi = power necessary to overcome friction, in h.p.

Q = weight of cane on the carrier .. in kg (lb.)
K = weight of the upper run of the conveyor, in kg (lb.)
= weight of the lower run
= half the total weight of the moving part of the carrier
J = coefficient of friction of the upper run, of the order of 0.30
J = coefficient of rolling frictiOll of the lower run, of ¡he order of 0.15
u = speed of the conveyor, in m / min (ft .lmin)
A '= coefficient of the order of lA - 1.5, allowing for the efficiency of the gearing transmit-
ting the drive.
The values given for Jand f' take into account al! sources of friction, as well as allowing
for a certain propon ion of rollers which do not rotate, or do not rotate freely. They also
allow for the difference between the rolling friction of the upper run, on all the rollers, and
the lower run, on loose pulle ys of large diameter. If the upper run slides, instead of working
on rollers, il would be necessary to takeJ = 0.60. The theoretical coefficient for rolling fric-
tion isO.15.
The coefficients 0.30 and 0.15 take into account the inclined portion of the carrier, which
theoretically should be calculated separately, taking into account the cosine and sine of the
angle of inclination. However, the margin of error in the coefficients of friction makes it
superfluous to introduce this refinemenl.
The term:
(Q + K)Ju Q + K)JU)
60 x 75 ( 60 x 550
represents the friction of the upper run under load.

The term:
K!'u K! '11 )
60 x 75 ( 60 x 550
that of the lower run, empty.

Also, we have:
(2.10)
Zc = loaded length of the carrier, in m (fL) '

(for safety we take the full length of the apron)
L = width of the carrier, in m (fl.)
h = thickness of the cane layer on the carrier, in m (fl.)
d = bulk density of the cane on the carrier (eI eqn. (204)
h = is given by eqn. (2.5). •
We have also more simply:
26 THE CANE CARRlER Ch. 2
1,000 AZc = 2,240 AZc')

Q= (Q , 60 u (2.11)
60 u
On the other hand:
Z¡
K = - (2 p + p ') (2.12)
2
Z¡ = total length of the carrier apron, in m (ft.)

p = weight per unit length of the actual chain, in kg/m (lb./ft.) (we ássume the slats are'
carried by 2 chains)
p' = weight of the apron (or slats) per unit length of the carrier, in kg/ m (lb./ft.)
We shall take:
p = 18 - 30 kg/m (12 - 20 Ib./ ft.) according lo the type of chain
p' = 32 - 40 kg/m per m of width (i.e. 8 - 10 kg/m') (8 - 10 Ib./sq. ft.) for sleel slats. Hence,
(48 - 60 Ib ./ ft. length) for a 2 m (6 ft.) carrier.
(b) The power Pe necessary to elevate the cane:
1,000 AH ~ 2,240 AH ~)
Pe = (2.13)
3,600 X 75 3,600 X 550
Pe = power necessary to elevate the can e , in h. p.

A = crushing rate of the milis, in I.c.h.
H = difference in height between the highest part of the carrier, aboye Ihe crusher, and the
horizontal part of the carrier in the yard, in m (ft.)
~ = coefficient depending on the efficiency of the gearing, varying from 1.4 to 1.5.
Finally:
P = mean total power absorbed by the carrier, in h.p.

Roughly, we may reckon, as a firsl approximation,
3 Z¡ + A
P 20 h.p. (p = Z¡ 1: A h.P.) (2.14)
Z¡ = total length of the carrier, in m (ft.)

A = crushing rate of the milis, in I.c.h.
The installed power should be appreciably higher, say:
3 Z¡ + A
Pi = --:-:-- h. p.
10
h = Z¡ 1: A h.P.) (2.15)
CARRIER DRIVE 27
."
Carrler drive
'r~'''''''"" ...,.t.JI("f
The cane carrier is always driven indepli"ndently', by electric motor. As this is essentially a
cons[ant-speed machine, and the carrier speed must be rrequently varied, the drive is effected
through a variable-speed coupler.
Variable-speed coupling using Foucault currenL Some organisations, particularly [he firm
01' "Heenan and Froude" in England, supply couplings which may be interposed belween
the motor and the driven gears, permitting a very progressive and flexible speed varialion of
the driven shaft from O to 100070. This drive has already been mentioned in connection wilh
the drive for lateral tables (p. 17). A flywheel, driven by the electric motor, turns freely in-
side a sleeve. The latter. by means 01' gears or bells, drives the shafl at the head 01' lhe carrier.
By means of a suitable control, aCluated by a knurled knob or a hand wheel, Foucault cur-
rents can be induced in the flywheel, and their intensity varied at will. As these currents are
increased, the drive belween flywheel and sleeve becomes more and more positive. Thus any
desired dcgree 01' slip can be obtained between lhese two elemenls, and consequenlly any
desired speed 01' the driven sharl.
This melhod is neal and flexible; its cosl is not excessive. It may be employed, nOl only
ror driving lhe can e carrier, but also for lateral lables and auxiliary carriers. In addition lO
hand control, Ihe coupling may be controlled by an eleclric mOlor, e.g., by one phase of lhe
knife molor. In lhis way, the speed 01' the carrier is aUlomalically reduced when the knives
are loaded, and increased in the opposite case; this serves to avoid chokes at the knives and
10 assure a regular feed to the milis.
In place of electrical control, speed variation may be effected by hydraulic motor (see p.
37).
Tension
The free end of the carrier is fitted with an adjustment permitting the tension 01' the conveyor
10 be adjusted. Since the drive is located at the head 01' the carrier, and the resistance to the
movement is produced by the loaded upper run or the carrier, it is the lower run which will
be slack. Ca re is necessary to ensure that this slack is neither too much, nor too little. The
~\
./
Fig. 2.3. EffecI of shape of carrier head. Straight head. Fig. 2.4. Effect of shape of carrier head. Curved head.
-
28 THE CANB CARRIBR Ch. 2
tension moreover need not be great; the lower run is allowed to form fairly pronounced
curves between the idler pulleys.
Form of head of Ihe carrier

The knives sometimes leave a certain proportion of uncut sticks at ¡he bottom of the can e
layer. These sticks form a kind of grating at the bottom of the layer, which supports the chips
and pieces of cut cane and prevents them from falling continuously from the top of the car-
rier.
If the carrier were to termina te abruptly, the inclined portion finishing right at the top
sprockets, the cane reaching the upper end of the carrier in this way would first jut out
beyond the carrier and then fall in batches into the feed hopper of the crusher (Fig. 2.3) or
milI. The feed of the crusher would be irregular, jerky and defective.
To avoid this disadvantage, the head of the carrier is designed with a gradual curve,
tangential to the sloping portion, so that the surface of the carrier becomes first horizontal,
then slopes downwards until it almost reaches the ilngle of repose of cane (or cut pieces of
cane). The cane will continue to fall in batches, but these batches are smaller and more
numerous, and the intervals between them more uniformo The cane may even form a con-
tinuous blanket from the carrier to the crusher (Fig. 2.4) or the milI.
It is necessary therefore to give careful attention to the form of the head of the carrier.
Caoe elevators
When space is restricted, the inclined portion of the cane carrier may be replaced by a cane
elevator. This is a similar piece of equipment, but designed to lift the cane at a much steeper
angle (Fig. 2.5). It operates on cut canes, since the elevator is always located after at least
the first set of knives, and generally after both sets of knives.
The slope may thus be increased up 10 60°. In generalit is maintained between 35 and 40°.
However, aboye 22°, the conveyor is no longer an ordinary carrier and it is desirable to make
provision for preventing slip of the pieces of cane: angle irons, spikes, or hooks placed on
the slats 10 give a positive grip on the caneo
Such elevators have, almost inevitably, the disadvantage described aboye; they end abrupt-
Iy, and it would be difficult to give them a suitable curved form at the topo
Speed. The elevators are generally given a speed of 6 - 10 m/min (18 - 30 ft./min). For
preference, a value will be chosen:
u 0.3-0.5 v (2.16)
/
/
/
Fig. 2.5. Cane elevator.

EQUALlSERS 29
u speed of the elevalOr

v = mean peripheral speed of the milis.
Power. The power required is calculated for elevators as for carriers. Since the inclination
is 110 longer negligible, the lerm Pf in eqn. (2.9) should, however, be multiplied by the cosine
of the angle of elevation and will consequemly be reduced proporlionately,
Equalisers
The term "equaliser" is used to describe an apparatus designed to even out the distribution
of cane on the carrier , and to level the layer of cane lO a certain extent (Fig. 2.6). This must
not be confused with the "leveller", which is a set of knives, and which evens out the layer
of cane while cutting il.
..
Fig. 2.6. Equaliser.
Description, An equaliser consists of a shaft placed across the carrier, carrying curved
arms, and rotating in such a direction that the arms passing nearest the carrier boards move
in the opposite direction lO the latter. Thus the direction of rotation of the equaliser is such
as lO throw lhe can e backwards (Fig. 2.6), whereas the cane knives generally rotate in such
a direction as to throw the pieces of cane forward (Fig. 3.1).
Use. An equaliser is installed when the cane is very tangled on the carrier and when the
levelling knives, set rairly low, would themselves be unable to level the cane adequate!y. The
equaliser is thus a secondary and inexpensive piece of equipment, placed after the knives, and
designed to lighten their duty. lt is not often found since the use of a second set of knives
has beco me general.
Speed. An equaliser should rotate at about 40 - 50 r.p.m.
Clearance. The shaft will be set at such a height that the distance between the ends of the
arms and the carrier slats is slightly less than the height h given by eqn. (2.5), in which d may
be taken as 130 kg/m J (8 Ib .lcu. ft.).
30 THE CANE CARRIER Ch. 2.
- . , ...-
Fig. 2.7. "Auto·cane". Feeler (Edwards Eng. Corp .).
Fig.2.8. "Auto-cane". Drive assembly, with motors, filter, hydraulic !ransmission, speed control and oil reservoir
(Edwards Eng. Carp.).
Power. A motor of power
P 0.15 A (P = 0.2 A) (2.17)
P = power of ¡he driving motor, in kW (h. p.)

A = erushing rate, in l.e. h.
AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF SPEED 31
will generally suffice to cope with the frequent overloads caused by the passage of compact
bundles of can e deposited on the carrier by the crane.
Automatic control of speed

Most factories in recent years have installed their own system for ensuring the regular feed
of cane into the milling plant, or have adopted a system offered with the same object by a
machinery manufacturer.
The best known system for such regularisation of cane feed is the "Autocane", made by
the Edwards Engineering Corporation.
It comprises a detector, a hydraulic motor, and control equipment.
The detector (Fig. 2.7) consists of a number of bars, one end of 'which rests on the layer
of cut cane after the knives, while the other end is pivoted on a shaft and actuates a sleeve
mounted concentrically on that shaft. Variations in the height of the cane layer are thus
registered in and totalised, and furnish a signal which is transmitted to a motor. The latter
drives an oil pUlllp the output ofwhich cJrives a hycJraulic motor which in lurn cJrives the shaft
at the head of the carrier. The speed of the latter is thus maintained inversely proportional
to the thickriess of the layer of cut cane, in such a way that the volume delivered by the carrier
remains constant.
The control equipment allows of adjustment of speed to suit the desired tonnage. This can
be regulated from 25 to 100070 of its maximum capacity.
The detector can be used only on the cut cane after passing through the knives; if a shred-
der is in use, tne'restilt can indeed be better. The power of the electric motor is 8 -16 kW
(12 - 25 h.p:) depending on the capacity of the tandem.
The "Autocane" and similar devices assure a very uniform feed, eliminating the necessity
for an operator placed at the carrier, and leading to a gain in crushing rate, thanks to the
regularity of feed and the elimination of chokes.
•
3. Cane Knives
Object and uses

Knives are not an indispensable item of equipment in the sugar factory, in the sense that it
would be possible to operate without them. Before 1920, many factories did not possess
knives. However, this equipment gives such an improvement in feeding that lOday it is no
longer a question of doing without them. A knife set, for a factory which does not possess
one, would very soon pay for itself.
With whole cane, the attempt at obtaining a completely even feed lO the mili is never really
successful. By placing an "equaliser" (see p. 29) over the carrier, a cane layer of nearly
uniform thickness may be obtained. However, this layer will reach the mili only in successive
lumps, and its small bulk density will render difficult the work of lhe crusher, which consisls,
in short, of "swallowing" as much can e as possible in a given lime.
Furthermore, the metal of the mil! rollers often slips on the smooth, waxy and polished
rind of the cane; hence chokes occur, with short or long interruptions to the feed or a
decrease in crushing rateo The knives, on the other hand, supply the cane in very short and
small pieces. Whereas whole canes lean one against lhe other, arching over and leaving voids
between them, these small pieces settle lOgether inlO a compact mass, which drops easily inro
the feed hopper, and which the crusher will grip withoul trouble and will absorb in a con-
tinuous manner.
Between whole canes and canes which have passed through the knives, there is the same
difference as between a handful of matehes and a handful of sawdust. The difference existing
between these two sta tes of the same material can be readily realised. It is shown in their
respective bulk densities:
Whole canes more or less tangled: 125-150 kg/ m J ( 8- 9Ib./cu.ft.)

Canes passed through knives: .250-300 kg/ m J (15-18 lb./cu.ft.)
The cane knives then perform two functions and have two advantages:
(a) They favour the eapaeity of the milis
(b) They assist the extraetion of the milis by breaking the rind of the cane and so
facilitating its disintegration and lhe extraetion of its juice.
From the point of view of its resistanee to pressure, cane can in faet be compared with
a long cylinder reinforced with transverse dividing walls (the nodes). Aecordingly, it presents
to the mili a resistan ce similar to that of a stick of bamboo, the internodes of which have
been filled with a sugar-bearing pulp (cane is moreover very closely related to bamboo and
successful attempts ha ve been made lO cross these two plants and so obtain hybrids). The
pulp in the interior of these eylinders, whieh lie end lO end, will be more rapidly reeovered
as the cylinders are opened and the dividing walls broken.
DESCRlPTlON 33
'"
However, the value of knives for the two functions described aboye is very unequal:.
(a) From the point of view of capaci/y, nothing can re place them. lf there are no knives
the crusher can only take what it succeeds in gripping out of the light and bulky mass of
whole canes.
(b) From the point of view of ex/rae/ion, on the contrary, the crusher and lhe milis have
precisely lhe objecl of breaking up the cane, and crushing the casing of its rind and the hard
structure of its nodes. It is possibl~ then 10 carry out this function of the knives by good work
at crusher and milis. In particular, the gain obtained from a knife installation from this point
of view is appreciably inferior 10 the gain which one would obtain by the addition of a further
milI.
It is then predominantly to improve /he eapaeily of the milis, that knives are generally in-
stalled.
Chopped caneo The preceding remarks apply to the general case of cane delivered as whole
stalks. If the factory receives all or nearly all of its cane as cut pieces from chopper-
harvester~, the case is very different and .the main reason for using knives disappcars. In
Australia, for example, the cane supply is 100OJo chopper-harvested; the pieces moreover are
elean·cut, straight and free of ragged ends. Australian faclOries take advantage of this and
have completely abandoned knives. The carrier thus delivers the cane direct 10 the shredder,
which beco mes the only preparation device. It is a high-power, heavy-duty machine, since
the chopped cane offers more resistance than normal knife-prepared caneo
Fig. 3. J. Cane knives.
Description
Standard Iype. We show (Fig. 3.1) a standard type of knife installation. lt consists of a
heavy shaft of hexagonal or octagonal section mounted on roller bearings, and on which are
threaded or fixed arms each carrying two blades symmetrically placed with relation to the
shaft.
The second arm is offset 60° relative to the first, if the shaft is hexagonal; the following
one is offset a further 60° and so on. In this way, if there are 36 arms, for example, the knife
installalion will consist of 72 blades distributed in rows of 12 in 6 different axial half-planes
(or 3 planes). In order to reduce the pitch and increase the number of cutting planes, lhe arms
34 CANE KNIVES Ch. 3
carrying the knives are so fabricated that the two blades on each arm rota te in two different
planes separated by half a pitch. This doubles the number of cutting planes.
Viewed from the front, the 72 blades then rotate in 72 planes perpendicular 10 the axis,
or so-called "cutting planes", consisting of so many circles of rotation.
The term "pitch" of knives is the mean distance, measured parallel 10 the axis, separating
two successive circles of rotation.
The knife blades are removable, so that they can be easily taken off for resharpening or
for replacement by another set of blades.
It is preferable 10 fix a knife 10 the arm in such a way that the edge affected by shocks
is supported by a flange or a wide stirrup rather than fixing it so that shocks are absorbed
by the bolts or pins securing the knife. In the lalter case, the bolt hole becomes ovalised and
sorne play develops, accentuating the effect of shocks; the hole thus forms a section of
weakness in the knife, leading 10 breakage.
Other designs. Apart from Ihis standard type, certain manufacIurers have introduced
various modifications of delail, lhe principal ones of which have lhe objects of:
(1) Prolonging the working Jife of the blades by diminishing wear of the cutting edge.
(2) Producing a self-sharpening effect of the knives on the trailing edge, and so rendering
them reversible (Figs. 3.2 and 3.3).
(3) Avoiding reduction of the length of the blades with wear.
With the Mirrlees - Watson bent or hoe knife, not only does the radius of action remain
constant with wear, but one also obtains the effect of a transverse cut due to the bent end
of the knife (Fig. 3.4); and this transverse cut is superimposed on the longitudinal cut made
by the radial part of the knife.
(4) Diminishing or reducing the consequences of shocks, by mounting the knives so as 10
swing on a pin, obtaining at the same time a slight displacement of the cutting points (Fig.
3.5).
Fig. 3.2. Knife sel wilh Iwin reversible blades (Fives Cail- Babcock). Fig. 3.3. Reversible blaúe.
EFFECT ON CANE CARRIER 35
."
11
iI
"fig , 3.4. Mirrless "Hoe" knife .
Fig. 3.5. Swinging kni ves.
[ 1\., 1k'J ~
~
T ,JT 1,.-
. ~ -
_L
1
._ .
~
~~
.lit I
'1 1 I
1I ,1
",-'
'·í" , \
,1' :1,
I
J- :r :,
,1 [JI
.,.,,
.-'
f ~)
1I ,1
j.1 1I
\
1
'1
1
~ ji
n ~ w W W
. _.~ ___ ._ ._ .__._ ._. _ _ .___1.__.__ ._
I .L
Fig. 3.6. Knire dei ve by electrie motor (Fives Cail- Babeoek).
Effect on cane carrier

Cane carriers were previousiy furni shed with wooden slats. It is Ihe adoption of knives which
has necessitated the provision of steel slats, since the wooden boards would be damaged
under the knives, and chips of can e wouid pass through the spaces between the carrier
boards.
Even with steel slals, it is necessary to reinforce the carrier where it passes under the knives;
a reinforcing beam is placed under each rail supporling the carrier chains, and an angle iron
support under the ends of the carrier slats .
Melhods of drive
Knives may be driven by two different sources o f power:
(1) Electric mot or
(2) Steam turbine .
•
10
I . 8
. I
L~
Coupe A
corte A
,'
, ,'
,
,,
,
;-----_. _.-; :
,
,
,
,'
--
c.J---t-.Li' ... !. .L ........
l'
,l ',
,'
,'
l'
_ .. .L, J'........
"" ,
3
J -- -- -- -- ----
__ --
----1 o,,
........ I
Fig. 3.7. Knife drive by steam turbine.
(1) Eleetrie drive is effeeted by a wound rotor induetion motor with slip-rings and with
or without provision for lifting the brushes (Fig. 3.6).
(2) Drive by steam turbine is the most attraetive (Fig. 3.7). lt permits sorne degree ofspeed
variation, but is expensive, as the eost of the turbine sometimes exeeeds twiee that of the elee-
trie motor. Moreover, it neeessitates either a speeial attendant or at least par ti al supervision,
and it does not warrant eonsideration exeept for large tandems aboye 150 Le.h.
As regards transmission of the drive, we may distinguish: (a) belt drive, (b) direet drive
through a flexible eoupling.
-=
NUMBER OF BLADES 37
'"
(a) Bel[ drive originally had the prime object of avoiding too drastic shocks on the knives;
in case of an overload, [he belt would come off. Actually this advantage is very slight and
it is some[imes jusI as much [rouble [O have [O re place the belt which has come off, as t6
replace a broken knife blade. In any case, if it is a matter of a piece of tramp iron passing
through with the can e the belt comes off but, generally, [he knife is broken just the same.
The only advantage is that, having stopped the mili, the knife and the piece 01' iron can be
more easily recovered; or indeed t'he driver 01' the crusher is alerted and is more likely to see
them drop into t he feed hopper.
Fig. 3.8. Flexible coupling .
(b) In modern practice the preference is generally for direct drive through a flexible coupl-
ing (Fig. 3.8). The knife assembly is connected directly to lhe motor shaft by lhe simpleinter-
position of a device which is relatively flexible and consists 01' a cord or rope laced alternately
be[ween pins or studs fixed in two discs, the driving disc being attached to the motor, the
driven disc [O [he shaft assembly of the knives. This arrangement is much simpler and more
economical. and gives every satisfaction, provided lhat the motor is suffciently powerful.
Belt drive is now retained only for connecting two adjacent sets of knives.
Pílch of knives
We have already seen that the pitch 01' the knives is the interval separating the circles of rota-
tion or the cutting planes of two adjacent blades.
Generally,2 or 3 sets 01' knives are installed, the first of 50 mm (2 in.) pitch, lhe second
(and third) of 20 - 22 mm (just below 1 in.).
Number of blades
The pitch fixes the number of blades. In the case where each knife turns in a different plane
we have:
L
N = - - 1 (3.1 )
p
N = number of knives
L width of carrier, in cm (in.)
p = pitch 01' knives, in cm (in.).
- -
38 CANE KNIVES Ch.3
Fig. 3.9. Clearance or knives.
When eqn. (3. I) gives an odd number for N, the even number immediately lower is always
adopted; the interval between the extreme blades and the sides of the carrier will then be
greater than the pitch.
Clearance
The c1earance of a knife set is the distance r belween lhe circle described by lhe eXlremity
of lhe knives and the plane passing lhrough lhe highest portions of the carrier apron (Fig.
3.9) .
The c1earance is an important factor in lhe operation of a knife se!. On il depends the pro-
portion of cane cut and consequently, to sorne extent, the efficiency of lhe knives.
The clearance may be adjusled by raising or lowering bodily the sleel frame supporting the
carrier below lhe knives. However, it is preferable to adjust it by moving the knives and lheir
driving motor on horizontal slides . Since the knives are placed (precisely with this object) on
the inclined portion of the carrier, the clearance can thus be set at will to the desired value.
Clearance may al so be adjusted by placing packing picces under lhe knives and motor.
Proportion of cane nol cul

This is immediately obtained:
r X 100 (3.2)
h
= weight
of uncut cane, % of weight treated
r = clearance of knives, in mm (in.)
h = height of cane layer, in mm (in.).
Remember that h is given in m (fl.) by eqn. (2.4):
PROPORTION OF CANE NOT CUT 39
h
1,000 A
60 uLd (h = ~,240
60 uLd
A) (3.3)
A crushing rate of milis, in I.c.h.

u = speed of carrier, in m/min (ft./min)
L = width of carrier, in m (ft.)
d bulk density of cane fed to.the knives, in kg/m J (lb.lcu.ft.):
d 150 kg/m J ( 9 Ib.lcu.ft.) (tangled cane)

d = 175 kg/m J (11 lb./cu.ft.) (parallel cane)
d 300 kg/m J (18 Ib.lcu.ft.) (cut cane, in the case of 2nd knife set).
These values of d should be somewhat higher than those indicated by eqn. (2.4) since it
is actually a question of the density of cane as it pass es through the knives, and since the
knives, as they strike the cane, pack the cane to sorne extent on the apron of the carrier.
The proportion of cane cut is obviously:
K = 100 - (3.4)
100
jt is not easy to determine accurately the mean speed u for the cane carrier. The best way
is 10 measure the total length of the carrier apron, to mark with paint one link or one slat,
and to determine the time for this link to return to a given point, for exampJe the head of
the carrier, opposite a mark made for this purpose. lf the total length of the apron is Z/,
and if the marked slat takes t minutes to complete its course, the average speed will be:
Z
u = ~ m/min (ft./min) (3.5)
t
lt will be advisable to take the mean of 3, 5 or 10 complete cycles of the carrier.
Direction of rotation
The almost universal practice is to arrange the knives 10 rotate in such a manner that the
knives al the lowest part of their rotation will move in lhe direction corresponding to the
Illovement 01' the carrier (Figs. 3.1 and 3.9). However, sorne factories arrange for one or
sometimes both sets of knives to rotate in the inverse direction. This is not always easily done;
it augments the cutting effect on the can e but at the same time increases the power re-
quirements. The knives should always be installed either at a high clearance or in such a way
as to lhrow the pieces of cut cane upwards.
Knife blades
Knife blades should be in special sleel. FCB supplies them in steel of type 55 SCD 8 with
C - Si - Mn - Cr - Mo, heated, tempered and hardened, with Brinell hardness 01' 360/400
40 CANE KNlVES Ch.3
HB. When the knives are subject to wear due to sand and stone, carbon steel XC 32 may
be used; this can be resurfaced in place by application of tungsten or stellite.
BalancJng. A set of knives must be well balanced. In order to avoid lack of balance when
the knives are reassembled , at the beginning of a season or after re-sharpening, it is necessary
to weigh the blades and replace them in pairs such that on each arm carrying two opposed
blades, the weight of these blades is practically equal. In the same way, when a knife has lo
be replaced, IWO opposite blades should be removed, and replaced by two new or used blades,
of equal weight.
Maintenance. A mechanic should be detaiJed and charged with the job of inspecling Ihe
knife sel every week al Ihe time of the weekly shut-down, in order to check whelher Ihere
are any loose bolts, or loose, ovalised or cracked knives which should be changed.
Method of utilising knives

MaxweJl' distinguishes two types of knives, according 10 Ihe role which is demanded of them:
(a) The leveller knives which are required mainly 10 even out the layer of caneo They are
arranged to work with a high clearance. and in consequence leave a large proportion of uncut
cane.
(b) The cutting knives. This second effecI is soughl only when IWO sets of knives are in-
stalJed: the first, at Ihe bottom of the sloping portion of Ihe carrier, would play the role of
levellers, the second, immediately after the first or at the head of Ihe carrier, would then have
the function of finishing Ihe complete disintegration of the cane, and would be used at a very
small clearance (Fig. 3.10).
This distinction, we fear, is somewhat artificial. A single set of knives performs a task con-
siderably more importanl Ihan simple levelling of the cane layer. It "minces" the cane into
small pieces which cover up and fill in the gaps in the feed and so improve the feeding of
the crusher. Many single sets of knives are employed, with such a clearance that they are in
reality cutting knives. However, the general practice is to install at least two sets of knives.
Final/y, we consider that the aboye dislinction has no significance except when it is a mat-
ler of describing the effective roles of two sets of cane knives working on Ihe same carrier.
JI is then rather appropriate.
2 nd Knife set
Fig. 3.10. Installation of two seIs of knives .

KNlFE BLADES 41
The second knlfe set. We have seen the great value of a set of knives, on aeeount of its
favourable influence on the feeding and the capacity of the mills. To obtain the full effect
desired, it is necessary to have two sets of knives at least. One set cannot reduce the thickness
of lhe cane layer sufficiently nor can it cut the cane sufficiently fine . This action is achieved
by the second set of knives, which cuts the lower layer which the first set has not touched,
and delivers the cut cane in smaller and thinner pieces. The second set thus Facilitating the
feeding of the milis:
(1) From the point of view of extraction, according to several tests, the gain obtained by
a second set is found to be small and difficult to detecl.
(2) From the point of view of capacity, its effect is much more definite, although obvious-
Iy appreciably less than that of the firstset. We can reckon approximately:
Withoul knives Wilh 1 set Wilh 2 seIs

Relative capacities I 1.15 1.20
In other words, the first set of knives gives a gain of approximately 150/0, the second adds
another 4 or 5%. This is indeed much less but, taking into account the costs of purchase and
upkeep of a knife set, it is still ver y profitable. The second set is particularly use fui with a
short tandem, since it is then desirable to present to the mills pieces of cane as .finely divided
as possible, in such a way as to enable the earlier mills to obtain the maximum extraction.
11 is with tandems of 5 milis (say 15 rollers) or more that Maxwell' advised against a second
set; he consideredon the contrary that with 4 milis (12 rollers) and less, the second sel could
be useful. We think that if his comments, daling from 1932, had been written 30 years later,
his conclusion would have been different and two sets of knives would have been recom-
mended in all cases.
The third knife seto lt is di fficult to assess the gain in capacity achieved by a third set of
knives. 11 could perhaps be expressed by inserting a coefficient of 1.22 in the aboye formula
for capacity. It is certainly a small gain only, but a third knife set is fairly widely used. lt
completes the work of preparation and permits attaining a better index of preparation (ef.
p. 61). Cane preparation today is considered so important that the installation of a third
set of knives does not completely rule out the addition of a shredder as the fourth preparatory
device.
The shredder, however, has one advantage over knives. In countries where numerous
stones occur in fields and mechanical loading allows them to arrive at the mill, they cause
much less damage to the shredder than to the knives. However, the knives are unfortunately
¡he first in line, and receive all the stones which have escaped the means of detection and
so suffer considerably. The first knives thus deteet the stone, the carrier is stopped, the
following knives and shredder are protected, but several blades have been damaged and ti:lese
accidents are ver y expensive, owing to the stoppage, the loss of time and the 10ss of knife
blades.
It is thus very important to take all possible measures to detect stones before the first set
of knives. The factory of Bois-Rouge, in Réunion, which crushes at 100 I.c.h., has 3 sets of
knives, arranged and driven as follows:
Knilles Number 01 Piten Speed elearanee Nominal power Mean power absorbed
blades (mm) (in.) (r.p .m .) (mm) (in .) (kW) (h.p.) (kW) (h p .)
151 32 50 2 480 305 12 130 175 55 75

2nd 32 50 2 480 10 1 130 175 75 100
3rd 80 22
, 640 6.5
•
I
255 340 90 120
i 1
The value of the third set is debatable: it does not give an appreciable gain in capacity,
but its supporters assert that it assures that a high extraction can be regularly maintained.
lts effect is often compared with that of a shredder. It would be particularly indicated in the
case of extraction by diffusion, as the mass of chips furnished by 3 sets of knives permits
of a better circulation of liquid than the mattress furnished by 2 sets of kni ves and a shredder.
Speed of rotation
The speed of rotation of a knife set varies from 400 to 720 r.p.m. The speed most frequently
used is 500 r.p .m . In South Africa l it varies from 500 to 700, with an average of 600 r.p.m.
The firm of Fletcher considers that the optimum speed lies between 500 and 600 r.p.m . ,
and that higher speeds give scarcely any better result s while, on the other hand, one orotwo
broken blades can put the set badly out of balance and cause more serious damage with
higher speeds.
In certain countries the speed has been pushed up as far as 1200 r.p.m. lt ma y be con-
sidered that this would give very fine preparation , but at such speeds wear on the blades must
be ver y rapid, power consumed must be considerable and accidents would be more serious.
We recommend 500 r.p.m. for the first set and 600 r.p.m. for the second, while agreeing
that if, for the sake of uniformity, it is preferred to adopt the same speed for both, there
would be little disadvantage in doing so.
Power
General considerations. The average power absorbed by a set of knives depends on:
(I) The tonnage of cane
(2) The fibre in the can e
(3) The nature of the fibre, whether more or less resistant
(4) The proportion of cane actually cut - that is, on the clearance
(5) The number of blades
(6) The speed of rotation
(7) The radius of the cutting cirele
(8) Diverse variable factors: friction, lubrication, knives more or less worn.
These lalter factors cannot be measured accurately and it is scarcely easier to take into ac-
count t he fir st three factors, although they are measurable, since their influence is variable
an d ["Jro blematical. The number of blades in particular seems paradoxically to have little in-
t'luence. Nicklin' in Au stralia cites a set of 70 blades which, in analogous condilions, co nsum-
ed less power per tonne of cane than another set with 36 blades. Consequenlly we shaJl be
POWER 43
comem with relating the power to the tonnage, which remains lhe most importam factor.
While sometimes expressed in terms of Lc.h., il is only the fibre rale (I.f.h.) thal is releva nt.
More recenll y, Australian workers' have found a very marked differen ce between thé
power necessary when the canes are delivered in pieces furnished by a chopper-harvester,
relalive lO lhe power normall y required for whole canes. This differen ce is obviously more
marked for the first sel of knives than for lhe second. They give lhe figures shown in Table
3.1.
TABLE 3. 1.
POWER CONSU MPTION Of KNIVES (QU6ENSLAND)
Whole cane Chopped cane
1st set 0 .75 (1) 3.2 (4.2) 1.8 (2.4) 0.33 (004) 0.75 (1) 0045 (0.6)
2nd Sel 0.82 (1.1) 3.3 (4.4) 1.9 (2.5) 0.45 (0.6) t.2 (1.6) 0.60 (0.9)
Pm = mean power absorbed. in kW/l.c.h. (in brackcls. in h. p./ I. c.h.)

Pu = maxi mum peak power, in kW/t.c.h. (h.p.lt.c.h.)
P; = power lo be inslalled, in kWIi.c.h. (h.p ./t.c. h.).
This table is based on lhe principIe lhat an electric motor can furnish for 15 seconds a
power equal to 1.7 times it s nominal power.
Farrell, in 1971, gave figures for power asshown in Fig. 3.11 for eIectric mOlorS to be in-
KW
1000
900 ñ~~
<!- '¡; •
800 (0<' ~
700 ~I''''
~..p
1.0
(0(0
(0.
«\\. e" &/

~"
'!>:¿o
600
500 /
V yP
,/
400 / V
300
Y ./
/'
V /'
200 ./
V
100 ./
o
O 100 200 300 400 500 t.eA
Fig. 3.11. Knife absorbed power (Farrel).
staIJed for driving knives at 600 r.p.m. The upper line in the graph is applicable for knives
of 20 - 22 mm G-. in.) pitch at a setting of 25 mm (1 in.); the lower line for knives of
38 - 50 mm (1 t - 2 in.) pitch, set at 150 - 200 mm (6 - 8 in.). If the knife set is driven by a
steam turbine, Farrell advises providing a turbine of nominal power .33070 higher than that
indicated for the electric motor. He recommends a rotational speed of 3,600 r.p.m., with
6 - I reduction gear and power 50% aboye the indicated power requirements.
Farrell's lower curve (for leveller knives) stitl remains appropriate for the present day; it
allows for motors as generally provided. However, techique has developed since 1971 and,
for shredding knives, has led to much higher power requirements.
A good example is given by South African practice. Table 3.2 gives the power installed
for knives in that country. The figures are in kW/t.f.h. and are derived from the mean of
22 tandems; extreme values are indicated in brackets. Power consumed is of the order of 60%
of the mean power installed.
TABLE 3.2
POW ER INSTAllED FOR CANE-KNIVES, IN kW/t.f.h.
Me/hod 01 opera/ion 1st kni ves 2nd knives 3rd knives
Operating as levellers 7 ( 3-15)

Levellers in reverse rotation 10 ( 7 - 14)
Working as shredder 20 (14 - 30) 20 (10-40) 12(9-1 8)
Shredder in reverse rotation 24 (20- 30) 40 (30 -70) 16 (14-19)
Influence of c1earance. We have someiimes found that factory employees have the impres-
sion that by diminishing the clearance by half, passing for example from 10 cm to 5 cm, one
would double the necessary power. But, as we have just seen, the clearance is concerned onl y
as it affects the depth by which the knives plunge into the layer of cane. If this depth is 0 .65
m (2 ft.), a c1earance ofO.15 m (6 in.) (h - r = 0.5 m) will require a power only 50% greater
than a clearance of 0.30 m (12 in.) (h - r = 0.35 m) .
Effect of wear. In proportion as the blades become worn, the power consumption in-
creases . It has been found in Australia 6 for knives which had been sharpened on Sunday,
an increase of 11 - 17% in power consumplion between Monday and Friday.
Variations in power. It is necessary merely to stand alongside an electrically driven knife

set furnished with an ammeter in order to see the continual and fierce variations in the power
consumpiion of such a set.
The mean value which we have given corresponds to the sum of instantaneous values rang-
ing from a little more than half to more than double, according to the density of loading of
the portion of the carrier arriving at the knives. A bundle of parallel canes would cause the
circuit breaker to function if the crane were to deposit such a bundle directly into the carrier.
Automatic regulation of carrier speed. In order to avoid:

(a) The disadvantages of an excessive variation in rate of cane arriving at the knives
-"=sr-
CLEARANCES FOR TWO KNIFE SETS 45
(b) Irregulari¡y in feeding of ¡he milis

(el Chokes a! !he knives and s!oppages involved for clearing ¡hese
Mos! factories interpose a coupler of !he "Heenan and Froude" ¡ype be!ween !he carrier and
ilS driving motor (cf. p. 27) and actuate the coupler by means of one phase of lhe motOr driv-
ing the first set of knives, for example. With this arrangement, the carrier slows down when
the knives are overloaded, and this allows more time to treat the heavily loaded pile of cane,
and evens out the distribution of,the cut cane on the carrier. The overload on the second set
of knives is much lower and this in turn is evened out.
When two sets of knives are installed, it will be satisfactory to provide for each of these
an iñstalled power equal to approximately f of the preceding values ..
However, many factories tend to install a second set of knives much more powerful than
the firs!, lhe power of the motors being for example in lhe proportion of 2 to 3. The tOlal
power in such cases is not always designed to be different from the foregoing, and is main-
lained equal to double the value given aboye. Everything depends on the duty demanded of
each 01' tltese two sets; a very powerful se¡;ond set call well recover or compclIsate for the
inadequate work of a first set which is old, slow or has only a small number of blades. The
opposite is sometimes seen, the major part of the work sough! being ob!ained by the firs! set.
Drive lo adjacenl knife seIs. The lWO sets of knives may be connected by a belt, provided
of course lhat the pulley sizes correspond to the respective speeds of the lWO ' motors. This
arrangemenl, which is logical, allows lhe two motors to assiSl each other when one or lhe
olher is overloaded; al the same lime it allows the total power provided for lhe twO mOlorS
lO be reduced by perhaps 25"70. I! may be employed wherever !he distance bClween the two
sets of knives permits. Both sets of knives in fact may be driven from a single motor directly
coupled to one se!.
Such an installation thus provides great flexibility. The nominal. power of the two motors
may well be reduced to 7.5 and 12 kW / t.f.h. (10 and 15 h.p./t.f.h.) respectively, with littte
adverse affect on the results sought. To be able to drive the knives in this way, it is advisable
Iha!, even with V-belt drives, the distance between the shafts of the two sets should not be
more than 4.25 m (14 ft.) or preferably 3.6 m (12 ft.). lt is also recommended that the two
mo!ors be of the same type and naturally of the same speed, otherwise the amount of slip
would be differenl. 1t is also recommended in Australia' that the ratio of ¡he power of the
first motor lO that of the second should be between 0.8 and 1.0 if the load on the belt is to
be as low as possible.
Clearances for Iwo knife seIs

The case of two sets of knives is by far the commonest. The firs! se! is then given a high
clearance and, for this role of leveller, knives of fairly high pitch are provided: generally 50
mm (2 in.), with a small number of blades; it is driven at 500 r.p. m., sometimes 600.
The second set on the other hand is very close to the carrier, for example, with a clearance
of 50 mm (2 in.), more often 25 mm (1 in.) or even as low as 10 mm (¡ in.). It may be driven
at 500 r.p.m., more often at 600, sometimes at 750 r.p.m. 1t has a greater number of blades,
the pitch being as low as 25 mm (1 in.) and even 22 mm (t in.).
The clearance adopted for the first set should be approximately one-quarter of the height
of the layer of cane o
46 CANE KNIYES Ch. 3
Bulk density of eane prepared by knives

The bulk density of cane after passing through two sets of knives is given by Kerr' as being
of the order of 480 kg/m J (30 Ib./cu.ft.); this value corresponds to an excellent degree of
preparation. In Réunion, it is only of the order of 320 kg/m J (20 Ib./cu.ft.).
Ducasse knives
Among the interesting devices for cane preparation, Ducasse knives are worthy of mention
(Fig. 3.(2). This equipment consists of a shaft carrying discs or bosses to which knife blades
are fixed, each by three bolts; this shaft is enclosed in a casing and rotates at 580 - 1000
r.p.m. The knife set is located at the top of the cane carrier and arranged so that the plane
of the conveyor bringing the cane (or chips of can e cut by a preceding leveller) is tangential
to the circle of cut of the blades. The direction of rotation of the assembly is su eh that the
blades pass upwards through the bed of cane on the carrier; they thus throw the cut pieces
toward the roof of the casing. They strike an inclined plate which is prolonged to a toothed
anvil set very close to the circle of cut, 35 mm otin.) at entry, 10 mm <i in.) at delivery.
The knives force the pieces through this narrow passage and are furnished with plates which
act as hammers and so add a shredding action to their cutting action. The inventor of this
equipment has called it a chopper-fiberiser. Power installed is approximately 9 kW /1. f.h. 0·2
h.p./t. f.h.).
Ducasse has also developed a knife set in which the knives are mounted on stout pins, on
which they can oscillate freely about a vertical plane; thus they suffer much less damage due
lO slOnes or other foreign bodies. This type of knife presents two advantages:
Fig. 3.12. Ducasse knives - operating principie.

MECHANICAL LOADINO AND STONES 47
(a) The free oscillation permitted for the blades forms a valuable proleclion againsl lhe
effects of damage due to stones
(b) The size of the pins assures a long life and much less wear than in lhe slandard modeIs.
Mechanical loading and slones

With the mechanisalion of cane growing, the lradilional hand cUlting of cane has been
replaced in many counlries by mec!;¡anical harvesting, and is progressively being replaced in
other countries. This development has led to the use of chopper-harvesters which cul the cane
inlo short sections which are transported to the factory by tipping trucks or trucks with other
types of mechanical unloading. This method óf harvesting presents great risk of deterioration
of t he chopped cane: t he cane should go to the milis as rapidly as possible, preferably in 2 - 6
hours afler cUlting, otherwise there will be considerable losses of sugar. The chopped cane
may conlain 10pS and leaves bUl ¡hese do not include any hard material. Unfortunately, on
account 01' the costs of chopper-harvesters, inlroduclion of mechanisalion generally com<
prises an intermediate phase between manual and chopper-harvesting, which consists of plac-
ing the canes in piles on the ground and picking them up by conveyor-elevators or other
machines such as rakes or grabs. This method of harvesting presents the grave disadvanlage
of sending lO the factory, among such bundles of cane picked up, stones and sometimes rocks
of sorne 30 - 40 kg (70 - 90 lb.) in weight (one factory in Ha waii has even thus ~icked up a
pig, somewhal mutilated, which was detected and taken out only seconds before the first set
of knives). These rocks, if not detected befare passing to the knives, have a disastrous effect
on the lalter: knives are damaged or broken, somelimes knife holders similarly, knife shafts
are bent, and the pieces of knives nOl removed on reaching the milis may damage the groov-
ing of the rollers.
It is therefore desirable, if possible, to avoid picking up stones with the cane, and the only
sure method of doing this is the careful and complete removal of stones in the field; and then
those which persist into the factory must be detected in time. One such method is to tip the
cane into a pit from which it is removed by an elevator, set at a steep slope, which feeds the
carrier. The Cameco organisation has adopted 28.5°; others use 35°, and our recommenda-
tion is 30°. Conveyor chains with hooks altached and spaced at about 60 cm (2 fl.) pick up
the cane from the pit, take it up the slope, and deliver it into the carrier. The slones, being
heavier, remain at the bottom, or roll or slide down the slope. The accumulated stones are
removed from the pit once or twice a day according to the quantity.
It is sometimes considered sufficient to use an ordinary lateral conveyor which drops the
cane onto a steel plate inclined at 40 or 45°, from which the cane falls onto the carrier. A
stone falling from the height of sorne 2 m (6 fl.) onto this plate produces a characteristic
bang: the conveyor and the carrier are then stopped and then the stone removed. For a more
positive arrangement, a microphone may be placed below lhe plale and connected lO an
amplifier, so that aboye a certain sound intensity, an alarm is set off.
Without such precautions, factories working at the stage of pusher-Ioading of cane can
suffer a very unfortunate season; we may quote one case of 45 hours' stoppage due to this
cause only in the course of one season, with more than 200 blades broken and almost lOO
bent.
-
48 CANE KNIYES Ch. 3
REFERENCES
1 F, MAXWELL, Modern Milllng 01 Sugar Cane, Norman Rodger, Landan, 1932, p, 60,
2 F, MAXWELL, op, cit" p, 127,
3 J , H , G . ROYSTON, In/. Sugar j" 50 (1948) 14.
4 J. H, N'CKL'N, Proe, 341h Con!, QSSCT, 1967, p . 174.
5 J, H, N'CKL'N, Proe. 341h Con/. QSSCT, /967, p . 180.
6 Macka y [nsl. of Milling Engineers, Proe. 31s1 Con!. QSSCT, /964, p. 78.
7 Mackay [nsl. of M illing Engineers, Proe, 31s1 Con!, QSSCT, 1964, p, 79,
8 H, W , KEaa, Canference in Mauritius, Sep'ember 1957.
4. Tramp-Iron Separators
Generally, no strict account is kept of the number or weight of pieces of steel and cast iron
which pass through a milI in the course of a season.
The commonest objects are: pieces of knife-blades, sling-hooks, broken pieces of slings,
monkey wrenches, horse-shoes, bolts and nuts. Pieces of cast iron or special steel are the
most dangerous. Sometimes, the engine-dtiver at the milis hears the noise made by the piece
of iron falling into the feed hopper, or the abnormal noise of the crusher or first mili. The
mili is then stopped, the foreign body found and removed.
Whether it is detected in time or not, but especially in the latter case, such incidents are
expensive. In particular, when contemplating the destruction of a certain length of roller
grooving, one may estimate the 1055 suffered by calculating the value of 1.5 mm (~ in.) of
thickness or of a cubic centimetre of roller metal. The rollers are often turned down during
the slack season to restore their grooving, and in this operation several sixteenths in diameter
are lost - this 1055 being added to that due to normal wear. It is necessary to take deeper
cuts when the roller surface has been more severely damaged.
To avoid such damage and losses, efforts are made to eliminate the pieces of "tramp
iron". The amount of tramp iron may be reduced by taking precautions in the loading and
unloading of the cane, by insisting on strict tidiness at the cane platform, and by supervising
Fig. 4.1. Suspended magnelic separalor.

50 TRAMP-IRON SEPARATORS Ch. 4
the tightening of bolts at the carrier and the knives. But the best guarantee lies in the installa-
tion of a magnetic separator, generally known as a "tramp-iron separator".
Description
Originally, magnetic separators too k the form of electromagnets fixed on the bottom of the
feed chute to the first mili, or constructed in the form of a rotating cylinder projecting into
that chute. These devices had some disadvantages and were not effective.
The device now recommended consists of an electromagnet contained inside a rectangular
box suspended aboye the last cane conveyor before the entry to the first mili, and covering
the full width of the conveyor (Fig. 4.1). This is generally a rubber band conveyor and should
run at a minimum speed of 1.20 mis (4 ft./s), preferably 2 mis (6 ft.ls); thus the pieces of
cane will form a thin layer less than 140 mm (5¡ in.) in thickness, preferably 50 - 100 mm
(2 - 4 in.). It is advisable to arrange for the conveyor to pass closely over a supporting flat
plate, to avoid sagging of the conveyor. The box holding the magnet should be al mosl 400
mm (16 in.) aboye the surface of the conveyor, preferably 250-300 mm (10-12 in.).
This device consumes about 7 k W (9 h.p.) and has an efficiency of 80 - 90070, nearly 100070
as far as large pieces of iron are concerned. We have known this type of separator to pick
up from the cane carrier a knife holder with its two blades, weighing 70 kg (155 lb.). It may
be reckoned that the magnetic separalOr avoids about 90070 of the damage that would o¡her-
wise be suffered by the roller surfaces.
Financial aspect .
The magnetic separator is expensive, but consumes little power and gives efficient protection
to the rollers. It therefore pays for itself rapidly; it is a profitable and useful piece of equip-
ment.
lt becomes all the more necessary: (a) with a long train of milis; (b) when a higher hydraulic
pressure is employed. Actually, much tramp iron pass es undetected through the whole
tandem and so damages all the rollers. Further, the damage sufrered by the rollers rapidly
becomes more serious with increasing pressure.
5. Crushers
OBJECT
The crusher is the first machine applying pressure which Ihe cane encounlers on arriving at
Ihe milJjng plant. II consisls of a mili, generally of IWO rollers, which performs Iwo main
runel ions:
(a) 1I assures the feeding of the whole tandem
(b) It prepares Ihe cane in such a way as lO facililale the grip of Ihe rollers and Ihe extrac-
lion of juice by Ihe milis.
The characterislics of a crusher therefore are Ihe following:
(1) It possesses a surface especially conslrucled 10 permit it to grip the cane or pieces of
cane which are fed to it, in lhe best conditions possible.
(2) This surface must at the same time be designed in such a way as to break, tear up, and
crush the cane, in order to permit the mills to get to work immediately and 'effectively on
the broken-up material, which is already of the nature of bagasse rather than caneo
(3) lt should have a peripheral speed superior to Ihal of lhe milIs which it has lO feed, since
Ihe material which is fed to it has not yet assumed lhe form of bagasse, and is stilI difficull
to grip. If it had lhe same speed as the milis, it would be handicapped in its attempt to supply
the quantityofmaierial which theyare capable of treating.
2-ROLLER CRUSHERS
Types
Many types of crushers have been designed and tried, but only two have achieved general
importance. Thek were:
(a) The Krajewski (now of historical interest only; see firsl edition, pp. 38 - 45)
(b) The Fulton.
The Fulton type is named after Ihe firm which has predominantly contributed to its design
and wide use. It is the only type used at the present day.
The Fulton roller is really a mili roUer treated so as to serve in a crusher. lt is a surface
of revolution, obtained by taking a serrated line, enclosed between two Iines parallel to the
axis, and rotating this around the axis of the roller. Thus there is obtained circular grooving
of V form, separated by ridges or teeth of inverted V shape (Fig. 5.1).
Since a surface of revolution, even with grooving, is scarcely suitable for assuring a grip
011 lhe cane, grooves are cut longitudinally in the form of chevrons which form a number
of notches in each tooth of the roller. The profile of these teeth is so chosen as to favour
the grip on the cane (Fig. 5.2).
52 CRUSHERS Ch.5
:::", ".
Fig. 5.1. Fulton eru;her rollers (Five; Cail - Babeock).
--
60·
./
.--
p
""--
'"'--.
~. "--.. h
~
/
"
Fig. 5.2. NOI<·he.\ of FuILon roller. Fig. 5.3. FullOn grooves.
Since lhe Fullon grooves len d lO become blockcd wilh bagasse, il is general praclice lO fil
scrapers to the two rollers of thi s crusher.
Grooving
The angle of the grooves is aboul 35 -55 0 (Fig. 5.3), often 45° wilh French firms. The pilCh,
which here means the dislance from one tooth 10 the ne xI, varies from 38 10100 mm (Ij 10
4 in.). The most frequent va lues are 50-75 mm (2-3 in.).
When the angle is 50°, the deplh is slightly greater than lhe pitch. In praclice, however,
the manufacturer does not fini sh the 100th profile at a poinl; it wou ld be 100 fragile. He
finishes it with a small nal surface a a (Fig. 5.3) [he width of which is approximately one-
tenth of the heighl of the tooth, without going lower than 1. 5 mm (;'¡; in.).
What pitch shou ld be chosen? There are two trends: the first consists of proportioning the
pitch to lhe diam eter of the roll er. The rule could be suggested:
p = 0.075 D (5 1)
2-ROLLER CRUSHERS 53
' ",
D = mean diameler of lhe rollers

p = pitch of lhe grooves, in the same unir.
However, it is not practical to ha ve a different pitch for every roller diameter, and the se·
cond trend is to proponion the teeth, not ro the dimensions of the mili, bul to those of '¡he .
cane, which are independent of the equipment. In this case, for lhe usual roller dimensions
of 660 x 1,220 mm LO 1,065 X 2,134 mm (26 X 48 in. to 42 x 84 in.), grooving of 39 x
40 mm could be recommended, i.e,. 39 mm in depth and 40 mm in pilch, or 44 X 45, 49 X
SO, 60 x 60, or 80 x 81 (50° angle).
Chevrons. The helieoidal "ehevron" grooves should have a maximum deplh slightly less
than that of the teeth (Fig. 5.2). Ir these grooves were to be laken lO the bottom of lhe cir-
cumferential grooving lhere would be sorne risk of lhe teelh of lhe scraper plales calching
in them and causing accidenls.
However, we favour much shallower chevrons. The chevron in effect removes the toolh
I'or pan 01' its length, somctillles almost hall' of it, thus rcducing the pressurc at the position
of lhe chevron and consequently reducing the efficiency of the crusher. The quantity of metal
lost is proportional to the square of the depth of lhe chevron; and it is mainly the point of
atlack of the chevron (p in Fig. 5.2) which does the work and seizes lhe caneo A chevron 13
mm <t in.) deep opera tes nearly as well as one of 25 mm (1 in.), particularly wl¡en il is new
and nOl worn. For this reason we recommend using chevrons the depth of whieh is no more
than half the height of the tooth. Thúe will lhen be linle loss of capacity, and extraetion
will be much improved.
The pitch of lhe chevrons (distance from lhe end of one chevron to the end of lhe next,
measured circumferentially) is of lhe order of 20 em (8 in.). Manufaclurers often adopt the
rule of placing the point of one chevron on rhe longitudinal line joining the exlremilies of
the V formed by rhe preceding one. In these conditions, lhe pitch is proponional to lhe length
of the roller, for a given angle (3 of the chevrons with the longitudinal lines (Fig. 5.4). This
angle (3 is generalJy 18°. Jt varies according LO the manufacturer from 16 to 25° .
The chevrons ofthe upper and lower rollers are generally arranged so lhal lhey cross in
the angle of (he axial plane 01' lhe rwo cylinders, on lhe line of maximum pressure. An
observer located ar lhe tOP of the cane carrier wouJd see lhe chevrons of bOlh rollers, upper
and lower, bOlh orientated wirh rheir points upward (Fig. 5.5). In this case, only lhe chevrons
of lhe upper roller rend ro push lhe cane lowards lhe cenlre of lhe roller. Hence lhere is some
[J -~--"-__
="'~"'- - -- - - -
rig.5.6
Fig: 5.5. Chevrons poirl! upwards (view rrom reed side).
Fig. 5.4. Arrangement of chevrons. Fig. 5.6. Chevrons in "ace or diamonds" (view rrom reed ,ide).
54 CRUSHERS Ch.5
risk of pressure on the roller flanges. AIso, cerlain manufaclUrers provide the lower roller
with chevrons arranged in the opposite sense; the same observer would see the chevrons of
the two rollers "in ace of diamonds", i.e. forming lozenge-shapes (Fig. 5.6). In this case,
il is suggested tha! the rollers should mesh so tha! the chevrons of the one come in between
those of the other. This arrangement, however, presenls no marked advantage compared
with the preceding one.
Inclination of the housing

The original two-roll crushers were constructed with the axes of the two roJJers in !he same
vertical planeo It was then realised that the feeding was better and the grip better when the
supports were incJined. At the present time, crushers are built with the axial plane inclined
at 60 - 75° to !he horizontal (Fig. 5.7).
The angle of 60° is still considerably greater than the axial plane of the top and fee d rollers
of a mili, the inclination of which varies from 45 to 56°. The flow of juice on the feed side
of the bottom roller of a crusher is therefore not more difficult than in a milI. Since,
moreover, the inclination of the crusher fa ci litates feeding and the crusher is aboye all a
device for improving capacity and for cane preparation much more than for extracting juice,
we prefer the inclination of 60° to one of 75° or an intermediate value.
Diameter
The "diameter" of a roller of a Fulton crusher, or of a mili, is the mean diameter of the
roller, mea sured at the mid-point of the teeth. This diameter D is the arithmetic mean bet-
ween the diameter DM !aken at the top of the teeth and the diameter Dm taken at the bottom
of the grooves (Fig. 5.8):
D=
Certain American firm s give lheir crushers a diameter grealer than Ihal of their milis: ror
example, crusher 940 X 2,135 mm (37 x 84 in.), ahead of mili s of 915 x 2,135 mm (36 x
84 in.). This arrangement has lhe object of increasing the capacily and facilitating the feeding
of the crushers, in such a way as to increase the tonnage handled. But this object should be
achieved by adjusting the speed of th e crusher, wi thout breaking the uniformity of the
tandem.
E ¿
o o o
Dif. 5.7. Inclinati on oC crusher frame. Fig. 5.8. Mean diameter.

2-ROLLER CRUSHERS 55
Speed
The crusher, having to accept a materialless compact and more slippery than that which it
feeds to the milis, is handicapped compared with lhe latter as regards feeding, To overeome
this handicap, it is given a surface speed higher than that of the milis. The tonnage crushed
being nearly proportional to the speed, for the same setting between top and bottom rollers,
the difference between the speeds chosen should represent the handicap involved.
The peripheral speed generally adopted for the crusher is 25 - 50070 greater than that of the
milis, mOSI often 30-40%. For a well-d~signed and well-regulated erusher, a difference in
speed of 30% should be su fficient.
Pressure
We shall examine later (Chap. 10) lhe subjecl of hydraulic pressure. It will. be sufficient to
state here that, in general, the tOlal hydraulie pressure applied lO ordinary two-roller erushers
is about 40 - 80% of the pressure applied to milis (assuming lhe same roller dimensions), in
most cases 50 - 75 %.
We must nOI overlook the faet that the erusher is primarily a devíee for feeding and
preparalion, and nOl primaríly one for extraetíon. If the mili is workíng eomfortably, and
ir Ihe erusher easily lakes the desired tonnage, there is no disadvantage in loadíng the crusher;
the eane preparalíon and the extraetion eannot but gain thereby. If, on the eontrary, ít is
necessary !O push the mili to the maximum of its capaeity, and if lhe erusher does no; feed
well when heavíly loaded, there is mueh to be gained by redueing its hydraulie loading to 50%
of that of the mílls.
The proeedure to adopt 'also depends greatly on lhe pressure adopled for lhe milis. If lhe
mean speeífie pressure at the milis (cf. p. 128) is high, lhat of the crusher may more readíly
be redueed.
The speeifie hydraulic pressure (s.h.p., cf. p. 128) of a crusher should be at least 5 ton-
nes/dm' (45 lons/sq.fl.). A good value would lie between 8 and 12 tonnes/ dm' (75 and 100
tons/ sq.ft.). There is generally no advantage in exeeeding 15 tonnes/ dm' (140 tons/sq.fl.):
the erusher does nOl lift; it does not feed so well, and the preparalion is not appreeiably bel-
ter.
Lif!
The crusher , reeeiving a material whieh ís not yel erushed, and transforming ít to a broken
material, is lhe pressure deviee whieh, for this reason, has to do most work of eompression,
as regards extent of erushing. Further, being al lhe head of the tandem, il is not proteeted
by a preceding crushing deviee and is the first to reeeive foreign bodies, SlOnes, lumps of
earth, and various objeels, some of them vary hard and resistan!. For these reasons, erushers
are designed with a greater margin of li ft than are milis, of lhe order of 38 - 63 mm (1 t - 2t
in.) in general, shall we say wilh greater preeision of the order of 6 -7% of the roller
diameter. Fulton' has provided the erusher at Belle Glade with a maximum lift of 3~ in. (95
mm), or 9.6% of the roller diameter.
Power
We shall eonsider the power eonsumplion of a crusher and lhe power to be provided for ilS
drive when diseussing lhe power requirements of milis (cf. Chapo 14).
•
56 CRUSHERS Ch. 5
Here and now, we may indieate lhat the power consumed by a crusher is about 750/0 of
that of a mili of the same roller dimensions and the same speed, and utilising the same total
hydraulie pressure. If the hydraulic pressure of the crusher is 70% of that of ¡he milis whieh
follow it, and if its speed is 30% greater, the power eonsumed by the crusher will be (cf. p.
234):
0.75 X 0.70 X 1.3 '" t (5.2)
of the mean power absorbed by eaeh of the following milis.

This proportion is easily remembered with the aid of the mnemonic: the power of crushers
is tO that of milis in approximately the same proportion as the respecti ve number of rollers.
Also, when comparing the power requirements of two tandems of milis, it is logical to take
into consideration the number oC rollers in each of the [WO tandems. A tandem of 17 rollers
should take H of the power necessary for a tandem of 15 rollers of the same characteris-
tics.
VALUE OF 2-ROLLER CRUSHER
At one time, it was not considered that a tandem eould be installed wi[hout a 2-roller crusher.
The few tandems of 3-roller milis had all their milis sim ilar, bo[h in roller surfaee and roller
speed; they aehieved a good extraetion, but a erushing rate inferior [O that of tandems wilh
a crusher. The si luation ehanged eompletely when, arter disearding the erusher, someone had
the idea of using the first mili in sueh a way as [O replaee it. We shall see thal this idea suc-
eeeded ver y well and sinee then the 2-roller erusher has beeome an unprofitable and cumber·
so me machi ne. It could not always be made to funetion properly; i[ 1i fled badly or not at
all, it someiimes used to feed badly, it lengthened unduly the can e carrier and the space laken
up by the tandem. We are strongly in favour of eliminating it and inslalling only 3-roller
units.
3-ROLLER CRUSHER
The na me "3-roller erusher" or "mill-crusher" is used for a mili similar to others of the
tandem but plaeed at the head of the train, Corming the fir st unit oC applieation of pressure
and extraetion of juiee, and designed to perform the duty of a crusher . The differenees
relative to the following milis are then:
(1) A speed greater than that of the milis situated immediatel y afler il
(2) The roller surfaees are pro vided with deep grooving and wi[h numerous gripping
chevrons.
Speed
The speed of the mill-crusher is made appreeiably higher than lhat oC the first milI. For a
faetory following the Java sehool (speeds deereasing from the first tO the last mili) it will be
3-ROLLER CRUSHER 57
the highesl-speed mili of Ihe landem. For a factory following the Hawaiian school (speeds
increasing), ils speed will be of Ihe order of Ihal of one of lhe laler milis of lhe landem. The
following are Iwo examples of Ihe scale of speeds:
(1) Cenlral Igualdad, in Puerlo Rico . Tandem of 15 rollers (mill-crusher of 863 X 1,620
mm (34 x 60 in.) and olher mili s of 810 x 1,620 mm (32 x 60 in.), preceded by one sel
of knives:
TABLE 5.1
CENTRAL IGUALDAD, SEQUENCE Of SPEEDS
V n "lo tasI-mili
(r.p .m.) speed
(m/min) (fl.lmin)
Mill-crusher 12.30 40.4 4.53 95

1st mili 11.10 36.4 4.35 86
2nd mili 11.70 38.4 4.58 91
3rd mili 12.30 40.4 4. 82 95
4th mili 12.90 42.3 5.05 100
_._--- _ .- - - - -
V ~ peripheral speed of rollers; n = speed ef retalioll .
(2) Caymanas, in Jamaica. 15-roller tandem with three-roller crusher 635 x 1,220 mm (25
x 48 in.) and four milis 610 x 1,220 mm (24 x 48 in.), preceded by a sel of knives:
TABLE 5.2
CA YMANAS, SEQUENCE OF SPEEDS
V n "lo tasI-mili
(r.p.m.) speed
(mlmin) (fl. / min)
.' _ ._"-"- -"
Mill-crusher 9.18 30 4.61 82

1st mi 11 7.82 26 4.09 70
2nd mili 8.80 28.9 4.60 79
3rd mili 10.00 32.9 5.23 90
41h mili 11. I 5 36.6 5.33 1l'O
----------
Wilh Ihe Hawaiian praclice, followed almosl universally today, we SuppOrl lhe idea of giv-
ing Ihe mill-crusher a peripheral speed equal 10 lhal of lhe lasl mili of lhe landem.
Hydraulic pressure
If lhe mill-crusher lakes lhe feed well, il is advanlageous lO apply 10 il lhe same hydraulic
pressure as on Ihe heaviesl-Ioaded milis of lhe landem. lf il feeds badly, [he pressure may
wilhoul serious disadvanlage be reduced lO 75i1Jo of lhe mean pressure used on lhe following
milis; bUl ca re should be laken 10 increase il again when feeding relurns lO normal.
Power
The mean power consumed by a mill-crusher is delermined exaclly as for an ordinary mili
58 CRUSHERS Ch.5
(ej. Chapo 14). The codriciem of the term allowing for the work of compressing the cane,
however, is increased by 20 - 25010 by reason ofthe substantial extra work required for break-
ing up a harder and more resistant material (fragments of rind s and nodes not yet disinte-
grated).
Use of 3-roller-crusher
A tandem without a crusher would be incomplere. Such would be, in particular, rhe case 01'
a randem of 12 or 15 rollers, for example, in which rhe first unit was provided wirh rollers
running at rhe sa me speed and ha ving the same grooving as those of rhe following unir.
On lhe orher hand, if this fir st unit really forms a crusher, by the narure of its roller sur-
face, and irs speed , we prefer it to have rhree rarher rhan two roller s. Perhaps the capaciry
would nor show any greal gain, bur rhe following advanrages ma y be conridenrly expecred:
(1) Extracrion definirely superior.
(2) Uniformity of all units of rhe tandem. For an electrically dri ven tandem, for example,
there would be no disadvantage in having all the morors identical.
(3) Head room required is much less. A randem with ordinary crusher feeding rhe firsr mili
by graviry, as is usual, requires 2 - 3 m (7 -9 fL) extra heighr compared wirh a rand em all
unirs of which are of rhree rollers and placed at the same leve!.
(4) Lengrh and space taken up by rhe carrier are much less. For an ordinary cru sher, the ~a r
rier must ascend, at its slope of 30 - 60010, this extra height of 2 - 3 m. This mean s so rne 6 - 10
m (20 - 30 fL) extra length to be provided for the sloping portion of the carrier.
Moreo ve r, the cost of a tandem of 12 rollers, including accessories, is not appreciably
greater than that of an I I-roller tandem; similarly, for 15 rollers compared with 14, and so
on.
Table 5.3 gives the results reported in Java for 1930, reduced ro a standard roller size of
1,520 x 760 mm (60 x 30 in.).
TABLE 5.3
CAPACiTY AND EXTRACTlON OF Mfl.l.ING TANDEMS IN JAVA
Number oJ Tandem Number oJ CupacilY EXlfI. LOSI jui<:e

lactaries rollers (I.c.h.) % fibre
. . . _._. _ - - ---- -_.- -_... --- _.. __ ...
3 Crusher + 3 milts tI 31 93.5 48
26 4 mitls 12 32.2 93.9 44
93 Crusher + 4 mitls 14 41.7 94.6 39'
r5 5 milts 15 34 95.4 34
,--.- - -
The rath er low relative capacity which will be noted for the 15-roller tandem s arises from
the faet that in Java the mill-crushers in 1930 had not Ihe speed nor rhe grooving which they
would have required to be real crushers. lf it were possible to compare 14-roller tandems with
similar tandems of the same design, but of 15 rollers, and provided with true mill-crushers,
it would be see n that the difference in capacity would be reversed in favour of the 15·roller
trains.
EXTRACTlOI'I OF A CRUSHER 59
EXTRACTlOI'I OF A CRUSHER
The extraetion obtained in a erusher is very variable: Ihe erusher is a deviee ror feeding, and
preparalion, and not for exlraetion . However, il is advanlageous, for Ihe IOlal exlraelion or
Ihe landem, Ihal il should eXlrael as mueh as possible, sinee Ihe less juiee illeaves in Ihe eane
enlering lile Cirsl milI, Ihe less will remain in Ihe begasse leaving Ihe lasl mili. The milis do
reeover a very large proporlion of lhe juice which lhe crusher lea ves, bUI never all of i1.
Table 5.4 gives lhe proponion of juice extracled by lhe various lypes of crusher, as a
pereenlage of sugar in cane:
TABLE 5.4
EXTRACTION W1TH DIFFERENT TYPES 0" CRUS HER
Crusher Extrae/ion % absolllle

juic:e
Krajewski (2 rollers) 40 -50

Fullon (2 rollers) 45 -55
Do uble crusher (4 rollers) 60 -70
Mill-crusher (3 rollers) 60 -75
Fullon crusher followed by mili (5 rollers) 70- 83
This lable demOnSlraleS the value of Ihe mill-crusher. The figures are given wilh a large
margin, sinee Ihey vary wilh diverse factors, and partieularly wilh fibre in eane.
LARGE 3-ROLLER CRUSHER
In Auslralia, il is nOI uncommon lO find tandems of 3-roller unils, in which lhe firsl mjll
is larger Ihan Ihe following ones, nOI only in diameler, but also in lenglh of Ihe rollers; for
example, a landem of 5 milis, Ihe firsl being 915 x 1,980 mm (36 x 78 in.) and lhe four
olhers eacll 846 x 1,830 mm (34 x 72 in.). This arrangemenl has Ihe disadvanlage of break-
ing Ihe unil'ormily 01' Ihe landem, bul this disadvanlage is nOI very serious for Ihe firsl mili
which normally should have difrerenl grooving and dirrerenl speed. On Ihe conlrary, it per-
mils of maintaining periplleral rOlational speeds of Ihe same order Ihroughoul Ihe Ienglh of
Ihe landem. We approve of Ihis arrangemenl, which permils milis after Ihe firsl lO be used
lO Ihe maximum advanlage.
Certain faclories provide a large unil nol only for the firsl mill, bUI also for lhe lasl millo
This arrangemenl is also partly justified, bul less so lhan Ihe preeeding one.
REFEREI'ICES
I Sugor Azucar, 59 (5) (1964) 68.

6. Shredders
OBJECT
The object of the shredder is to complete the preparation and disintegralion of the cane, so
as to facilitate the extraction of juice by the milis.
LOCATION
The shredder is placed at the head of the tandem, after the knives and before the first milI.
At an earlier period, when crushers were more common, the shredder was sometimes placed
between the crusher and the first mili. This allowed it to work on can e already deprived of
part of its juice, and with its fibres partly disintegrated. lt thus consumed much less power
and functioned more smoothly and sweetly; but it does not then fie so readily into the equip-
menl: it break s the continuity and symmetry of the milling train, and interrupls the supervi-
sion of il.
There was al so a shredder incorporated with the crusher or the first milI. This was the Max-
well crusher-shredder, which was described and studied in the second edition (pp. 62 -65).
11 is no longer of anything but historical interest.
The types most used at present (1981) are the Searby and Gruendler shredders. These
render excellent service, and we shall discuss their main characleristics; however, there is a
definite trend now to replace them by models devised on the same principie but more power-
fui, which will also be considered in detail.
FUNCTION OF THE SHREDDER
The shredder owes its existence and its value 10 the fact that the tissue of cane cells is very
resistant: simple crushing between rollers, even under very high pressure, is not sufficient 10
break all lhe cells and extracl the juice. On the other hand, if these cells can be IOrn open
and disintegrated, the juice is liberaled, becoming more accessible and more easily extracled.
To obtain such an effect it is necessary 10 rupture the tissues: this is achieved by forcing Ihe
pieces of cane 10 pass through a very narrow space, thus blocking Ihem on one side and strik-
ing them on the other side with a powerful blow; the hammer mili has been chosen with this
objecl.
The shredder thus consists of a rotor working at 500, 1,000 or 1,500 r.p. m., generally
1,000-1,200 r.p.m., carrying hammers which are pivoted on discs or plates; the end ofthe
hammer passes very close to an anvil plate which is formed either with a saw-toothed pro file
•
fUNCTION 01' THE SHREDDER 61
or of rectangular bars. The space or "clearance" between the anvil-bars and the palh of (he
rotating hammers is of (he order of a few millimetres. lt may vary for example from 25 mm
(1 in.) at lhe enlry lO lhe zone of operalion lO 10 mm (i in.) or even less at lhe delivery from
the anvil-bars.
Since lhe tan e is composed of long ribres and pulp or pilh carrying lhe juice, lhe material
leaving [he shredder is a mass of cell material or pith mixed with long lhread-like fibres which
felt the material together and cODtribute lO hold it lOgether when it is subjected to the
pressure of lhe mili rollers.
The shredde r lhus fills a role which neither the knives nor the milis can fulfil!. It establishes
a state of subdivision of the cane which greatly facilitates the work of the milis.
Extent of disintegration
The stale of disintegration of the cane is expressed by the Displacability Index (D. l. ), that
is, the percelllage of poi in the open eells, or lndex of Preparation' (l.P.), as ealculated from
laboralor y dctermination of poi obtainable by extraetion in cold water, relative to the total
poI obtained by hot extraction, or by comp lete disintegration of the eane in the co ld. In South
Afriea this proportion is expressed in brix instead of by poi: the values are thus fairly close,
the free poi being slightly higher than the free brix. We eo nsider however that the determina-
tion of the I.P. should be made in poi rather than in brix, sinee it is only the poi extraction
in which we are interested (we would be very happy if our milis had a good extraetion in poi
and a low extraetion in brix) and because the extraetion of sueeessive milis in brix is. happil y,
appreeiably lower than their extraetion of suerose. After the knives we may have for example
65 or 700/0 I.P., that is, of open cells, after a conventional shredder, 78 - 85%, and after a
heavy-duty shredder. 86 - 92070; exceptionally we may attain 94 - 95 070 (ef. p. 66). In
Australia, Bingera mili has found a very c10se correlation between the extraetion of the first
pressure-fed mili and the percentage of open ce 115 as expressed by the I.P.: e = 1.02 I.P.
The Index of Preparation is thus defined:
poi extraeted by washing (eold)

I.P. = --- ----'------=--'--~ x 100
poI extraeted after disintegration
Extract ion by washing is determined on samp les of 500 g in 3.5 I of water, withagitation
for 20 min. The mean of 6 determinations is tak en.
Extraetion by disintegration is determined on similar samples (500 g in 3.5 i) di sinteg rated
for 10 min in a "Varigrator" or other maehine at a minimum of 7,000 r.p.m. The mean of
3 determinations is taken.
Harnrners
The hammers are straight rectangular bars in silicon - manganese steel pivoted on round bars
(the arrangement generally known as a "swing-hammer pulveriser" in other industries).
The Searby shredder may have a large number of hammers (for example 144) eaeh
weighing 4 kg (9 lb.). The Gruendler uses heavier hammers but fewer in number: for example
66 hamll1ers Ineasuring 325 x 110 x 40 mm (12l x 4k x It in.) and weighing 10 kg (22.5
lb.) eae h. The hammers of hi gh-power shredders, of the Tongaat typ e, weigh 15 -18 kg
•
62 SHREDDERS Ch. 6
(35-40 lb.) and are arranged in 8 rows of 23-26, giving a lOlal of 184-210 hammers. In
South Africa heavy shredders are also built with 8 rows of 21, giving a total of 168 hammers
of 19 or 20 kg (45 lb.) each.
The se hammers are tipped on lhe working face with special sleel applied by welding, which
las ts for a full season. Thu s, in case of wear lhere is only one faci ng to be replaced, InSlead
of a full hammer in special steel weighing several kilograms. It has been found, however, thal
these facings are somelimes damaged or worn by shocks. Then it is a marter of re-welding
to renew the facing. Bolh faces of the hammer are re-welded so thal it can be reversed. At
Tongaat for example lhe s hredder has 8 rows of hammers; each week 2 rows are reversed
and 2 olher rows are withdrawn for re-welding and replaced by a row which has been welded.
Thus lhe hammers work on each face for 2 weeks before being re-welded.
The re-weldin g is made by means of electrodes in special steel. The composition of two
such steels is as follows:
(a) Super·Sajor 60 (b) SaJdur 800 E
C 3.6 OJ, 5.0OJ,

Cr 32.0 25.0
Si 1.3 0.9
Mn 0.86 0.9
Mo 5.0
Nb 5.5
Super-Safor 60 is the same alloy as used for re-facing trashplates (cf. p. 226). It has a
Rockwell hardness of 63, a Brinell of 780 and requires 60 V for welding. The Safdur is even
more resistant to shocks.
Index of preparation and power usage

Experience has show n lhat the efficacy of preparation depends essentiall y on lhe power ex-
pended to ob tain it. Research has been carried out in South Africa to ascenain lhe correlation
between the I.P. and lhe power expended . Results have been expressed in the formula:
I.P. = 63.7 W°O'i (I.P. = 85.5 W°O'i)
W = power expended for preparation, in kWIt.f.h. (h.p.lt.f.h.). The coefficient of corre la-
lion was found lO be 0.66. This corresponds to lhe following values:
SEARBY-TYPE PULVERISER 63
."
W (k W!( J./I.) f.P .
~----
10 78.4
20 83.4
30 86.5
40 88.8
50 90.6
60 92.1
70 93.4
80 94.5
A good I.P. can thus be obtained with 50-80 kW/U.h. (70-110 h.p./t.f.h.).
SEARBY-TYPE PULVERISER
This is a swing-hammer pulveriser operating in a steel housing: the cane enters by a hopper
at lhe IOp, and leaves in a broken-up condition between anvil-bars placed al Ihe lower pan
of the housing al a small clearance from Ihe circle described by Ihe tips of the hammers (Fig.
6.1 ).
There are two principal makes of this lype of shredder, which are very similar, and which
differ only in lhe hammers:
(a) The Searby shredder, inslalled mainly in Hawaii and in Brilish terrilOries (Fig. 6.1),
which has numerous hammers consisting of small rectangular bars
fig . 6.-1. Searby shredder (top casing remo ved (Smi[h - Mirrlees).
64 SHREDDERS Ch. 6
(b) The Gruendler shredder , in st alled mostl y in Loui siana , Florida and Pu erto Rico,
whi ch ha s a smaller number of heavier ha mmers (Fig. 6.2).
French shredders (Fig. 6.3) follow lhe Gruendler type.
Fletcher , in Engla nd, supplies shredders in 6 sizes:
1,520 x 3,215 mm (60 x 126.5 in.)

1,680 x 3,375 mm (66 x 132.8 in.)
1,830 x 3,525 mm (72 x 138.7 in.)
1,980 x 3,675 mm (78 x 144.7 in.)
2,290 x 3,825 mm (84 x 150 .6 in.)
Fi g. 6.2. Gruendler shreddcr.
l. : , -,
. '" .". !l '
(. .:'\) " ",'.- '1' :.'
'
" e..
"i.; 1
I ~, .
Fi g. 6.3 . Fi ves Cail- Babcod shredder, with cover open.

• - .. :)~ ~ ..
SEA.RBY-TYPE PULVERISER
.ff.':¡I.,....
65
Gruendler offer numerous models for which they indicate the capacities:
1,220 mm (48 in.): 90 - 120 I.c.h.

1,370 mm (54 io.): 100-125 I.c.h.
1,525 mm (60 in.): 135 - 165 I.c.h .
1,830 mm (72 io.): 145 - 200 I.c.h.
1,980 mm (78 in.): 195 - 210 Le.h.
2,130 mm (84 in.): 270-325 I.c.h.
2,440 mm (96 in.): 325 - 370 Le.h.
They recommeod iostalled power as about 14 kW / Lf.h. (19 h.p./t.f.h.) aod estimate power
consumed as about half that figure.
Power
[o [970 it was estimated that the shredders theo u~ed ab~orbed a power or 10-12 kW / Lf.h.
(13 - 16 h.p/ U.h.), and the motors or the drive were provided with a nomioal power of
arouod [5 kW/ Lf.h. (20 h.p.lt.f.h.).
As for knives (cI p. 42), it was stated that the number of hammers had only a small in-
f1ueoee on the power consumed by a shredder. Nickli0 2 fouod the same power per tonne cane
per hour for two shredders ooe of which had 51, the other, 144 hammers.
However, Crawford l has made a study, certainly entirely theoretical, io which he gave the
power of the shredder as a function of the number aod weight of the blades. He arrived at:
P ~ 91 WRhn' N ('f + 20) (J (P ~ 5.16 WRhn J N ('f + 20) (J) (6. 1)
P = power absorbed by the shredder, in kW (h. p.)

W = weight of a hammer, in kg (lb.)
R = distaoce from shaft centre to pivot of the koives, in m (ft.)
N = numbcr of knives
n = spced of rotatioo, io thousaods of r.p.m.
'f = aogle swept by rhe knives belween the first eontaet with the eaoe and eotry ro rhe aovil,
in radians
o = aogle swept by rhe blades in passing over the anvil, in radians
() ~ angle by which the knire is /lloved baekwards in its passage over the anvil, in radians.
Crawford estimates 1.5° (0.020-0.025 radian) for (J. 'f depends on the design of the feed
tothe shredder and varies aeeording to the design from 1 radian 10 11"12. o is of the order
of 11"12.
This formula gives a power in proporlion to (J, an angle which is not known and whieh
can be measured only with a slroboseope, using expensive equipmenL Furthermore, the for-
mula takes no account of Ihe weighl of fibre Irealed, whieh eertainly plays a parto Also, and
contrary lO Nieklin's commenl, westate the power as a funerion of rhe work required:
Searby-type shredders with light hammers (4-6 kg) (9-14 lb.):

10-12 kW / Lf.h . (13 -15 h.p./t.f.h.)
66 SHREDDERS Ch. 6
Gruendler-type shredders with mediu,!, hammers (7 - 10 kg) (15 - 22.5 lb.):

12-15 kW/t.f.h. (15-20 h.p./t.f.h.)
Tongaal-lype shredders wil h heavy hammers (15 - 20 kg) (35 - 45 lb.):
40-50 kW/Lf.h. (55-65 h.p./t.f.h.)
The latter types are heavy-duty equipment.

The combinalion of disintegrator and fiberiser is a very powerful and effective item of
preparar ion equipment, driven by lurbines or motors totalling 130 kW/t.f.h. (175 h.p./
t. f.h.), and crediled wilh an 1. P. of 94 - 95; this will be discussed in lhe chaplcr on dil'fusion.
Walkers, in Auslralia, report that the power absorbed is much less when the feed enters
verticalJy than when the knifed cane is fed by a chute inclined at 60°.
Tongaat shredder
The Tongaat shredder (Fig. 6.8) has marked a date in the history of cane preparation, not
so much by the originality of its design as by the power which is applied lO il. Jt marks a
stage in the amount of power agreed on to allain a high degree of preparation and a very
high Jndex ofPreparation. Subsequent installations were inspired by lhe example of the first,
and this has cantributed in great part to the high level of energy expended per tonne of cane
in recent sugar faclories (ef. p. 1019). Oriven by a turbine of 1,500 kW (2,000 h.p.) and run-
ning al 1,200 r.p.m., wilh 188 hammers of 17 kg (38 lb.). the shredder has given an 1. O. (Jndex
of Oisplacement, analogous 10 the Index of Preparation) of more than 91; lhis compares to
lhe LO. of 76 - 80 which was furnished previously by Gruendler and Searby shredders al
Tongaat, driven by a motor of 355 kW (475 h.p.). The installed power is ¡hus 45 kWIr.f.h.
(60 h.p./t.f.h.).
Consequent on their slight swing, the hammers caver a thickness greater than thal of the
bagasse layer. The anvil-plate can move aside by 150 mm (6 in.) to allow occasional pieces
~. "-:::::::4-+f-+-
Fig. 6.4. Shredder a[ head or [andem.

.,. SEARBY-TYPE PULVERISER 67
of metal to pass through ; the hammers on their part retract by ISO mm (6 in.), so that [hese
pieces can rind a passage of 300 mm (12 in.). The moment of inertia is 2,060 m'/kg (4,890
sq. ft./lb.).
Wear is slight: al' ter one mili ion lonnes 01' cane, Ihe anvil bars lose only 0.1 - 0.4 mm
rlo - te; in.) on [he side where Ihey face the hammers.
Wear and fasling Quafilies
The main wearing pans are the hammers. For the Searby, the life 01' the hammers is reckoned
as about 90.000 tOllnes of caneo For the Gruendler, the hammers, according to tlle makers,
would lasl for 400,000 tolllles 01' cane, provided they are overhauled and re-metalled every
40,000 101l1lCS; wc Ilavc bcell ablc lo vcrify from expericilce Illat the formcr figurc is c10se
10 aclual performance, while tlle second has been cOilsiderably exceeded and could altain
200,000 10il1lCS.
Saving in power and exlraclion

The power consumed by the shredder is recovered in lhe mili, which is relieved 01' some 01'
its load.
On lhe other hand, lhe preparation is very complete: the cane is reduced to a veritable lint
and the gain obtained in exlraclion is very definile. In Hawaii, it is considered thal the addi-
tion 01' a Searby improves lhe exlraction 01' a tandem by
7.S
f = "70 C6.2)
N - 8
E improvement in exlraction due 10 lhe shredder

N number 01' rollers in the landem.
e.g. E = 2.S% for an ll-roller tandem (e.g. 92% inereases to 94.S%)
1.2S% for a 14-roller landem
I % for a IS-roller tandem.
II is seen that the shredder is more beneficial with a shoner tandem, which is readily
ullderSlood, sinee it presents the eane to lhe milis in a state whieh permils the milJs to extraet
llie l11a.\ imum 01' juice. In a long tandem, where the action 01' the successive milis 01' itself
produces a very complete disintegralion, ils relalive effecl is much less.
Al Ihe same lime il musl be kept in mind thal, since Ihe extraclion improves as Ihe number
or rollers increases, the addilion of a shredder can only work on a decreasing difference
relalive 10 100%; when the eXlraction is 94, there is a remainder 01' 6% on whieh im-
provemenls can be effeeted, bul when the extraclion is 96, there is only a remainder of 4%,
and improvement on Ihis is much more difficult.
Moor' proposes Ihe applicalion of this formula 10 the case 01' gain in exlraction by replae-
ing a normal shredder by one 01' high power, and gives:
\\ E =
10.7
N - 8
68 SHREDDERS Ch. 6
Fig. 6.5. Shredder feeding arrangem ent (Fle«her and Stewan).
Fig. 6.6. Searby · type , hredder (Fletcher and Stewart).

SEARBY-TYPE PULVERISER 69
which indicales a very high gain as a resull 'of lhe simple change in power usage al lhe shred-
der.
Crawford' reports lesls in Queensland, consisling of measuring juice extraclion of a pilo!
mili al three differenl speeds, firsl wilh cane prepared simply by knives, lhen with cane
prepared wilh lhe .lame knife se l followed by a shredder. The extraction in weighl of juice
in lhe lhree cases was high er by nearly Iwo poinls for lhe shredded cane relalive 10 Ihe ca ne
pr~pared will1 kl1ives only. Al lhe I.i·m il s of capacity allained in each case, Ihe reslIlts were:
Roller speed Kniyes Knives and shredder
4.45 m/min (14.6 rt .fOlin) 74.9 76.6

H.~ m/min (29.2 fI ./ min) 72.5 74
13.6 m/ min (44 .5 rt ./min) 69.1 71
These figures suggest Ih at lhe eXlraclion of sllcrose would be improved by al leasl lhree
points by Ihe use of lhe shredder.
Conclusion
The hammer mili is an inleresting machine, giving a definile gain in eXlraclion. 10 jI, 10 a
greal extenl, lhe Hawaiian Island s owed lhe fine resulls oblained wilh lh ei r milis before lhey
had lO adopl push-rake harvesti ng. The cost is fairly high, bUl is rapidly repaid.
Fig. 6.7. Gruendler shredder (rOlar).

70 SHREDDERS Ch. 6
BULK DENSITY OF CANE PREPARED BY SHREDDER
Kerr 6 gives this density as being of rhe order of 400 kg/m J (25 Ib ./cu.ft.). In Réunion, it is
only 250-275 kg/ m' (16-17 Ib./cu.ft.). In any case, it is thus lower lhan rhar furnished
by passage through the two sers of knives (ef. p. 46) . Tests in Mauririus' have given
202-253 kg/m J (12.5- 16Ib./ cu.ft.). If the capacity of the following milis is increased by
the supplementary passage of the cane rhrough the shredder, Ihis will be due mainly 10 Ihe
texture of Ihe cane prepared by Ihe shredder, characrerised by long fibres and rhe consequent
coherence of Ihe mass.
TOTAL POWER FOR CANE PREPARATlON
We have seen that the total installed power for cane preparation may vary from 24 (32) to
app roximalely 60 kW/ t.f.h . (80 h.p ./t.f.h.) (average 40). This is divided into approximately
46070 for Ihe knives and 54070 for lhe shredder. The power consumplion is aboul 50-60070
of lhe insr alled power, or approximalely 20 kW/ t.f.h. (27 h.p.lt.f.h.) for lhe knives and
15 - 20 (20 - 27) for Ihe shredder.
Fig. 6.8. Secli on view 0 1' a Tongaal shredder (Smilh - Mirrtees) .

TOTAL POWER FOR CANE PREPARATlON 71
Fig. 6.9. Shredded cane (pilo lO Gruendler).
The power consumed for good preparation is of the same order as the power consumption
in lhe milis thelllselves. In South Africa, for example, the proportion is about 46 - 54 in terms
of nominal power; it varies from 38/62 to 56/44. In terms of power consumption, this pro-
portion approaches 40/60 (preparalion/mills).
Finally, Ihe shredder is parrieularly valuable from the finaneial point of view: it provides
substantial illlprovemcnt in eXlraction, it constitutes proleetion against stones and tramp iron
which ha ve escaped Ihe magnetic separator, and it eosts only one-third the cost of a mili and
relurns somelimes much more. Tl1e Tongaat shredder has paid for itself in slighlly more than
one season.
Two examples, both from Tongaat, are of interest. This faetory has two extraetion trains.
One consists 01' three sets of knives of 270,520 and 300 kW (360, 700 and 400 h.p.), a shred-
der driven at 1,200 r.p.m. by a Sleam turbine of 895 kW (1,200 h.p.) and followed by 7 milis
of 965 x 2,134 mm (38 x 84 in.). This set handles 31 I.f.h., and gives an I.P. of 91 and
an extraetion of 97.48070. Unit B eonsisls of 2 seIs of knives of 670 and 375 kW (900 and
500 h.p.), a shredder driven at 1,200 r.p,m. by a 1,500 kW (2,000 h.p.) turbine and followed
by a diffuser. It handles 25 t.f.h. and gives an l.P. of 91 and 97.96% extraetion.
72 SHREDDERS Ch.6
REFERENCE
1 Proc. 15th. Congo ISSCT, 1974, p. 1498.

2 J. H. NICKLlN, Proe. 36th Conf. QSSCT, 1969, p. 176.
3 W. R. CRAWFORD, Inl. Sugur J., 72 (19 70) 259.
4 B. STo C. MOOR, Proe. 15th. Cong.ISSCT, 1974, p. 1596.
5 W. R. CRAWfORD, IlIt. Sugur J., 72 (1970) 372.
6 H. W. KERR, Conferenee in Mauritius, Seplember 1957, p. 235.
7 Rev . Agr. Mauriee , (Jan. - June 1976) 82.
7. Combinations Di Cane Preparators
We have just discussed the various types of equipment which are placed ahead of the milis
with the object of preparing the can'&,so Ihat the pressure applied al ¡he milis will yield max-
imum extraction. What is Ihe best combinalion which can be made of Ihese devices , par-
licularly in a new ractory lO be buill, in order 10 Obliliil Ihe besl resullS wil1101l1 excessive ex-
pendilUre in inveslment, mainlenance, or powcr comsumfJlion?
We shall nOI discuss the crusher, which is no longer of imerest. There remain Ihe knives
and Ihe shredder, or analogous disintegralors. We may try 10 be conlenl Wilh two sets of
knives. However, this simplification is indicaled only on condition that the firsl sel opera tes
at a relalively low dcarance, say only a few decimelres aboye Ihe carrier. Otherwisc il is
necessary to go lO Ihree seIS, wilh Ihe firSI as a Irue leveller. If Ihe lasl sel can be arranged
lO opera le in Ihe rever se direclion, lhis would be an imfJrovement. It should be driven by a
powerful mOlor 20 - 30 kW /I.f.h. (30 - 40 h.p./U.h.) if running in Ihe nC?rmal direclion;
40 - 50 (55 - 70) for inverse rOlalion).
The shredder is strongly recommended, and il is advisable nOI to slinl Ihe power provided;
allow 40-45 kW / I.f.h. (55-60 h.p./t.f.h.). II may be replaced, if desired, by a Ducasse
knife sel or other effeclive device.
Anlicipaling somewhal the following chaplers, we may suggesl a first mili of dimensions
appreciably superior, in roller diameter and lenglh, lO those of Ihe later milis; lhis should
be followed by four or five milis, al! with grooving of 49 x 50 mm. If lhe first mili is effec-
lively larger than the others, its grooving could wilhout any disadvanlage be 60 x 60 mm.
The top and feed rollers would be provided wilh chevron grooving lO Ihe depth of half
thal of the leelh. These milis would run al peripheral speeds of 15 m/ min (50 fl. / min) for
Ihe first and 12 - 15 m/min (40 - 50 fUmin) for I he laler milis. I f the faclory has a capacity
lower Ihan 250 I.C.h. il would be sufficienl 10 have five milis: at higher rales, il would be
of advantage to provide six milis, and for very high IOnhages, seven milis. Such decisions,
however, depend on several olher economic and financial faclors which demand a full sludy
of the price of sugar, COSIS of operalion, etc. An alternalive solution would be to provide
five milIs, all wilh pressure feeders (total of 25 rollers).
In planning a five- or six-mill train, il is always wise to allow space for the eventual inslalla-
lion of an additional milI.
8. Feedíng o/ Mílls and Conveyíng o/ Bagasse
The prepared cane which enlers Ihe crusher or Ihe rirsl mili, as well as lhe malcrial which
leaves Ihc laller and lravels from mili lO mili 10 Ihe cnd 01' lhe landem (which wc shall call
in all cases bagasse), moves under lhe effecls 01' lllr.ee differenl forces:
(1) Gravily
(2) Gravity, restrained by sliding on an inclined plane
(3) A Ihrusl, providcd by an endless bell, a pusher or olher mechanical device.
Thcsc Ihrcl' IllL'thods ael olllhc m<llni;t! alllhe lVay from ils enlry 10 Ihe milis lill il IC:lves
the tandem.
FEED PLATE TO CRUSHER
The prepared canc arriving al Ihe head 01' lhe carrier is fed 10 lhe crusher by a hopper, I'he
important parl 01' which is lhe bOllom plale.
Length. When the cane has nOl been passed Ihrough a shredder and when Ihe second sel
01' knives is nOI sellO a small clearance, lhere are always so me whole slicks al Ihe bOllom
01' lhe cane layer. The lenglh 01' Ihe feed plale should be greater lhan that 01' Ihe largest pieces.
say approximalcly 2 m (7 1'1.) in mosl cases.
Width. The cane carrier, Ihe feed hopper and the crusher rollers should all be 01' the same
widl h (ej. p. 22).
Slope. The feed plale should have a slope ~r al leaSl 45° (fig, 8.1). Whole ca ne will slide
on a plate wilh a much smaller slope - 40° , and even 30° - bUI prepared cane slides tnuch
less readily. In eilher case, il is advisable Ihal Ihe malerial in Ihe feed hoppcr shoul<l cxcrt
<l pressure on Ihe crusher equal lO Ihe grealesl possible componenl 01' ils wcighl..
Location. The line of lhe feed plale should, if produced, pass lhrough lhe axis 01' lhe lower
roller 01' lhe crusher (fig. 8.2). In counlries such as Cuba, where capacities are forced 10 Ihe
maximum. Ihe line 01' Ihe feed plale is placed somewhat to lhe feed side 01' Ihis axis, as A"
wilh Ihe objecl 01' increasing Ihe space a; bul the canes on lhe feed plale Ihen ha ve SOIllC dif-
ricuhy in mounling from below 10 fecd belween Ihe lwo rollers; whereas, when Ihe plane of
Ihe feed plale passes Ihrough Ihe axis, Ihe plane 01' Ihe canes Iying along lhe feed plale makes
an angle 01' 90° or less wilh Ihe surface 01' the roller, and lhe slalks then slide nalurally
lowards lhe opening 01' lhe crusher.
,m~
FEEO HOPPER 8ETWEEN CRUSHER ANO FIRST MILL 75

•
fig . 8.1. Feed plale 10 crusher. Fig , 8,2, Arrangemcm of rec:u pJ¡He 10 crusher.
Clearance from roller. The feed plate of lhe hopper shouJd approach as close as possible
lO lhe roller. A cJearance of only 6.5 mm (J in.) is lefl. lhe plale being CUl wilh a serraled
edge lO malch tMe grooves.
FEEO HOPPER BETWEEN CRUSHER ANO FlRST MILL
Al lile lop, lile line 01' lhis I'eed plale should pass lhrough Ihe axis of lhe lower roJler of rhe
cruslla (Fig. 8.3).
Fig. 8,3. ArrangemclIl of feeu plate bctween crusher allu I'irst lIIill .
At 10p and bOllOm, the feed plale should ha ve a cJearance of 6.5 mm U in.) from the roller
surface. 11 should preferably be cut so as to match the roller grooving. Its inc¡¡natíon (3 should
be aboul 50- 55°. It shouId meel the bOllom roJler on Ihe feed side of ¡he verlical axial plane
t
of ¡he roller, and at a distance rrom lhis planeequal 10 of t!le roller diameler:
D (8.l)
d=-
6
The reeding of lhe mili will be beller wilh a longer chuleo The length is generaJly made
1.5-2 m (5-7 fl.).
If. inslead of allowing th e feed lO slide down an inclined plate as described, a vertical feed
chu¡e is used or one very sleeply inclined (cf. p. 87), feeding can onJy be better.
76 FEEDING OF MILLS AN o CONVEYING OF BAGASSE Ch.8
INTERMEDIATE CARRIERS
The inrermediare carriers are Ihe conveyors which move Ihe ba¡;asse from one mili lO the feed
of rhe neXl. There are lhree principal types:
(a) Drag conveyors, or rake conveyors
(b) Moving-band conveyors, apron or sial conveyors
(e) Fixed carriers, Meinecke lype.
Fig. 8.4. Rakc-lype intermediate carrier,
(al Drag conveyors (Fig. 8.4)

ln lhese il is lhe lower run of the conveyor which is lhe aClive one. The conveyor is driven
[rom ilS top sprockels, which in lurn are driven from Ihe 10p roller.
The headsprockets and relurnsprockels are now inslalled Illounled on one rigid I'rallle,
which is rivoted aboul Ihe axis of Ihe upper sprockels so Ihal il can rise, il' necessary, when
Ihe layer oC bagasse becomes thicker. This frame carries the runners I'or Ihe upper slrand 01'
Ihe conveyor, and Ihese will be filled wilh a pad or hardwood lo avoid shocks.
Thc chain.' Jre rilled wilh angle-irons carrying (he leelh and forming Ihe rakes. A special
corner-piece serves lO altach lhem 10 lhe links of Ihe chain (Fig. 8.5).
Fig. 8.5. Atlach111ent of angle-irolls.

INTERMEDIATE CARRIERS 77
.~
The frame should be supported at its lowest position in such a way Iha[ lhe ends of Ihe
lines of lhe rakes pass aboul 22 mm U in.) fronl the botrom plate of [he carrier.
The thickness of bagasse layer enlrapped is limiled by the bOltom plate of lhe carrier on
lhe one hand and by lile free wing of the arigle-iron on the olher. The lhickness of bagasse,
which fixes lhe 10weSl posilion, may be calculated by assuming lhal lhe bagasse blankel is
conlinuous, lhal it has the same speed as lhe conveyor, and ¡hat it contains 95 kg of libre
per m' (6 Ib.lcu.fl.). The adoptio!: of a weight of fibre per unil volume avoids ¡he necess ity
of considering lhe different specific weights of bagas ses from differenl milis, which vary ac-
wrding to t he n\te 01" ilTl bibit ion, whereas t he vo lume of t hese various bagasses is nearly co ns-
tanl and independent ofthe imbibition rate and ofthe number ofthe mili . On lheother hand,
the va lue adoplcd, 95 kg/ml, indicates that allowance has been made for a certain compres-
sion exerted by lhe conveyor on lhe bagasse.
Advaniages and disadvantages, Drag conveyors are simple, but wear quickly, beca use they
work in acid juice and bagasse. They contribute nOlhing 10 the feeding of lhe following milI.
Due to wear, they are subjecl 10 breakages o,. Ihe angle-irons, or of Ihe rake leelh . A
broken loolh gencrally escapes unnoliced into lhe bagasse, and passes lhrough lhe following
milis, damaging lhe roller grooving. The acid bagasse, rub bing on the bOllorn pi ate of Ihe
carrier, also corrodes il.
For these various reasons, il pays tO make the roller bushes in phosphor-bronze, lhe pins
and links of the chains and the botlom platesin corrosion-resisting steel.
Location and arrangement. The angle of Ihe feed pi ate lO the following mili, which receives
the bagasse delivered by lhe rake conveyor, is not unimportant (Fig. 8.6). This angle should
be fairly Sleep in order LO permil Ihe bagasse LO slide freely on Ihe plate, but should nol exceed
the value at which it would produce an "avalanche" of bagasse. Now the bagasse slides
aboye an angle of 40° or 45°, according to ils moisture content, and it avalanches al an angle
of 55 - 60° (bagassc soaked wilh imbibilion). The angle {3 should lherefore be about 50°,
prel'erably 52 - 54°.
.. ,
; ..
Fig. 8.6. Feed piare or an ¡nrermediare milI.
The space f lefl belween Ihe feed plale and the feed roller should be as small as poss ible,
especially in lhe later milis, 10 avoid dropping fine bagasse in fronl of [he feed roller (Fig .
8.6). For Ihis purpose, [he feed plate should terminal e in an adjuslable plale held by Ihree
78 FEEDING OF MILLS AND CONVBYING OF BAGASSE Ch. 8
Fig. 8.7. Horizonlal intermediale carrier (Ewart).
bollS, and cut to match the grooving. This precaution is not always necessary except for ¡he
later milIs.
Horizontal carriers. Certain manufacturers make the rake conveyor horizontal (Fig. 8.7),
with the bottom run tangential to the upper surface of the boltom rollers. This makes il
lighlcr ano simpler; a userul J'ealure, cspeci,llly when botlolll rolIcrs arc 10 be removed.
Fig. 8.8. Slat .lype inlermediale carrier.
(b) Slat conveyors or apron conveyors (Fig. 8.8)

Here it is the upper pan of the conveyor which carries Ihe bagasse. The conveyor is driven
by the upper sprockets at the head of the conveyor, which in turn are driven from the feed
roller.
The carrier consists of a continuous apron, composed of overlapping steel slats, which are
able to move relative to each other (Fig. 8.9), as in the cane carrier.
.. _- _. _ - ~
Fig . 8.9. Sial conveyor (Fives Cail- Babcock).
The head of this type of carrier is always provided with idlers in such a way [hat a portion
of ¡he moving apron forms the feed plate of the folIowing milI and so helps 10 push [he
bagasse into. the mil!.
INTERMEDIATE CARRIER S 79
Advanl;¡ges and disadvantages. These sial con veyors have the disadvantage of being
heavier than th e foregoing type. The slats carry, nipped between them, fragments of bagasse
which they drop between Ihe milis, making the noor untid y if the pJant is not provided with
a contilluous juice Iray. When the following mili has a tendency to choke, it orten happens
that Ihe slals beco me bent owing 10 the pressure exerled by the bagasse accumulated belween
the 10p roller and the part of the conveyor forming l he feed hopper.
However, this system has Ihe advantage of as sisling feeding by virtue of the pressure of
the slats against the bagasse in Ihe feed hopper. This pressure is slight but nOI negligible,
especiaJly when il is assisted by a feeding roller on the bagas se. Further. wear is less than in
the rake type.
Fig. 8.10. Feed ing or mili wilh slaH ype inlermediale earrier.
Arrangement. The plane of the feed -hopper portion should be tangential to the feed roller
(Fig. 8.10).
The horizonlal distan ce d (Fig. 8. 10) between Ihe leading sprockets and the top roller of
the mili should be approximately equal tO } of the roller diameter:
d = DI 3 (8.2)
The plane ab should be as nearl y as possible normal to the axial plane of the top a nd feed
rollers, so that Ihe pressure exerted will not be partially lost by acting againsl the roller sur-
fa ces. This corresponds 10 an inclination equal to half the top angle of Ihe mili (ef. p. 261),
or about 34 - 40 ° :
ex
(3= (8.3)
2
Inclination of the sloping portion. The rising portion of rake conveyors or apron carriers
is generally about 25 ° . However, in very compact tandem s, il goes as high as 30°. When for
any reason Ihe space available between the two milis is limited, il is possible', Wilh a rake
conveyor, to exceed this value substantially, and 10 go as hi gh as 50° and cvcn 60°. So Ihat
the bagasse will not adhere to the rakes, it is of advantage to gi ve the carrier, at its uppcr
extremity, an end portion al 30°; this is effected by means of two idler pulle ys placed at the
poin! of change ot' slope.
-
80 FEEDING OF MILLS AND CONVEYING OF BAGASSE Ch,8
Speed. The linear speed of intennedi atc carriers should be higher lhan lhe peripheral speed
of lhe mili roller s, There is no disad vantage in exceeding these speeds , whkh are very low;
il permits Ihe Ihickness of Ihe bagasse layer lo be reduced, and especiall y gives lhe effecl of
posilive feeding sought in lhe apron carrier. ,
Maxwell indi cates a speed 50 - 700/0 higher Ihan Ihe peripheraJ speed of Ihe mili rollers
2
for rake conveyors, and (p, 200 ) a speed equal lo thal of the rollers for apron carriers.
TrompJ advises a speed higher by 7 - 10% for apron carriers. Fives Lille compute abou\ 10%
for apron conveyors, and up lo 200% higher for carriers of Ihe rake type. We have \hen:
V' = 1,5 - 3 V (rake carriers)

(8.4)
V ' '" l . I V (apron carriers)
V' linear speed of inlermediate carriers

=
V = peripheral speed of lhe mili rollers, in the same units .
When necessary, it is possible lo push the speed of inlermediale carriers' as high as 40 and
even 60 m/min (130 and 200 fl. / min). These are abnormal speeds, not gene rally useful.
Power. The mean power consumption of lhe intermediale carriers is generally scarcely a
matter of concern, since th is po wcr is Curnished by the mili il selC, a nd in a wa y forms an in-
tegral part of the power required to operate lhe milI. We shall consider it again later on under
this heading (Chap. 14).
Roughly, we may indicate as order of magnitude: ,
T = 0,075 A (T = 0.1 A) (8 .5)
T = mean power absorbed by an inlerlllédi üte carrier , in kW (h,p,)

A = crushing rate, in l.c.h.
This power represents approximately 5% of the total, power required Cor the milI.
As we shall see later, these two indications are given oniy to show typical values; the aClUal
power, as well as the relative power consumption, can vary very substantially aboye or below
these values.
Fig. 8,11, Fixed intermediale earrier (Meineeke),

INTERMEDIATE CARRIER$ 81
(e) Fixed carriers

These are typified by the Meinecke conveyor (Fig. 8.11). This is an ingenious system, which
avoids all moving mechanism: only the bagasse moves from one mili to the next. The bagasse
leaving the mili pushes up an inclined plane the bagasse which has already IefL rhe mili; when
it has attained a certain height aJong the ascending plane, it slides of ils own accord down
a second plane sloping in the opposite direction.
The inclination of the rising po[tion is about 30° (27 - 35°), tha! of the descending portion
abou! 40°. Consequently, the highest point is well beyond the mid-poinl of the distance ber-
wee.n the two milis .
In order 10 force the bagasse leaving the mili to move as a blanket instead of accumulating
in a heap, it is enclosed between the scraper plates, which are placed c10se to the deJivery
opening forming a dihedrat angle of about 10°; these are prolonged far enough for the fric-
tion on their surfaces 10 compress Ihe bagasse and give it a certain cohesion, thus permilling
it to mount the inclined pon ion of Ihe chute as a sotid blanket without breaking.
Ádvantages and disadvantages, From the point of view of cost, wear and mainlenance,
this system would obviously be all that could be desired. Unfortunately, it lends itself badly
to:
(1) The feeding of the following mili, which has to grip the bagasse without assistance:
wehave seen with rake carriers thal a feed-plate angle of 50° is necessary for proper feeding.
Howcver, Ihis is not provided, as it would necessitate lOO long a rising ponion.
(2) The use of imbibition, and this is much more serious. If imbibition is added as usual
at the delivery of the mil! (this would be possible with a nozzle inside the scraper plates), it
would not be possible to move the bagasse with the added weight of the liquid . If it is applied
at any poinl of the descending portion, the bagasse blanket is broken, and the distribution
of imbibilion is defective. In addition, many people are opposed to the idea of imbibilion
applied close 10 Ihe following mill,"considering that il is less effective than if applied as the
bagasse leaves the preceding milI.
Though the latter argument has little foundation, Ihe difficulties described as regards
feeding, and panicularly that of the proper application of sufficient imbibition, have
prevented the extension of this system, though it is otherwise very interesting. Moreover, it
is applicable only in very compact tandems, in which the milis are very c10se to one another.
In Cuba, at central Punta Alegre, Gonzalez" has arranged 10 avoid these disadvantages
and to obtain complete satisfaction from Meinecke intermediale carriers, by adopting the
following arrangements:
(a) Slope of the rising portion 27 - 30° .
(b) Slope of the descending portion 43 -'45°
(e) The angle al the top of the conveyor between the two branches was replaced by an arc
of a circle of radius 0.47 D (D = diameter of mili rollers) or (in the case quoled) exactly 457
mm (18 in.), Ihe centre of the arc being at 2.84D from Ihe axial vertical plane of the 10p roller
of the preceding mili, and 2.21 D from the vertical plane of the top roller of the following
milI. The milis were thus at 5.05 D between their axes. The bagasse layer then cracked at the
. summit withoul actually breaking. Imbibition was added aboye the summlt point by a spray,
under a pressure of 3.5 kg/cm 2 (50 p.s.i.).
82 FEEOINO OF MILLS ANO CON VEYING Of BAGASSE Ch.8
Feeding of lhe mili was cffccled by a feeding roller below Ihe bagasse, of diameler 0.47 D,
wilh 12 ribs each 19 mm U in.) square and rOlaling al v' = 1.36 v (v = peripheral speed
of the mili rollers) and langential to lhe plane of lhe descending .portion.
Setting of lhe Meinecke scrapers. Gonzalez recommends thal Ihe enlryopcning belween
lhe scrapers shouldbe:
}st mili: 5.5 eA

2nd mili: 6.5 eA
3rd mili: 7.0 eA
delivery work opcning 01' lhe mili)
4th mil}: 7.5 e A
5th mili: 8.0 e A
6th mili: 8.5 e A
Thc o pcllillg al Ihe parallel porlion rollowing Ihe lapered seclion should be 1.23 limes Ihe
cnlry o pc ning.
Bell-lype carriers
The COSl of chains and slals of apron-lype carriers has suggested lhe idea 01' replacing Ihem
by a simple rubber bell, as in bell conveyors (Fig. 8.12). The bell simply passes over 1\v0
drums, an upper driving drum and a Jower return drum. The assembly thus becomes very
light and may bc driven by a small electric molor and reduclion gear situaled clase 10, and
sometimes even inside, lhe upper drum. A flexible scraper, placed above the I'eed roller and
al lhe 10p of lhe relurn run of lhe conveyor, removes Ihe pieces of bagasse which .Il ick (Q
lhe bell due lO lhe imbibition.
These belt carriers form a modern and economical Solulion. {nilial cosl is no higher than
Fig, 8,12. Bcll-lYPC inl ermediale carrier.

INTERMEDIA TE CARRIERS 83
is
for other types, and upkeep cost much lower. The belt hardly wears al all, provided Ihal
il rllns Irue and does nol rub on Ihe edges. To ensure Ihis, il is necessary lo sel Ihe two drums
slriclly parallcl, lo moinloinlhe bell well cenlrcd hy a very slighl convexilY oflhe upper drllm
and, aboye all, 10 lakc all prccalllions 10 avoid access 01' bagasse, even bagassc powclcr, "el·
ween Ihe bell and Ihe drllnls. Wilh lhis objccl, il is ncces.\ary to providc a bell wiJcr Ihall
rhe length of lhe rollers by approximalely 10 cm (4 in.) on each side, and to support il on
the sides of Ihe upper run by a n\l.mber of small rollers slightly inclined rowards the middle
01" Ihe belt, also lO provide a flexible rubber slrip to prevent loss of bagasse belween the side
plates of the carrier and the belt. It is necessary also to blockon both sides the free space
between Ihe upper and lower runs of the bell, by means of a plate extending from one drum
to Ihe olher.
The maximum slope of a rubber bell conveyor is 27° (51 ojo); it should preferably be
24 - 25°. The belr is generally 5-ply, with a layer of I mm on rhe underside and 2 mm aboye,
High-speed carriers
As soon as rhe belr had rendered the carrier so light, flexible and manageable, it was indicated
thal it could he run faster, Maxime Riviere, in Réunion, has exploited this idea Ihoroughly
alld put inlO operalion a high-speed intermediale carrier. His main objective was to reduce
the bagasse on lhe carrier to a layer so thin Ihat lhe imbibilion could conlact all. the bagasse
in transit. With ordinary intermediate carriers, it is difficult 10 distribUle the imbibition over
al! the bagasse in a uniform manner, since the surface layer absorbs most of it at the expense
of lhe bulk of the. material. To accentuate the advantage, Riviere added a dislribulor-
thrower, acting on the bagasse as it lefl two Meinecke scrapers, and throwing it onlo the belt
in a uniform layer (Fig. 8.13), The bclt runs al a speed of approximately 8-20 times the
"
Fig. 8.1 J. Riviere-¡ype high-speed-he!1 inlermediate carrier.
peripheral speed of the rollers, generally 75 -140 m/min (250-450 fI./min). Under these
conditions, the bagasse is spread in a layer approximately 13 - 25 mm (! - 1 in,) in thickness,
and Ihe bell may be seen through the layer. An imbibition trough distributes the water or
the juice on a plate of lhe Maxwell type, assuring a continuoussheet of liquid aeross lhe full
84 fEEDING OF MILLS AND CONVEYlNG OF BAGASSE Ch. 8
;f.
:4
,','" "_~,,.; J;,.

;;~
f'ig. 8.14. Bagas.se layer "<1 high-specd earrier reeding a Donnelly chute.
widlh of lhe carrier. None of lhe devices for dislribution over a Ihick layer (eJ. p. 93) gives
such a regular dislribulion of lhe imbibition (Fig. 8.14).
The mOlor driving the belt is of aboul 2.5 - 3.5 kW (3 - 5 h.p.), that for the distribulor-
lhrower 4.5 - 6 kW (6 - 8 h.p.). The lalter should have a diameter al lhe bOltom of the teelh
of aboul half lhe roller diameler, and a number of teelh of about 100-115 per m (30-35
per fl.) of widlh. These can be dislribuled ov~r 12 rows around Ihe small roller which carries
Ihem. I1 should rOlale al 300-400 r.p.m.
We have nol ascertained thal, inlhc rangc indicaled, the bell speed has a perceplible elTecl
on lhe eXlraclion: 120 m/min (400 I·l./min) shows no difference rclalivc 1060 m/min (200
fl./minl, allhough lhe bagas se layer should lheorelicallybe half lhe lhickness in Ihe I'ormer
case. We also consider lhat there is no advantage in going to a very high speed, and lhal a
good bell speed is lhal which lhrows lhe bagasse just into lhe feed opening 01' Ihe mili. This
condition appears I'avourable to feeding Ihe mili, and should be preferred 10 a high bell s[leed
which lhrows·lhe bagas se againsl lhe 10p roller.
This goucl regular feeding is one 01' lhe favourable characlerislics 01' Ihe high-speccl carrier.
Allhough ilS original purpose was lhe optimal distribution of the imbibilion, lhe beneJ'il 10
be oblained from lhis should nOl be overemphasised: aClually, an even dislribulion 01' Ihe
imbibilion is always effected in the nip of lhe lwo fronl rollers, lhe excess liquicl from lhe
wel portion being expressed by lhe pressure and rapidly absorbed by the dry portion. For
lhis reason, an excellenl distribuliun 01' imbibilion on lhe carrier is nOI really valuable excepl
ror low imbibilion rales, for which Ihe aulollWlic correclion in lhe mili is insulTicienl. We
know lhal sume faclories in Soulh At'rica, using heavy imbibilion, have lriecllu Riviere car-
rier and have abandoned il, as nOI improving lheir exlraclion. However, we are in favour
of lhe syslem: il assures good use of imbibilion, assures very effeclive feeding and is nOl ex-
pensive eilher in initial cost or in upkeep.
· DELIVERY PLATE AT LAS'!' MILL .. 85
The high-speed inlermediale carrier can be adapled very well for use with an underfeed
roller (ef. p. 92). The latter is lhen useful only in lhe case of an overload, bul lhe
combinalion proves efreclive if Ihe Iwo syslems are well regulated (conveyor speed and ad-
juslmenl of the underfeed roller).
One-piece intermediate carriers. The intermediale carrier obstrucls access to lhe mili, and
mUSl be removed every lime rolle[s have to be removed or changed. To sa ve labour and 1055
of lime, il is made loday in such a manner lhal il can be raised verlically in one piece by
Ihe travelling crane, the side plates forming one assembly with the C'lrrier proper. Hooks fix-
ed at the four extremities of [he side plales allow Ihe carrier to be lifted bodily by means of
Iwo slings. This is an improvemerlt leading lo a saving of valuable lime, which is very
necessary.
DELIVERY PLIITE AT LAST MILL
The relalively dry bagasse from Ihe last mili , which does nol receive inbibition, slides more
easily than wel bagasse. However, even on a smooth surface sueh as sleel polished by fric-
lion, or waxed wood, il slill requires a slope of 38 - 40° lo slide freely. Il is wise lO allow
40° in general, and nOI 10 go lower lhan 45 ° on an inclined plane of any lenglh, lo avoid
Ihe risk Ihal bagasse accidenlally wetler Ihan normal may refuse lo slide.
The"e valúes are obviously valid also for Ihe feed chules lo boiler furnaces.
FEEDING ARRANOEMENTS
Mili feed by gravity

We should have no illusions on lhe feeding el'fec[ due 10 Ihe pressure generaled by a sial con-
veyor. Tllis aClion is very feeble and il is sufficienl, 10 demonslrale lhis, 10 inlerpose one's
hand in Ihe layer of bagasse carried by lhe conveyor.
Gravity feed, Ihal is, Ihe feeding effecled wilh lhe aid of a simple chule (Figs. 8.4 and 8.6)
in Ihe mili hopper which follows a rake conveyor, does nOI give any direcl "push"; Ihe com-
ponenl of bagasse weighl parallel 10 Ihe feed plales aCls lo a greal exlenl against lhe surface
of lhe feed roller (Fig. 8.6). This feeding force, however, is nOI losl; on accounl of lhe fric-
lion of Ihe bagasse, il produces a corresponding adhesion of Ihe bagasse lO Ihe feed roller,
and hence a feeding force which, while being indirecI, is no less effeclive.
In slandard rake carriers (Fig. 8.6) Ihis effecl is nOl superior lo Ihe pressure given by sial
conveyors (Figs. 8.8 and 8.10), bul il is possible lo increase il subslanlially.
We shall calculale lhe pressure in kg/dm ' (lb. per sq.ft.) which is exerled al lhe botlom
of lhe feed chule 011 a seclion perpendicular lO Ihe plane of [he feed plate. lt has a value (Fig.
8. J 5).
F = P (sin (3 - <f; cos (3) (8.6)

S
86 FEEDINO OF MILLS AND CONVEYING OF BAGASSE Ch.8
P = weight of bagass~, in kg (lb.)

'" = coefficient of friclion of the bagasse on the feed plale
S = area of lhe seclion considered, in dm 2 (sq.fL)
(3 = angle of inclinalion of the feed plale.
We have:
P LEZd
Zd (8.7)
S LE
L = widlh of rollers, in dm (fL)

E lhickness of lhe bagasse layer. in dm Ul.)
Z = length of lile J'ecd plate, in dlll (11.)
d = apparenl densily of lhe bagasse, in kg/dm J (lb./cu.I'I.):
d is of lhe order of 0.40 (25) for lhe first mill (withoUI compaclion), bUI can vary from
0.30 to 0.60 (20 to 40) (0.60 with compaction'), and may belaken in the olher milis as ap-
proximately equal to:
d = 0.10 ( ~--1 + A') (8.8)

1 - h
h moisture per unit of bágasse

A = imbibition per unit of fibre (cf. p. 90).
Hence d = say approximately 0.30 - 0.40 (20 - 25), according 10 lhe quantity of imbibi-
tion.
The coefficient of friction '" depends on lhe bagasse and on lile degree of polish 01' lhe
.Os
, ,
,
, ,,
30'
~
'1
°E
Fig. 8.15. Grav;<y reed. Pig. 8.16, Donnelly chute.

FEEDlNG ARRANGEMENTS . . 87
feed plate. We may take in general", = 0.25 -0.30 (the values given on p. 99 apply to
grooved rollers and not to smooth plates).
To be more precise, the bagasse density increases with increasing vertical height of the'ac-
cumulated bagasse. We shall be content here with Ihe mean values given aboye.
We havc Ihen:
..F = Zd (sin (3 - '" cos (3) (8.90)
Giving d and '" the mean values, we obtain Table 8.1.

We see from this lable the greal value of long chutes and sleepangles, where these are prac-
ticable. Al Monymu s k l the feed plale of the first mili is 6.5 m (21 ft.) long with a slope of
53°. Al Pioneer (Aumalia) the first mili has a 3·m (lO-ft.) chute al 65°, (he fourth mili a
ehUle of4.25 In (14 fl.) al 60°, the Ihird mili 3.35 m (11 ft.) at 90° (vertical). Donnellychules
are now generally J -4 In (10-16 fl.), and vertical.
TABLE 8.1
V/UVE IN kg/ dm 1 OF THE COMPONENT OF ORAVITY FEED AS A FUNCTION OF THE LENOTH Z AND THE INCLlNATION {j Of
THE FEEO PLATE (d = 0.4 kg/ dm'; = 0.30)
.. _------_ .. - --
Z(rn) {3 = 10° {3 = 60° {3 = 70' Il = 80' {3 = 90'
----- --"- - _...__ ._-
I 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.4 3.7
2 4.2 5.2 6.2 6.8 7.4
3 6.3 7.8 9.2 10.2 10.8
4 8.4 10.4 12.0 13.6 14.6
5 10.5 13.0 15.3 16.8 18.3
_._ ._- - _.
Feed hopper. With a feed plate slope greater than 55°, it beco mes essential to add a front
plate CD as the bagasse tumbles forward aboye Ihis value (Fig. 8.16).
Wilh gravity feed chules, a feed hopper A BCD will Iherefore be adopled, the boltom pi ate
AB of which will meel Ihe feed roller at a poinl B situated 30° before Ihe vertical axial plane;
the plane of the fronl plale CD will meel Ihe top roller at a point E situated on the horizontal
axial plane of thal roller. The thickness E of the hopper will vary slightly then with normal
values of the angle (3 (55 - 90°) . It should be of the order of 0.40 - 0.75 of the roller diameter,
according to their peripheral speed v: 0.40 for v = 14 m/ min (46 fL / min), 0.75 for v = 10
m/min (33 ft./min) (Donnelly6).
Van Hengel' considers that these values are too high and suggests reducing them to; E =
(11 or 12) eA for a fírst or second milI and 8 eA for a final mili, where eA is the delivery
opening of the mili while operating. However, in his calculation he does not take into account
either the slip or the coefficient of drag of a column of bagasse on the surface of the roller.
Now even if there is no slip, (he roller does no! pick up the bagasse at its surface speed v
(or v cos C( if the bagasse column comes into contact wilh the roller surface at an angle C(
ahead of the vertical diameter) except for the surface layer in contact with it. The speed of
movement v' of the bagas se layer as a whole can be only a fraction of v, often: v' = 0.6
v cos a (being moved by one surface only) or 0.8 v cos C( when gripped between the top roller
88 fEEDINO OF MILLS AND CONVEYINO OF BAOASSE Ch.8
and Ihe feed roller. Thus we would recommend, while foll ow ing Van Hengel's reasoning, [he
adopl ion of Ihe following:
Mili Valuf DI/he /hieleness E ol/he leed hopper

(Of 5pace bel ween fop roller ond jeedillg
roller)
Hopper wilhou/ Wilh

leed roller leed roller
I SI 01 2nd mili 16 eA
Final mili 1.1 e"
provided lhal lhese values do nOI exceed lhose proposed by Donnelly.

Munro' ciles lhe case of Isis Factory in Auslralia which had obtained an excellenl resulI
by adopling ~ chulc al 80° slore, lhe cross-seclion 01' which, where il mel lile rollcrs, was
5 dlll 1 rcr unil (kg/ m ' ) (2.6 sq.l'l. per Ib./sq.fl.) of f'ibre loading.
To oblain Ihe desired valuc of E, lhe rO.\ilion 01' 110il11 B will be adjusled, as lhis m~y vary
slighlly from Ihal indicalcd.
If {3 is less Ihan 60°, we ma y lake for B lhe poinl silualed al (90° - (3) ahead 01' lhe vehical
axial plane of Ihe feed roller.
The 10lal rressure of lhe bagas se on Ihe feed roller is equallO Ihe producl of lhe pressure
Fand Ihe arprorriale area; lhe laller is Ihe area of rollcr surface in conlacl wilh lhe bagassc,
projecled 011 a rlanc rerrcndicular 10 AB.
We consider lhat the bcsl angle {3 wOllld be in the ncigllbourhood of 80°. An angle of 90°
would obviously be Ihe ideal, ir it could be arranged wilhoUI difficulty from lhe roinl 01' vie\\'
or supporling lhe feed chute.
Since D rerresents lhe lower edge of lhe front plate of Ihe feed hopper, the dislanee DE
can wilhout disadvantage be 0.3 m (\ fl.). This allows an observer tO see lhe bagasse anel
10 gauge Ihe comraetncs.s of lhe mass al the bollom of lhe. feed chute.
The feed hopper should widen OUI slightly lowards Ihe botlom, Ihat is, Ihe front plale CD
should have a slope {3' aboul JO less than the slope {3 of lhe pJate AB. This avoids any
resislance and lendenc y lO arching; il renders negligible lhe friclion on [he front plale, and
permils lhe componenl of Ihe feeding force 10 reach its maximum value.
The eoefficienl of friclion rp' of bagas se on lhe feed roller is greater lhan rp, since lhe sur-
face of I he rollcr is de.signed to give lhe besl grip possible, wilh ils grooving and with a
suitahle ¡?1 · ~il1 01' the I11C¡;¡J . We may lake in general. for grooved rollcrs, q,' = 0.30 (polished
metal) to 0.40 (rollgh slIrl'ace).
High lonnages and feeding roller. The foregoing arrangemenls (Fig. 8.16) sometimcs pr(l\'c
insufficient in tandems working al maximum capaeilY; lhe feed hopper becomes lOO narrow.
We indie~lIe in Fig. 8.17 anolher arrangemenl corresponding 10 lhe maximum widlh permissi-
ble for lhe ¡'eed horrero It consisls of loealillg the plilteS of lhe hoprer 10 meel lile lor roller
al a point E and lhe feeding roller al il poinl F, given by Ihe figure.
FEEDING ARRANGEMENTS 89
Fig. 8. 17 . Loc.lIiOIl 01" rcccJing rolk'r wirll DOllllclly chulC.
We shall consider lhe case of lhe feeding roller, since il is very useful al such maximum
lonnages, The bOllom plale AF rnay be arranged as already indkaled, and ¡he feeding roller
¡hen se¡$O as ¡O give lhe angle (~' such ¡Ila¡
et' 135°-((3+d
(3 slope of lhe plale AF (8.10)
E = angle OwZ = angle of Ow wi¡h lhe horizonlal.
The upper plale CE will meel lhe roller al E, a poinl chosen such lhal ¡he angle et wOE
is defincd by:
COS et = 1(1 + ~) (8.11)
o space belween feeding roller and 10p roller

D roller diameler.
Conclusion. When the space be¡ween milis permi¡s, and wllen i¡ is possible ¡O inslall a feed
plale al Icas¡ 2 m (6 fl.) in lenglh, gravity can provide a very posilive and eJ'J'ec¡ive feeding
force, superior lo lhal oblained wilh mos! of lhe standard feeding devices such as pushers
or fceding rollers,
11 is particularly indicated for a firsl mili, where il is easier 10 inslall a high chute. The chule
should ¡hen not be interrupted by a magnetic separalor, which in Ihis case should be localed
elsewhere.
Wi¡h Ihe laler milis, il is aJllhe moreattraclive wi¡h high imbibi¡ioll . The feeding compo-
nent is proponional lO the densilY d, which increases wi¡h imbibi¡ion (e/. eqn, (8.8». With
an imbibi¡ion of" = 2, it is airead y more lhan double the density of bagasse without imbibi-
lion.
90 FEEDlNG OF MILLS AND CONVEYING OF BAGASSE Ch,8
Establishment of eqn. (8,8), The ,lpparenl densilY 01' bagasse al 45'70 moislure, in a layer
of 0,3 m (1 fl.) or Ihereabouls, is of Ihe order of 0,180 kg/dm' (11 Ib./cu,ft,). Now 1 dm'
(1 cu./'I.) or Ihis bagasse eonlains:
180 x 0.45 = 80 g or waler (11 x 0.45 5 lb, of waler)
and slightly less Ihan:
180 - 80 = 100 g or ribre (11 - 5 = 61b. of fibre)
As the volume of bagasse varies but little with its moisture (in fact, under a thick layer,
its volume deereases slightly when its moisture inereases, on aecount of the eompaetion of
the lower layers under Ihe increasing weighl or Ihe upper layers), we shall assume Ihal Ihe
weight pcr dlll' (cu, fl.) is rcprescnled by 1DO g (6 lb,) 01' fibre, to which is acJdecJ the weighl
of contained waler.
Consequently, if we designate by:
h = moisture of the bagasse, in weight of water per unit weight of wet bagas se, before im-
bibition,
w= weight of water per unit weight of dry fibre in the bagasse after imbibition,
h' = moislure of Ihe bagas se arter imbibilion,
A = ralio of weight of imbibilion water (or juice) lo weight of fibre (eJ. p, 285),
I weight of fibre per unit of cane = fibrc in cane,
F = weíghl of fibre per uníl bagas se = fibre eonlenl of bagasse before imbibilion,
B weighl of bagasse per unil of cane, before imbibition:
Neglecting materials in solution in lhe juice, we have:
h'
w=
1 - h'
Considering for lhe moment the weight relative 10 unil of cane, the weight of imbibilion
water will be Al and lhe weight of water in the bagasse, after imbibition:
Bh + Al = h I + Al = I ( -jl- + A)
F I - h
After imbibilion, lhe moisture of lhe bagas se becomes:
I(_h
1 -
+ A)
h h + _A..:.(l_ _h )
w= ------------- . ----------- =:
1+ I (_h . + A)
I+A(l h)
1 - h
The apparenl densilY of the bagasse, after imbibilion, is then:

FHDIN(; ARRANGEMENTS 91
0.10
d = 0.10 (1 + W) O. 10 (1 + .. h ' . _) =
1 - h' I - h'
(8 ,8)
"Dirty" lop roller

11 is currenl practice in Queenslan'd 10 allow Ihe grooves of Ihe 10P roller 10 fill wilh bagasse.
For Ihis il is necessary lO use a smooth scraper plate, instead of one meshing wilh Ihe grooves,
and lO sel Ihis plale so Ihal iI has a clearance of approximalely 6.5 mm (~ in.) from Ihe top
of Ihe roller leelh.
Generally Ihis in ilself is nOI sufficient. I1 is necessary Ihal Ihe lOp roller should have
grooves wilh an angle of 32 - 35 ° , ilnu llJaI lile metal surl"ul'c should be sulTiciclllly rough.
This laller eondilion is obtained il1 Queel1slund by -'polling Ihe 10p uml sities al" Ihe leeth by
meulls al" a carboll eleclrode, al1 operalion Uescribed as "arl'il1g" 01" "S[)úllil1g". The eJec-
lrode generally used is "Azucar 80".
The dirty 10p roller, as it is called, grips Ihe bagasse betler. Moreover, Ihe Auslralians
(Donnelly9) consider Ihat the bagasse in the grooves prevenls lhe f10wback of juice al Ihe bol-
10m of Ihe 10p roller grooves, 10 form a pool of juice in front of lhe 10p roller. Observation
shows in any case Ihal operation with the dirty 10p roller arresls Ihis undcsirable
rhcnomenon.1f a groove refuses 10 fill with bagasse, il permils u jel 01" juit:e 10 issue on the
enlry side of Ihe milI, an effecI which again supports cJearly Ihe Auslralian Ihesis . They eon-
sider equally that Ihe packed bagasse also prevenls Ihe passage of juiee on the delivery side,
a phenomenon mueh more diffieult 10 observe, but mueh more serious sinee Ihe juiee is thus
reabsorbed by Ihe bagas se leavil1g Ihe mili . Donnelly has oblained al Pioneer, with a dirly
roller , moislures of the arder 0 1" 42% ¡Il Ihe Iusl mili, somelimes as low as 39"/0, Ulld this
slrongly SU[)portS his poinl 01" view .
The firsl ciaim aboye is definile; lhe second seems 10 us elllirely probable. 11 is supported
by lhe faet that the upper layer of bagasse leaving Ihe mili always has a moislurc higher Ihan
¡he a verage moiSlure of lhe whole bagasse, as has been afien verified.
When operating wilh a dirty 10P roller, il is neeessary for ealculalil1g lhe setling 10 lake
inlo accounl lhe volume oeeupied by lhe bagasse wilhil1 Ihe grooves, and in consequence 10
eonsider Ihe 10p roller as equivalenl 10 a smoolh roller 01" Ihe diamelcr al lhe 10p al" Ihe
ridges.
However, if devices are in use for measuring or rcgislering Ih a .Iift of lhe (op roller, this
approximation is much too rough 10 give a valid corre¿f l1lJ" 'ol7 Be values indicated or
regislered: Ihe dirty top roller does nOI permi( of an accur a('P 2. t's,IÍle of (he lhiekness 01"
(he bagasse filling its grooves , since Ihis is lOO uncertain and IO~ variable.
Effect of imbibition on mili feeding

Bagasse salurated with imbibition i~ less easily gripped by (he milis thall is dry bagasse. Hence
il is a common tendency of the men operating Ihe milis 10 reduce (he imbibilion when dif-
ficullies are experieneed with feeding or with mili chokes; Ihe conlrol of imbibition should
nOI be lefl in Iheir hands, since this expedienl is generally disaslrous from Ihe financial poinl
of view, and Ihey should nOI resort (O il bul seek OUl lhe cause of (he feeding lrouble.
92 FEEDlNG OF MILLS AND CONYEYING OF BAGASSE CIl. (;
On rhe olher hand, bagasse sa[ura[ed wi[h hor warer is more dirficul[ [O reed [han [hui
saturated with cold water. If both types of waler are available, cerrain feeding troubles may
be overcome, particularly at rhe lasl mili, by changing from hor lO cold water, wi[hou[
diminishing the quantity of imbibition.
Mechanical feeding devices

Chokes are the nightmare of engineers in charge of mills. When a mili is wOI'king licor ils
maximum capacity, a small fault is often sufficient to provoke rroubles: hydraulic plunger
sluggish, or sticking; trashplate too high, trashplate too low; toe of rrashplate worn, Ihe leelh
abad fit in the grooves of the front roller; insufficient space for rhe passage of juice behind
the heel of the trashplate; poor settings of feed and delivery openings of the mill; wear of
one roller, o(of the three rollers; major variarions'bf fibre in cane, etc., etc. The mulliplicilY
of possible causes complicates the task of locating the exacl cause of Ihe trouble, and
sometimes several weeks may pass before rhe trouble can be effectively remedied.
On the other hand, without being able 10 blame any item of plant, it is somerimes impossi-
ble to apply the desired imbibition in a mili working al high capacity. Consequen[ly,
engineers are turning more and more to forced feeding. The lalter consists of using a special
apparatus to force the bagasse to en ter the mil!. Such equipment is generally of rorary [ype,
and termed feeding roller.
Rotary feeders
(a) Rol/er on {he bagasse. This is rhe device most widely used wilh intermediate carriers
of slat type; it is located aboye the feed plate and driven from the top roller of the mili,
sometimes through an intermedia te shaft near the head of the carrier (Fig. 8.18). The best
system is one where its shaft and the two radius rods which connect it to the driving shaf[
form a rigid framework which can oscillate about the centre line of rhe drive shaft, which
is placed sufficienrly high for lhe roller to be easily lifled by an increase in the thickncss 01"
the bagasse layer. In this way i[ res[s on [he bagasse, which ir compresses slightly while lif"¡ing
if rhe bagasse layer becomes thicker. The surface of the feeding roller is grooved longitudinal-
ly, or fitted with small angle-pieces. Its external diameter is generally smalJer than that of
the mill rollers and equal to rwo-thirds, three-quarters or four-fifths of rhe lalter. The
sprockets driving it should be calculated so that its peripheral speed v' is grealer lhan Iha[
of the milI rollers. v:
v' = 1.1 - 1.7 v (8 12)
In rhe case of an apron carrier, this speed v' should be equal to that of rhe carrier (ef.
eqn. (8.4». The feed roller aboye the bagasse, though popular for so me time, is now general-
ly abandoned in fav,our of lhe following:
(b) Under-feed rol/er. Here the feeding rollers are loca red below [he bagasse layer (Fig. 8.19),
These are given a diameter approximarely one-third to two-thirds that of the mili rollers. I[
is of advantage to make the diameter ofthis magnitude, as the surface of contact and the
FEEDING ARRANGEMENTS 93
OS(,llalW"~ Jr amll'
'\" __ o •• _ _ • . . _
Plv'ot
.. -~.
\,.
/'
/(\
.j
Fig. H.18 , Feeding rnllt'r abo ye the bagass\,;'. Fig . 8. 19. Feedillg rolkr bdow Ihe bagas,..
grip of the roller, and hence the compaction effect on the bagasse, are improved accordingly.
This effect can be improved by providing the roller witfí grooving, for example of 10-13
mm (l-j in.) [lil ch.
1I is somclimes provided with a s[l1alltrasliplatc connecling il 10 lile I'eed roller; howevcr,
lllis is somelimes 1101 easily adjusleu, and may be olllitleu, Ihus perlllillil\~ lh\! roller 10 be
sel closcr 10 lile J'eed roller of lhe milI. The J'eeding roller will be arrunged rol' a peripheral
speed v' slighlly higher lhan lhal of lhe mili rollers, v:
Vi = 1.08 - 1.10v (8.13)
The selling e should be as small as possible as long as lhe bagnsse does nOl overnow aboye
Ihe 10p roller. Wilh good mill settings, Ihis condition is oblained when e = about 6 times
Ihe delivery opening eA of lhe mili while operaling 'O (eJ. p. J39). lf this delivery operaling,
ror example, is 25 mm (J in.), the cJearance belween mean diamelers of the feeding roller
and the top roller would be approximately 15 cm (6 in.).
Van HClIgel" gives e = 7 eA for a l'irst mili, dropping 10 e = 5 eA for a last mili.
To permil 01' adju:;lmenl, Ihe manul'aclurcr dc:;igns lile equiplllent 10 pcrl11il 01' ,1 ilori7.0n -
[aJ displacemcnl 01' lile roller 01' abolll 12.5-15 cm (5-6 in.) (C ' -C " ).
Thc dearance allowed belween Ihe reeding roller and Ihe I'eed rolkr 01' lile [l1ill is generally
5 mm (i in.). Ji should be as sma!1 as possible. The firm of Cail insisl that the centre line
of Ihe feeding roller should be as low as possib!e reJative to that of the top rolJer of the mili,
and state tha! feeding would become defective if it were aboye that of the mili roller.
A properly sel under-feed roller orlen [lermils or a reduclion in ralio of setting of fronl
<!nd back rolkrs. Tilis ralio ror eX<![llpiL' Illay be rcduLed 1'1'0111 2 lO I.~. O[ilcr [ilings bcing
equal, such reduclion always means an improvemenl in eXlracli on.
Powei-. The reeding roller requires 2.5-7.5 kW (3-9 h.p.), generally 5 kW (6 h.p.).
Ca in in eapacily. The system improves the eapacily 01' the mili by 10- 20 070. Any mili
working al high capacity or near ils limil should be filted with an under-feed rolJer, which
is more effeclive than the roller aboye lhe baga~se.
94 FEEDING OF MILLS AND CONVEYING OF BAGASSE Ch. 8
Conlínuous pressure feeder

This device, developed in Australia by the Colonial Sugar Refining Company, is widely used
in Australia nnd Soulh Africa. Ir was developed as a means of overcoming I he l'eecIing Jif-
ficullies experienced Wilh fine bagas se and hOl maceralion. Il consisls (Fig. 8.20) of a puir
. . '
Fig. 8.20. Pressure feeder.
of rollers ahead of lhe mili, wilh an enclosed chute , diverging slighlly, which gives lhe
bagasse a posilive movemenl from lhese rollers 10 lhe feed opening of lhe milI. The pressure
feeder is driven by the mili engjne, generally by means of an additional spur wheel and lail
bar. The feeder rolls extracI a high propon ion of thin juice, thus redu cing lhe ex ces s moisture
in thesloppy feed, and presenting lhe mili rollers with a comparalively dry feed slIrplied
under pressurc. The aClion of Ihe feeder is con linllous and uniform, lInlike lile inlcrillilll'ill
action of pushers. It is much more forceflll than tlle slighl co mpress ion exericd by orcIinary
feeding rollers. Thus it gives a definite improvement in crus hing rale or in lower moislUre
contenl of bagasse, or bolh. Hollywood" reports an increase in crushing rale from 77. j to
81.1 I.c.h. (about 5070) with a decrease in final bagas se moisture from 49.610 46.0070, where
pusherswere replaced by a pressure feeder on Ihe final milI. 11 is co nsidered in Auslralia Ih ar
the pressure feeder is the only device enabling high capacily to be maintained wilhheavy im-
bibilion.
Pressllre feeders are generally installed at Ihe lasl mili, somerimes on inlermediale milis and
even on rhe first milI. One inSlallalion in Auslralia" has given a firsl bagasse moislllre below
52070.
1. Diameter. The roller diameter varies from 60 to 100070 of the diameler of Ihe mili
rollers, being generally about 80070 of lhar figure.
2. Surface. The surface of rhese rollers may be smoolh, bUI preferably grooved; il may
F66DING ARRANGEMENTS 95
be pl'ovided wilh chevrolls. 80lh upper anu lower roller, are d'urnisheu wilh Messchaert
grooves (cf. p. 107).
3. Arrangement. The axial plan e of Ihe two rollers is geneq¡Jly al 45 0 lO the horizbnlal.
The centre line of Ihe enclosed feed chute bctween pressure feeder rollers and mili is as elosely
as possible normal 10 Ihe axial plane 01' thc~c rollcrs anu 10 thal 01' Ihe upper and ked rollers
of the milI.
This chule is lined on the inside wilh a sheet of stainkss steel, in order 10 reduce the frietion
of Ihe bagasse and to facilitate its movemelll, while reducing power requirements and wear.
r
The pressure developed in this chute is of the order of 0.07 - 0.10 kg/em' (1 - 1 lb./sq.in.)
but may sometimes attain 1.0 kg/cm 2 (15 Ib./sq.in.). The entry end of the chute should be
localed on a generatrix of the rollers al 15 - 20° from their axial plane.
The upper and lower plates should diverge by at least 3.5 0 , or essentially 7C!Jo 1'. Murry and
Shann"" reeommend 1 : 16 or 6.25C!Jo.
Fig. 8.21. Pressure feeder (Fletcher and Stewan).

96 FEEDlNG OF MILLS ANO CONVEYING OF BAGASSE Ch. S
The chule should mecl the top and delivery rollers on a generalrix, making 3n anglc 1101
grealcr Ihall 40° wilh Ihcir axial f)lanc.
Thc compaclion cocrrieicnl al Ihe eJiscllarge end 01' Ihe chule, i.e. at Ihe enlry 10 Ihe mili,
should be at least 80-95 or f)rererably 130-145 kg ribre/m' (5-6 or 8 -9I b.lell. n,), II
has almosl the same value al Ihe enlry 10 Ihe chule, We may lake ror examplc:
Cne//icienl o/ compaclion
Enlry Dist.:h~rgL' Enlry Dj.-;(.'h;~rgc
." ,., .... ..
,
1.'1 III i 11 104 kg / m' 96 kg/ m' 6.5 Ib.!cu.!'1. 6,0Ib .!cu.f!.
2nd mili 112 kg/m' 1()4 kg/ m' 7.0Ib.!cu.r1. 6.5 Ib .lcu, 1'1.
3rd mili 120 kg/m' 112 kg/ m' 7.5 Ib.!cu.fI. 7,0 Ib. leu. 1'1.
4.h mili 128 kg/m' 120 kg / m' 8.. 0Ib./cuJI. 7,5Ib.!c.i.I'l.
5.h mili 136 kg/m" 128 kg / m' 8.5 Ib .!" u, 1'1. R.O Ib.leu.r!.
. _.-._._ ......
I1 is rCcOllllllCllded lJ " Ihal coarse grooving shollld be used on hOlh rollers, 1'01' e.xal11pk,
50-mm (2-in.) pileh and wilh an anglc 01' 34- 35 ° .
4. Speed, The speed or lhe rollers musl bear a rixed ralio 10 Ihal or Ihe mili rollers. Thi s
is easily arranged, sinee Ihey are driven by a lrain or gears rrom Ihe .la me f)rime mover ,ilS
lhe milI.
Normally. Ihese rollers are given a perirhcral sf)eed or 1.5 limes Ihal 01' Ihc mil i rol lers.
In Auslralia lJ Ihis ralio varies rrom 1,3 10 1,7 ,
S. Selting, Donnelly' recommend s lhal Ihe opening between pressure reeder rollers should
be sel so as 10 give a generaled volume (generally known as "eseribed volume") or 1,5 timc",
that ol'l!le I'eed and lar rollers or Ihe mili, Ir l!le mili has aralia 0 1' sellillgs (whcn oreralin!!)
01' 2, Ihi" \Viii l!len give an overa ll ralio 01' J hellVccn the presslll'e reeeJer é1nd lile dcli\'(I'\'
of)cning 01' lile mili (we ma y comme nl Ihal, if l!le roller sf)eed is 1.5 limes Ihal 01' l!le milI.
Ihe prcssurc !'ceder of)clling w ill be equ.¡J 10 Ihe leed ore ning 01' Ihe mili). Wilh Ihis selling,
Donnelly has reeoreJed bagasse moislures 01' 41.4070 as an average, somcl imes as lo\\' as
39,8070,
The moislure or Ihe bagasse in Ihe pressure ehule should be 3 f)er uni¡ of l'ibre, aeeorclin!,l
10 Crawford 16 , who rccommeneJs a rressure feeder se lling such Ihal lh e volumc escrihed h~'
Ihe rollt'l's \Vi II be given by:
v = 3,8 Al (V = 136 A.f) (8. 14)

, ge r
V = eseribed volume of lhe pressure feeder rollers. in ml / h (eu,rl./h)
A = weighl 01' cane Irealed, in l.e.ll .
.r - I'i"re ,'o lllelll pcr unil of canc,
TIIC ohjecl (01' rcsull) 01' Ihe [lre"sure reed rollcr.s i.s II1lIS 10 increasc Ihe cOlllpacliol1 L'OcITI~
eienl (cJ, eq 11, (10.20)) from Ihe 80 - 95 kg/m' (5 - 6 lb .Ieu . fL) of a Donnelly ehule 10 a
higher figure in Ihe pressure feed ehule, increasing progressi vely from aboul 95 (6) for a firSI
mili 10 120, 130, 145 and even 160 (7.5,8,9, 10) for a final mil!."
FEEDINO ARRANGEMENTS 97
This eorrcsponds 10 a weigh l 01' I'ibre per unit escribed volume ("fibre index") 01' 265
kg/m 3 (16.5Ib./cu.rt.) for the pressure feeuer, wi¡h approximately450 (28) at ¡he I'eed open-
illg üI' lhe mili, alld 880 (55) for the uelivery opening.
111 any case, the ratios of escribed volume 01' 1.5 and 3 as recoilllllellucu by Donnelly s'houlu
not exeeed maximum values 01' 2 and 4 respective'ly, or there will be a risk 01' breakage of
the pressure chute. The present trend is even to reduce these two ratios to 1.3 - 1.4 and
1.7 - 1.8 respectively.
6. Power consumption. Pressure feeders demalld a falrly high power, which Scriven 17
estimules al 35 - 45 kW (40 - 60 h.p.) for a mili 01' I x 2 m (36 x 72 in.).
7. Relative power consumption by pressure feeders and milI. Tests at Sezela 2l in South
Africa give the following results:
Torque consumed by feeding rollers:
t of tOlal ¡orque (rollers plus mili) ill firs¡ mili

n 01' tOlal torque (rollers plus mili) in I'iflh mili
The power developed was:
105 kW (140 h.p.) for feed rollm and 516 kW (690 h.p.) I'or ¡he first mili
25 kW (33.5 h.p.) for leed rollers and 291 kW (390 h.p.) for the fifth mili
8. Application. Pressure feeders are expensive and are oJ'tcn dilTicult to (,il in10 the
t¡Jnuem, but they give an improvemcnt in eapacity and eXlraction, particularly whcre it is
tlc'sirc'J to use high ill1bibition al high lelllperalurcs. Ilshould be nlerlliolleu, huwever, Ihal
. in Soulh África" Iheir results ha ve SOlnétinles becn Jisappoilltillg. 011 the olller Iland, Ihe
popularity of lhis method 01' feeuing in Australia is sueh Ihat tltere is practically 110 mili in
Ihal country without pressure feeders, Such a result can only speak strollgly in its favour.
The mean extraclion 01' Australian milI tandems is slightly inferior ro Ihal or South African
landems, but il is oblained wilh an appreciably smaller number 01' milis per tandem (4 - 6
as against 6 - 7).
Following Walkers and Flelcher¡', Smilh and Mirrlees have fabricaled in cooperation with
Hulells sorne 6-roller milis designed to reduce Ihe Illoisture 01' diffusion megasse from 85070
to 480/0 (performance guaranteed).
9. 1mbibifion. The poi percent 01' the juice from the pressure feed rollers is appreciably
lower Ihan the poi 01' residual juice in Ihe bagasse from the preceding milI. Under Ihese condi-
lions, il is 01' interest to use Ihe pressure feeder juice as imbibilion 01' Ihe bagasse from Ihe
preceding mili (Fig. 8.22), and lo use Ihe imbibilion normally used al Ihal poinl, at a point
furlher back in the train."
98 FEEDlNG OF MJLLS AND CONYEYING OF BAGASSE Ch. R
Mili no. CD o ®
, - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --l
~ - - - - -;=--=--=- ~ ~ ==- ~ =-=-_- -=- --=- -=- .::- _-, l
I I
I I I
I I
r I Imbiblllon water !
590 290' 29q 290 I
550 I
O I
,,-"- / ' 100 I
000/ I
I
I
P,v. P,v. P.V I
L -__- ,____~273 P.V, I
I
I
290 290 290
I
__ ~~ ___ J I
ro process
_____ ~O_ _ _ _ _ _ _ --.J I
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ J
Numericol volues ort" extroctoble juice °/0 fibre

P.V.• proportioning volves
Fig. 8.22. Pressure feeder. Imbibition circuiL
BAGASSE CONYEYORS
The bagasse leaving the lasl mili should be elevaled for distribulion 10 Ihe boiler furnaces.
II is picked U¡1 hy a bagasse elevalor, which tlrops il anta a horizonlal conveyor; lhi,
tlislribulcs il ¡¡long lhe Icnglh of Ihe hoiler slalion lo Ihe furnaces (Fig. 8.23). Ir lhe lasl mili
and lhe hagasse lofl are nearly in a slr¡¡ighl lille, lhe .lame eonveyor can serve al Ihe same
lime as elevalor and conveyor (Fig. 8.24). These conveyors are generally 01' lhe seraper lype.
When lhey are nOI also aCling as dislribulors, lhey can well be of bell Iype.
For ap¡1arenl densilY 01' Ihe bagasse Irans¡1oned one ean lake 160 kg/m J (10 Ib./ell.!'l.).
Speed. They are generally driven al a sreed equal lO IWO or lhree limes lhe ¡1erirheral srcccl
01' lhe lasl mili, or aboul 20- 30 m/min (60- 100 fl./min).
fig. R,23. B:1g::ts~t' eleV<llor.

COEFFICIENT OF FRI CTlON FOR CANE ANO BAClASSE 99
Furnoce's
",
Fig . 8.24. Single ¡,:onvcyor !'or clevolillg aflu di~lribllling bnga'i~t'.
In SOUlh Arrica" a speed o i' 30- 36 m/ min (100- 120 rl./min) is recomrnended ror
\cTa¡X'1 (on vl:yors anu 90 m/m ill (295 rl :l lllin) ror bdl conveyors, bul Ihis can reach 140
1ll /1l1 ill (460 fl. / JIlin ).
Bell eon veyors ean operale al 25 ° slop~, 221 0 being reeo rnmenued. For scraper eonveyors,
50° is appropriale.
Widlh. For Iransport on rubber eonveyors, lhe following values are reeommended:
25 - 50 tlh of bagasse: 6 I/ h per 100 mm width (18 tlh per fl.)

50- 100 t/h of bagasse: 7 t/ h per 100 mm widlll (21 I/h pe r fl.)
100 l/ h of bagasse: 8 I/ h per 100 mm widlh (24 t/ h pel 1'1.)
For .I<:raper eonveyors:
6.5 t/ h per 100 mm (20 l/h per n.)
For seraper conveyors, the cost is hi gher Ihan Ihal for bell conveyors by aralia 01' 1.5 or 2.0.
Power. For a factor y of average size, an average figure may be laken oi' I kW for every
5 m lotal lenglh of bagasse conve yo r (i.e. aboutlwice Ihe actual length 01' the carrier = upper
run + lower run) (1 h.p. for every 20 fl.).
COEFFI CI ENT OF FRICTION FOR CANE ANO BAGASSE
Te.IIS carried out in Queensland lO determine Ihis cciel'ficient ha ve given " :
Polished mela/ Unpo/ished mela/

Cast ir on 0.40 0.44 - 0.50
Sleel 0 .38 0.40 - 0.50
100 FEEDING OF MILLS AND CONVEYING OF BAGASSE Ch. 8
Tlli\ COcffiCiCI1I'o derends mainly 011 lhe grooving. The influence 01' moiSlure is less Ihol1
\\'(lllld he \lll'r'''c''. The gr(lovilli!, 11011'cI'el, is 1l10rC cffeclivc wilillowcr llloiSiures ami \I'ill,
highcl pleS,lurcs,
Fil1cIlcSS 01' I'rcparuliol1 has a sligill I'avourablc ini'luence.
The cocfficienl 01' friclion increases al firsl wilh pressure, pass es Ihlough a lllaXilllUm lel!
a ralher low rressure, Ihen deereases in rroporlion as lhe pressure increases,
II dencases lInil'ormly wilh speed, and Auslralian tests have led 10 thesuggeslcd formula:
c/J = 0.43 - 0.007 v (</l = 0.43 - 0,002 v) (8. 15)
c/J coelTicienl 01' I'riction 01 Ihe calle or bagasse on lhe melal

v perirheral speed 01' Ihe roller, in m/lllin (rt./min).
REFERENCES
1 C. E. DENT, Proc, 391h Conf. SASTA, 1965, p. 99,

2 F. MAXWELl, Modern Milling oj SIIgar Cane, Normall Rodger, London, 1932, r, 200,
3 L. A. TROMP, Machinery and Equipment oj Ihe Sugar Cane Faclory, Norman Rodgcr, LOlldall, 1936. 1'. ) 12.
4 K. J. BUllOCK, Sugar J., 21 (5) (1958) 17.
5 H. D. DONNEl.lY, Proc, 251h Conf. QSSCT, 1958, r, 86,
/i H, D. DONNELI.Y, Proc, 281h Conf. QSSCT, 1961, r, 75.
7 A, YAN HIN(;r.l., Proc. 381h ConI SASTA, 1964, p, JJ,
R R. M. MUNRO, An illvcstigalioll ¡!l10 crllshing 01' hag,l';sc ¡lIld (he innUCllce 01' imhibiliol1 011 eXlr<-lCI¡on, Thesis,
Ulli~'('rsily 01' QU(,(,lls1and, 1964. [l. 160.
9 H. D, DONNELlY, Proc, 251h Conj, QSSCT, /958, r. 8<J,
10 D, HUlETT, Prol', 361h Conf. SASTA, 1962, r. 63.
11 A, VAN HENGEl, Proc, 381h Conf. SASTA, 1964, r, J5,
12 D, .1, HOLl.YWOOD, Proc. 16th Conf. QSSCT, 1949, r, 209,
1.1.1. I lor.r YW ()() 1) ¡\NI> S. Ci, CI.¡\RKr:, PI'OC. 11th COI/¡¿r. ISSCT. 1962, [l. 114X.
1..1 D, S. Srr¡\!\IN, Pme. }ÓII/ COf//. Q,<;,<;CT, IY6Y, p. JX9.
14.1 C. R, r-..hJ/un ¡\ND D, S. SHANN, SII/.!{/f" 7écl!l/()/. Hel'., 1(1970) 52.
15 D,.I. ¡'¡OLl.YW(l{)1) ANIJ S, (j, Cl.ARKlo, !)!"oc. I/r/I COII,'.U' , IS,)'CT, /962, p. 11-15.
11> \\" R, CRA\VFOK". Proc, 21s1 Con/, QSSCT, 1954, p. 127,
l/in C. R, MURRY AND D, S, SHANN, Sugar Technol. Rel'" 1 (1970) 53,
17 H. E. B, SCRIVEN, Proc, 121h Conf. QSSCT, 1941, r, 11>0,
18 E. J, BUCHANAN, K, DouwEs DEKKER AND A, VAN HENGEl, Proc, 391h Conf. SASTA, 1965, r.87,
19 W, R. CRAWFORD, Inl, Sugar J" 58 (1956) 198,
20 K . .1, !31:LLOCK, An invc.qigarioll inlD Ihe rhysicaJ rrorcn¡cs or sugnr call~ alle! h<lgas,~c. Th('sis, UI)¡\'l'I'<'¡:~ (11
Q"ccnslalld, 1957, p. 159,

21 R, C¡, GONZALE7. Cuha Azucar, (Jan, 19ó9) IR,
22 Sugar Tech. Rev" 1 (1) (1970) 53,
23 Proc, 53rd Conf. SASTA, 1979, r. 91.
24 Tale and Lyle Abslr" 23 (34) (1981) 6,
25 151h, Congo ISSCT, 1974, p, 1670,
26 Inl. Sugar 1.,72 (1970) 363.
9. Roller Grooving
OBJECT
Originally, mili rollers were smooth. However, the capacity of a mili wilh smooth rollers is
much less than that of a mili of the same dimensions and the same speed, but with grooved
rollers. Further, the grooved rollers break up the bagasse more completely, and thus facilitate
the extracrion of the juice by the following milis.
Hence, ungrooved rollers are no longer made.
CIRCUMFERENTIAL OROOVES
The universal type of grooving is lhe circumferenlial groove. Jt is formed by grooving lhe
roller wilh nOlches describing complele circles, in planes perpendicular 10 ilS' axis. These are
dislribuled regularly over the lenglh of lhe roller, and a longitudinal section lhus gives a ser-
raled oulline (Fig. 9.1).
The seclion of lhese grooves forms an isosceles lriangle with an apical angle of aboul
55 - 60°. To avoid leaving sharp and fragile edges, the exterior point of the triangles is cut
off, insucha wayasto fcirm a landing or flat of width equal to about ~ of the pitch. In the
same way, a landing of the same width is left al lhe bOltom of the groove (Fig. 9.2).
Top roller
. " p
Bottom rol!er
Fig. 9.1. Circumferential grooving. Fig. 9.2. Detail of grooves.
The grooving is specified by its depth h and its pitchp. 11 is described by these two figures,
quoled in the cirder given: "grooving of lO x 13 mm", for example, which means: grooving
of 10 mm (í in.) deep and 13 mm (t in.) pilch. The pitch is lhe dislance which separates the
axes of two successive teelh. The depth, or heighl, is lhe dislance from the 10p to lhe bOllom
of the teeth, measured perpendicular lO lhe axis of the roller.
The grooving of the three rollers of a mili is arranged in such a way that lhe leeth of lhe
top roller mesh with the grooves of the IWO botlOm rollers.
102 ROLLER ORO OVINO Ch. 9
Dimensions of grooving
Many different sizes of grooving are used. They are distinguished by the angle of the groove
and by the pilch and deplh.
The angles mosl often used are 45 0, 50° and 55°. When it is desired to run the rollers
without cleaning the bagasse from them (e/. p. 106) the angle may be as low as 30 or 35° .
French manufacturers have adopted 50°.
The most frequent dimensions are:
(a) Angle of 50°; pitch of 25, 30, 40, 45, 50, 60 and 80 mm (1- 3 in.). The depth is thus
approximate1y equal to the pitch: 22.5 x 25, 28 x 30, 39 x 40, 44 x 45, 49 x 50, 60 x
60 and 81.5 x 80 mm. Thus we often speak of 40 x 40 inslead of 39 x 40, for example .
The pitches of 60 or 80 mm (2! and 31 in.) are in general reserved for first mill-crushers.
(b) Angle of 55°; 20 x 26, 40 x 52 mm (1 and 2 in.). Final milis were often of smalIer
pilch than the earlier milis in the train. For example:
First mil! grooving: 38 x 50 mm (1 i x 2 in.)

Second mili: 20 x 26 mm ( i x 1 in.)
Third and fol!owing: 10 x 13 mm ( x t in.)
The extraction was considered better with milIs of fine grooving. Grooving even of 5 x· 6.5
mm (i x ~ in .) pitch has been used in Hawaii. However , it is difficult to verify the assertion
of better extraction, and the present trend is to reduce {he number of different groovings in
a tandem. so as to require a smaller number of spare rollers and give improved inter-
changeability. Thus a single grooving is generally adopted at least from the second to the
final milI.
Mid-plone
Fig. 9.3. Fig. 9.4.
Mid-plane
Fig. 9 .5. Fig. 9.6.
Fig. 9.3 - 9.6. Meshing of rollers with groo ving of multiple dimensions.
CIRCUMFERENTIAL OROOVES 103
Meshing of rollers with grooving of mulliple dimensions

Unrortunately, the meshing of a roller wilh one having gro oves of double the pitch is not
as simple as might be imagined.
Lel us consider rollers of two differenl pitches, one coarse (20 x 26 mm, for example)
and one fine (10 x 13 mm, for example).
(1) If, in lhe botlom roller Be wilh coarse grooving, a 100lh occurs in the median plane,
il will be necessary lhal lhe lOp ro.Uer Tp wilh fine grooving, should have a groove in the
median plane (Fig. 9.3). The roller T then must ha ve an even number of teeth, since lhere
f
must be lhe same number on each side of the median plane, which is aplane of symmetry.
Consequenlly, a boltom roller Bf with fine grooving, which could mesh with the roller Tp
cannot mesh with a top roller Te corresponding to Be (Fig. 9.4); on the contrary, lhe teelh
will come exactly opposite each other.
(2) ]f, in lhe botlom roller Be with coarse grooving, a groove comes in lhe median plane,
il will be seen (Fig. 9.5) that il will still be necessary for a gro ove to fall in the median plane
of Tp and that the rollers Bf and Te corresponding respectively to Tf and Be still will not
mesh (Fig. 9.6).
In olher words, for any roller, and especially for a bottom roller of coarse grooving Be'
considerations of symmetry require that the median plane will pass either through a ridge
(Fig. 9.3), or lhrough a groove (Fig. 9.5). In both cases, as may be seen from the figures,
the roller of fine grooving Tf meshing with Be should have a groove in the middle; all the
ridges of T will then correspond with the middle of the flank of the grooves of Be.
f
Hence the rules:
Rule l. In order that a 10p roller of fine grooving should mesh with a bottom roller of
double pitch, it is necessary that the top roller of fine pitch have a gro ove in its median plane,
and consequently an even number of teeth. (Conversely, lhe condition that a top roller with
coarse grooving should mesh with bottom rollers of half its pitch is that the top roller with
fine grooving corresponding to the latter should have a tooth at its mid-plane, and conse-
quently an odd number of teeth.)
Rule 2. To allow two rollers to mesh when one has a pitch doubJe thal of the other, it is
necessary to choose from two solutions which are incompatible with each other:
(a) Tf should mesh with Be (and then Te will not mesh with Bf) or
(b) Te should mesh with Bf (and then T will not mesh with Be).
f
The advantages and disadvantages are strictly symmetrical. From the point of view of
replacing rollers, for example, and if, normally, rollers of the same grooving are used in the
same mili:
(a) 11 T meshes wilh Be: (b) 11 Te mesh es wilh B¡:

f
Te may be replaced by T Te may not be replaced by T
f f
Be may not be replaced by Bf Be may be replaced by Bf
T may not be replaced by Te T may be replaced by Te
f f
Bf may be replaced by Bc Bf may not be replaced by Bc·
-
104 ROLLER GROOVING Ch. 9
We shall see, however (p. 105), that combination (a) ofFig. 9.3 is the only inleresting one,
as combinalion (b) is never met Wilh in the sugar factory. Accordingly, it is preferable that
T¡ should mesh wilh Bc. In olher words, the grooving should always be arranged so lhat lhe
10p rollers have a groove in lhe middle, í.e. have an even J1umber of leelh .
lf necessary, lhe seIs of rollers having lhe coarseSI grooving of lhe landem could be an ex-
ception lO lhis rule (since lhere will be no rollers of d6uble pitch wilh which lhey would have
to mesh). Bul, nol knowing what may be done in lhe future, one would alwa ys be wiser 10
apply lhe rule jusI enuncialed lO all the rollers of the tandem.
t'w1id-ptane
I
Fig, 9,7 , Universal rollers.
Universal rollers
Rollers lermed "universal" are also manufactured which may be used equally well as 10p or
bOllom rollers (Fig. 9.7).
Wilh lhese, lhe idea of symmelry relalive lO lhe median plane is abandoned. Their groov-
ing is devised in such a manner thal il is lhe middle of lhe flan k of a looth which falls in
lhe midplane of the roller. Consequenll y, a 10p roller becomes a bOllO m roller, or viceversa,
by simple reversal end for end. Th is syslem is favoured in Argenlina. lt offers lhe advantage
lhal, if necessary, one roller is sufficienl for replacemenl and provision for breakdowns. Bul
il has lhe disadvanlages lhal:
(1) It is useful only for lhe chosen dimension of grooving. lf, for example, il is 20 x 26
mm Ci x I in.), lhe grooving of 10 x 13 mm Cí x } in.) whi ch would mesh wilh lhe 20 x
26 mm universal roller would be a sytnmetrical grooving (as may be readily seen from Fig.
9.3) wilh an odd number of leelh, and so would nOl be able 10 mesh Wilh a smaller grooving
of 5 x 6.5 mm (16 x kin .). A grooving of 40 x 52 mm (I} x 2 in .) meshing wilh lhe 20 x
26 mm universal grooving would be enlirely unsymmelrical; lhe median plane would pass
one-quarter of lhe wa y down lhe side of a 1001h. 11 would be necessary lhen 10 abandon lhe
idea of inlerchangeabilily of Ihe 20 x 26 mm and lhe 40 x 52 mm grooving. Allernalively,
lhe universal grooving could be applied to the 40 x 52 mm, and il would then be necessary
10 abandon interchangeability of 20 x 26 and 10 x 13 mm. We lose in interchangeabilily
the advanlage gained by lhe universal roller in ils own grooving.
CIRCUMFERENTIAL GROOVES 105
(2) In order lO profit rrom the advantage offered, it is necessary to construct the roller
with the shaft lhe same at each end, so that the free end carries a pinion landing and a
squared end, the same as lhe driving end. Such a roller is more expensive and is awkward
in appearance.
This disadvantage is less marked if rollers with alternate pinions are employed (ef. p. 167).
(3) In case of a breakdown, it may be necessary to change the pinion - an operation long
and sometimes difficult, and liabk to cause delay.
The universal roller is not attractive and is applicable only to tandems utilising only one
pitch or grooving in a given mili; the advantage applies only to the one pitch.
Varialion of grooving along Ihe landem

The size of the grooves generally decreased from the first lO the last milI. There are two prin-
cipal reasons for this:
(1) The bagasse becomes finer and finer as it proceeds from the crusher to the last milI.
It was logical to proportion the grooving lO lhe size of the bagasse particles which it was
designed to handle.
(2) One of the objects of grooving is lO break up lhe bagasse to facilitate lhe eXlraClion
of juice. lt is in the early milis, therefore, thal the greatest disintegrating effect must be
sought (hence lhe coarsest grooving), in order lhat the later milis should profit from it.
This variation in grooving along the tandem has (he disadvantage of leading 'to rollers of
different surfaces, a disadvantage which is tempered by the adoption of grooving with one
pilCh a multiple ofthe others. In this way certain rollers may, in emergency, be replaced by
others of double or half lhe pitch, as we have just seen.
To avoid breaking the uniformilY of the tandem, certain faclories, in Cuba, Queensland
and Egypt for example, tended to adopt a standard grooving by continuing lhrough to the
last mili the coarse grooving adopted for the early milis. The difference in extraction is not
appreciable if it can be arranged that the rollers of the last 1wo milis are always new or in
good condition. This solution was thus not strictly contra-indicated. It has the advantage,
moreover, of removing one of the causes of choking of the later milis (poorer feeding with
. fine grooving), and it is now general.
Disposition of grooving. As example of previous practice in the disposition of grooving

. along the length of the tandem is given in Table 9.1 for the principal Iypes of tandem.
Double pitch grooving in feed roUer

Table 9.1 assumes that the three rollers of each miU have grooving of the same dimensions.
However, it is somelimes advanlageous to group in the one mili rollers with grooving of dif-
ferenl dimensions, provided that they mesh with each other; and the only rational solution
is to have the grooving of one roller meshing with grooving of double the pitch.
It is necessary moreover that the top roller and the delivery roller should have the same
grooving, otherwise certain parts of the bagasse will not be subject to adequate pressure.
resulting in sorne loss of extraction. For the same reason, these two rollers should ha ve the
smaller grooving. Under these conditions, there is only one combination possible; the feed
roller must have a grooving double that of the other two.
106 ROLLER GROOV1NG Ch.9
This was lhe grooving adopted in our factories. Table 9.2 for example gives the grooving
of Savanna in Réunion, the tandem ' the n consisting of six milis of 725 x 1,370 mm (28 x
54 in .) preceded by two sets of knives and a shredder. This tandem has been replaced by one
of 860 x 1,700 mm (34 x 67 in.) as the first mili with following milis 01' 810 x 1,675 mm
(32 x 66 in .). The first mili grooving is 60 x 60 mm (21 x 2¡' in.), the second 40 x 52 mm
(I~ x 2 in.), the third 40 x 52 mm (1 ~ in .) for the feed roller and 20 x 26 mm (t x 1 in.)
for top a nd delivery. The later milis have grooving of 20 x 26 mm a
x I in .) at all rollers.
This system had the advantage of assisting mili feeding owing to the space left free at the
feed roller (fig. 9.3), while maintaining a full pressure at the delivery. lt allows for and accen-
tuates the role assigned to each roller, as the feed roller has primarily the object of forcing
the bagasse 10 enter the mili, and the delivery roller that of extracting as much juice as possi-
ble.
TABLE 9. 1
SIZE S OF OROOVINO IN DIFFERENT TANOEMS (in mm)
Crusher ¡SI Mili 2nd Mili 3rd Mili 41h Mili 51h Mili
12·ro ller .andem 40 X 52 20 x 26 10 x )) 10 x 13

14-roller .andem 40 x 52 20 x 26 20 x 26 10 x 13 10 x 13
15-roller landem 40 x 52 20 x 26 20 x 26 10 x 13 10 x 13
18-rolle r .ande m 40 x 52 20 x 26 20 x 26 JO x )) 10 x 13 10 x 13
TABLE 9 .2
PlTeH OF OROOV'NG (in mm), SAVANNA (m ilis 725 x 1,370 mm)
¡SI Mili 2nd Mili 3rd Mili 41h M ili 51h Mili 61h Mili
Feed roller 57 x 52 37 x 52 57 x 52 28.5 x 26 28 .5 x 26 28.5 x 26

Top roller 57 x 52 28 .5 x 26 28.5 x 26 14.25 x 13 14.25 x 13 14.25 x 13
Delivery roller 57 x 52 28.5 x 26 28.5 x 26 14 .25 x )) 14.25 x 13 14 .25 x 13
Angle of groovíng
Wear and breakages of the teeth increase when Ihe angle of grooving is decreased,but to
a smaller extent than was supposed until 1955. When there is no reason for adopting a more
acute angle, a value of about 55°is employed. American factories sometimes adopt 45 - 50°,
a value which ma y be recommended. However, it is the Australians who in about 1956 - 58
adopted the greatest innovations in this matter. While they had already long used an angle
of 35°, they found, when aiming to allow the grooving of the top rollers 10 fill with bagasse
("dirty 10p roller"), that the angle of the grooving had a marked influence on the packing
of bagasse in the rollergrooving. At the feed rOller, Donnellyl specifies 30°, th"is angle being
sufficiently acute 10 prevent the bagasse from penetrating to the bottom of the grooves,
under the low pressure at the feed roller; the gro ove thus acts as it s own Messc haert groove
for draining the juice.
MESSCHAERT OROOVES 107
For lhe lop roller, he recornrnends 30-35°, w;lh lhe objecl of allowing Ihe grooves lo fill
with bagasse. For lhi s it is necessary to place lhe 10p roller scraper at 75 mm (3 in.) (for a
firsl mili) to 40 mm (1-1 in.) (Iast mili) from lhe surface 01" the roller; or, better, to replace
it by a straight plate, fixed al 6.5 - 20 mm (i-j in.) from the tips of the teeth of the roller.
If it is not desired to allow lhe 10p roller to pack with bagasse, Donnelly recommends the
adoption of a ver y wide angle, 45 - 60°, lo ensure Ihal Ihe bagas se will pack to the bOllom
of Ihe groove under pressure, so thal lhe juice cannot f10w back towards Ihe entry lO the mili
and thus be 1051 as far as eXlraction is concerned.
For the delivery roller, he recommends 45°. since a more acule angle will hold Ihe bagasse
too strongly and the scraper will not be able lo remo ve il.
These considerations are summarised. with our recommendalions, in Table 9.3.
One may ask what is the best mcthod for meshing of grooving ofdifferent angles. We con-
sider thal the besl Solulion is to adopt Ihe same height and Ihe same pilch (or mulliples or
sub-mulliples of these) and lO vary Ihe width of Ihe f1ats. Take. for example, a mili wilh 10p
rollcr 01" grooving 28.5 X 26 mm (li x l in.) and feed roller of double lhe pilCh. Geometrical
considerations show Ihat meshing presents no problem (Fig. 9.8). It is necessary only lo avoid
the selling described as "melal 10 melal" and 10 allow always, in the setling of Ihe mili at
resl, al leasl 0.75 mm (il in.) belween lhe c10sest parts of the Iwo rollers; this corresponds
lo 6.5 mm (t in.) between the 10ps of the leeth and the bOllom of the grooving, and 10 about
4.75 mm (~ in.) of average Ihickness of bagasse layer between Ihe two rollers. '
TABLE 9.3
ANOLE Of OROOVINO (degrees)
Top roller dlrry Top roller clean
Roller Feed Top Delivery Feed Top Delivery
Normal vafues 50 50 50
Vatues ,eeommended by Donnelly 30 35 45 30 50 45
If disrega,ding Ihe Messehaen
effeel al feed ,olle, 45 35 45 45 45 45
Recommended values 42 35 42 50 50 50
MESSCHAERT OROOVES
Messchaert grooves, or "Messchaerts" (alsoknown as "juice grooves"), were invented and

applied in Hawaii. They have only one objective: improvemenl of the exlraction. They un-
questionably render good service from this point of view, and Iheir adoption today is almOSI
universal.
Al the feed roller, it is in Ihe zone AB (Fig, 9,9) that the bagasse undergoes the maximum
pressure, and the juice is exlracled. Bul this juice has only Iwo ways of escape: forward with
Ihe roller. beyond Ihe Irashplate, or backward in the direction of the poinl C. In eilher direc-
tion, it encounters a Ihick layer of bagasse, already compressed, moving in Ihe same direclion
as the"")üTCe at BD, but in Ihe opposite direclion al A C.
108 ROLLER OROOYINO Ch. 9
~ J TOD eollee
,
'. 26 .:
+,
,
,
,
,
I Feed rOller
'"
"'1
1
1
1
1
1
---.l
....,::;....
4.32 J' /.
I-----~"----
2.16
--+j¡+-
2.16
Fig.9.8. Meshing of rollers of differen< groove angles Fig. 9.9. AClion of Messchaens al Ihe reed roller.
(dimensions in mm).
Messchaert had the simple but fruitful idea of providing an outlet for (he juice by cutling
circumferenlial grooves around the feed roller at intervals, by means of which, at al! points
in lhe zone AS, the juice can find an immediate way out, and can drain wilhollt hindrancc
from any part of the roller.
We may commenl lhal lhe juice which flows from S comes mainly from lhe region A, since
al S lhe point of maximal pressure has already been passed and lhe juice has in principie
already been eXlracted; lhe portion of juice which remains is absorbed by the bagasse as it
re-expands.
The same problem is encountered at lhe delivery roller, but here it is less serious, since
gravilY assists the juice ro escape from the zone of high pressure, whereas al the feed roller
it has to climb over the roller to pass through the layer AC.
Messchaerts may be provided in two ways:
(1) By eliminating a looth and localing lhe Messchaert in the position of the tooth'eliminated
(Fig.9.10)
(2) By leaving all the teeth, and clltting the Messchaert belween two leeth (Fig. 9.11).
The latler system has the advantage thal it does n01 lose a 1001h, and conseqllenlly avoids
crealing a zone of lower pressure in the layer of compressed bagasse. On lhe olher hand,
laleral drainage of the jllice is n01 so easy, and lhe leelh next ro lhe Messchaerts have a
grealer lendency 10 fracture along lhe line abo Thlls lhe second system is reserved for coarse
MESSCHAERT OROOVES 109
Top roller Top rolle".
,,
, ~"8ottom rOlle"
iI a"
.
Messchtterl Messch~ert
Fig. 9. 10. Formation of a Mcsschaert by elimination of a looth.

Fig. 9. 11 . Formation of a Messchaert without elimination of a tooth.
grooving in which Ihe width of the tooth compensates for the proximity of the Messchaert
(ej. Figs. 9.10 and 9 . 11).
Dimensions of Messchaerls
In the feed roller, lhe Messchaerts are given a widlh of 3 - 6.5 mm (í -! in .), generally 5 mm
(~ in .). There is no advanlage 10 be oblained by making lhem wider; lhe pressure succeeds
in forcing bagassc inlo Messchaerls which are 100 wide, and drainage is les s effective.
The depth of Ihe Messchaerts depends on the quantily of juice which they have to handle.
A deplh of al least 20 mm (;} in.) is necessary, measured from lhe base of the' grooves. In
general, a depth of 25 mm (1 in.) is provided (Fig. 9.12). However, with very high crushing
rates and heavy imbibition, when the Messchaerts are widely spaced, this depth is nOI suffi-
cienl 10 drain the juice from Ihe reed roller. lt is Ihen necessary 10 make Ihe Messchaerls
either more numerous, or deeper. In Hawaii they are taken to a depth of 40 - 50 mm (I}- 2
in.).
The f10w of juice in the Messchaerts depends on the;r pitch, which is the distance between
successive Messchaerts. This must obviously be a multiple of ¡he pitch of the main grooving.
For grooving of 13 mm (1 in.) pitch Messchaerts of 52 or 78 mm (2 or 3 in.) pitch are
adopted, or 52 - 104 mm (2 - 4 in.) pitch for main grooving of 52 mm (2 in,) pitch.
5
,
11,,1
Fig. 9. I 2. Dimensions of Messchaerts (mm).

110 ROLLER OROOVINO Ch.9
Pitch and symmelry of Messchllerts

As the piteh of the Messehaerts must neeessarily be a multiple of thal of Ihe main grooving,
we shall have 1, 2, .. . ,6 leelh between adjaeenl Messehaerls. Wilh medillm or eoarse groo\'-
ing working al high IOnnages, il may be of advanlage lO have a Messehaen groove every l\\'O
grooves ralh er lhan one every three grooves. However, 1his is nOI always possible if syml11elry
is to be maintained . Messe haert s are applieable only ror botlom rollers, nnd \Ve hnve se<.'1l
(p. 103) thal top rollers should preferably have a gro ove in lhe middle; henee the bOtlOm
rollers of the same grooving must have a 100lh in lhe middle. Thus, for a symmetrieal ar-
rangement of Messehaerts relative lO lhe median plane of lhe roller, they should have bel-
ween them an odd number of leeth: 1,3, 5, ele., as is easily seen by eonsidering a bOllom-
roller grooving sueh as lhal of Fig. 9.4 or 9.6. An inlerval of one 100th, i.e . a Messehaert
every groove, is always possible, though il may be desirable only with eert ain eoarse groov-
ings, for example, in lhe feed roller of the first mili; but il may oflen be found lhal an inlerval
of three teeth is too mueh and that it is neeessary to have a Messehaert every two teelh . In
lhis case lhere are onIy two possible solulions:
(1) To accep! a non-symmelrical arrangement of the Messchaerts, which has moreover no
disadvanlage for per formance bu! inereases the risk of errors in lhe workshop, or
(2) To loeate lhe Messchaerts so tha! lhe median interval is 3 leeth, and all the others 2 leelh .
This is lhe betler Solulion.
This problem arises only for an interval of 2 teelh. For an inlerval of 4, lhere is ~eareely
any disadvanlage in adopting 3 or 5 and lhus retaining an odd-number spaeing.
Delivery roller
The aboye figures for depth and piteh are for feed rollers. When Messchaerts are plaeed in
delivery rollers, the deplh does not exeeed 20 mm a in .), beca use:
(1) This would not be neeessary on aecount of lhe low output of juiee
(2) The pressure is mueh higher at lhe delivery roller: lhe risk of breakage of lhe leelh next
lo lhe Messchaerts would be much grealer, and lhe eonsequent damage would be eOrrespOn-
dingl y more serious if lhe Messehaerts were made deeper.
In lhe same way, and for lhe same reasons, a narrower width is adopled, 3 mm (t in.)
inslead of 5 mm (ro in.), and a subslantially greater piteh. For grooving of lhe family 10 x 13
mm (j x ! in.), the pileh varies from 78 mm (3 in.) lO 130 mm (5 in.) .
An attempl 10 slandardise the rollers by making lhe Messchaerls lhe same for feed and
delivery rollers would have more disadvanlages than otherwise. The dirrerenee belween lhe
lwo rollers is unfortunate bul neeessary.
Scrapers
If suilable preeautions were nOI laken, lhe Messchaerts would beco me filled with bagasse and
would soon cease to be effeelive . Il is lhus neeessary lO install below lhe rollers speeial
serapers or "eombs". These eonsisl of steel bars, earrying, Opposile eaeh Messchaert, an
angle-iron, one wing of whieh is eXlended lO the bOllom of lhe Messehaert (F ig. 9.13).
The lenglh of lhese angle-irons or "fingers" is ealeulaled so lhal the seraping edge makes
an angle of aboul 30° with lhe roller surfaee.
'? . 7n
CHEVRONS JJ1
Fig. 9.13. Messehaen seraper:
Wear. It is important thal the scraping fingers be firmly attached lo the supporting bar,
and set so as to pass accurately in the centre of the Messchaerts. Otherwise they will rub
against tile sides of the grooves, wear rapidly, enlarge the Messchaerts anú completely
destroy their efficiency.
Advanlages and disadvanlages

Rollers provided with Messchaerts suffer more damage from tramp iron passing through the
mili, and wear more rapidly. But they are of great benefit al the feed roller:
(1) They improve the capacity of the mili by permitting it to deal with a quantity of juice
which otherwise would cause choking. When the mili is not working at its maximum capaci-
ty, they render possible the use of a quantity of imbibition which otherwise would be
prohibitive.
(2) They especially improve the extraction by augmenting the proportion of juice removed
at the feed roller, thus relieving and facilitating the task of the delivery roller.
At the delivery roller, on the other hand, their usefulness is more debatable. The advan-
tages are less, because there is less juice and it f10ws away more readily. The disadvantages
are more serious, because the pressure is much greater, and because it is difficult 10 devise
a satisfactory method for c1eaning the Messchaerts. Furthermore, in the case of Messchaerts
formed by elimination of one tooth (Fig. 9.10), the bagasse alongside the Messchaerts, at the
delivery, is not compressed: its moisture and poi content are certainly higher than those of
the bagas se coming from the fuI! grooves. At the last mili especially, such loss cannot be
recovered.
It may be added that the.experiments of Bullock' may '",ell be interpreted as indicating that
Messchaert grooves in the delivery roller are not effective.
To sum up, while opinions are almost unanimous on the value of Me5schaerts in the feed
roller, opinion5 are divided as regards the delivery side. ÓÚ'r opinion is that Messchaerts in
the delivery roller involve a definite increase in expense, while offering only a doubtful gain,
or perhaps a IOS5. We do not recommend them.
CHEVRONS
Unlike Messchaerts, which have as their special object the improvement of extraction,
chevrons have the sole object of improving the feeding of the bagasse.
Fig. 9.14. Chevrons. Feeder roller. Messchaert seraper (hydraulie plungers removed).
These are nOlches (Fig. 9.14) cul in lhe leelh, in a sequence which describes a helix rrom
lhe cenlre lO one end of Ihe roller, ¡he olher half of lhe rolJer carrying a helix symmelrical
wilh lhe firsl wilh respeCI 10 lhe median plane of lhe rolJer. This is exaclly Ihe same design
as Ihal on lhe Fullon crushers, and uses Ihe same form of nOlch (ef. Fig: 5.4). The same
remarks on the depth and dispositions of lhe chevrons apply 10 milis (ef. p. 53).
The angle of lhe chevrons wilh a longitudinal line on lhe rolJer varies from 101020° and
is generally 18°. The pitch is of lhe order of 20 cm (8 in.).
Chevrons are placed only on lhe IWO feeding rolJers: Ihe 10p and feed rollers. They are
never placed on lhe delivery rollers, beca use:
(1) They would nOl be of any use, lhe delivery roller being in a way force-fed by lhe
trashplate and 1he feed rolJer
(2) The bagasse near the chevrons would not be adequalely compressed.
For lhe latter reason, we consider thal it is equalJy advantageous 10 omil lhe chevrons from
WEAR OF ROLLERS 113
Ihe top roller, the pressure at lhe delivery opening being exerted as much by lhe 10p roller
as by the delivery roller.
Where slip is liable to occur belween lhe roller surface and lhe bagasse, an acceplable com-
promise would be to cut chevrons spaced 25 cm (10 in,) apart (or betler t6th of lhé cir-
cumference, i,e. 10 chevrons on the roller) and of deplh equallO one-lhird lhe depth of the
main grooving.
Moreover, chevrons are useful on lhe feed roller only in lhe case where ils grooving is the
same as lhal of lhe 10p roller. lf lhe syslem described previously (Fig. 9.3) is adopled, lhey
generally become supernuous; if nOl, lhe same compromise can be adopled in all cases as
for lhe 10p roller. Al lhe feed roller, moreover, chevrons have lhe disadvanlage of increasing
lhe proportion of lhe bagasse passing inlo lhe juice, on account of the small quantity which
lodges in lhc chevrons and which is not scraped OUl by lhe loe of the trashplate.
Conclusion
In ccrtain cases, chevrons are of real assistance to the grip of the rollers on lhe bagasse. They
are not indispensable, except when approaching the extreme capacity 01" lhe mili, and if they
are adopted it is pref'erable to restrict them to the feed roller and lO reduce lheir depth to
one-third lhe depth of lhe grooving.
KA Y GROOVING
This system, devised by Kay, engineer at Aguirre, Puerto Rico, consists of cutting, in the top
roller, helicoidal grooves of rectangular section, of a depth grealer lhan thal of the cir-
cumferential grooving (Figs. 9.15 and 9.16).
These grooves become filled with bagasse and the pads of bagasse so formed facilitate the
feeding of lhe entering bagasse, without detriment to lhe continuity of the pressure. How-
ever, they have a tendency to lift the scraper plate and render it ineffective.
Kay groove
E3l-'~'-'~'-'-'~'
Fig. 9.16. Transverse seclion or roller

Fig. 9.15. Kay grooving. wilh Kay grooving.
WEAR OF ROLLERS
Causes of wear
Wear of lhe rollers occurs owing lo four causes:
(1) Corrosion of lhe melal by lhe acid juice
(2) Friction of scrapers and trashplate
114 ROLLER OROOVINO Ch.9
(3) Friction of the cane or the bagasse, which always slips on the roller 10 sorne extent
(4) Passage of tramp iron, which crushes Ihe melal or breaks the leelh
(5) Necessity for turning Ihe roller down during Ihe slack season, al' ter 2 or 3 campaigns,
lo restore ils proper cylindrical formo
The wear is generally grealer al Ihe cenlre Ihan al Ihe ends. Turning the shell also permits
of reduction of irregularilies due lo broken leelh.
Extent of wcar
In milIs 01' standard design, the maximum wear permissible in a roller is approximately
4 - 5 %. In other words , a rolIer of 1 m in mean diameter when new has to be discarded when
its diameter has been reduced to 950 - 960 mm. In milis of more modern design, wear may
be allowed to go somewhat be yond 5%, exceptionall y 10 10% wilh suitable designo
In Java, from the viewpoinl of mili performance, the diameters of different rollers of the
same mili were not permitted lo vary belween themselves by more than 3%. When the wear
of certain rollers of a landem exceeded Ihis figure, they were re-assembled IOgether in the
one milI. If one milI of Ihe tandem Ihus had 10 work wilh smaller rollers than Ihe others,
it should not be the first, nor the last, nor, if possible (thal is, in tandems of more than 11
rollers), Ihe second . Generally, then, it was Ihe Ihird mili.
If the 3 rollers of a milI have different mean diameters, Ihey should, as far as possible,
be arranged: Ihe smallesl as feed roller, Ihe largesl as delivery, and the inlermediate one 'as
top roller.
This point of view, however, is conlesled by Macka y, in Australia, who asserts J Ihat it is
the top roller which should have the lowest peripheral speed. He even goes as far as to recom-
men'd giving it if necessary a pinion having one looth more than those of (he lower rollers,
so as to give it a peripheral speed of 75 - 150 mm (3 - 6 in.) lower per revolution. We have
never tried such an unonhodox arrangemen L
Tromp· gives 6.5 - 13 mm (~-1 in.) on diameter as the amount of wear per 100,000 lonnes
01' cane treated , or alife of about 3 years .
In South Africa , wear is reckoned at 1.5 mm (-n, in.) of metal (3 mm (1 in.) on diameter)
for:
16,000 Lc. for Ihe top roller

25,000 Lc . for the feed roller
15,000 LC. for the delivery roller
Actuall y, large rollers in the course of their lives handle a much grealer tonnage of cane
than small rollers, and il is more logical 10 reckon Ihe life of a roller in hours of work. The
life of 3 years indicaled aboye would correspond fairly closely 10 average campaigns of
100- 120 days of 24 hours for rollers of all dimensions. Rollers running al the highesl speeds
are evidenlly Ihose which wear most rapidly.
Crusher rollers have a longer life, generally 9 - 12 years.
In Java, the extent of wear is reckoned as follows, in thickness of metal removed per 100
da ys of conlinuous crushing:
WEAR OF ROLLERS 115
Rollers with ordinary grooving: 1.8 mm (0.07 in.)

Rollers wilh Messchaerts: 2 mm (0.08 in.)
I ncreased width of Messchaerls: mm (0.04 in.)
II would be more aecurale lo dislinguish belween lhe feed roller and lhe IwO olhers, since
il wears less rapidly.
The following are some measur:d values: (a) al Puunene in Hawaii" (b) al Ambilobe in
Madagascar, (e) at la Mare and Savanna in Réunion (mean over 5 seasons 1975 -79), with
lhe wear expressed as percentage of that of the top roller:
Roller Puunene Ambilob~ Réunion Prop.

(per monlh) (per 1000 h) (por 100,000 I.c.) FeB
--------- - - - - -- -
Feed 0.53 mm ( 54'70) 3.7 mm (71%) 2. I mm (68%) 60%
Tor 0.98 mm (100%) 5.2 mm 3.1 mm too%
Delivery 0.85 mm ( 87%) 4.9 mm (94%) 2.9 mm (92'70) '90%
The values for Ambilobe correspond 10 1,000 hours of operation. The laSI eolumn gives lhe
proportions accepted by Fives Cail- Babeoek.
Reshelling of rollers
When a roller is worn, itmay be re-shelled by breaking off the cast-iron shell and returning
Ihe shaft to the manufacturers, who return it fitted wilh a new shell. Many factories are today
equipped th'emserves fór carrying out this rather critieal operation. It can be done only once
or twiee at lhe most, on account of wear of the journals, which in turn limits the life of the
shaft. Some faetories, however, build up the worn or damaged journals by welding, and
restore them to the original diameter.
We may comment in passing that the shrink nt of the shell on the shllft should be approx-
imately 1 per 1,000. In olher words, ir the diameter of the shaft is 0.5 m, the bore of the
shell should be 0.5 mm smaller than the diameter, or 499.5 mm.
Roller shafts may be checked by ultrasonic tests, to deteet those whieh are cracked or
which have incipient eracks, and are liable to break in the course of the eampaign. The crack
is loeated and its approximate magnitude determined. A South Afriean organisation visits
the factories in Natal, Mauritius, Réunion and Madagascar to conduet sueh tests.
To break the shell, two main methods are employed:
(1) Drill holes every 10 ,cm (4 in.) along the length of the roller, 10 900/0 of the thiekness of
the roller shell. Pia~e in three of these holes plugs of dynamite, and explode them
simultaneously.
(2) Drop a monkey or "skull-craeker" (an old tail-bar, for example) on the roller from a
height of 5 -6 m (15 -20 ft.), by means of a erane.
When both shaft and shell are worn, a valuable pan of.an oId roller may still be reeovered
by making from its material a roller for a smaller mill (Fig. 9.17). The neeessary eondition
for thi s is that the profile of the small roller should fit within that of the large one, and that
-
r---------- ----------¡
J
flr----- ,1
",
I r - -----,-¡----
li
---1----,
"
Effi----- - - ---¡ - - - ---¡¡ - . ~ ---1
1
,---,:. : I : : ! ___ J
-1 I e - ----- ---- ___ J
L_____________________ J
Fig, 9,17. Turning a roller from a larger roller,
after turning down there should remain a sufficient thickness of shell for strength of the
roller, say at least 10070 of the diameter below the bottom of the grooves. Rollers obtained
in this way have a surface as hard as that of new rollers and a resistance to wear entirely com-
parable.
REFERENCES
1 H. D. DONNElLY, Proc. 28th Conf. QSSCT, /96/, p. 74.

2 K. J. BULLOCK, An investigation ¡nto ¡he physical properties of sugar cane and bagasse. Thesis, UniversilY of
Queensland, 1957, p. 329.
3 H. MACKAY, Proc. 28th Conf. QSSCT, /96/, p. 79.
4 L. A. TROMP, Machinery and Equipment of the Sugar Cane Factory, Norman Rodger, London, 1936, p. 186.
' .
10. Pressures in Milling
Origi¡¡ally, Ihe Ihree rollers of a mili were fixed relative to each olher, and their positions
in lhe housing were adjusled at the start of the sea son or of the week wilh lhe aid of sleel
plales or wedges.
The pressure was lhen delermined by Ihe layer of bagasse: it increased when lhe lOnnage
was increased, and dropped when il was decreased. The milling resullS varied accordingly.
The grealesl disadvanlage was associaled with Ihe passage of foreign bodies: if lhe piece of
iron or sleel was 100 big DI' 100 hard , lhe housing (or lhe roller) gave way.
This kd 10 a search ror SOIllC Illore flexible arrangclllcnl; hcnce lhe dcvelopment of milis
wilh pressure applied by springs (Fig. 10.1) . This is lhe system still adopted today in very
small milis.
HYDRAULlC PRESSURE
The use of hydraulic pressure was the next development; this had the advantage of maintain-
ing a c011S1aill pressure,independeríl of lhe lift of lhe roller.
Fig. 10. 1. Sprini\'loaded roller. Fig. 10.2. Hydraulic pressure syslem .
The upper bearings of the top roller are arranged to slide in the gaps of the housing. They
receive, Wilh or wilhout lhe inlerposilion of an intermedia le block, the pressure exerted by
a hydraulic pislOn (Fig. 10.3) sliding in the cap. The hydraulic pressure is lransmilled to lhe
10p of lhe piston by a syslem of piping containing oil under pressure (Fig. 10.2), lhe press ure
being produced by an accumulator.
118 PRESSURES IN MILLlNG Ch. 10
Oil under
pressure
--
BOII lronsmitting pressu

to the rollers
Fig. 10.3. Seclion 01" a hydraulic cap.
Accumulalors
Thereare various types of accumulator, Ihe principal ones being:
(1) The dead weight accumulator (Fig . 10.2). now 01" historieal interest only
(2) The air-oil accumulator wilh air reservoir (Iillle used - see second ed ition)
(3) The individual air - oil accumulator.
¡--__ Gas valve
I!!c"!'----~-- Rubber b!o Ode r
Nitrogen
Oil vol " e
Fig. 10.4. Edwarus acclInlul;lIor wilh rubbl'r bluutlL'r (Euward" Eng. Corp . ).
HYDRAV~IC PRESSVRE 119
Individual air - oil accumulators. The firsl accumulators using hydraulic pressure were
placed alongsidc Ihe milis, 10 which they were connecled by piping. Edwards, in America,
had 111<: happy idea 01' placing Ihe air challlber close 10 Ihe mili cap, the aCL'umUlalor con-
sisling 01' a bladder l'illed with nilrogen whic'h bccollles compressed or dilatcd when lhe
Ilydralllic ralll rises or falls (Fig. 10.4). Sevaal lllanlll'aclurers have followed Ihis example.
Fives Lille - Cail deliver their milis witll individual pressure bottles wilhout a bladder, where
Ihe air is enclosed in the space al Jhe top of tlle bottle, which is necessarily very airtight.
Oil is readily added to Ihese bOllles by means of a common oil pump placed clase 10 lhe
mili landcm; Ihus lhe pressure in Ihcm may be rcgulaled al will; they are very free from leaks
and rarelv require recIlarging. They have, moreover, Ihe advantage over Ihe previous Iype
01' avoiding long anct Ileavy hydralllic piping wilh a consequent pressure drop and lhe
resulting slow response of Ihe top roller. They Ihus aCI rapidly, are more flexible and also
less expensive.
The inlerior diallleter 01' the pI'essure bottles 01' Fives Lille - Cail is 20 cm (8 in.), those of
Edwards are 22.5 cm (9 in.). They are Ihen only approxilllately 1.2-2.5 times smaller than
Ihe hydraulic plunger of Ihe mili, or 1.5 - 6 times in area. Their pistons, when they are pro-
vided, accordingly rise by 1.5 - 6 times as much as Ihe roller.
Since the volume of the botlle is limiled (01" lile arder 01" 30 dm J (1 CU.I"L), the pressure
Fíg. 10.5. Unilateral air- oil acculllulalor willl !íJ'l illuiclllor (Fives Cai[- Rabcol'k).
120 PRESSURES IN MILLINO Ch. 10
will aecordingly inerease somewhat as the roller lifts; this may be considered an advantage
over olher aeeumulators, where Ihe pressure is consta nl or practically so.
Accumulators 01' lhis lype are always provided with direcl indicators 01' lin (Fig. JO.5),
which add lo the preceding advalltages a comp let e con trol 01' the roller movemenlS, anu
which, moreover, can be mounlcd on any lYfle ol' mili, indeflendcntly 01' Ihe Iype 01' ac-
cumulalor adoflted. The use 01' Ihese indiculors can be strongly recommended. Their COSI is
insignificant and the services oblained are considerable.
These individual accumulators flermil the prcssure al each end 01' lhe roller 10 be reglllalcll
independenlly in such a manner Ihal Ihe lifl is balanced and proportioned al each elld, 10
Ihe layer 01' bagasse which passcs on Illal side. lI' oflen happens Ihal one side 01' a l11ill, or
0 1' a landen! 01' milis , regularly receives a grealer quanlilY 01' cane Ihan Ihe other .,icle. Thi s
phcnomenon is generally duc 10 an 1IllsYl11l11et'r ical i'eedillg 01' Ihe car ricr, Wllich is rrc411cIltly
the case, ror example, in factories fl Osscssing ollly one lalcral table. In sllch .1 case, il is impor-
lanl to guard againsl aiming al an equal mean lift for lhe two .lides: the si de which is more
lighll y loaded should furnish a mean lifl slighlly less lhan that 01' Ihe other . The I\VO valu es
so oblained for the lift on the left and the righl are somelimes very dirrerenl, and the higher
pressure is not always found on the pinion side 01' the roller, as one wou ld expecl (ef. p. 167).
Caps and hydraulic pislons .

When a hydraulic leather or paeking fails, quick replacement should be flo ssib le . The cylin-
drical chamber in which lhe piston moves is open al the lOp, and closure is efrecled Cil h ~ r
by an ordinary screw, or by a bayonel rilting or screw 01' which 2 01' 3 segmenl s have been
removed so Ihal a rotal ion 01' 90° or 60° suffi ces 10 fh il firml)', as lI'ith Ihe br~ec'h
mechanism of much modern arrillery (F ig . 10.6). The laller syste m is mucil quicker in o pera-
lion, and ils oil-tightness is 1101 inrerior 10 lile I'ormer.
On account 01' lheir weighl, Ihe sc rews are l'illed lI'ilh 111'0 lugs II'hich r~cili lale Iheir
. unscrewing, handling and remova/.
FiR. 10.6. Ba yonel-Iype cap (Fivcs Cnil- Babeod) .

HYDRAULlC PRESSURE 121
The hydraulic piston, sometlmes called a "cheese" on aCcount of its shape, is simply a
cylinder with ilS edges rounded.
Lcathers and packings. On accounl of the very high plessurc prevailing in the space where
the hydraulic pressure acts, the question of prevenling serious leakage is imporlan!. For lhe
piSlon, Ihe queslion is complicaled by Ihe l'acl Ihal il is mobile.
The problem is mos[ of[en solv~d by closing [he pressure chamber of lhe cap by a leather
benl in Ihe forl11 01' a U or preferably by a moulded me[allb-plas[ic or synlhetic rubber pack-
ing. One of Ihese is placed against lhe screw cap and one al lhe upper portion 01' the pislon
(Fig. 10.3).
The pressed Icalher, working under high pressure, muSI be 01' very good qualily. Mineral-
lanned lea[hers lasl belier than vegetable-tanned, evcn if Ihe laller are oak-lanned.
Possible causes of poor behaviour of leathers. It happens sometimes Ihat one of lhe
bllhels 01' a Inill I1lay "squin" al any 1110mel1l. If Ihis lrouble rccurs frequcl1tly, il is most
probably due 10 [he absence 01' a flexible joinl belween lhe leather and lhe melal parts againsl
which it presses. II is lhen necessary, eilher lO inlerpose a rubber ring belween the curve of
[he leather and lite small me[allic ring againsl which il is supporled, or to place a wad 01' CO[-
tOn in lhe inside of the lea[her, between tite edge of lite steel ring wlticlt fits inside tite U and
tite bottom of lhe lealher.
Friction. To make the operation 01' the Itydraulics as free as possible, it is necessary to
reduce 10 a minimum the frklion caused by lhe 1110Vements 01' [he piston and lhe ac-
cUl11ulatOr.
Now, lhe fric[ion is roughly proportional [O tite height 01' tite leather (approx. 25 mm (l
in.)) 01 01' lhe packing (approx. 20 mm el in.)) (Fig. 10.7). In the case 01' a leather, it is also
beneficial 10 pro[ec[ [he curve of the leather by adopting a rounded form for the seating
which receives it, avoiding a sharp angle between tite pis Ion or plate and the cylindrical wall
01' [he chamber.
ron, .
Fig, 10.7. Diamclrical scction or hydraulic leather.
Tite coel'ficien[ 01' friclion! 01' [he hydraulic packing against the walls Itas an approximate
value:
h
! = (0.5 to 0.6) d (10.1)
! coefficient 01' friction

h = height 01' leather, in mm (in.)
d = diameter 01' tite hydraulic piston, tn mm (in.).
The force necessary to overcome lhis friclion is lherefore:
(10.2)
'" = fF
'" = force necessary lo overcome lhe resislance of lhe hydraulic packing, in lonnes
F = hydraulic pressure aCling on Ihe pislon, expressed in lonnes.
For lhe commonesl dimensions, f = 0.03 - 0.05 , and il will be seen lhal in lhese condi-
lions, '" = 3 - 51170 of F. For a mili wilh ilS 2 packings receiving a 10lal pressure of 300 lonnes,
9-15 lonnes are lherefore required to "unslick" lhe pislons.
Maximum lirt. The mili caps are generally conslrucled so as 10 permil of a maximum lin
of lhe lap roller of:
4 - 6 cm (1;- 2) in.) for crushers

2 - 4 cm ( ~ - Ij in.) for milis.
Play in the operation or accumulators

There always exisls sorne play or slack in lhe working of lhe hydraulic syslem, i.e. lhe 10p
roller will always lifl a certain amounl before lhe pressure is fully effeClive on lhe bagasse;
in lhe case of lhe old deadweighl accumulalors, before lhe accumulalor begins to rise. In lnis
case, lhe eXlenl 10 which lhe roller rises from ilS slalionary posilion, before lhe accumulalor
moves, gives a measure of lhis play.
This was one advanlage of lhe deadweighl accumulalor, or lhe plunger-Iype air - oil ac-
cumulalor, over lhe individual air-oil lype; lhese indicaled lhe inslanl when lhe bagasse is
subjecled lO lhe full prcssure, while lhe lifl indicalor shows lhe lifl of lhe roller from ilS posi-
lion of reSI wilhoul showing whelher lhe bagasse is receiving full pressure or nOL
Causes or play. This play is due 10 several causes:

(a) Play of lhe bcarings in lhe housings
(b) Mili caps badly adjusled
(e) Adjusting-bolls of lhe delivery roller lOO shOrl or fitted badly
(ti) Play between bolts and boll-holes of the caps
(e) Shafls badly adjusled.
Importance of play. Milis giving good exlraclions are always lhose in which lhe play is
slighl:
A play of I - 2 mm (}¡ - A in .) is normal
A value of 5 - 6 mm (ft - ~ in .) is excessive and harmful.
The exislence of lhis play means lhat Ihe bagasse is nOI submitted 10 lhe full pressure unlil
lhe upper roller has lifled by an amount corresponding 10 lhe play: il has lifled by 6. ho.
The delivery opening accordingly is increased by 6. eo, and we have in milis wilh normal
housing (Fig. 13.4):
C<
6. eo 6. ha cos '2
HYDRAULlC PRESSURE 123
(i.being lhe angle of conslruction of the mili (ef. p. 260). 6 e generally amounts lO 3 - 6 mm
(k - ± in.), the highest values being found in older milis. It is Ihus necessary lo be cautious
of assurning that the full pressure is exened as soon as the bagas se layer reaches a lhickness
equal to the delivery operiing. The pressure depends only on the weight of the top roller and
the itellls which it lifts with it (the coupling, pan 01' the tail-bar, and in milis with fixed open-
ings, the mili cap) unlil the moment when lhe opening attains ea.
True delivery opening or Ihe rollers al resl

When..the fabrication superinlendent gives lhe "delivery setting", he indicales generally lhe
measurement obtained by sliding a gauge, either between the two small cylindrical strips at
the extremities of lhe rollers (ef. Fig. 13.2), or between the poinl of a lOoth and the bottom
of the groove with which il meshes, about one-quarterof lhe length along the roller, choosing
for this an undamaged portian of the rollers.
If, for example, lhe lhickest gauge which will pass between the rollers is 3 mm (t in.), he
will say, "My delivery selling is 3 mm".
It is vcry necessary la guarcl against reasoning as if the thickness 01" bagasse passing bel-
ween lhe rollers when not lifting had the same value. This thickness is generally much greater
than lhe "setting". The difference is due to a number of causes:
(a) Non-uniform wear of lhe rollers, lf for example lhe setting has been lilken belween
the cylindrical portions al lhe exlremilies of lhe rollers, lhe selling al lhe mid-point of lhe
rollers will be higher, since the rollers wear more al lhe centre lhan al lheir eXlremities.
(b) Wear al lhe tips of lhe leeth.
(e) Destruclion' (more or less complele) of lhe leelh by lhe passage through rhe mili of
pieces of iron or sleel, breaking or crushing lhe teelh over part of lheir lenglh and deplh.
(d) The volume lefl free by chevrons and Messchaerts. As far as the latter are concerned,
experiments made in Queensland have shown lhal il is suilable la lake lhem inlo accounl,
for lhe volume described by lhe opening, only la the exlenl of one-quarter of lheir depth
(Bullock ').
There are thus four measurements to be distinguished al lhe delivery of a mili:
(1) The "delivery selling"
(2) The true opening between lhe rollers when not lifting, laking inlo account lhe losses of
melal (a), (b), (e), and lhe free volume (d)
(3) The opening al commencemenl of lifl of lhe accumulalor
(4) The delivery opening when operating.
The delivery selling is merely a lheorelical figure, the only inlerest of which is lhal il is
casy lo measure. The lrue opening in the absence of lin corresponds la a lrue volume
generatecl by the simullaneous rOlalion 01" the 2 rollers. When lhe milI is sel in motion, il
begins to fill wilh bagasse; lhe compression of lhe lalter lhen increases lO lhe point where
il is sufficient la lifl the weighl of the lOp roller, or lo force the bOllom roller to lhe balto m
of its bearings, or lhe bearings hard against lhe housing, elC. As lhe quantily of bagasse pro-
gressively increases, the various cases 01' play, (a) - (e) ciled aboye, in lhe paragraph Causes
01 play (p. 122), come inlo operalion successively, and lhe pressure increases; the volume
generaled thus attains the value corresponding la lhe opening al lhe commencement of lift;
the pressure then increases more rapidly up 10 the limit corresponding to the commencement
124 PRESSVRES IN MILLlNG Ch. 10
of lin of the accumulator, Finally, the accumulator lifts, and the volume generated continues
to in crease in direct proportion to the lift, the pressure on the other hand remaining substan·
tially co nstant.
We shall have for example:
Delivery setting: 1 mm (0,04 in,)

True opening in absence of li fI: 4 mm (0,16 in,) (mean value)
Opening at commencement of lift: 6 mm (0,24 in,) (mean value)
In the case of a mili of 100 I.c,h, capacity, the delivery opening of which when working
is 16 mm (0.64 in.) for example, the true opening in Ihe absence of lin will be rilled al a Ion·
nage of les s than 25 I.c.h. and the accumulator will not lin unlil the instantaneous rale co ro
responds to 50 I.c.h. Below this ton nage rhe pressure wilJ not be fully effeclive,
Measuremenl o/Ihe Irue back rol/er opening in absence o/ rol/er !ifl. This determination
is made very easily by the lest with lead, on condition that a piece of lead is taken small
enough to avoid displacing the rollers, for example, a piece 50 x 50 x 20 mm (2 x 2 x
t in.) will be suitable in general for milis of 914 x 1,828 mm (30 x 60 in,) or Inrger. This
is made 10 pass through the mili while checking that neither the rolJers nor the accumuliltor
are displaced, The thickness of the piece of crushed lead is then determined in the following
manner: it is placed on a piece of squared paper and its contour is drawn on the pa·per. The
number of squares included on the paper is then counted, and the piece of lead is weighed.
Let S be the area obtained for the pie ce and G its weight. We ha ve:
G
e = (10.3)
dS
e thi ckness soug ht, in cm (in.)
G weight of lead, in g (lb.)
d density of lead = 11.35 g/ cm' (0.41 Ib.lcu.in.)
S area obtained, in cm' (sq,in.),
We thus obtain the mean thickness of the piecc of lead with a high degree of precision.
It co rresponds 10 the true back opening between the rollers in the absence of roller lift. Ir
the surface of the rollers is greatly damaged, the mean 01' several tests should be taken , allow·
ing for the depth of a Messchaert groove as ofren as is necessary to represent its correct pro·
portion of the surface of the roller.
This question of slack and of the mili openings at rest and at firs t application of pressure
has been discussed at sorne lenglh, bUI we consider that these details conlribute greatly to
a better understanding of what happens in Ihe mili . Individual air - oil accumulators display
a commencement of lift which does not correspond to Ihe full pressure, on account 01' the
causes of play indicated. Fortunately these are rather slight in modern well·constructed milis.
• T- -Z
PP.E~SURE CONSIDERED FROM THE OPERATING VIEWPOINT 125

"
Ma"imum values
Hydraulic pressure. The accumulalors, plpll1g and milis are generally designed for oi!
pressures of 250 - 350 kg/cm' (3,500- 5,000 p.s.i.). British firms have adopled as standard
280 kg/cm' (4,000 p.s.i.), while French manufacturers go up to 300- 320 kg/c m'
(4,250 - 4,500 p.s.i.).
This maximum, however, is nQI generally used, or is used only in the last mill. With the
usual dimensions of hydraulic pislons, a value of 300 kg/cm' (4,250 p.s.i.) ís suffícient to
allow lhe oplimal operaling condilions lO be allained, as we shall see laler.
Total pressure. From lhe point of view of Slresses in lhe roller malerial, lhe 10lal pressure
cxencd on lhe 10p roller is gene rally measured by relaling Ihis pressure 10 lhe projecled area
(Ienglh x diallleler) of Ihe roller journals.
Tlle prcsslIrc on lile journals, so dcfínéd, gcncrally does no! exceed :
70 - 80 kg/cm' (1,000 - 1,150 p.s.i.) for crushers

(10.4)
100-110 kg/cm' (1,400-1,600 p.s.i.) for milis
Sorne manufacturers have gone up lO 125 kg/ cm' (1,800 p.s.i.) but, from lhe point ofvíew
of safety, and in order to mainlain good lubricalion, we consider it is not advisable lO exceed
110 kg/cm' (1,600 p.s.i.).
PRESSURE CONSIDERED PROM THE OPERATING VIEWPOINT
Measure of Ihe pressure on the bagasse

The indicalion of lhe 10lal pressure exerted on lhe 10p roller gives litlle information as to
lhe (,'orresponding pressure undergone by lhe bagasse. If, for example, a pressure of 300 ton-
nes were applied lO a mili of 1,097 x 2,560 mm (36 x 84 in .) il is evident that the effect
on lhe bagasse will by no means be lhe same as if lhe 300 lonnes were applied to a mill of
914 x 1,828 mm (30 x 60 in.). In lhe larger mili, the total pressure will be distributed over
a larger area of bagasse.
In the same way, lhe lhickness of the bagasse layer has ilS effect.
In un atlempt lO lake inlo accounl lhe dimensions of lhe mili, the British praclice is to ex-
press lhe figure as pressure/unit lenglh of roller. However, a pressure of 200 t/m (60 t./fL)
would give the same lotal pressure, i.e. 360 tonnes, on a roller of 863 x 1830 mm (34 x
72 in.) as on one of 810 x 1830 mm (32 x 72 in.), but the effect will be different.
If we consider (Fig. 10.8) a transverse seclion of a mili in operation, we can quite well pic-
ture lhis figure as representing, perhaps rollers of 50 cm (20 in.) diameter on a scale of ro,
perhaps rollers of 100 cm (40 in.) diameter on a scale of;¡\¡, or rollers of any diameter what-
ever al the appropriate scale.
11 will be seen then that the layer of bagasse indicaled on the figure will likewise correspond
lO a lhickness delermined by lhe scale of Ihe figure, bUI proportional to lhe diameler of [he
roller: 10 cm (4 in.) for rollers of 50 cm (20 in.), or 20 cm (8 in .) for rollers of 100 cm (40
in.), elc.
126 PRESSURES IN MILLING Ch. 10
fig . 10.8. Tilo b"g"s.le layer.
For Ihe present, we propose to concern ourselves only with th e pressure, and 10 disregard
lemporarily the more complex phenomena suc h as the flow 01' juice through the la ye r oi'
bagasse, which, however, would nOI seriously affeet our conc1usions.
Other things being equal, it is obv io us Ihat, for a given diagram, e.g. for a given Ihickness
of bagasse and at the roller selling shown , Ihere wi ll be an idenlical nip, degree oi' compres-
sion, ralio elE and overall lrealm ent oi' th e bagasse, whalever Ihe scale 01' Ihe diagram. In
olher word s, in the IWO ea ses below:
( 1) Diameter 01' rollers: D = 50 cm (20 in.)

Thickn ess 01' loose bagasse: E = 10 cm ( 4 in.)
Thickness of compressed bagasse: e I cm ( 0.4 in.)
(2) Diameter 01' rollers: D 100 cm (40 in.)

Thickness 01' loose bagasse: E 20 cm ( 8 in .)
Thickness 01' compressed bagasse: e 2 cm ( 0.8 in.)
I he resu II (\ l' lite r¡¡l ssage o l' lile b:lg:lsse lit rOllglt Ilt c mi 11 wi 11 he praCI ically I he .lame. B111 I hese
IwO cases correspond 10 Ihe salllc eOlllprcssion 01' lil e baga sse al IIOlllologous pDilllS ill 1 \\,\)
geomelrieall y similar rigure s (01' 10 Ihe sante roinl in Ihe same I'igure al IWO dil'l'erclll scaks),
and Ihis postulates Ihallhe pressurc per unil area onlhe bagasse is Ihe salllC al all eorrespo n-
ding poinls in ilS passage belween the roller s. When Ihe geometrical similarity is reali sed, Ihe
meehanical similarilY w ill also be realised if Ihe 10lal pressure per unil lenglh 01' Ihe roller
for Ihe lOO-cm (40-in.) mili i.s dOuble Ihal for Ih e 50-cm (20-in .) mili. The lenglh 01' Ihe ares
in conlael wilh Ihe bagasse in lite I'ormer case is effeclively double Ihal for Ihe seeond case.
For a layer 01' bagasse of Ihiekness equal 10 a given fraclion 01' Ihe dialllcler 01' Ihe rollers
(in Ihe aboye example, 20070 before pressing, 2070 al delivery opening), the etTect on lhe
bagasse will be idenlieal if Ihe 10lal pressure on Ihe whole lenglh oi' Ihe roller is proporlional
lO LD:
F = ALD (10.5)
F = 10lal hydraulic pressure aCling on Ihe 10p roller
"
L
D
numerical coefficienl
lenglh 01' rollers
diameler 01' rollers.
PRESSURE CONSIDERED FROM THE OPERATING vlEWPOINT 127
Spccific pressure
We now sec thal a logical way of taking imo account lhe roller dimensions is 10 relate the
total pressure, nOl 10 the length L of the rollers, bUl lO lhe producl LD of lheir lenglh and
diameter.
However, the pressure relalive 10 LD does not represent anylhing tangible [Q the imagina-
lion. But it is found lhat, for a lhickness of bagas se layer as ordinarily passed through Ihe
mills, the l11ean pressure exerted on lhe b<lgasse is ap[lroximalely equal lO Ihat which would
be exerted by lhe 10lal pressure Fi'f uniformly dislributed on aplane surface of lenglh L and
breadth equal 10 one-tenth of the diameter, i.e. D /IO.
We shall therefore define the specific hydraulic pressure of a mill, or s. h,p" by the quotient
F l.Q..E
p (10.6)
0.1 LD LD
P s[lecific hydraulic pressure, in tonnes/dl11' (tons/sq. ft.) = "s.h.p."

F total hydraulic pressure on the top roller, expressed in tonnes
L = length of the rollers, in dm (fl.)
D = diameter of the rollers, in dm (fl.).
This definilion of s.h.p. is not c!osely related to the actual pressure exerted on the bagasse;
il is merely the main faclor in it, and gives an approximate figure of the order o'f magnilude
of the mean pressure; it has Ihe advantage of appealing to the imaginati on , as one can im-
medialely piclure a pressure, for example, of 10 l/ dm' or 100 tons/sq.ft. of bagasse. lt is
also very useful, and will be used frequently in lhe following discussion . It should completely
replace the figure of load per unit lenglh of roller, which is illogical and liable lO cause confu-
sion.
Thickness of the bagasse layer. The s.h. p. permils of a comparison belween lhe pressures
of two differenl milis, bUl one muSl be caulious of using il as a measure of lhe pressure
undergone by lhe bagasse. The s.h.p. would nOl provide a measure of lhis pressure unless
lhe bagasse layer was always the same proportion of lh e roller diameler. This is nol generally
the case, either in lWO differenl milis, which may be under differenl conlrol, or in the same
mili, where the crushing rate may be increased or decreased.
Resolution of the pressures in Ihe mili while operaling

In <111 ordinary 2-roller crusher in operation, the reaclions resulting from a load P exerled
011 t he tOP roller are very sil11ple. Tilere is a reaction of Fs on the upper brasses of the top
roller, and a reaction F¡ on the bottol11 brasscs of lhe bottom roller (Fig. 10.9), and each of
these reactions is equal to P:
In a mili, the resolution is somewhal more complex. The reaction on the upper brasses of
the 10p roller is still equal to P. lf there were no trashplate, the load P would be resolved
at lhe lower rollers in lO lWO reaclions: F, al lhe feed and F, at the delivery roller (Fig. 10.10).
128 PRESSURES IN MILLlNG CIl. 10
Fl F2
Fig. 10.9. Rcsolulion of prcss\Jrcs in .1 (rusller. Fig. 10. 10. RcsolUlion or prcssmes in ;:¡ milI.
The lalter will always be grealer, sin,e lh e selling al lhe dclivcry is al1V8Ys ,Ioser lhan al lhe
feed roller.
Influence of Ihe Irashplale. However, a cerlain portian 01' Ihe pressurc Pis absorbed by
lhe Irashp lat e. The reaclion 01' Ihe laller is slightly displaced in fronl 01' lhe ü.\ial plane 01'
lhe lOp raller. 11' we neglecl lhis angle 01' displacemelll, which is small, \Ve .Ice thal lhe reac-
lions F, and F, wilJ be produced only by the remaining fraclion 01' P (Fig. 10.11).
= Reaction
Ji ." ,,. T""'""

R o, the trashplote
I P::: Reosultant prt'ssure:: 80
~ 'Pl:: Total hydraulic

~ pres sure.::: 100
Tro,;h~late
Fig. JO. 1 J. ElleCI or ¡rashplatc rCil\.'doll on ¡he hyd rauli\.: load (rela livc prcssures cxprcs:;;¡ct! as l1fo IOlal rr('.~sur~).
Whal is the fraClion 01' P absorbed by lhe lrash plate? Lehky' estimales lhal lhe mean
pressure on lhe lrashplale is 01' lhe arder 01' 3 kg / cm' (43 p.s.¡.), which, I'or lhe usual propor-
liollS, wo uld correspond 10 aboul 5 070 01' P. This value appears lO LIS la be vcry low. However,
Ru sse ll'" J'inds 1.8 kg/cm' (26 Ib.lsq. in.), corresponding to a 10lal reaclion R = 0.05 P.
He finally proposes R = 0.10 P.
Munson l has found normal values 01' 10-14 kg/ cm' (140-200 p.s.i.) bUl has slaled lhal
PR.E~SURE CONSIDERED FROM THE OPERATINO VIEWPOINT 129
"
this pressure often rea ,h es 35 kg/cm' (SOO p.s. i.) and can even exceed 60 kg/cm' (850 p.s.j.).
On the other hand, some experimellts conduéted at lhe experimental factory al Audubon
Park" indicated thal Ihe rea ctio l1 01' Ihe Irashplate was proportional to Ihe total pressure F,
and approximulely equal to half thi s total pressure. These results, as indeed Iheir authorssug-
gesl, seem 10 err 011 the high side. FinallJ y. some cross-checking, and parlicularly sorne tests
by Varona l , which we inlerprel moreover in a manner slightly different from that of its
aUlhor, and a lest carried out at QJJr factory of la Mare, lead us 10 the view that, in industrial
mills,.the proportion of Ihe load absorbed by the trashplate would be in general of the order
of 20:" 30070 of the total hydraulic load. The Sugar Research Institule at Mackay· agrees on
this arder of magnitude.
Munson, who suggested the tests at Audubon, considers that the setting of the trashpJate
has litlle erreCI on tile value of this reaction, although the highest values are generall y
reponed for very low settings; whelher the plale be I'ixed high or Jow, Ihe bagasse ac-
cumulates 10 the poinl where Ihe Ihickness of the Jayer co rrespo nds approximately to a cer-
lain constant reaction, which we have jusI estil1latcd al 20 - 30% 01' Ihe hydraulic pressure
exerled on the IOp roller. We share Ihis point of view provided, obviously, Ihat lhe Irashplate
is not set loo high or 100 low. If it is correcl, there will be no need to consider Ihe setting,
which fOrlunately simplifies the probJem.
r _ _ _-,.!
FI
F2
0.8 P '----->'iR
Fig. 10.12. Constancy or ,he sum or 'he 'wo reaclions: reed and delivery.
So Ihen, 20 - 30% of fhe hydraulic pressure P being absorbed by Ihe trashplate, there re-
l11ains only some 75C!70 lO exert the pressures F, and F, al [he entry and delivery openings.
Ir we produce the lines of Ihese forces 10 their poil1t of inlersection 0, centre of the top roller,
and project them on the vertical line (Fig. 10.12), we have:
Ci Ci
F, cos :2 + F, cos :2 = 0.75 P
whence:
0.75 P
F, + F, :: P (10.7)
cos Ci/2
-
130 PRESSURES IN MILLINO Ch . 10
which shows tha! Ihe sum of the reactions F, and F, remains COnSlanl even Ihough Iheir
relative values may vary. (We shall see later (p. 164) a more accurate value for Ihis sum.)
We can therefore enunciate thefollowing principie:
PrincipIe. The sum of the forces acting on the assembly of Ihe working bearings of a mill
has a constant value, which is approximal ely:
P+F,+F,=P+P=2P (10.8)
Crusher. For a crusher, Ihe sum of Ihe forces acting on the assembly of Ihe 4 active bear-
ings obviously has Ihe value (F ig. 10.9):
F+F=2P (10.9)
We· see then that for an equal pressure on Ihe 10p roller, the forces aCling on Ihe grou p
of bearings of a crusher are approximalely equal 10 Ihose aCling on Ihe bearings of a milI.
Definitions
We shall use hencefonh Ihe following nomenclalure and abbreviations:
t.h.p. = Total hydraulic pressure (or lotal hydraulic load) on the top roller. 11 is Ihe
number of tonnes obtained by mullipl ying Ihe IOlal area of the Iwo pislons, in
cm' (sq.in.), by the oil pressure expressed in lonnes/ cm' (tons/sq.in.)
s.h.p. Specific hydraulic pressure. This is Ihe figure oblained by assuming the t.h.p. 10
be uniformly distributed over a reclangula r plane surface of length equal 10 Illal
of Ihe rollers and of width equal !O one·lenlh of Iheir diameler. It is expressed
in IOnnes/ dm' (Ions/sq. ft.) :
t. h. p. ID .{t.h.pJ
s. h.p. = . . . . . . -._._ - = (IO.IO)
0.1 LD LD
r .h.p. = Resultanl hydraulic pressure (or hydraulic load). This is Ihe componenl, eilhcr
on lile feed side F" or on Ihe delivery side F" corresponding !O Ihe t.h .p. 111 a
crusher, r.h.p. = t.h.p.
s.r .h.p. = Specific resultant hydraulic pressure:
10 (r.h.p.) (i0.11)
s.r. h.p.
LD
PRE SS URES IN MILLS
Phenomena influencing pressure in milis

It has long been believed thal bagasse passing bel ween mili rollers Iravds al a speed equal
lO the peripheral speed of Ihe rollers which move il. The firsl edilion of Ihls manual was bas-
"TE . ===.
P RESSU RE IN MILLS 131
ed on that hypothesis; bu! more precise measurements have shown thal lhis is no! correCI.
As long ago as 1928, Egeler in Java had stated that the volume oC the compressed bagasse,
as it passes between lhe rollers, is grealer lhan lhe volume generaled by the rollers. He .eri c
countered much scepticism, as even technical people Cound it difficult to imagine a f10w oC
material submitted to such pressures. More careful measurements in industrial milis, and
laboratory experiments, particularly those of Bullock and Murry in Australia, have shown
decisively that lhere is hardly ever-equality between the volume of compressed bagasse and
the volume generated by the rollers.
This phenomenon is still not very well underslOod, but may be explained in the following
manner. Let us consider a layer AB of prepared cane or bagasse entering a mili (Fig. 10.13).
Lel us visualise verlical equidislant bands AB, CD, elC. as if they were marked in red, in this
layer 01' bagasse. When these bands approach lhe roJlers lhey wiJl be disturbed by the com-
pression of the bands preceding lhem; lhe maleriallocaled on the surface and coming in con-
laCI wilh lhe rollers will be cafl'ied along by rriction, but will drag the interior layers forward
10 a lesser exlenl only, parlicularly as they encounler greater and grealer resistance due !O
lhe facI of lhe increased compression. Thus lhe bagasse has a tendency to f10w back towards
zones of lower pressure. These bands accordingly will at first bend backwards and, when the
space between the rollers becomes very narrow, lhey will form pockets in the middle layer.
This malerial, however, is nOI solid like melallic fibre, nor fluid like steel on ¡he point of
melling; it consisls of solid fibres and liquid juice. Under the influence of pressure, the cell
walls burst, the juice tends 10 escape lowards the zone of lower pressure and f10ws back
through the fibrous mass towards the free exterior spaces M and N. At N, it escapes to the
juice pan; at M, it cannot escape except by traversing the whole bagasse layer where it is not
yel under pressure. It thus saturates the material and so contributes to increasing the propor-
lion 01' juice therein and consequenlly lhe proporlion which is trapped and carried on
lowards lhe ópening.
- - - - -- - -x'
B D
\ O'
O'
Fig. 10.13. Formation o r semi·liquid pocke!. Fig. 10.14. Dislribulion of pressures On ¡he roller.
132 PRESSURES IN MILLING Ch. lO
A new factor now comes into play; the permeability of the fibrous mass. This permeability
is very high in loose bagasse but drops abruptly when the pressure increases and becomes
practically nil at very high pressures, as demonstrated by Bullock and Murry. The juice which
has not been able lo escape in lhe zone of high permeability, or low pressure, thus finds itself
trapped. There arrives then at lhe zone of very high pressures, towards PQ, a material con-
sisting of juice intimately intermingled with fibre. This material assumes under sllch pressures
lhe slate which Linley has dcscribed as "semi-liquid" (M urry 7); it possesses peculiar proper-
ties, and the liquid shows a violent tendency to squirt through the first available opening,
probably taking with it a certain proportion of fibre.
The juice which has thus been lrapped in lhe middle of the bagasse layer forms a pockel
which is well depicted by our distorted vertical bands (Fig. 10.13). We shall now consider
what happens to this pockel of material: when it arrives at the axial plane 00', it finds ahead
of it a zone of decreasing pressures. The liquid will then obviously be thrown forward and
will find in front of it a bagasse relalively dry and expanding like a sponge, in which il will
immediately be re-absorbed. We see here one of the deficiencies of the crude system of ex-
traction provided by the milling process; an enormous amount of energy is expended lo
release lhe juice, but a large fraclion of lhe juice thus liberated is immediately lost again by
re-absorption. This disadvantage is a maller of lhe nalure of Ihe matertals and would be very
di fficult lo overcome.
Consider again the pocket of juice: in Ihe last inch preceding the axial plane 00', the
opening belween the rollers is barely greater than that al the axial plane. lf it is 0.80 in. at
00', it would be 0.81 in. at í in. before the axial plane. It is readily seen that, in the semi-
fluid state described, squirting through the delivery opening will actually take place well
ahead of the axial plane. However, as soon as squirting takes place. the pressure falls or at
least ceases to rise. lt follows thal the maximum pressure takes place not at the axial plane
but in an earlier plane, in lhe neighbourhood of PQ, called lhe "neutral plane".
The dislribution of pressure in t he mili is thus displaced lowards 1he feed si de (Fig. 10.14)
relalive lO whal is assul1lecl in picluring lhe maxiIl1uIl1 as being nI Ihe axial plnnl'. 11 is pro-
bably praclically conslanl belwcenlhe neulral plane and Ihe axial plane, and I'alls off rapidly
beyond lhe lalter. We have represenled lhese pressure changes by ordinales placed on lhe cor-
responding radii of lhe top roller.
The neutral plane PQ may be located al 25 - 50 mm (1 - 2 in.) before the axial plane. The
squirting, or at least Ihe flow at a speed aboye that of the rollers, commenccs at the neutral
plane and finishes just after the axial plane.
A certain proportion of juice therefore passes through YZ (Fig. 10.13)at a higher speed.
It is possible that this is a small proportion squirting at high velocity through the medium
layer xx' (Fig. 10.14); it is possible also that practically all the juice passes lhrough the
fibrous mass at a speed only 10,20 or 50070 higher than that of the rollers. It is possible finall)'
that the juice, being thrown forward in this way, enlrains with il sorne solid material. The
term "extrusion" is applicable to this laller hypothesis: there is an extrusion of the solid-
liquid material under pressure through Ihe delivery opening.
The lerm "re-absorplion" is applicable in any case, since il refers to juice passing Ihrough
the opening al increased velocily and becoming re-absorbed afler the delivery opening in a
mass of bagasse which has been deprived of ils juice and is in a condilion 10 absorb moislure
eagerly.
PRESSURE IN MILLS 133
Re-absorplion faclor or excess-speed coefflclenl

We may use lo lerm "excess-speed coefficienl" for Ihe ralio r of Ihe mean speed of Ihe
maleriallhrollgh Ihe opening lo Ihe peripheral velocilY of Ihe rollers. This ralio is also called
the "re-absorption factor", or "coefficienl of slip". The lalter lerm is hardly appropriale,
since one does nol normally think of a negative slip at high pressures; "forward-slip factor"
would perhaps be a more descriplive lerm.
This faclor is easily calculaledt. when the volume of material is known as well as the volume
generaled by the rollers:
r (10.12)
r = re-absorption faclor
Va volllllle 01' the bagas se as il passes through the delivery opening
VE volume generated at Ihe delivery opening by the rotation of the IWO rollers.
The ralio r increases with degree of compression . When it reaches unity, the phenomenon
of re-absorplion has aClually already commenced. Ir- we consider a mili with a very wide
opening, Ihe phenolllena due 10 very high pressures and which we have described above will
not be produced. Loose bagasse, however, except Ihe layer in conlact wilh the rollers, is not
dragged forward bodily al Ihe peripheral velocity. Slip Iherefore occurs and the ratio r is less
Ihan l. The term "coefficient of slip" is Ihen fully justified. It reaches unity only when, Ihe
pressure increasing or Ihe mili being c10sed in, re-absorption commences and becomes suffi-
cienl 10 compensale the normal slip. It is no cause for surprise Ihat the graph oblained in
praclice, giving lhe eXl raclion as a funclion of increasing tonnage, for a mili with a given
opening, eros ses lhe lheoretical curve (Fig. 10.15). (We understand by the theoretical curve
lhe curve which would be obtained in the absence of re-absorption, i.e. if all the bagasse
mal erial was moved forward at lhe peripheral speed of the rollers.) There would otherwise
be no explanalion for the part of Ihe graph corresponding to values of r less than l.
Extractoo
Tonnoge
oL-------------------~~_
Fig. 10.15. Thcorelical and praclical eXlraclion curves.

Densities of fibre, cane and bagasse

One of the first questions which arise is: how can the volume of the material under pressure
be measured? lt is apparently very variable, and depends on its ribre, its state of subdivision,
the size and lhe shape of the pieces, on the Ihickness of the bagasse layer (a thick layer com -
pacts more than a thin layer), on the brix 01" the juice, etc.
,
No·void volume. These variations and these sources of uncertainty are much reduced ir,
instead of the apparent volume, the no-void volume of the material is used . The material con-
sisl.~ of two substances: ribre and juice.
A. Fibre. The density of ribre is now well known. The den sity of cellulose being 1.55, that
of the ribre cannot differ greatly from this figure. The best determination which has been
made is that of Pidduck'; this gives:
6 = 1.512 + 0.000023 P (6 = 1.512 + 0.00000161 p) (10.13)
Ii speciric gravity of cane fibre under a pressure p

p pressure to which the fibre is subjected, in kg/ cm 2 (tons/ sq.in.)
The value of 1.512 is given with a precision of ± 0.01.
At:
Atmospheric pressure: 6 1.512

100 kg/cm' (1,400 p. s.i.): Ó 1.514
500 kg/cm' (7,000 p.s.i.): Ó = 1.523
There will be no significant error if we adopt a rigure of 1.52 for fibre under pressure in a
milI.
B. Juice. In Java it was considered that the liquid fraction of the cane consisled of (a) jllice
proper, of variable density; (b) water of constitution or hygroscopic water, which is practical-
Iy pure water or at least of ver y low bri x; this is c10sely associated with the ribrous material,
and even the highest pressures cannot separate if I"rom the fibre. It was estimated that this
water of constitution amounted 1025070 of Ihe weight of I"ibre; others eSlimated 20%. Tests
made by Van der Poi in South Africa had given approximately 30% but have later' been coro
rected to 20%. This proportion , moreover, varies in the course of the season. If we adopl
a value of 20%; the no·void. volume of a kilogram of cane or bagasse would have the value:
p
f 0.20 f - 1.20 f (10.14)
Vo + -1- + dJ
1.52
Vo = specific no-void volume of can e or bagasse, in dm 3 / kg (for cu.fL/lb. x 0.016)

f = fibre per unit of can e or bagasse
d J = densilY of juice (or of mixture of juice and imbibition water).
Thi s may be written:
Vo = ~ - (1.20 - 0.86)/ (10.15)

dJ dJ
The density of juice dJo under atmospheric pressure being known, its density dJ under a
pressure p (kg/ cm' or Ib.lsq.in.) has approximately the value:
dJ = dJo (1 + 0.00004 p) (di = dio (1 + 0.0000028 p) (10.16)
Or, with sufficient accuracy for juice under pressure in the mili:
di = 1.01 dio (10.17)
Consider first the case of cane: dio = 1.07 - 1.09, say approximately 1.08; / =
0.10-0.15:
Minimum: Vo = ( 1.20 0.86)0.15 = 0.874 or: de = 1.144

1.09 X 1.01 1.09 X 1.01
Maximum: Vo = ( 1.20 - 0.86)0.10 = 0.901 or: d e = 1.110

1.07 X 1.01 1.07 X 1.01
de = no-void density of cane under pressure: no significant error will be involved if we adopt
de = 1.12 kg/ dm J (70 Ib .lc u.ft.).
Consider now the case of first bagasse: d = 1.06 - 1.08; / = 0.30 - 0.36:
Minimum: V o = - (1.20
- - - - - - 0.86 ) 0.36 = 0.830 or: de '" 1.204
1.08 X 1.01 1.08 X 1.01 .
Maximum: V o = ( 1.20 - 0.86) 0.30 = 0.856 or: de = 1.169

1.06 X 1.01 1.06 x 1.01
de =no-void density of bagasse under pressure.

For a final mili: d = 1.01 - 1.02; / = 0.46 - 0.54:
Minimum: V o ( 1.20 0.86) 0.54 = 0.806 or: de = 1.241

1.02 x 1.01 1.02 x 1.01
a 1.20
Maximul1l: Vo = 0.86) 0.46 = 0.835 or: de = 1.198
1.01 x 1.01 - (1.01 x 1.01
No/e: The aboye densities are given in kg/ dm J ; for conversion to lb. per cU.ft. they should
be multiplied by the density of water (62.4 Ib.lcu. fL).
It is seen that the density of the bagasse is of the order of 1.20 kg/ dm J (75 Ib .lcu.ft.).
Fibraque
The Dutch workers in Java considered the sum of fibre and water of constitution as a com-
1:
pound which could nOI be separaled mechanically, since milis were not able 10 effeet that
separation. They c;:alled this combinalion "natural fibre". We shall at times adopt this eon-
cept but, to avoid any confusion, we shall give this c;:ombinalion the name of "fibraque",
signifying fibre plus water.
As a general rule we shall suppose lhal lhe weight of t'ibraque represenls 1.2 limes Ihe
weighl of dry fibre.
Fibre loading
We shall use Ihe term "fibre loading" to designate the weighl of fibre·per unil area described
by one of the mili rollers. We have:
Af Aj
q = ::::: --~--_. (10.18)
S 60 7rnDL
q fibre loading, in kg/m' (lb./sq.ft.)

A = crushing rale, in kg/h (lb./h)
f fibre per unit of cane
=
S = area described by a generatrix 01' the top roller in I hour, in m' (sq.f1.)
L length of rollers, in m (f1.)
D = mean diameler of rollers, in m (fl.)
n = rotational speed of rollers, in r.p.m.
The fibre loading varies greatly. A mean order of magnitude would be, for example: q
12 kg/m' (2.5 Ib./sq.f1.). However, as we have seen (p. 125), the layer of cane or of bagasse
should, olher things being equal, be proporlional lo the roller diameler. Since Ihe I'ibre
loading ilself is proportional to the thickness of the bag<1sse layer, it follows Ih<1t, in order
lo compare the loading of two milis of different roller diameters, that is 10 say the work
which is required of them, it is necessary to relate the fibre loading 10 the di<1ll1eler. Hence
the concept of "specific fibre loading":
q
Speci fic fibre loading: r = (10.19)
D
r = specific fibre loading in kg/m'/m, i.e. in kg/m J (lb.lcu. fL).

The specific fibre loading, obviously less variable than the fibre loading, is of lhe order
of 16 kg/m J (1 Ib.lcu.fL).
Apparenl volume
The apparent densilY of cane, including voids, corresponding to Ihe apparent volume which
il occupies on lhe carrier or al lhe enlry lO lhe mili, under zero pressure, depends on lhe
degree of preparation. Murry9' gives as a c10se approximation:
Fine Medium Coarse

do 0.660 (41.2) 0.634 (39.6) 0.548 (34.2) kg/dm 2 (lb.lcu.fL)
PRESSURES IN MILLS 137
'"
It is thus of Ihe order of 0.6.
1t is valuable to know the apparenl volume of the cane or the bagasse as presented to the
mili, since the lower this volul11e, the more Ihe feeding of the mili is racililaled. In order 10
measure this apparent volume, we shall l11ake use or Ihe "compaction coefficienl", which
we shall derine as follows:
weighl of fibre
Compaclion coefficient = -- ---_ .. - _... ... ...... .. . ..
, ' (10.20)
total apparenl volume of lhe malcrial
expressed as kg/dm J (lb./cu.rt.).

This coerficienl is of lhe orderofO.08-0.09 kg/dm J (5-6Ib./cu.ft.) for cane and for
bagasse, in lhe absence of rorced I'eeding. It is independenl of ¡he moislure conten!. Ir has
been demons[raled in Auslralia 'o Ihal it remains praclically unchanged whalever [he imbibi-
tion, exce[J1 al Ihe rirs! addition 01' waler, which causes a slighl compaction 01' 4070. Wilh in-
creasing il11bibilion i[ varies by less [han 2% whell lhe il11bibilion per cenl l'ibrc varies belween
limils as wide as 88 10454, which are far below and aboye normal industrial values.
This coefficien[ could be deCined as lhe ralioor volume of fibre to the total apparenl
volume, [hus ob[aining a dimensionless coefficienl, which is desirable. This would be simply
our coefficienl I divided by lhe density of fibre; bUI the advanlage of the coefficient
weight / volume (eqn. (10.20)) is thal the weighl oC fibre is readily obtained,' whereas lhe
volume would necessilate the addi[ional slep of division by 1.52 for metric unils, 95.0 for
Bri[ish units; moreover, lhe weigh[ 01' fibre represents approximately Ihe volume of fibre plus
water oi' constilution, 01' in o[iler words, tile volume oC Cibraque. It would represent this ex-
actly if tlle waler of conslitulion amounled 1034070 oC lhe fibre. Since lhe waler of conslilu-
lion cannOl be eXlracled, lhis volume could be considered as lhe ideal minimum to which the
milis should be able to reduce lhe malerial presen[ed 10 them. Actually , this ideal is slill
bcyond lhe capabililY of aClual milis,
Thus in expressing I as weighl per unil volume, we have in effect lhe praclical equivalenl
oC a dimensionless coefricient, representing in our opinion practically a ralio oC volume per
unil volume.
Fibre iode"
Anolher quantily necessary for lhe sludy of milling work is lhe quantity of fibre which can
be made [O pass [Ilrough [he delivery opening of a milI. For lhis purpose lhe weighl of fibre
passed lhrough lhe opening in unil lime is relaled lo the volume generaled by that opening
when operaling, in [he same unil oC lime. This ratio Ihus bears a cerlain relationship to the
compaction coeCCicienl; bOlh expressions have lhe same numeralOr, expressed in a ratio, in
lhe former case lo Ihe volume before pressure is applicd, and in Ihe second case to the
theorelical volume linder pressure. As we have seen (p. 135) that fibre is almost incompressi-
ble, the quantity of fibre which can be passed through the mili will depend mainly on two
Cactors: (1) the quantity or juice which will pass Ihrough with it; the less juice, [he more space
for fibre; (2) the re-absorption factor; the higher this factor, lhe·more fibre will pass through
a given opening.
The fibre index, or weight of fibre per unit escribed volume, is defined as~
138 PRESSURES IN MILLINQ Ch. 10
weighl of fibre passed through Ihe opening ( I d ) (10.21)

Fibre index
escribed volume of Ihe opening g m
In Brilish unils il is expressed as Ib.!cu, fL

This coefficienl. generaJly applied lO lhe delivery opening of a mili, can equally. well apply
lO lhe feed opening, Al lhe delivery. il varies for example from 400 lO 880 g/ dl11 J (25 10 55
Ib .!cu, fl.). )l increases along Ihe milling lrain, being minimal al Ihe firSl mili and maximal
al rhe lasr milI.
In order lO show beller Ihe significance of Ihis figure, we may recalllhal firsl-mill bagasse
of 320/0 fibre conlains 320 .;- 0.86 = 372 g offibre per dm J of no-void volume (23 lb.! cu. ft .);
and Ihal a final bagasse of 55% fibre contains 50010.82 = 610 g of fibre per dm J of no-void
volume (38 lb./cu . fl.). The cJifferences belween lhe fibre index and lt1ese figures are due ro
Ihe re-absorplion faclor.
When expressed, like Ihe compaclion coefficienl. in kg/ dm). Ihe fibre index can also, for
Ihe same reasons .. be Ihoughl of as represenling a ralio 01' volume lO volume: Ihe ralio 01'
volume of fibraque lO escribed volume. Il is similar in lhis sense 10 a dimensionless coel'f'i-
cienl, and lhus represenls lhe ralio 01' non-exlraclable volume lO escribed volume nnd Ihus
expresses Ihe effor! 01' compression exerled by Ihe mili on lhe malerial. As il represenls in
Ihis way a ralio of volume lO volume, il is Iherefore in general lower Ihan 1, excepl in lile
case of high re-absorplion.
Compression ratio
The principal faclor which delermines Ihe exlraclion in a mili is Ihe degree of compression.
i.e. Ihe decrease in volume ro which one subjecIs Ihe mal erial from which Ihe juice is lO be
eXlracled. [n Ihe absence 01' a convenienl means of measuring Ihe re-absorplion faclor, Ihe
apparenl decrease in volume is measured, and Ihis is expressed by Ihe "compression ralio"
inlroduced by Bullock:
e = no:~?.i:!.!?l!lme °I~: .ma!.:~~.I__~:e!.i _ll~lh.:n~1 (10.22)

volume available for rhe compressed mal erial
The compression ralio of a mili, or more precisely rhe compression ralio corresponding
lO Ihe passage of rhe mal erial belween IwO rollers (for compression ralio may be applied
eirher ro rhe feed opening or Ihe delivery opening). is Ihe maximum value assumed by Ihis
ratio e in the course of Ihe passage Ihrough lhe mili. i.e. Ihe value corresponding lO Ihe open-
ing in lhe axial planeo We shall designare lhis by e A:
no-void volume of mal erial enlering lhe mili

(10.23)
volume generated by the opening between Ihe rollers
The compression ratio is really of interest only for a firsr mili, which receives cane 01' a
densily which is well known. For the other milis, and even for the firsl, Ihe fibre index is
more useful since. even in a firsl mili, rhe performance and the delivery opening depencJ less
on rhe volume of material presented than on Ihe fibre.
.=
Opening between rollers

There are two openings between mili rollers which are of interest; in other words, lwO spaces
corresponding to particular generatrices of each of these two rollers:
(a) Firsl, the opening in the axial plane of lhe lwo rollers, which we shall designate brieny
as "axial opening". If this opening has a value eA' lhe value which is interesting, and which
will express whether the mili opening is large or small, is the ratio:
( 10.24)
as will be immediately understood by a reference to Fig. 10.8 and to the considerations of

p. 126. In other words, a 111ill witll rollers 50 cm (20 in.) in diameter, for example, with an
opening eA = 12.5 mm O in.), is open lO the same extent as a mili wilh lOO-cm (40-in .)
diameter rollers, with opening eA = 25 mm (1 in.) . Both of these have thc same value fA
= 0.025.
We shall designate this ratio EA by the term "specific opening of the mill".
(b) Secondly, the opening in the vertical neutral plane (ef. p. 132). We shall designale lhis
opening by eN and we shall be inlerested in the same way or particularly in the value:
EN = (10.25)
D
If we recall that the neutral plane is that in which the material has the same mean speed
as ¡he surface of the rollers, we see thal il is the space eN which permits us lo calculate very
simply the volume of cane or bagasse passing.
There is a very simple relation between these two openings:
(10.26)
which is essentially the definilion of r (ef. eqn. (10.12)).
Positlon of neutral plane

It is inleresling to know the position of the neutral plane. We shall ri x it by the angle p bet-
ween the corresponding radius of lhe roller and the axial plane (Fig . 10. 16) and will adopt
the method of calculalion of Murry". Let us consider a poinl P of the top roller and the
corresponding point Q on lhe lower roller. Let the angle YOP = 8. The lhickness h (= PQ)
of the layer of bagasse at this point has the value:
h = D (1 - cos 8) + eA (10.27)
or:
h = D (1 + EA - cos 8) (10.28)
-
p
n
o·
\
Fig. 10.16. Posilion or neulrnl plane.
Let v be lh e peripheral speed of lhe roller.\ and u lhe mean speed of lhe malerial passing
lhrough Ihe mili. lhal is. such malerial as remains al'ter lhe dclivery. excluding lhe juice ex-
lracled by the IwO rollers which passes neilher Ihe neulral plane nor lhe axial plane. Lel Va
be the volume of lhis malerial. Al Ihe point p. we have:
u = = ( 10.29)
Lh LD (1 + fA - cos e
L = length of the rollers.
BUI:
Va = r VE (eJ, eqn. (10.12)
VE = volume generated by lhe axial opcning.

Or:
(10.30)
Hence:
reA vL rfA v
u - - -- - - = - - - -- -. . (10.3 1)
L D (l + fA - cos e) 1 + fA - cos e
The horizonlal componenl of lhe roller speed has lhe value v cos e. The pos ilion of lhe
neulral plane will be given by Ihe value 01' O whieh we shall call val lhe neulral plane. ror
which:
v cos v u =
P RESSURE IN MILLS 141
or:
,. 'A
cos v = --- ----------
1 + EA - COS V
Hence:
cos' V - (1 + EA) cos V + r EA =O
cos V
1 +
---- +
2
EA
;r\ EA)2 - r EA (10.32)
Givillg Iypical values 10 EA and r, \Ve oblaill Table 10.1.
TABLE 10.1
cas
_._.. _-_ .----- - _.- - VALUES OF y AND
-_..._- -- - - - - - - - -_.- - -- - --
J'
r o 0.01 0.02 0.05
COS 1.1 I cos 11 = J CO.~ " = I COS /1 = I

v o 11 == o y = o /1 = o
1.2 COS 1.1 1 cos v = 0.998 cos v = 0.996 cos v = 0.989

v = o /1 = 3 Q 39 ' 11 = 5" I 1' 11 = 8o 21 '
1.5 COS 11 = I cos v = 0.995 cos v = 0.990 cos v = 0.973

v = o 11 == 5 o 47 ' 1.1 = 8° 14' 1.1 = 13 o 22 I
Compression (Hugol)
In our first edition, we had expressed the degree of compression effected by the mili by adop-
ting the definition:
"Compression' , (10.33)
C maximaltheoretical compression undergone by the bagasse in its passage through the

axial plane of the mili
eA = opening bet ween lhe rollers, in lhe axial p1ane
H = lhickness of lhe layer of material, before entry to the mili.
We know now ¡ha¡ ¡he ¡rue compression is only:
c= = (10.34)
The graph of theoretical compression had been established from Noel Oeerr's experiments
on slalic compression of bagasse. based on a compaction coefficient of 0.07 kg/ dm' (4.4
Ib ./cu. ft .).
This "compression" was, Iherefore, ex\:epl for a numericnl coefficienl , Ihe inverse 01'
Bullock's "compressio n ralio". The numerical coefficienl is involved beca use our figure \Vas
based on lhe loose bagasse, as the slilrting poinl I'or Oeerr's experimenl s, co rrespo nding 10
a pressure of 77 g/cm' (1.1 lb .lsq .in.) and a compaclion coellicient I 01' 0.07 kg/ dm' (4.4
Ib.lcu.ft.), whereas Ihe compression ralio is based on lhe no- void volume 01' Ihe malerial (t
= 0.12 - 0.16 kg/ dm' (7 - 10 Ib./cu. ft.) for cane (0.40 - 0.60 kg/d m', (25 - 38 Ib.lcu .1'1.) for
bagasse) (ef. p. 143).
Relationships between the various coefficients
1. Fibre index q,. We have (ej. eqns. (10.18) and (10.21)):
Aj
q =
S
whence:
q
q D T
q,= = = (10.35)
q, fibre index, in kg/ m J (Ib .lcu. fl.)

q = fibre loading, in kg/ m l (Ib.lsq.fl.)
T = speci fic fibre loading, in kg/ m' (Ib./cll.fl.)
eA = opening between rollers. in m (1'1.)
EA = speci fic opening = eA/D
D = diameter of rollers, il m (1'1.).
Let us follo w the can e a'ong the milis. Let B be the weighl of bagasse lea ving a mili and
j ' the fibre content of the bagasse. Writing thal the weight of fibre remains constanl, \Ve
have:
j
BI' = Aj B A -- (10.36)
l'
B weighl of bagasse leaving one of the milis, in kg/h (Ib.lh)
l' fibre per unit weight 01' this bagasse
A = crushing rat e of Ihe milis, in kg/ h (cane) (Ib./h)
j = fibre content per unit of caneo
BUI we have (eqn. (10.18)):
q =
Al
S
whenee:
qS
BJ..' = q S B (10.37)
l'
Moreover, in lhe delivery (or reed) opening or the mili:
(10.38)
r = re-ab sorption coerrieient

VI;= volume generated per hour by lhe opening, in mJ / h (eu.rL / h)
d s = densilY or the eompressed bagasse, in kg/ m J (Ib ./eu . rt.)
S = area dcseribed (eseribed area) by the top roller , in m 2/ h (sq.rL/h)
eA = opening belween rollers, in m (rL).
Hence, by eqns. (10.38) and (l0.37):
B qS q
(10.39)
rSd s r1'Sd s
Henee rrom eqn. (10.35):
(10.40)
Equation (10.39) will be userul in problems or mili seltings (cf. p. 208); it permits calcula-
tion or thc opcning eA when the rc-absorplioll coerricient is known, the three olher quan-
tities q, l' and d s being given by the chemical control or being readily calculated.
It is seen by eqns . (10.35) and (10.39) lhat, ror lh e same erushing rates or the mili, the axial
opening eA is inversely proportional to the ribre index <1>:
(10.<1"
,..rae-
.>ns into
2. Compression (EH). In the same way, we have (cf. eqns. (10.20) and (1O. 'Jme, whieh
= Al
1 = compaction coerricient, in kg/ m) (lb ./cu. n.)

VA = total apparent volume or the material entering the mili (m).
Hence;
Al Al q
= = <P
It must be kept in mind that eEH ass umes I = 0.07 kg/ dm J (4.4 Ib .lcu.ft.). We have then*;
eEH -_ -0.07- 0.07 eA = 0.07 fA

q 1
4.4
( eEH = - <p = 4.4 eA
-
q
= 4.4 -
fA)
1
(10.42)
<P
e EH = " compression", starting from a material of compaction ratio f = 0.07 kg/dm J (4.4
Ib .lcu. fl.).
3. Compression ratio CA (Bullock). The compression ratio of Bullock is a pplicable mainly

to cane, al the first milI. We have ;
A A
no-void volume of ma terial entering the mili de de
=
VE S eA AF
-- eA
q.
or:
(10.43)
or:
((10.44)
J
4. Fibre index and compaction coefficient. We have:
havt.
weight of fibre weight of fibre
I =
total apparent volume of materi a l escribed volume
B = weight of bagw
f' = fibre n .. • .:.: . lOtal apparent volume of material ente ring the milI
(10.45)
A = c' I escribed volume
f =
No menclature. p. 175 .
PRESSVRE IN MILLS 145
Slallc compression
Let us consider a certain quantity of loose bagasse, i.e. not compressed and in lhe condition;
for example, in which it arrives at Orle of lhe later milis (Fig. 10.17a). lts apparenl density,
i.e. the weight per unit volúme in bulk of Ihis material, does nOI have a definite value',
because it depends on the quanlily of waler conlained in Ihe bagasse, or absorbed by jI. If
we add water, for example by applying it lo Ihe bagasse by means of a spray, Ihe volume
is hardly changed, but the weight will become increased by the quantity of waler applied.
The bagasse has, in effecl, much like a sponge, a greal abililY to absorb water: aboul 5 - JO
times ils dry weight.
ffi,~~\
L~4. \\'
H
~~
~clt~
II-{..
1-
~á\.L~' h
a b
Fig. to.17. Compression of the bagasse.
But there is one property which does not vary much in the loose bagasse, in ils condilion
as it reaches lhe laler milis. This is lhe weighl of fibre which it contains per unit of volume.
This weight is approximately 65 kg/m J (4 Ib.lcu. fl.).
If, on Ihis lo ose bagasse, we apply a gradually increasing pressure (Fig. 10.17b), ils volume
wil! decrease, rapidly al first, more slowly la ter. We use the term "compression" for the
ratio:
h
e = (10.46)
H
of the volume of the compressed bagasse to that of the loose bagasse.

The volume of the compressed bagasse has a value which is rather more precise than that
of the loose bagasse. Al! the reasoning which follows will, however, be based on this volume
of loose bagasse, rather inaccurately measured, as at the starting point before pressure is ap-
plied: it wil! thus be easier to grasp, and less abstrae!. But it will be understood that, in prac-
lice, when it is necessary to transpose Our arguments or our theoretical calculations into
figures, this wiH always be done on the basis of the weight of fibre per unit volume, which
is the only definite value.
The relationship moreover is simple. Let:
S = area of bagasse involved,
= weight of fibre per unit volume of loose bagasse,
l' = weight of fibre per unit volume of compressed bagasse,
and remembering that the weight of fibre is the same before and after compression:
SHI=Shl'
whence:
h t.
H
= t'
We have then:
h
e = = (10.47)
H I '
In other words: the compression of the bagasse, or the ratio of the thickness of compressed
bagasse lO thal of loose bagasse, may equally well be measured by the ratio of weight of fibre
per unit volume of loose bagasse and compressed bagasse.
TABLE 10.2 TABLE 10.3
EXPERJMENT BY DEERR: RELATION VALUE-OF THE EXPONENT IN EQN. (10.48) AND VALUE OF THE
BETWEEN THICKNESS OF A LA YER OF "COMPRESSION" OF THE BAGASSE, AS FUNCTlONS OF THE
BAGASSE ANO THE PRESSURE EXERTED PRESSURE
Pressure (kg /cm ') Compression Pressure (kg /cm ') Exponenl Compression
0.077 100 1 2.51 0.5432

0.429 68.2 2 2.515 iJ:'4116
0.780 57.7 4 2.54 0.3087
1.132 50.7 6 2.58 0.2591
1.483 44.8 8 2.64 0.2275
1.835 40.8 10 2.70 0.2059
2.186 39.3 12 2.78 0.1888
2.538 36.2 15 2.92 0.1697
2.889 33.6 20 3.18 0.1483
3.241 31.8 25 3.46 0.1347
3.592 30.3 30 3.73 0.1255
3.944 29 35 3.99 0.1190
5.835 24.1 40 4.22 0.1142
11.389 18.5 45 4.425 0.1105
23.269 14.7 50 4.605 0.1076
33.744 11.6 60 4.90 0.1032
45 11.4 70 5.115 0.1000
49.4 11 80 5.28 0.0975
83.9 10.2 90 5.405 0.09545
112 9.2 100 5.503 0.09373
168 8.56 120 5.638 0.0909
224 8.12 150 5.76 . 0.0876
279.2 7.9 200 5.86 0.0836
335.9 7.68 250 5.91 0.0806
391.9 7.46 300 5.937 0.0783
447.7 7.25 400 5.964 0.0747
503.8 7.02 500 5.977 0.072
559.5 6.91 600 5.984 0.070
615.6 6.80 700 5.988 0.0681
727.4 6.70 800 5.991 0.0666
839.4 6.58 900 5.993 0.0653
1.000 5.994 0.06417
Relalion belween pressure and compression

Evidently there exists a relationship between the compression of Ihe bagasse and the pressure
exerted to accomplish it. Noel Deerr made a study, now old, but so far a standard work, of
this relationship. He has not made a complete mathematical study of it, though this is pro-
fitable. Bullock 12 has repeated Ihese experiments in grealer detail, and has verified his con-
clusions. These experiments of Noel Deerr have the disadvantage that they were made under
slalic pressure conditions, by mea¡;¡s of a piston acting on bagasse placed al Ihe bottom of
a cylinder; Ihe juice thus could not escape in the same manner or in the same direction as
wilh bagasse subjected lo pressure in Ihe nip of IWO rolating rollers. lt is therefore necessary
lo relale Ihe resulls of Deerr lO Ihose obtained in induslrial practice; however, they do pro-
vide a useful basis from whicil 10 commence Ihe sludy of pressures in milling.
We give in Table 10.2 a summary of Ihe experimenls of Noel Deerr. We have plotted Ihe
rcsulls on the graph (Fig. 10.18) where they are represented by the separale black points.
II is evident that at the beginning a light pressure is sufficienl lo reduce greatly the
thickness of Ihe bagasse. Then, in the neighbourhood o/' 20 kg/cm 2 (300 p.s.i.), the resistance
increases quite abruptly, and higher and higher pressures are necessary to obtain a given
degree of further compression. Above 50 kg/cm 2 (700 p.s.i.) the layer of bagasse becomes
less and less compressible, and a pressure 10 times grealer, say 500 kg/cm' (7,000 p.s.i.),
reduces the thickness of the layer only in Ihe ratio of 11 to 7.
Expressed as a formula, the relationship between the pressure exerted on the bagasse and
the compression which results, may be written*.
p 70 1,000 ) (l0.48)
(lO eY' (lO e)n
where
5,800 6
n 6
p' + 1,660
(n = 6 _ 1.17 X 10 ")
p' + 335 X 10 3
p = pressure exerted on the bagasse, in kg/cm' (p.s.i.)

e = compression of Ihe bagasse, defined by eqn. (10.46).
The exponenl occurring in the denominalOr being somewhat complex, we give in Table
10.3 Ihe values of Ihis exponen! and of e for various values of p. An excellenl agreement will
be nOled belween the values given by eqn. (l0.48) and the results of Noel Deerr. The slight
divergences are due 10 experimental errors, as is evident from the irregular nalure of the
broken line which would be necessary to joill the poinls scattered on one side or lhe other
of the curve in Fig. 10.18 .
• Important equations are given in bo¡h metric and British unirs.

-
k9/c:m2. kg/cm 2
20 Or-~--,---.--,--,---.--,--,r~~-,6 00
" "
19 O1---+--1--+--+-+--+--1--+
18Of---I--+--I---I--+--- r--_. - - 1-- -
~ 16 O
-'!
17 O
Groph p~
T
70
tlO:t ~,
-\
~\\-'._
I r-
e
§ 15O1--1-- f-.- 500 o
e
~!
.c c.
ec. 14 OI - - t - - t - - - r -
Cf>
- .- O>
~
.2130 f-+--+-f-- f-- f-----j'---t-- j- .- ."..

e
e
.2
.,3 120f--+- + --1--- - - .- t -.. - - .- ~
o
o
e"
u
" 1I0f--j--+--+-+- -1--+= +-,,--"'" -
E f--
(,,') POi~lS ~~toin~~ in Noel f\" -- ' \9
Oeerr's I E)(perirnents _\" "J L-
100f---+--t--+--'-1 -'-j---\"~ '-!-" ~,- -- 400
90
: ,: ,~:-:;-,";,;:,,;,: .~, 1- ~ l ' ••. ••.

::r- - - __l _ ,,': . ~l- I • I
r" _ _ o 300
:::~-~"-"- :~T-~ -""Jl-' -"~."'-

Graph P.~70 1. / /
20f--+-·-I - - (lOe)' V::.- _-- - r'; :"¡ - "__ 1_ _ .__
lO:I~·~::~:~":t~~-...LI_-...."J;,
"";-.'--L-......L.,.. :_-';:-::-I-"
. ----L_ - - 200
.. ''....,,-!
0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.05
Compresslon
Fig . 10.1 8. Rclation be lween [)ress ure and compressioll 01' bagassc.
Equation (10.48) is interesting, but not easy to handle. Fortunately, for all values of p ;;.
50 kg/cm' (700 p.s.i.) it ma y be replaced with great accuracy by ¡he simplified formula:
70 1,000 )
p (P = (10.49)
(10 e)' (1"0 c).
It is evident from ¡he graph of Fig. 10.18 that ¡he curves representing eqns. (10.48) and
(10.49) practically coincide beyond p = 50 kg/cm 2 (700 p.s.i.).
However, Noel Oeerr's tests were done in lhe laboralOry, ullder SlUli c cOlldi li ons. NOIV,
G. H. Jenkins has shown" that lhe pressure required in a mili (O oblain a given compression
PRESSURE IN M1LLS 149
."
e is appreciably greater (han Ihe static pressure recorded by Noel Deerr ror the same compres-
sion. He explains this divergence by the addilional pressure necessary (o expel the juice
Ihrough lhe layer of bagasse in lhe shorl interval or time between the moment when the juice
begins 10 be expressed and the moment wllen it passes the axial plane of the cylinders.
As \Ve are interesled here only in the pressure in the milis, we shall make use of Jenkins'
results to reconcile the results of Deerr with industrial practice. The ratio of Ihe dynamic
pressure in a mili and lhe static pressure corresponding 10 lhe same compression varies accor-
ding to the sta te of subdivision of lhe bagasse and lhe speed of expulsion of the juice. Taking
the average condilions, and working from the most representative points of Jenkins' ex-
periments, we shall take for mili conditions:
88 p = 1,250)
P = ( (l0.50)
(10 e)' (10 e)'
Graph of pressure in lhe mili

We now know the law relating pressure and compression. It becomes of interest 10 study the
behaviour in lhe mili .
We shall firsl disregard re-absorplion and study the case of pressure between two rollers,
assuming the re-absorption factor r = 1, i.e. the case where the neutral plane coincides with
the axial planeo
Fig. 10. 19. Pressure in the milI.

Let us consider any two rollers, which could be, say, the rollers of a crusher, the two feed
rollers, or the two delivery rollers of a mili.
Let
D = mean diameter of rollers, in m (ft.)
R = mean radius of rollers = D/2, in m (fL)
H = thickness of the layer of loose bagasse entering the mili, in m (f1.)
eA = distance between the mean surfaees of lhe two rollers, measured in lheir common axial
plane, in m (fl.)
X = distanee from the point where lhe layer of bagasse meelS lhe roller ro lhe axial plane
of lhe two rollers (Fig. 10.19), in m (f1.).
The ealculation of pressure was done in lhe seeond edirion. 11 rests on rhe hYPolhesis rhar
the layer of loose bagas se and the layer of compressed bagasse borh move at lhe same velocity
in a horizontal direetion.
M. A. T. de Boer, engineer with Stork - Werkspoor, has eommented that the true eompres-
sion eannot be measured by the simple ratio hl H. In effeet, in order lO correspond lo Fig.
10.18 and the experiments of Noel Deerr, il is necessary rhar the mar erial before, during and
after compression should eorrespond lo rhe same bagasse, in olher words, ro rhe same weighr
of fibre.
Let v be the peripheral speed of rhe roller during unit lime (e.g. 0.01 s), during which lhe
surfaee advanees by ds. Consider lhe vertical seerion of eompressed bagasse belween lhe ele-
ment ds and the elemenl ds' symelrieal wilh the roller O' (Fig. 10.19). The seelion PP'
describes the volume hLv cos POM (L = lengrh of roller). The compression ar lhis point
has lhe value:
hLv eos POM h eos {3

e = - - ' - - (and nOl hlH) (10.51 )
HLv cos AOM H eos a
designaling lhe angles AOM and POM by a and {3. The lllinilllUIll compression rhus has the
value:
e (10.52)
H eos a
We require lO know:
(1) The mode of varialion of lhe pressure, from rhe poinl A, where ir is zero, lO lhe poin!
M, where il is at a maximum
(2) The value reaehed al M and eorresponding ro lhis maximum
(3) The resullanl of all pressures on all seclions sueh as PP' , a resultanl which obviously
mUSl be equal and opposite 10 lhe pressure Facring on lhe 10p roller. (In rhe case 01' a mili,
lhe pressure F is obviously lhe r.h.p. on lhe side under eonsideralion (ef. p. 130.)
(Aelually, the pressure exerted by lhe bagasse is equal 10 lhe pressure P inereased by a eer-
lain eomponenl of lhe weighl of lhe roller; bUl we shall always neglecl rhis eomponenl: (a)
10 avoid eompliealing lhe reasoning; (b) beca use lhis componenl is small relulive 10 lhe
hydraulie pressure; (e) beeause il is largely compensaled by lhe reaclion 01' lhe pinions, whieh
• PRESSURE IN MILLS 151
we shall discuss la ter, and which· we shall neglect in the same way (cf, p. 166) and for the
same reasons.)
Value of the pressure al any poln/. In Fig. 10.19, we have:
h cos {3 eA + 2R - 2 -,j R' - x' -,j R' - x'

e = - - - _.. _-- x (10.53)
H cos C/ H cos C/ R
e [(e + 2R) JI _ x' _ 2 (R' - X')] (10.54)

H cos C/ A R' R
For all values of x which are low relative to R, we may replace the radical by its develop-
menl as a series lo ils firsl l wo lerms:
m 1 m m (m - 1) ,
( 1 - x) = - - x + x - ...
1 J.2
x'
in which we put m l and replace x by - .
\Ve lhen have: R'
e = Hcos C/ [(eA + 2R) (1 - 2;,) - 2R + 2;'J

e
H cos C/
e = e (1 _2R'
~) + x' _ e (J
RHcosC/ -
x' + x' )
- 2R' ReA
or;
e (10.55)
an expression easier lo calculate lhan eqn. (l0.54), and giving values practically identicaJ in
the region close ro MM', which moreover is the only one of interest.
This gives an excellent approximation for valuesof x < RI2. Jt is all the more admil~,ole
since the error which it involves becomes entirely negligible in regions far removed from the
axial plane 00' , where it diverges most from the correct vaJues, the corresponding pressures
being infinitesimal compared with those obtaining in the regíon of the axial plane.
Substituting in eqn. (10.50), we have the pressure p at section PP':
-
88 88
p = - - -- - - -- --:::---.-,-- (metric unils) (10.56)
( 10 + 2x' (D - e A)J6
C)6
(10 C)6 [1 D' eA
We show (Fig. 10.20) lhe graph of a mili operating under lhe following conditions:
D = diameter of rollers: 1,065 mm (42 in .)

H = lhickness of bagasse ¡ayer al entry to rollers: 344 mm (13j in.)
K = working distance between rollers: 28 mm ( lro in.)
q = fibre loading : 0.168 kg/ dm 2 ( 3.5 Ib./sq.fl.)
The pressure graph is th a t marked r =I on Fig. 10.20. These conditions correspond 10

y ,~/,rn2
_ ___ +_~_+---o+__+-- -+__+-+_~-~~-~~~---~--I

) 00
r+--~~-+--*-~ - -r~-1~+-~~--+7~~--+--r~
/
/ 1/
0-+---+--++---+-+-1/--/-1+---+----tI--/--+--+-----+--1-----1
8;9iSS'
r~ ~~-
1
'
_ 0____ +-o---+J+--V-
__ _ 0-0 _-00 -- 1/---1---+---+---+--+---1
/ 200
H----+---+- __ '"'
~~I--r.:
~+--1r=
I I
::{I+:¡-+
o +--~-ff--+---f---+-
L
Q
1+-+---H/'-+-.1 ~I Y
,11~-t---+- •<o
o
f--t- - - l/V -
o-
f-- - - ----- ---/ r-+--/-fJ-----¡/H--¡1-

--f-- o
I •
" 100
/
1/ /
/
/ /
/
/- -,tt---t--+--+--+-+---I
~f-Vl'-~ y ~~ / - --- --- --+---1-- + -+--+---+----1
~~/
=-
X' 12 cm 10 t m Sern o x
Fig . 10 .20 . Pressure belween (h e rollers as a fun cti on 01' re-absorpli on c..' oeffident r.
PRESSURE IN MIllS 153
an s.r.h.p. (ef. p. 130) of 13.6 t/dm 2 (124 t./sq.fL), which is low, but necessary to envisage
zero extrusion .
The correction based on ¡he leSIS by Jenkins consisls of increasing the pressures in Ilie ratio
88170; Ihis relates the slatic pressure lO Ihe 10lal dynamic pressure in a mili, and arises parlly
from Ihe resistance to now of lhe juices in lhe closed cylinder of lhe slalic experimenl. The
angle ex of which the cosine appears in lhe denominalor of the fraction in eqn. (10 .52) also
plays a part: if il were lhe only cau~e, we would be able lO obtain a rough idea of lhe praclical
value by calculating:
cos· ex = H= 0.79545 cos o: = 0.96258 a=15-16°
This angle ex corresponds lO Ihc momenl where Ihere is no oir remaining in lhe bagasse layer
(cJensilY of no-void bagasse). lt is obviously much lower rhan rhe apparent angle of contac!.
Tlle prcssures dcvelopecJ at 10,5,3,2 and 1 cm from rhe axial plane may be read off from
rhe ordinales for lile corresponding di.lrances measured from the axial plane. It will be
observed lhal praclically all rhe pressure is exerted in lhe 5 cm (2 in.) prececJing lhe axial
plane.
The area included between the curve and lhe x axis represents the 10lal pressure (Lh .p.)
exerted by lhe lop roller.
Delivery side. It is difficull lO calclIlale and even lO eslimate rhe pressure on the delivery
side, beyond the axial planeo The pressure curves oblained by Murry l4 would give 15 - 400/0
of Ihe pressure on lhe feed side. 1f we accepl a mean value of 25%, il will be necessary LO
mulliply Ihe resulr for the feed side U.e. before the axial plane) by 1.25 lo give Ihe total
pressure. It is probable that lhis facror diminishes in proportion as the re-absorption in-
creases: ir may, for example, drop from 1.30 lO J .20 when the re-absorplion facror increases
from 1 lO J .25. In the absence of precise data on rhis point, we shall assume in al! cases a
value of 1.25 independenl of lhe re-absorption factor.
Calculalion of Ihe resultanl reaclion (no re-absorptlon)

The r.h . p. determines lhe compression of lhe bagasse, lhis compression being such that the
sum of lhe pressures in each seclion PP' corresponds lo lhe r.h.p. As Ihe calculalion is rather
long and complex we shall give ir for simplicity in lhe metric system only.
As we llave adopted lile kg/c1l1 2 as unir of pressure, lel us consider a seclion of lhickness
I c1l11l1easured along lhe lenglh of lhe eylinder (like a si ice of sausage). Referring this lo Fig.
10.19, and plolling as ordinate (as we have just done in the previous paragraph) the pressllre
ar eacll point P, the sum of all rhese pressures will represent lhe total reacrion exerted by t!:, •.
bagasse on lhe roller, a reacrion equal and opposite lo the pressure exerted by the roller on
the bagasse.
Since the relalionship is irreversible on lhe delivery side, we shall limil ourselves for the
present to the left-hand side of lhe figure from lhe entry of the bagasse up lO its passage
lhrough ¡he axial planeo
The total reaction or ¡he tolal pressure p relative to the I-cm section under consideration
has the value
(10.57)
p = pressure at the point Pon an element of area dx (of length dx and depth 1 cm).
We have (in metric units):
8
rox pdx= 1086 SXo dx (10.58)
J C [1 6
+ 2x' (D - eA) ] 6
D' eA
Value of X. We require the abscissa of the point corresponding to the entry of the bagasse.
Equation (10.53) gives, for e = 1:
= C + 2R
H
whence:
(lO. 59)
Calculatlon of the integral. Let
x
(10.60)
Z = rE
We have:
dx
dz
..rE
and:
F,
88 dx 88.JE SX dz (10.61)
(10 C)6
+ Xl)
-- 6
(10 C)6 o (Z2 + 1)6
E
T .et:
x dz
y = So (z 2 + 1)6
(10.62)
The calculation of this integral was done in the second edition. It has the value:
9.7.5.3
y !': = 0.3866
10.8.6.4.2 2
- =- -===~
SUbSIiluling in eqn. (10.61) and increasing by 2511Jo for the delivery side, we have (in metric
units):
88 ..¡ E
F, = 1.25 x 0.3866 x----- (10.63)
(10 C)6
This expression (F,J applies 10 a l~cm section of Ihe raller. For lhe full widlh of the raller,
the r.h.p. would be:
42.5 LD j eA
2 (D - eA)
[;2;A
'.
D - eA
F = LF, = - - - - c-,--:--=--. - -.- = 30 LD - (10.64)
(lO C)6 (lO C)6
eA being slllall relative 10 D, and this approximalion being minar after whal has JUSI been
applicd rOl" Ihe dclivcry sidc, wc muy wrilc:
F=
30 LD v;;,. F= 427 LD ~)
(10.65)
(
(10 C)6 (10 C)6
F = total pressure exerted by the roller on the bagasse (r.h.p.), expressed in kg (lb.)
L = length of the rollers, in cm (in.)
D mean diamelerof the rollers, in cm (in.)
eA = mean opening between the rollers when operating, in cm (in.)
fA = specific opening = eA / D
e = compression of the bagasse in the axial plane of the cy1inders = eA / H.
It should be kepI in mind that lhis equation gives the pressure between Iwo rollers, in the
absence of re-absorplion.
Expression for {he compression e for practical app1ication

Equatíon (10.65) has been taken from the experíments of Noel Deerr. We have seen, however
(p. 147), the weaknesses of these experíments; they apply to a certain conditíon of cane, and
Ihe compression oblained.varies with the slale of preparalion of the cane or the fibre conlenl
al' Ihe bagasse. The influence of preparalíon is mOSI evidenl al the firsl mili, bUI ils effect
is nOI great when il is a mal ter of standard preparalion (e.g. two sets of knives and a shred-
der), in spile 01 variations in Ihe effecliveness of Ihese preparalors according 10 lheir power
usage, clearance, elc. 011 Ihe olher hand, Ihe effect of fibre is very greal, and this is c1early
seen ir eqn. (10.65) is applied from Ihe firSI 10 Ihe final mili of a landem . By doing this for
a number of landems, and correcling in each case for re-absorptiol1 (since we are still con-
sidering Ihe case of no re-absorptíon, where r = 1), it may be shown Ihat Ihe correction to
be applied 10 eqn. (10.65) (taken from the experimenls of Noel Deerr) lo adapt it lO lhe
dynamic conditions of milis, consists of substituling for (10 C) the expression:
and to modify consequenlly lhe coefficient 01' 30. On the olher hand, il is not the force F
which is 01' interest: it is easily delermined. What is 01' illtereSI is lhe spedl'i<: opening when
operating at fA (01' the opening ilself, eA). which we cannot measure precisely. We profil
from thi s to anticipate the following cakulations and again aller the coefficient to obtain
directly the delivery opening 01' a three-roller mili in operalion, taking into account the nor-
mal re-absorption in mili tandems which serves as a basis. We thus write Ihe equation in the
form:
0.34 X 10-6. LD VO)b ( 10.66)

F (
dI'
eA
fA = specific delivery opening of the mili =
D
L width 01' the rollers, in dm
D = mean diameter 01' the rollers, in dm
F = total hydraulic load on the top roller, In kg
Vo = no-void volume of cane or bagasse, in dm J /kg
d = density 01' bagasse under pressure, in kg/dm J
l' = fibre of bagasse afler pressure, relative to uniry. ,
We do not give the rormula in Brilish units since this leads ro prohibitive and lInwieldy
powers 01' the lerms involved.
This calclllation is equally precise as that given later (p. 208) ror mili settings, and which
dispenses with the figures for densilY of material. Jt has Ihe advantage over that formula 01'
taking into account the load Fthe influence of which, acring only to the 1'001 01' 5.5 , has been
neglected 1'01' mili settings, butir has rhe disadvantage 01' bringing in lInusual powers 01' quan-
tities (6 and 5.5) and a number of decimals, which lead to risks 01' compllrational error.
Maximal pressure and loading on lhe roller. [f wc apply eqn. (10.50) 10 the dcliver y ope'n-
ing, it gives us rhe maximal pressure PM at thal point. Taking cqns. (10.50) ¡¡nd (10.65), and
eliminating the compression e, we obtain the maximal pressure PM:
3F 3F
(10.67)
L ..j D eA LD -.rt;,
PM = maxirnal pressure in the axial plane, in kg/cm 2 (p.s.i.)
F =total load on the roller in the axial plane, in kg (lb.)
L =length 01' rollers, in cm (in.)
D = mean diameter of the rollers, in CI11 (in.)
e A = delivery opening, in cm (in.)
fA = eA / D when r = l.
Since it applies only 10 the case 01' zero re-absorption, which does not occur in practice,
this formlJla ([0.67), being purely theoretical, would not serve rol' any praclical determina-
tion.
Influence of re-absor!1fion
We shaJl now consider the general case, where re-absorption takes place and the re-
absorption coefficient r is greater than l. '
We shall consider two rollers crushing bagasse. To facilitate our reasoning, weshall
assume Ihat il ís a case of Ihe same two rollers as we have studied (p. 152), Irealing Ihe same
bagasse at the same fibre loadíng. Commencing from a conditíon of no re-absorptíon, we
aS5ume Ihal condílions are altere.d so as to increase Ihe re-absorption coefficienl step by slep
without changing the fibre loading; in olher words, Ihal we progressívely reduce the delivery
opening. This may be done by using a closer setting in Ihe case of fixed rollers or by increas-
ing the hydraulic load where hydraulics are in use. Now, considering Ihe inslants al which
Ihe re·absorption coefficient rcaches the values r = 1,1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5 and 2, we may caJculale
for each case the position of the neutral plane, by applying eqn. (10.32) (el p. 141), We assume
now, as Murry" has concluded from measuremenls of aclual pressure, lhal Ihe pressure in-
creases (as in the case of no re-absorption) between Ihe poinl of first conlact and Ihe neutral
plane, thal il then remains practically constant between the neulral plane and the axial plane,
2 - rGraph of pre5s-ure
"
-- ¡..--
b ~ R'lEQUaliOn, k ~ 1 + y;:-:-:¡¡
. J.'/
/'
/
'/
1 . ,
1.5 2
Re-ob!:.orption coe1ficient. r
Fig, 10.21. Variarian af ¡he rolter toad as funcrian ar re·absarplian eaerrieienl r.

158 PRESSURES IN MILLlNO Ch. 10
and fin ol!y drops soon afler the axial plane, exerting in al! cases a rler lhe axial plane lhe same
fraction of the tOlal pressure.
We obtain thus the graphs marked: r = 1.1, 1.2, etc. in Fig . 10.20. The area included bet-
ween each of these graphs and Ihe x and y axes thus gi ves a relalive value for Ihe tOlal
pressure in each case. Calculaling these areas, and transferring their relalive values (Iaking
as unit value that for no re-absorplion) lO the graph of Fig. 10.21, we oblain Ihe graph shown
as a full line. We find Ihal Ihis cur ve ror normal re-absorpl ion is very c10se 10 [ha[ shown
dotted:
k=I+ .J r-1 (J 0.68)
We may deduce from this [hat when re-absorp[ion varies (other condilions remaining [he
same), [he total pressure increases, relative to that for no re-absorp[ion, in the proportion
given by eqn. (10.68).
General value for total pressure

Considering the case of re-absorption, we see [ha[ [he expression ror lot al press ure becomes:
B
F = 1,300 LD hA ( q d ) 6 (1 + .J r - 1) (me[ric unils) (10.69)
reA J'
The relati ve opening fA occurs in erfecl at il s real value, as is shown by the ca lculalion
on pp. 154 -155, whereas it is Ihe opening reA which occurs wi thin Ihe brackets al Ihe 61h
power. The same calculation as before appli es here, reA ha ving th e value eN = VaiS (cj.
eqns. (10.12). (10.18), (10.26), p. 153). We ha ve rinall y:
F = 1,300 LD ,¡ fA (L~~ ) 6 (1 + ..j r - 1)

(10.70)
n r:t
e
Q
"
e
•
1>
.~
X --~~--------~----~~
•• ___ x
n'
Fig. 10.22. Graph oi' prossure in lhe ",ill .

PRESSURE IN M1LLS 159
or (for high pressures):
F = l,300 LD ..; EA d ~2 (1 + ..; r - 1) (metric units) (l0.71)
Empirical relations belween load and maximum pressure

Ii is interesting to compare cenain empirical values, obtained by experiment, with lhe
preceding values deduced by calculalion , such as lhar given by eqn. (10.67).
Holr" has given a relarion between lhe tOlal pressure Fexerted on rhe roller and lhe max-
imal pressure PM applied to the bagasse in it s passage berween rhe neutral plane and Ihe ax-
ial plane (Fig. 10.22):
344 F
(l0.72)
PM = LD (a + 3.5 v)
PM = maximal pressure applied to the bagasse in its passage through Ihe opening in kg/ dm 2
(p.s.i .)
F = axial componenl of rhe toral hydraulic load acring on the lOp roller, in kg (lb.)
L = lenglh of rOllers, in dm (in.)
D = diameler of roller, in dm (in.)
a = angle ber ween rhe axial plane and Ihe position at which Ihe bagasse meers (he roller
surface, in degrees
v = angle between the axial plane and Ihe neulral plane, in degrees.
Normal values of re-absorption

Re-absorprion plays an imporlanl role in Ihe mili, and Ihe re-absorplion coefficient is deler-
mined or calculaled only in a small number of faCIories; however, ir is always possible lO
ob ta in a relatively accurate idea of its value, since it depends inainly on two faclOrs which
are much more readily known : speed and fibre index o
Murry17 gives, for a compression ratio of 3, the regression line:
r = 1.06 + 0.017 v (r = 1.06 + 0.0052 v) (10.73)
r = re-absorption factor
v = peripheral speed of the rollers, in m/min (fL/min).
SimilarI y '8, for a speed of 9 m/min (30 fI .lmin), he gives rhe regression li'le:
r = 0.0912 cA + 0.87 (10.74)
which we shall wrire, making use of eqn. (l0.44), and knowing that the fibre content of the
cane in that experimenl was 12.8:
=¡~c t)
<1> <1>
CA =
¡de
= 0.141 (CA =
(10.75)
r = 0.65 <1> + 0.87 (r = 0.01 <1> + 0.87)
The lwo equalions (10.73) and (10.75) may be eombined in one:
r '" 0.75 + 0.017 v + 0.65 <1> (r = 0.75 + 0.0052 v + 0.01 <1» (10.76)
whieh gives r as a funelion of the two main faetors determining [his coefficien[ (se e Commen!
1 below).
Example. For a mili with peripheral speed v = 10 m/min and fibre index al enlry <Pe
0.3 kg/dm', at deJivery <Ps '" 0.6 kg/dlll', lhe re-absorption faelor woule! be:
Al en[ry: re 0.75 + (0.017 X 10) + (0.65 X 0.3) 1.11

At delivery: rs 0.75 + (0.017 X 10) + (0.65 X 0.6) 1.31
Commen! l. The two original formulae (10,73) and (10.74) being eSlablished for a first
mili, lhe derived formula (10.76) is probably correcl for firSl milis, bullhere is reason to sup-
pose thal lhe conslanl lerm 0.75 would drop for olher milis in lhe tandem, and would I'all
[O lhe neighbourhood of 0.60 for a final mili. In lhe absenee of precise experimenlal data,
we shall assume lhat lhis lerlll has a value:
0,75 for a firsl mili

0.65 for a second mili (10.77)
0.60 ¡'or following milis
Commen! 2. The foregoing equalion 1V0uld obviously give only un a[l[lroximale figure. Il
does nol lake inlo accounl Ihe eft'ec[ of a [hird faclor, whieh eannOI be neglec[ed: the s[a[e
of preparalion of the material entering Ihe mili.
Ratio 01' pressures al I'ccd and dclivcry rollcrs

II is uscfullo know Ihe reblive prcssurcs c.\Crlce! onlhe [J.lg.lsse al enlrv .Iml delivcry rollcrs
01' a mili; in other words, Ihe eomponcnls al Ihe rece! ami delivery rollcrs 01' Ihe 10lal load
ap[llied lO lhe mili.
This ralio obviously varies greally aecording 10 lhe condilion oflhe bagasse cnlering the
mili, and particularly lhe seltings adop[ed and Ihe fibre loading at any instant (relative lO
lhal for which the selling has been eSlablished). To obtain some idea of the figures, we shall
lake mean values. We reeommend laler (Table 13.6) for a third mili, a ralio of 1.8 belween
feed and delivery openings when operaling.
We shall a[lply eqn. (10.69) and calculale Ihe expressions involved in il: Ihe lerms 1,300
LD and q are rhe same al entry and delivery; using rhe ratio of settings In = 1.8, the values
of fA and, lO a close ap[lroximation, eN at I'eed and delivery are in the ralio 01" 1.8, We re-
quire further 1', da and r,
(a) 1'. Assuming a fibre in cane 01' 0,14, an imbibilion w '" 0.36, a juice extraetion 01'
5al lhe feed and 1 al Ihe delivery roller, giving a 10lal j = 0.36 and leaving a bagasse b =
0.30; Ihe fibre conlenr 01' bagasse leaving rhe feed o[lening, ¡Ind [lassing over Ihe rrashplate,
will be;
0.14
0.:i33
fE = 0.30 + 0.12 ==
and Ihe fibre content of bagasse leaving lhe mili:
•
1's = ~~
0.30
= 0.467
(b) d 8' The corresponding densities will be (ef. p. 135):
1
I
VD (E) == .....- .. _--. - (1.20
.-..--- -.---- 0.86) 0.333 = 0.864; d B (E) = 0.864 1.158
1.03 x 1.01 1.03 x 1.01
VD (S) - .__ . _ _ .. - (---~:~- - 0.86) 0.467 == 0.824; d 8 (S) = _. ,1. __ = 1.213

1.03 x 1.01 1.03 x 1.01 0.824
(e) r. We shall assume respeclive re-absorplion coefficienls as (ef. p. 160):
rE = 1.11 rs = 1.31
We have Ihen:
FS
FE =
{l
II~ x
(1.213 x 1.8 x 0.333)6 (1 +
1.158 x 1 x 0.467 1 + -JO.II
-v'OJI) ~ 0.745 x 5.9 x 1.169 = 5.1
Depending on Ihe selling, Ihe crushing rale, and Ihe speed, Ihis ralio may vary from 2 to
8, generally belween 2 and 4. 11 is lower in Ihe firSI mili, where the ratio belween Ihe two
fibre contenls is higher and Ihe material enlering the mili is still relatively coarse, ¡han in a
later mili, where the ratio belween the two fibre conlents is lower.
In a fairly accurate experiment, made wilh slrain gauges and a cathode-ray oscillograph
on the firsl milll at la Mare (Bourbon), lhe ratio Fs/ FE was found to vary belween I and
2.5, Ihe lower values corresponding 10 lower lonnages. In exceplional cases, Ihe ralio fell
below l. In a similar experimenl al anolher faclory in Réunion, Ihe ratio varied from 3.1
lo 5.7 for Ihe firsl mili, and 3.7 104.0 for the final milI.
Crawford", in Auslralia, concluded Ihal Ihe ralio of delivery and feed roller pressures
ranged from 2 to 4 for the first mili, from 4 10 5 for a Ihird milI. These values obviously
depend mainly on Ihe ralio m between the feed and delivery openings of Ihe mili while
operaling. They also depend on ¡he place of Ihe mili in the tandem :
Polygon of forces
To demonstrate beller the relative importance of the various reactions acting on lhe top roller
of a mili in operation, let us set them out on a diagram (Fig. 10.23).
We shall adopt the ratio of 5 belweeri delivery and entry pressures, and trace the polygon
Fig. 10.23. Pol ygon of forces in ¡he milI.
of forces aCling on the top roller. Their direclions are easil y ascertained; the I.h.p" F, is ver-
tical. The reaction of the trashplate, R b, makes a small angle (3 with the vertical, of some 10°.
For Fs and FE we see from Fig. 10. 14 lhat lhe cenlre of press ure (that is , the centre of
gravity of the area included between the cu rve and the circumference of the roller) occurs
nOI in the axial plane bul al 2- 3° ahead of it. By taking:
FS
FE = 5" and Rb = 0.25 F
we oblain lhus the polygon indicaled in Fig. 10.23.

R is lhe resullanl of lhe th ree reac lions Fs' FE and R b ; and the projection of Ron the ver-
tical must be equal to P. It is seen that this resultant IVill acl al aboul 15 ° ahead (on the feed
side) 01" the vertical. This is the angle generally adopled by manul"aclurers who bllild milis
Wilh inclined headstocks and asy mmelric housings.
We may comment that, by projecting on th e vertical:
• PRESSURE IN MILLS 163
",
PUlling: FE = 0.2 F s' Rb 0,25 F and commenling lhal cos {3 = 1, and cos a l 2 == 0.8,
we have:
(1.2 F s X 0,8) + 0.25 F = F
Hence:
FS = 0.8 F (10.78)
which shows thal the r.h.p. on the deJivery side, Fs' is generally of lhe same order of
magnilude as lhe t.h:p. acting on Ihe top roller, F, but slightly lower.
This calculalion is less accurale, ir il is assumed lhat lhe reaclions are in lhe axial planes .
If we nole on Ihe diagram Ihal Ihe reaclion Rb should remain on the horizonlal line hh',
we shall have immedialely, from lhe graph, all the values assumed by F s. for each value of
Fig. 10.24. Value, or Fs relalive lO FE'
FE (Fig. 10.24). For a mili of angle a = 67° (and lhe result will hardly vary for a differenl
construction angle) we find, in putting:
FE
= F and ePs
that:
<f> E = 1 - 1.07 <P S

(10.79)
<PS = 0.93 - 0.93 <PE
This gives the corresponding values shown in Table 10.4.
TABLE 10.4
When FE = 0;10 F Fs = 0.8 F = 8 FE FE + Fs = 0.9 F

When FE = 0.20 F Fs = 0.7 F = 3.5 FE FE + Fs = 0.9 F
When FE = 0.30 F Fs = 0.6 F = 2 FE FE + Fs = 0.9 F
When FE = 0.40 F F, = 0.5 F = 1.25 FE FE + Fs = 0.9 F
F S then remains generally between 0.6 and 0.8 or F, most orten about 0.7 F.
We may comment that the sum or FE + Fs is constam and equal lO 0.9 F, and thal Ihe
reaction RH on the housing vanishes when FE = 0.4 F.
Friction of brasses in housing

With housings or standard design, wilh vertical headstocks, il is immediately apparenl rrom
Fig. 10.23 that the inclination or the resultant R involves Ihe existence or an importam
horizomal reaclion RH on the lateral race or the headstock, on lhe reed side:
RH = Flan e", 0.15-0.25 F (10.80)
or approximalely 80 tennes when F = 400 tennes.

The whole or this reaction aCls between Ihe reed-side faces 01' Ihe upper brasses and Ihe
housing. The coerricienl or rriction belween bronze and sleel, wilhoul lubricatioll, is approx-
imately 0.18-0.20, and this rriction combines with Ihal or Ihe leather or metallo-plastic
packing in the hydraulic cylinder to oppose Ihe sliding movemems or the bearing and Ihe
hydraulic piston, thal is, te oppose the lirt or the top roller.
The rriction or brass on steel ralls te aboul 0.10 ir Ihe surraces in comact are lubricaled.
It is or advamage to ensure that this lubricalion is el'fective in order te racilitale the proper
runctioning or the hydraulic pressure.
Certain manuracturers now use plates or synthetic material or high resistance 10 wear and
very low coerricient or rriction, placed belween bearing and housing.
In the .lame way, and ror the same reason, housings wilh inclined headstocks orrer a grea!
advantage, which may be rurther accemualed by lubrication or provision 01' a plale 01' syn-
thetic material. H the inclination or the headslocks corresponds te Ihe value or 15° generally
adopted, it will be surricient to provide lubrication, rollers, or pi ate on the reed-side race or
the brass. Ir the inclination is 20° or grealer, it will be or advantage lO so equip both races,
reed and delivery sides, as the reaction can Ihen change rrom one side 10 the olher according
to seltings and conditions.
IM= _ =
Fig . 10.2~ . Me.<hil1g or Iht Ihree roller piniol1'<.
"'..
.16"""
/
F
/
/
/
,
F
;"
Fig . 10.26. Pinion reat lion .

166 PRESSURES IN MIUING Ch. 10
Pinlon reaction
In a milI, th e power from the prime mover is generally lransmitted by the gearing lo Ihe top
roller. Jt is the lalter wh ich drives lhe two lower rollers by means 01' a gr Ollp of 3 pinioilS
keyed ro the 3 roller shafts (Fig. 10.25).
Owing to lhe obliquity 01' lhe flanks of lhe gear leelh, lhe thrusI al the point of contacl
of two leelh is nOI normal but makes an angle Cl of less lhan 90° wilh Ihe radius at that poilll
(Fig. 10.26). This angle Cl is generally of the order of 65°. Fives Cail-8abcock reckon 70°.
The thrusI then may be resol ved into two components, Ihe normal componenl F [lrOdllcing
lhe rotation, and Ihe radial one R lending lO lifl Ihe roller.
There resulls an uneven condilion 01' Ihc roller, which willli!'1 more readil y al Ihe [linio n
end than at the free or pinlle end.
Jn the effort to remedy lhis candi l ion, severa l differenl devices have been adopled:
1. Double pinions, RolJ ers have been provided wilh pinions at each end. This soJ ution has
the disadvantages:
(a) It is expensive (6 [linions inslead 01' 3).
(b) The effect is not lO suppress lhe pinion reaction, but to apply il at bOlh ends. This
would nOI be serious, bul:
(e) Jt does nOI ensure a real equalisalion 01' pressure al the two sides. So long as the teeth
are not worn, there is always one pinion which momentarily carries more load Ihan the olher,
and produces a reaction.
Fig. 10.27. Mill.o¡ wilh allcrnal c pi nions.

(d) Even when the teeth are worn, the slightest difference in the thickness of the bagasse
layer on tlle left and on tlle rigllt al once deslroys lhe equilibrium, allers lhe positions of con-
tact of the teeth, loses contact at the side with tlle greater lift, and causes a reaclion at lhe
opposite side.
2. Difference in diameters of hydraulic pislons. Pistons of larger diameler ha ve been plac-

ed on the pinion si de, of such a size that their area is 10- 20070 greater than lhat on lhe op-
posile side. This is a barbarous solution, and mOSl inadequate.
3. Alternale pinions. The top roller carries a pinion at each end, and the lower rollers have
their pinions, one on the right, the other on the left (Fig. 10.27). This method had the advan-
tage of permitting a subslantial reduction in the top angle of the mill, but:
(a) It is scarcely elegant: it gives lile il11pression that something is missing from each side
of Ihe mil!.
(b) (1 requires one addilional pinion (4 in place of 3).
(e) The reactions of lhe feed and delivery rollers are very differenl (ef. p. (6(). Their dif-
ference is therefore not appreciably less than their sum (6 - ( is not much less than 6 + 1),
anu one correCIS but a small fraction of the divergence existing in an ordinary mili. It is
scarcely worth tlle trouble.
4. Separale seIs of pinions. This solution consists of driving each roller by a separate lail-
bar, Ihe sel of lhree pinions being arranged in the gear train in a special compartment called
the "pinion housing" (Fig. 10.28).
I t has sorne disad van tages:
(a) It is expensive (only 3 pinions, but 4 couplings, 2 tail-bars and the pinion housing extra).
However, the individual tail-bars and couplings are lighler than the single tail-bar and the
2 couplings of t he ordinary mil!.
(b) It increases by 0.3 - 0.6 m (1 - 2 fL) the overall width occupied by the gearing.
(e) It adds to the installation by 4 plummer blocks and lubricators per mill; hence a slight
increase in consumption of power and oi!. The increase in power is compensated many times
by the elimination of pinion reaction at the rollers, but the slight increase in oil consumption
remains.
(d) The usual length of the tail-bars does not allow sufficient range of movement at the
couplings to permit of all possible adjustments of the lower rollers (cases of eXlreme settings,
or of very worn rollers); in this case it is necessary to replace the ordinary couplings by more
flexible devices (e.g. cardan shafts, ef. p. 256).
But it has sorne advantages:
(a) It completely solves the problem of pinion reaction. The top roller, entirely free, floats
at ease.
(b) Like the preceding solution, it permits the top angle of the mili to be reduced to a
minimum.
In fact. the pinions, being fixed in their housing, may be designed with the ordinary form
of gear tooth, whereas pinions mounted on the rollers must be able to function with the
distance between their centres varying greatly according to the settings adopted, the mean
168 PRESSURES IN MlLLINO Ch. 10
diameter of rollers more or les s worn, and the lift of the tOp roller in operation. In these con-
ditions, one is compelled to provide these pinions with very long teeth. so that the pitch
diameter is at j of the length of the teeth, and to make the number of teeth as small as possi-
ble. Hence, the overall diameter of the pinion greatly exce.eds the mean diameter of the
rollers, necessitating a high minimum distance between the axes of the two bottom rollers,
in order to allow clcarance between their pinions.
With the separate set of pinions, on lhe olher hand. one can adopt a normal toolh-form
(pilch-circle diameter half-way up the teeth), a greater number of teeth (23 instead of 17, for
example) and a very small clearance belween (he ends of the teeth of the two lower pinions.
Hence it is possible to bring the two bottom rollers close together and in consequence to
reduce the top angle of the mill to 67 0 , a value which could not be attained for rollers fitled
with ordinary pinions, excepl by means of alterna te pinions.
(e) When the rollers are replaced or re-shelled, it is no 10nger necessary to remove (or to
re-key) the pinions, always a long and disagreeable task. The shafts are shorter, Iighter, and
cheaper.
(d) The pinions, being fixed, and working in ml)ch more favourable conditions, do not
Fig. 10.28. Nesl of pinions (Fives Cail- Babcock).

PRESSURE IN MIU.S 169
wear so quickly . Above all, one is nOI obliged to mulilate them by turning them down in
order 10 reduce Ihe length of Ihe leeth and enable lhe mili to be tightened up, when the rollers
have become worn.
(e) The installation cost is progressively recovered, when it comes to buying replacemenl
rollers.
However, largely on account of the expense, this device is nOI widely used .
S. Individual accumulalors. The limiled adoption of separate pinions and tail-shafls is due
probably lO lhe facI lhat lhe general adoption of individual air - oil accumulators today
allows the pressures on lhe 1wo sides of lhe mili to be readily balanced. Thus the main disad-
vanlages of pinion reaction may be complelely avoided; and this is lhe solution generally
adopled al Ihe present day. II is nOI as comp lele as the separate pinions , bul is si mpler and
less expensive. The laller is now regarded for lhis reason as a luxury; we consider, however,
thal wilh a landem which is expecled to last 20 year.\ or longer. lhi.\ lu xury would beco me
a paying proposition.
Value and dislribution of pinion reaclion. Consider lhe case of a mili where lhere is no
correclion for pinion reaclion, i.e. which has no devices ' such as double pinions, unequal
pistons or lhe other devices as just described. This is in facl Ihe more general case. We require
10 know lhe value of lhe pinion reaction, and how it can be compensated by means of in-
dividual accumulators.
It will be seen (p. 234) that the power laken by a mill is of the order of P = O. J 5 - 0.23
FnD (P = 0.65 - 1.0 FnD), F being Ihe hydraulic load in lonnes, n the speed in r.p.m. and
D Ihe mean diameter of the IOp roller in m (fl.), the power P being expressed in kW (h.p.).
It may be assumed that lhe power is distributed in lhe ralio of 50070 to the top roller and
50070 on lhe lwo lower rollers. Although the latter do differenl work and have an appreciably
higher pressure al the delivery roller, tests have shown thal lhe power is distributed approx-
imately equally belween lhem , i.e. in overall proportions of 25070 and 25070. Taking a mean
power P = 0.25 FnD h.p., and giving F a normal value F = 250 LD lo nnes, P = 0 .25 x
250 LD x nD = 62.5 nLD2 h.p., or P = 4.687 nLD2 kg mis.
The corresponding couple exerted on the roller by the dri ving molor is C:
P Cw 0.105 Cn
whence:
P
C .,..-.,..,-:-- kg m
0.105 n
The corresponding force al lhis couple is:
2C 2P kg
=
D 0.105 nD
170 PRESSURES . IN MILLlNG Ch. 10
The loads exerted on the lower rollers will be:
0.25 x 2P 0.5 X 4.687 nLD 2

0.105 nD O. lOS nD = 22,380 LD kg
If lhe angle of reaction Is 20° and lhe angle of the mili is 80°, these IWO forces!, and!"
reduced to their radial componenls (Pig. 10.24), relative to the centre of the 10p rOller, will
give a resultant R:
R = 22,380 LD sin 20° cos 40° x 2

R = 44,760 LD x 0.342 x 0.766= 11,726 LD kg = 1 1.726 LD tonnes
Thus:
R 11.726 LD
F
= 250 LD
R = 1 l .726 LD F = 0.047 F lonnes

250 LD
Distribution of forees. The shaft of the top roller aCIS as a beam, supported at two poinls
and carrying an overhung load, the reaction R of which is distributed between the IWO sup-
pOrlS, i.e. on the two bearings, causing lhe reaclions R, and R,; R, on the driving side,
directed downwards, and R, on the far side, directed upwards (Pig. 10.29).
If the distance between the centres of thetwo bearings is d = 100 cm, and in general d,
is of the order of 23 cm, then d, is consequenlly 123 cm (d, being the distance belween the
centre of the bearing on the driving side and lhe cenlre of lhe pinion). The loads on lhe bear-
ings are thus given by:
whence:
Rd, Rd,
= = 1.23 R
d
R, = = 0.23 R
whence:
R, = 0.047 F x 1.23 = 0.058 F
R, = -0.047 F x 0.23 = -0.011 F

o
Fig. 10.29. Pressure repanilion in lile mili 11Ou.<;lngs belween drive and plnlle sides.
lf the load F is ro be disrributed equally berween the two sides of the milI, it will be
necessary, to compensate the pinion reaction, to exert forces of:
On the driving side:
F
J, = 2 + 0.058 F = 0.558 F
On the outer side:
F
J, = 0.01 I F = 0.489 F (10.81)
2
lf the load is, for example, F = 460 tonnes, this will give J, = 257 tonnes and J, = 225
tonnes, or approximarely 14070 extra on the driving side.
Mean values of the t.h.p.

Thes.h.p. (ef. p. 130) in milis generally varies from a minimum of 12 t/dm' (110 tons/sq.ft.)
to a maximum of 40 t/dm' (360 tons/sq.ft.). It is mostly maintained berween 15 and 30
t/dm' (140 and 280 tons/sq.fl.), generally between 20 and 25 (180 and 220).
For the fibre loadings gene rally employed, we can then estimate a mean value of the t.h.p.
as:
F = 250 LD (F = 23 LD) (10.82)
F total hydraulic load (Lh.p.), in tonnes

=
L ~ length of rollers, in m (fl.)
D = diameter of rollers, in m (fL).
Thence:
2.5 LD
s.h.p. = 0.1 LD = 25 t/dm 2 (230 tons/sq.fL) (10.83)
Deadweighl
The normal value indieated aboye, F = 250 LD, takes no aeeount of the other components
of load due to Ihe weight of Ihe 10p roller and accessory items which add their weight to the
hydraulie pressure exerled. This deadweight is more important in the ease 01' milis sueh as
the self-setling milis of Fives Cail- Babcock, where the mili eaps and the upper halves of the
bearings also exert their weight upon the bagasse, as do the crown wheel, the coupling and
part of the tail-bar in all models of milis (exeept those with the nestof pinions).
However, if the hydraulie pressure varies proportionally to LD, the weight of the roller
and the deadweighl in general will be proporlional 10 LD'. lf it is desired to take aceounl
of these faetors, it may be srated that the pressure exerted on rhe bagasse is 01' the order of
(250 + 10 D) LD tonnes (L, D in m).
Comparison between crushers and milis. By reason of the distribution of the forces in a
mili, il may appear a priori diffieull to compare Ihe pressure of a erusher with thar in the
milis. The t.h.p. indeed aets wholly on the bagasse in Ihe crusller, while in rhe mili ir is
dislribuled between the Irashplale and the Iwo lower rollers.
Our comment (p. 163) and the caleulations whieh precede il show, however, that for a
given s.h.p. and a given t.h.p., Ihe pressure exened on Ihe bagasse in a mili is slighlly lower
than, but of the same order as, that in a two-roller crusher.
Variation of extraction as a function or pressure limits

When the hydraulic pressure is increased, starting from a low value, the eXlraction inereases
rapidly al first, then, when the s.h.p. reaches about 15 t/dm (140 tons/sq.ft.J, more slowly.
'
We show in Fig. 10.30 the ehanges in extraetion in a test earried out at Savanna (Réunion)
on a tandem of five milis, the first870 x 1,700 mm (34 x 67 in.) and the others 810 x 1,675
mm (32 x 66 in.), fibre in cane 13.8%, and imbibition 1.6, with changes in hydraulic
pressure.
Crawford" estimales that an s.h.p. of 31.2 t/dl11 ' (100 10I1s/l't. for a 42-il1. roller) !caves
only a small margin of safety, owing to the il1ternal stresses already existing duc 10 Ihe opera-
tion 01' shrinking the roller shell onlO the shaft.
Specific hydraulic pressure

lt was estimated in Cuba that the gain in extraction obtained by the use of an s.h.p. greater
rhan 18-22 t/dm 2 (165-200 tons/sq.ft.) (say, aboye 20 t/dm 2 (180 tons/sq.ft» was not
wonh the expense and wear involved.
The firm of Farrepo, in Ameriea, adoprs a maximum pressure of 23.5 t/dl11 (214
'
tons/sq. n.) which, in American unils, gives slighlly more Ihan 2 lons per foot of length and
per ineh of diameter of roller.
In Australia" it is considered that the gain in extraetion beyond 30-33 I/dm (270-300
'
tons/sq.ft.) becomes very slight, since Ihe power expended increases rapidly, and that Ihese
figures form a practieal limit which should not be exceeded.
For our part, we eonsider:
(1) That it is absolutely neeessary to go up to 5 t/dm 2 (50 lons/sq.ft.) at ¡he crusher and
PRESSURE. IN MILLS 173
16:5 I/dm' (150 lons/ sq-ft.) al Ihe milis, bUI Ihal Ihere is no need lo exceed ¡hese values if
considerations of slrength of material or consumption of steam are unfavourable to it (as
may be the case in sorne very old factories).
(2) Thal there is a very definite advantage in going up to 8 tldm' (75 tons/ sq.ft.) at the
crusher and 20 t/ dm' (180 lons/ sq.ft.) at the milis, if the equipment and the thermal balance
of the factory permit.
(3) That there is still an advant,age in inereasing 10 16.5 t/dm' (150 tons/ sq.fl.) at the
erusher, 25 t/dm' (225 tons/sq . ft.) at the milis other lhan the last, and 28 - 30 t/dm'
(255 - 275 tons/sq.ft.) al lhe lasl mili, if lhe planl has been designed aecordingly and if (as
is generally the case) one has a large margin of safety in the consumplion of sleam al lhe
milis.
Sequence of pressures in Ihe Irain

15 il desirable to inerease the hydraulic pressure from lhe first mili 10 lhe lasl, or to reduce il?
Jt is generally the former melhod which is encounlered in praeliee. Jt complies with the
idea thal a mili should press more heavily than Ihe preceding milis in order lO extract whal
they have not been able to extraet ahead of jI.
But the partjsans of the second method poin! OUI that jt is mainly the imbibition whieh
js effective, much more than very hjgh pressures; and that, to render it effective, it is
neeessary 10 prepare the cane to the maximum exlent in the earJier units.
Table 10.5 gives sorne examples of the sequence of pressures in tandems giving very good
extraction figures.
Extractrn
f = 13.8
A= 1.6
96 Mean 01 two experimentst-_ _f-_t--
95r-_1--------~~----_1--------+_
S.h .p .
15 25 30
Fig: 10.30. Variationof eXI~aclion · wilh s.h·.p. (specific hydraulic pressure).

174 PRESSlJRES IN MILLINO Ch. 10
TABLE 10.5
SEQUENCE OF S. H . P. IN VARIOUS TANOEMS, IN I/dm' (Ions/sq.ft .)
Loco/Ion N N, n MIli number
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Normal rondems
18 6 3 22 20.4 20.4 20.3 . 20.6 20.6
(261) (187) (187) ( 186) (188) (188)
S . Africa
21 7 3 23 .6 19. 8 20.9 20.5 19.8 19 .5 24 .7
(216) (181) (187) (187) (181) (178) (226)
15 5 26.8 20.1 19.1 20 .5 21.7

(245) ( 184) (175) (187) (198)
Maurilius
15 5 27 . 1 27.8 28 .5 29.9 30.3
(248) (254) (261) (273) (277)
Tondems wirh pressure feeders on 011 milis

S . Africa 25 5 19.3 19.3 19.9 20.1 19.4
(176) (176) (182) (184) (177)
20 4 2 21.1 22.9 23.6 21.4

( 193) (209) (iI6) (196)
Aust ralia
30 6 2 16.7 17.3 17 .3 17.8 19.6 19.7
( 153) (158) (158) ( 163) ( 179) (180)
N = number of milis in landem; N, number of rollers; n = number of tandems on ~hich

average is based.
The following general commenls may be made:

(1) Short tandems are obliged to use higher pressures, while longer tandems may use
pressures appreciably lower
(2) Intermediate milis are generally more lightly loaded
(3) The final mili often has the heaviest load.
When the tandem has a 2-roller crusher, it generally has an s.h.p. 50 - 600/0 of that of the
first milI.
We would recommend the following scale of pressures, which may be understood al so as
giving relative values for factories which cannot attain the loading indicated:
TABLE 10.6
RECOMMENDED MEAN VAlUES OF S.H.P., IN r/drn l (tons/sq.ft.)
Tandem ISI mili 2nd mili 3rd mili 4th mili 5th mili 61h mili 71h mili
12 rollers 26 (240) 24 (220) 27 (250) 30 (275)

15 rollers 26 (240) 23 (210) 25 (230) 27 (250) 29 (265)
18 rollers 25 (230) 22 (200) 24 (220) 25 (230) 26 (240) 28 (260)
21 rollers 25 (230) 21 (190) 23 (210) 24 (220) 25 (230) 27 (250) 28 (260)
NOMENCLATURE 175
...
Varialion of hydraulic pressure with length of the tandem. We have already remarked that
shorl landems are obliged to employ high hydraulic pressures, whereas long tandems may
go more easily wilh lhelr hydraulic pressures if [hey so desire.
There is indeed so much less to be gained by increasing lhe hydraulic pressure when the
tandem Ís long, sinee lhe number of compressions intervenes to compensate rapidly for the
IOS5 5uffered at each mili by insufficient s.h.p.
lf, for one reason or another, the total power which can be supplied lO [he milis is limited,
the mean t.h.p. may in fact be red~ced in inverse ralio lO lhe square rool of lhe number N
of rollers in the tandem:
p
(10.84)
p'
This rule permits a certain parity lO be mainlained belween the lotal power absorbed by
the tandem and its capacity (ef. pp. 190 and 237). Jt is more or less instinctively followed
by engineers in charge ol' milling planls, bul many l'actories are now preoccupied with extrae-
tion and steam economy, and the maximum work is demanded from each mili; the total
power absorbed by the tandem is in that case proportional to the number of rollers in the
tandem.
NOMENCLATURE·
The following nomencIature applies for miJling calculations in Chapters 10 - 14, unless in-
dicated otherwise in the text. Units, al so subscripts and superscripts, are given in the texl.
A crushing rate, I.c.h.
B = weight of bagasse leaving mili per hour
b =" bagasse loading" = weighl of bagasse per unit rolJer surface
C (or C EH ) = "compression" (Hugot) = eA/H or h/H
. volume of material entering
e = compression ratIO (BulJock) =
volume available for compressed material
eA compression ratio at minimum opening
C F = filling ratio
D = mean diameter of roller
d = density (d B for compressed bagasse, de for cane, d J for juice)
E = opening (feed) between rollers (EA in axial plane)
e = delivery opening between rollers (e A in axial plane, eN at neutral plane)
F = total load on roller
I = coefficient of friction (subscripts as indicated)
I fibre per unit weight of cane
l' fibre per unit weight of bagasse
H thickness of layer of loose bagasse
h thickness of layer of compressed bagasse
L = length of roller
176 PRESSURES IN MILLlNO Ch. lO
m ratio of feed to delivery openings while operating

N number of rollers In tandem
NI number of milis in tandem
N2 number of compressions in tandem
n = speed of rollers. r.p.m.
P = power eonsumption of mili (subseripts l. 2 ..... E. S)
P = speeifie hydraulic pressure on roller
p = pressure on bagasse
q = fibre loading = weight of fibre per unit roller surfaee
R = mean radius of roller
bagasse volume
r = re-absorption factor =
escribed volume
= VB I VE
s = eseribed area (surfaee)
weight of fibre
= compaetion coeffieient
total apparent volume of material
V = peripheral speed of rollers
V o = no-void volume of eane
V B = volume of bagasse
VE = eseribed volume of roller opening
ex top angle o f mi 11
ex angle of contact of feed with roller
o density of fibre
f specifie opening between rollers = el D
O = angle between position of feed and axial plane
A = imbibition per unit fibre
1'- = ratio of changes in feed and delivery opening = ·dE/ de
• = angle between position of feed and neulral plane
e = meehanieal effieieney of gearing
T = speei fie fibre loading
'b . d weight of fibre passing
<1> = fI re In ex = ---"--Ce. '----,:-=-...:.,..:='-'--""
eserrbed volume
1/; = safety eoeffieienl for mili seltings
REFERENCES
I K. J . BUlLOCK . An investigatron into the ph ysi cal properties of sugar cane and bagasse, Thesis, Universily of
Queensland , 1957, pp. 250, 272, 278, 303.
2 R . LEHKY, Inl. Sugar J .• 39 (1937) 137.
2a G. E. RUS'Ell. The eXlraelion performance of sugar eane erushing trains, Thesis, University of Queensland,
196B, p. 79.
3 J . J. MUNSON, Sugar J., 17 (JI) (1955) lB.
4 J . J. MUNSON el al .• Sugar Bull., 20, No. 18; 21, No . 12.
5 M. C. VARONA, Inl. Sugar J., 40 (1938) 427.
6 Sugar Res. Insl., Tech. Rep. No. 56, p. 6.
7 C. R. MURRY. The mechanies of erushing prepared suga r ca ne , Thesis, UniversilY of Queemland, 1960, p·. 4B.
B J. PIDDUCK, Proc. 22nd Col1!. QSSCT, / 955, p. 150.
REFERENCES 177
9 Maekay Sugar Res. Insl" Tech. Rep. No. 61, p. 4.

9. C. R. MURRY. Inl. Sugor J., 62 (1960) 348.
10 Mili Mechanics &m;nar, Un;vers;ly of Queenslond, 1963, p. A4.
11 C. R. MURRY. op. cil., p. 49.
12 K. J. BULLOCK. op. eil" p. 90.
13 G. H . J.NKINS. Proc. 91h Congr. ISSCT, 1956, p. 159.
14 C. R. MURRY, op. cil., pp. 71-82.
15 C. R. MURRY. op. cil" p. 74.
16 J. E. HOLT, Mili Meehanies &minar, Universily of Queenslond, 1963, p. F6.
17 C. R. MURRY, op. cil., p. 41. ..
18 C. R. MURRY, op. eil., p. 132.
19 W. R. CRAWFORD, Proe. 261h Conf. QSSCT, 1959, p. 218.
20 Sügar J., 25 (7) (1962) 22.
21 J. A. MCGINN, Proe. 30th Conf. QSSCT, 1963, p. 103.
22 W. R. CRAWFORD, Inl. Sugar J., 72 (1970) 362.
11. Mili Speeds
LINEAR SPEEO ANO SPEEO OF ROTATlON
One often speaks loosely of the speed of milis, with consequent risk of confusing two dif-
ferent things. There are in fact two ways of reckoning this speed:
(o) As peripheral speed of the rollers, i.e. the linear speed of a point at the mean diameter
of a roller. It is generally expressed in metres per minute (feel per minute).
(b) As speed of rotation of the rollers, i.e. the number of revolutions which they make
in unit time. It is generally expressed in revolutions per minute (r .p.m.).
Relation between the two speeds

We have:
v= 7rDn (11.1)
V peripheral speed, in m/min (fUmin)

D diameter of rollers, in m (ft.)
n = speed of rotation, in r.p.m.
Whence:
n (11.2)
Use of (he (wo speeds

When discussing speed of milis, should we use t he peripheral speed V, or the speed of rota-
tion n?
The general practice is to use predominantly V, which gives a measure of the speed of
movement of the cane on the carrier, and of the bagasse in the intermediate carriers and in
the milis themselves. However, some authors attach more importance to the speed of rotation
than to the peripheral speed. Which is the correct view?
This question is very far from being merely academic. It is of direct importance to both
the manufacturer and the user of milis.
The question is important mainly on account of the effect of speed on extraction. This acts
in two ways:
(1) On the theoretical plane, it would be valuable to know which factor is important , since
the answer to this question will allow us to belter penetrate the mysteries of the mili and 10
understand it better.
(2) On the practical plane, since all mili rollers do not have the same dimensions, if Paul
.
• - LINEAR SPEED AND SPEED OF ROTATlON 179
possesses a milI of 0,61 m (24 in.) rOller diameter and Peter a miJl of j .09 m (42 in,), it is
obvious that they will reach vety different conclusions according as the limit for a good ex-
tractioll is attained in the neighbourhood of 7 r.p.m. or in the neighbourhood of 20 m/min
(65 fL/min):
for Paul: V 13.4 m/min (44 fL/min)

lf it is nM 7 r.p,m.
for Peter: V = 23.4 m/min (77 fL/min)
for Paul: n = 10.4 r,p.m.

lf it is VM = 20 m/min
for Peter: n 6.0 r.p.m ..
With such differences, it may well be asked why world-wide experience has not yet given
the answer to the problem. There are many reasons for this and in particular the following:
(a) Most tandems cannot be operated at these limiting speeds and so cannot reach any con-
clusiol1 011 the questioll.
(b) The extraction depends on many other factors besides speed, which cannot be readily
eliminated and which thus complica te the situation.
(e) The design of milis does not alIow the speed tobe readily varied without at the same
time varying the crushing rate, and this is an important factor which can complelely falsify
any conclusions.
Whatever the reason, we do not know of any precise experiment made on this subject on
the industrial scale.
However, of the factors Vand n, it is certainly V which plays the dominant role. Jt is the
factor opposing the escape of the expressed juice, when the bagasse enters the grip of the
rollers. The juice must in effect (Fig. 11.1) f10w lhrough the bagasse layer against its direction
\
, , "'v
\
I
i
Fig. t t .1. ·Ftow of exlracted Juice. ,
180 MlLL SPEEDS Ch. 11
of movement. Now this factor obviously depends only on the linear speed V; and this is cer-
tainly the greatest argument in favour of the predominance of Vover n. The higher the speed
V, the more difficult will it be for the juice to escape agalnst the movement of the bagasse
and the greater will be the amount or juice entrapped in the compressed bagasse at the mo-
ment where its permeability drops practically to zero (el p. 132).
Murry', in a sludy of the results obtained by Bullock and himself, also agrees on lhe
predominance of V over n. However, considerations cannOI be based on only one of lhese
factors: for reasons of efficacy and economics of the milling planl, a compromise belween
the two factor s must be adopted.
The Cail firm gave its milis a maximal speed expressed by the formula:
nM = 6.37 - 1.835 D (n = 6.37 - 0.56 D) (1 U)
nM = maximal rotal ion speed of rollers, in r.p.m.

D = roller diameter, in m (fl.).
This old formula has been surpassed by actual practice, and Fives Cail-;- Babcock, suc-
cessors to Cail, have given a fixed scale of maximal speeds for their milis, expressed in the
formula:
nM = --./ 67 - 21.4 Dl ( 11.4)
The few experiments made on this subject have shown ' the exislence of a speed limit of
sorne 23 or 24 m/ min (75 or 80 fL/min), aboye which the lonnage drops. Hence, we propose
the rule:
33 D 108 D )
V - ( VM = D + 2.4
(l1.5)
M - D + 0.73
VM = maximal speed in m/ min (fL / min) for rollers of diameter D, in m (fl.)

which reduces to:
10.5 34.4) (11.6)

D + 0.73 ( nM = D + 2.4
This rule is valid for diameters from 0.6 to 1.5 m (2 - 5 fL) (Fig. 11.4).
MAXIMAL SPEEDS EMPLOYED
The technical literature gives little information concerning maximal speeds attained in prac-
tice. However, since most factories throughout the world periodically find themselves spur-
red on by an increase in tonnage which reaches or exceeds lhe capacity of their mills, the pro-
blem is inevitably posed to the great majority of them. In many cases the crushing rate has
SPEEDS IN GENERAL PRACTlCE 181
been pushed to the maximum permitted by the equipmenl, a maximum whieh is very often
well below the limits whieh we have given. Cenain reeent faetories, on the other hand, have
been so designed as to approach those limils .
At Central Plata, for example, in puerto Rico', the tandem consisting of two sets of
knives, ¡¡ Searby shredder and 21 rollers or 889 x 1,676 mm (35 x 66 in.), was erushing at
200 I.c.h. at a speed n of7 r.p.m., or V = 19.5 m/ min (64 ft. / min), with a normal extraetion
(figures 110t given, but one may assume 94-95070). Some factories now (19SI) attain speeds
of the order of 18 - 20 m/ min (60'- 65 ft./min).
Tromp' gave a speed limit of:
IS D (11.7)
which is equivalent to:
n M = 5.73 r.p.m. ( II.S)
In Louisiana 4 á practitallimit has been expressed as a peripheral speed: VM = 16 m/ min

(53 ft. / min), bti! this limit could probably have been equally expressed in r.p. m., sinee it is
noted thal the standard faetory in Louisiana is equipped with milis of S63-mm (34-in.)
rollers; this reduces therefore to n M = 6 r.p.m.
SPEEDS IN GENERAL PRACTICE
As indieated aboye, most factories operate below these extreme speeds, to avoid risk of affee-
ting their extraetion. For example, Sil-mm (32-in.) rollers are operated at approximately
5 r.p.m.; il is evident thal lhe eXlraction cannOI bUI improve when lhe milis are operated al
a lower speed . However, a good economic use of the equipment demands that the roller
speeds should approach lhe limits - rather eaulious - whieh we have given (eqns. (11.5)
and (11.6». Ifit is desired lo preserve a small margin of safety, the following may be eon-
sidered as maximum economie industrial speeds:
30 D 100 D )
VE = ( VE
D + 0.73 D + 2.4
(11.9)
9.55. 32 )
nE = (nE = D + 2.4
D + 0.73
n E = eeonomic rotational speed, in r.p.m.

VE = economic peripheral speed, in m/min (ft./min)
D = diameter of rollers, in m (fl.).
We show (Fig. 11.2) the speeds eonsidered by Fives Cail- Babeoek as maximal, normal
and minimal, for their milis, as funetions of roller diameter.
182 MILL SPEEDS Ch. 11
.1
2Dm/min ",1' ,/'

V ,/
./'
\\·o;;r
-- ""\
15 m/min
, ¡Y
1/ ,/
\\.3
~
-- I-~
A
,., ---
'
10 m/min / V L~
.
/ '/ V
// /
·5 m/min VI
/, /
o
If 0.5 1m
D(m)
Fig. 11.2. Value or maximal linear speed according te eqns. (11.3), (11.4) or (11.5).
Sequence of speeds along the tandem

What should be the variation of speeds, in milling trains, from the crusher to the final mili?
Previously, twO methods were distinguished:
(1) The Javan school, where low speeds were favoured, decreasing from the first to the final
mili
(2) The Hawaiian school, for which speeds were highú, and increased from the first lo Ihe
final milI.
The Javan school of thoughl has now vanished, and this distinclion has no more Ihan
academic interest. Present practice is to adopt, very generally, either the same speed from
one end to the other of a tandem, or increasing speeds.
Actually, it is predominantly a question of settings, and il is difficult to see how there
would be any advantage in adopling increasing, equal or decreasing speeds: the gain realised
by a thinner layer of bagasse is offset by the increase in peripheral speed, or vice versa. The
simplest solution would therefore seem to be, a priori, to use a uniform speed for all milis
of the tandem.
However, the American trend, a solution of convenience, has held sway, probably as a sorl
of safeguard against possible errors of setling and against accidental chokes towards the end
of the tandem. It is considered that by running the later milis slightly faster, they will readily
accept Ihe bagasse furnished by the preceding milis. The angle of contacl of the bagasse is
improved as the speed increases, since the thickness of the bagasse layer decreases according-
Iy.
Table J 1. J gives further examples of mili speeds, from South Africa and Auslralia, in
m/min (and ft./min), with figures grouped separately for tandems with pressure feeders on
all milis. In all cases, Ihe data are from tandems giving very good extraction figures.
SPEEOS IN GENERAL PRACTlCE 183
TADLE 11.1
lINE ... R SPEEDS FOil SfVERAL MILL TANDEMS , IN m/ min (ft ./min)
- ----- - -- ._--
Mili nllmber
N N, n 2 3 4 j 6 7
Normal tandems
18 6 4 10.76 10.77 10.79 10.51 10.16 10.59
(35.3) (35.3) (35.4) (34.5) (34.6) (34.7)
21 7 2 11./6 11.01 10.87 11.11 11. 53 I I.J3 9.82
(36.5) (36.1) (35.7) (36.5) (37.8) (37.2) (32.2)
Tandems wilh pressure jeeders on a/l milis

20 4 13 . 10 11.82 10.86 9.84
(43.0) (38.8) (35.6) (32.3)
25 5 13.09 13.20 12.80 12.70 13.20
(42.9) (38.7) (42.0) (41.7) (43.3)
30 6 13.20 16.08 15.66 15.96 13.86 12.06
(43.3) (52. 8) (51.4) (52.4) (45.5) (39.6)
N = number of rollers in [andem ; N, = number of milis; n = number of

tandems on which average is based .
Relurn of fine bagasse

I! is necessary, ' however, 10 lake il\to account the return of fine bagasse, which often
represents 20-25070 on the weight of cane entering the milling tandem. The mili (generally
Ihe second) which receives such an extra load should be assisted, in one way or another. The
hydraulic load applied 10 it should accordingly be lower, and at the same time it should be
nM
10 r.p.m
.
r-....
- --- -
:--..... 1'--- ~
- - r-~
......
5 r.p.m
~ ~
i'-..
.11.;}, ........
--
D(m)
O 0.5 1m
Fig. 11.3. Value of maximal rO"lI;onal speed according [o eqns. (11.3). (11.4) Or (11.5).
184 MILL SPllllDS Ch. 11
operated at a sufficient speed; and, of course, the settings should be adjusted accordingly.
We may comment, however, Ihal the mili is not handicapped by the full 20070 of returned
bagasse. If, for example, there are 5 milis, crushing can e of 13.7% fibre, and ir the quantities
of fibre in fine bagasse, per unít of cane, coming from each mili, are:
1st mili: 0.010

2nd mili: 0.009
3rd mili: 0.004
4th mili: 0.002
5th mili: 0.001
0.026
the quantities of fibre passing through each mili in a given time will be, if the return is made
at the second mili, in the following ratios:
1st mili: 137 or say 100

2nd mili: 153 or say 112
Perlpheral sp""d
24 (m/min)
22
--- ---
L--
---
20
~
7 ....---
18
16
V ~
V v'" 14
12
V ~~
r.p.m
l..---"" --- 10
8
6
- ---
8
nlv¡
-- -..
7
nN
6
r--.. -...........
--.... -..........
----
..............
...............
5
nrn
4
-r-- r---
0 .5 0 .6 0 .7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
D (m)
Fig. 11.4. Maximal (M), normal (N) anu minimal (m) speeds in lhe Fives Cail- Babcock milis.
REFERENCES 185
.
3rd mili: 144 or say 105
4th mili: 140 01" say 102
5th mili: 138 or say 101
The extra quantity, however, is far from negligible. In spite of Ihis consideralion, Ihe speed
of the second milI often remains the lowest of Ihe landem.
Combined drives
lt is in landems wilh combined drive that the queslion of the sequence of speeds becomes
most acule. When 11 or 14 rollers are driven by the one steam engine, Ihe relalive speed of
Ihe several milis can no longer be varied al will.
This case is becoming more and more rare, on accounl of Ihe increased adoption of in-
dividual drives by electric molar or turbine. For combined drive, French designers generally
mainlain Ihe same speed for all milis, la l11ainlain uniformity, wilh slandard gearing and
rralllcs. American firl11s prcfcr lO vary Ihc gc.lr ralios so as lO oblain speeds increasing from
Ihe fírsl lO Ihe lasl mili. Tromp l ciles an II -roller landem in which Ihe second molion pinions
driving lile spur wheels of Ihe lhree milis had respecliyely 22, 23 and 24 leelh. This syslem,
he added, would give good resulls.
If il is desired lO mainlain Ihe same dimensions for Ihe gear teeth, and lhe same spaces
belween milis, the ratios may be modified while retaining Ihe same total number'of teeth for
spur wheel plus pinion. For example, 3 seIS of: 83 and 22, 82 and 23, and 8 I and 24 teeth.
Laredo, in Peru 6 , in allering ils landem (762 x },524 mm) (30 x 60 in.) driven by electric
mOlors of 1,000 r.p.m., wilh a 42.5: I reduclion), arrangcd for Ihe spur wheels of 104 teelh
for each mili 10 be driven by pinions as shown below, with Ihe resulling speeds:
Is1 mili: 21 teelh n 4.725 r.p.m. V = 11.25 m/ min (37 ft. / min)
2nd mili: 20 ieeth n 4.50 r.p.m. V = 10.5 m/ min (35 ft. / min)
3rd mili: 22 teet h n = 4 .95 r.p.m. V 12.0 m/ min (39 ft. / min)
4th mili: 24 leelh n 5.40 r.p.m. V 13.0 m/ min (42 ft. / min)
5th mili: 24 teelh n = 5.40 r.p.m. V 13.0 m/ min (42 ft. / min)
6th mili: 26 teelh n = 5.85 r.p.m. V = 14.0 m/ min (46 ft. / mih)
Further good examples of sequences of speed are given in Tables 5.1 and 5.2.
Today, complele combined drive is no longer used. However, for economy, some factories
drive (wo milis from one prime mover; bUI individual drive remains (he rule.
REFERENCES
C. R. MURRY, The mechanics ar crushing prepared sugar caneo Th~sis, Universily arQueensland, 1960, p. 174.
2 R. LABIOSA, Sugar J., 22 (/) (1959) 53.
3 L. A. TROMP, Machin~ry and Equipmenl oJ Ihe Sugar Cane Faclory, Norman Radger, Londan, 1936. p. /62 .
4 L. CUSACHS. Sugar J., 24 (5) (196 1) 29.
5 L. A. TROMP. op. cil ., p. 203.
6 1. LAREDO. Sugar Azucar, 59 (8) (/964) 34.
12. Mil! Capacity
DEFINITION
The capacity of a train of milis is the quantity of cane which that train is capable of treating
in unit time. lt is generally expressed in tonnes of cane per hour (I.c. h.); in America it is often
expressed in tonnes of cane per day.
The relation between these two figures is not as direct as one might be tempted to think.
Actually, the hourly tonnage assumes that the milis have been operating without interruption
for the hour under consideration. This obviously is generalJy the case, and the figure is easily
obtained, at the end of the season, by dividing the tonnage crushed by the number of hours
of operation of the milis; in effect, stops and breakdowns are always deducted.
The tonnage per day, on the other hand, is obtained by dividing the tonnage handled dur-
ing the campaign by the number of working days, small stops not being deducted. Now,
while an hour's crushing without interruption is the general thing, and while many daily
reports show continuous crushing for 24 hours, many stops of 10 - 20 minutes are experienc-
ed in the course of a season. If fol.lows that, even if a careful record is kept of the days of
operation during the week (5.83, 6.25, etc.), the tonnes per day will not be 24 times the tonnes
per hour.
A well-operated factory should not have lost time (mili stops) ofmore than about I rIJo of
its operating time. From this mean figure, the I.C.h. may be converted to tonnes cane per
day (Lc.d.) by multiplying by 23.75:
e = x I.C.h. = 23.75 x LC .d . (12. 1)
FACTORS INFLUENCING CAPACITY
These are many. The most important are the following:
(a) Fibre cantent o/ caneo Though the volume presented to the crusher does not depend
on the fibre content, its resistance 10 the action of the rollers is more or less proportional
to the fibre. As for the later milis of the tandem, the quantity of material which they receive
is closely proportional to the fibre, and the thickness of the layer of compressed bagasse at
the delivery roller will, for a given r.h.p., be exactly proportional to the fib re.
(b) Dimensians and speed o/ the ra//ers. The quantity of bagasse is obviously proportional
to the product of the thickness of the bagasse layer and the escribed area, i.e. the area
described in unit time by a generatrix of the roller, i.e. it is proportional to HLnD. Since H
FACTORS INFLUENCINO CAPACITY 187
..
should be proportional to D, the tonnage will vary approximately as LnD'; thus we see that
it is proportional to ¡he speed and length, and also to the square of the diameter, of the
rollers.
(e) Number of ro/terso A factor which is less obvious, but still important, is the number
of milis. At first sight, it may seem surprising that it should have any effect: if a certain quan-
tity of bagasse passes through a (irst mili, when it is followed by 5 others for example, whY
would il not pass through just as well if it were followed by only 4, 3 or 2 milis, instead of
5? Il is the minimum permissible extraction that is important here: in a short tandem, the
thickness of the bagasse layer must be reduced to obtain a satisfactory extraction; in a long
tandem, on the other hand, the thickness of bagasse layer may be increased as the tandem
becomes longer.
(d) Cane preparators. We have already seen how knives and shredders improve the capaci o
ty.
Besides these primary factors, a number of olhers also play an important part:
(e) Imbibition. The greater the imbibition used, the more difficult it is lO feed lhe milis,
especially when hot water is used as imbibition.
(f) Grooving. The grain of the roller metal, and the shape and depth of the grooving, have
lheir effeet on the grip of the rollers: the juice grooves play an important part at the feed
roUer.
(g) Hydraulic pressure. The milIs accept the feed more readily if they are more Jightly load-
ed.
(h) Ro//ersurfaee. lt is general practiee 10apply, by are welding, granules of metal on the
crest and flanks of the roller leeth. This practice (known as "areing" or "spotling") con-
siderably inereases the grip of the rollers by reducing the slip of the cane or bagasse on them,
and appreciably improves their capacity.
(1) Use of feeding devices. Feeding rollers, above-feed and particularly under-feed pushers
and continuous pressure feeders allow the tonnage to be inereased, sometimes to a substantial
extent.
(j) Design and eondition of the planto Modern milis are provided with various im-
provements whieh inerease their capaeity. On the other hand, wear of grooving, of rollers
and of surfaces subjected to friction, particularly in the hydraulic system, can impair the
good operation of a mili.
(k) Personne/. Finally, the quality of the personnel responsible for the adjustment and
maintenance of ¡he milis is an intangible factor, but one whieh can be of immense
importance.
188 MILL CAPACITY Ch. 12
CAPACITY FORMULAE PROPOSED
A = capacity of the tandem, in I.c.h.

f = fibre content per unit of cane
e = coefficient for preparatory plant, given by Table 12.1
L = length of rollers, in m (fl.)
D = diameter of rollers, in m (fL)
n = speed of rotation of rollers, in r.p.m .
N number of rollers in the tandem
N, number of mills in the tandem
N2 number of compressions applied by the tandem (1 mill = 2 compressions).
Note that:
Af = capacity of the tandem in tonnes fibre per hour (I.f.h .).
CAPACITY FORMULAE
Many formulae have been pro po sed for calculating the capacity of milis (No el Deerr l.2,
MaxwelJl, Nayar and Pillay', Parr 5 , T romp 6 , Gaspar', and many others). The dimensions
of the mili rollers form the main factor in all these formulae; they appear gene rally in 'the
combination LD or LD2 . Mawell and Nayar are supporters of the formula with LD: but it
is difficult to escape the logic which leads to the use of the second power of the diameter.
One arrives at the exponent I by assuming that the thickness of the bagasse layer is constant
and independent of the diameter. However, we start from the logical and necessary
hYPolhesis that this lhickness is proportionallo roller diamel·er. Considering lhis hYPolhesis
in terms of fibre, the weight of fibre passing in one hour is Afand this weight is distributed
over a roller area of:
s = 60 7rDnL
It follows that:
Al Af
= AD
S 60 7r DnL
whence:
nLD2
A A' (12.2)
f
However, the bagasse layer which is of interest here is the maximum layer compatible with
good operation of the milis without choking. This maximum layer depends on [he coefficient
of friction between metal and bagasse. Now, the experiments of Bullock' in Australia have
shown thal this coefficient itself depends on the peripheral speed, and the average of his ex-
periments leads to an equation of the form:
CAPACITY FORMULAE 189
..,
p. = 0.43 - 0.008 v (p. = 0.43 - 0.0024 v) (12.3)
Jl = coefficient of friclion between bagasse and metal

v = peripheral speed of the mili, = 7rnD, in m/ min (ft. / min).
Taking Ihis factor inlo accounl, Ihe maximum quanlily of bagasse which will be gripped
by the mili is no longer proportional 10 v, Ihal is , 10 7rnD, bul tO Ihe product:
7rnD (0.43 - 0.008 ¡rnD) (7rnD (0.43 - 0.0024 '7rnD»
lhal is, 10:
nD (1 - 0.06 nD) (nD (1 - 0.018 nD)) (12.4)
From an experimenl made at Central Don Pedro and cited by Fives - Lille, the practical
coefficielll of fril'tion is givell as (1 - 0.07 nD). Ho\Vcver, we retain the value 0.06, which
appears 10 be better established. We may note in passing thal lhis same experiment showed
a limiting speed v = 23 - 24 m/min (76 - 78 ft.lmin), above which lhe lonnage fell sharply.
Figure 12.1 shows lhe inOuence of slip, as given by Ihis formula, lhe speed v = 7rnD being
shown as lhe abscissa. On lhe same graph, we show Ihe coefficient adopled by Fives
Cail- Babcock, which considers only speeds above 9 m/ min (30 ft./min). The' IWO graphs
are displaced by aboul 3011,70 in the useful zone, lhis difference of 30% being evidently taken
inlO accoulll by the respective formulae. lf we reduce the upper graph in Ihe proportion
130/ 100, they are very close together in the range 10-24 m/min (33-78 fL. / min). We ¡hus
obtain the curve shown dotted .
ormula EH 9' 1- 006 n D, 1. 00191 v

Formula FeB 9,1-0.0015 (v·9J 2
1
r- t--
r- ¡-... -r-- r- r-- ~r~ul~ Je~
---- t-- r-
'- - -. ~~
.............
1'-
'-...
....., ¡;-:::, i'-
r--: r::::. ¡...,
.- '-- "'"'" "-
0.5 ..
..
--
--- 52,25
r-
-
._..
_ '-_L...
m/min
10 20 v
Fig. 12.1. Slipping factor in mili capacity formulae.

-
To allow for this corr~cLed factor, we musL now write:
A = A" nLD' (1 - 0.06 nD) (A = A" nL;' (1 - 0.018 nD») (12 .5)
f
an equalion in which we have already taken into accounl fibre, speed, and Ihe dimensions
of the rollers. There remain only, included in (he coefficient A", (wo primary faClors 10 be
considered explicitly:
(1) The equipment for cane preparalion
(2) The innuence of the length of the tandem.
Influence of preparatory plant

The degree of preparalion and more or less complete subdivision of the can e has a strong
influence on lhe capacilY of 1he milis to grip Ihe caneo Table 12.1 gives coefficients 10 be used
lO take this effect into account.
TABLE 12.1
COEffICIENTS fOR PREPARATORY PLANT
Knife sel of wide pileh e ; 1.10

2 Knife seIS of wide piteh e ; 1.15
1 Knife sel al close pilch e ; 1.13
2 Knife seIS, one wide, one al clase pilch e ; I.L6
2 Knife seIs and one shredder e ; 1.22
Shredder only wilh ehopper·harvesled eane e ; 1.18
Influence of length of tandem

This is the factor which is mosl difficult 10 evaluale, bccau~e ils effecl is indirecl. Let ltS con-
sider an II-roller lrain; this is choscn because iL is Lhe shorlesl of normal Landem~, and
because iLS maximum capaciLy is more definilely fixed. Its capacity cannOL be increased much
without the exlraclion suffering markedly. Let us add in turn 1,2,3,4 milis. Wilh each addi-
tion we have lhe choice between two solutions; either:
(a) To profit by lhe new mili 10 (reat as much cane as possible, while maintaining the same
eXlraction; or:
(b) To seek lO improve the eXlraclion as much as possible wilh lhe aid of lhe new mili,
and nol concern ourselves wilh capacily.
If solulion (a) is followed, as in faclories which have lO cope wilh increasing produclion,
lhe increase in capacily of lhe landem will be almosl proponional lO lhe number of milis N,
or, which is praclically lhe same Ihing, almosl proporlional lO Ihe number of compressions
N, or of rollers N.
lf method (b) is fOllowed, as in factories seeking to ¡ncrease their efficiency, Lhe capacily
will increase very little with the number of rollers.
ln pracLice, it is nearly always the pressure of production requirements thal prompts the
addiLion of a mili, bUL an erfon is always made to obtain from the new mili both a gain in
capacity and a gain in extraction. Ir a reasonable allilude be adopted, which favours extrac-
lÍon very slighlly more than capacilY, Ihe influence 01' length 01' [he tandem will be propor-
tional 10 ..fN.
Formerly, Java issued complele synoptic lables for its 160 or 180 factories. 11' an analysis
be made of this copious data, and the exponenl 01' N be taken as the unknown, the actual
values found are distinctly lower than l. but slightly grealer than 0.5. The power of N which
would appear closest to ¡he mean of all the figures (Ihough somewhat high) would be 0.67,
that is, '# N2. This would be a complicaled value to calculale, and would particularly involve
seeking a precision which the problem does not warrant; so we consider that it is preferable
to relain rN.
For record purpose, and in spite of their early date, we consider lhal the results for Java
for 1930, reduced lO equivalenl rigures for (762 x 1,524 mm) (30 x 60 in.) milis, are worth
retaining. The main differences are due to the influence of the crusher on capacity during
thal period (cf. Table 12.4).
Table 12.2 expresses the influence 01' length 01' the tandem, in terms 01' lhe foregoing
discussion.
TABLE 12.2
COEfFICIENTS FOR LENGTH OF TANDEM
Number 01 rollers .JN Relative values
9 3 0.866
JI 3.3J 7 0.958
/2 3.464 /.00
/4 3.742 J.08
/5 3.873 /./2
/7 4./23 /./9
/8 4.243 /.22
2/ 4.583 J.32
24 4.899 /.4/
Complete formula
We are now in a position 10 give the complete formula for capacity:
A = 0.9 en (1 - 0.06 nD) LD' ..fN

J
(12.6)
(A 0.0255 cn (1 - 0.01~nD)LD2.y'N)
. (L and D in m (fl.).
This formula assumes that the tandem is operated with a normal compromise between ex-
Iraetion and capacity, and lhat the rollers are subjected to regular and uniform "arcing".
Where such "arcing" is nOl practised, il is advisable to apply a coefficient 01' 0.95, which
indicates that the "arcing" allows for 5% in the capacity of the tandem.
,
>D
N
TABLE 12.3
CAPACITY OF MILL TANDEMS , IN I.c .h. (f = 0. 15; n = 6 r.p.m.)
DxL LD' Cr + 3M 4M Cr + 4M 5M Cr + 5M 6M 7M
(m') N=JJ N = 12 N = 14 N = 15 N = 17 N = 18 N = 21
(in . x in.) (mm x mm)
24 x 48 610 x 1,220 0.454 52 54 59 61 65 67 · 72

26 x 48 660 x 1,220 0.534 60 62 67 70 74 76 83
28 x 54 710 x 1,370 0 .691 76 79 85 88 94 97 104
30 x 60 760 x 1,525 0 .881 94 98 106 110 . 117 120 130 3:
32 x 60 813 x 1,525 1.008 105 109 118 122 130 134 145 F
,...
32 x 66 813 x 1,675 1.107 115 120 130 134 143 147 159
()
34 x 66 864 x 1,67 5 1.250 126 132 143 148 157 162 175
36 x 66 915 x 1,675 1.402 138 144 156 161 172 177 191
~
>
()
34 x 72 864 x 1,830 1.366 138 144 151 16\ 172 177 191 ::¡
36 x 72 915 x 1,830 1.532 \49 156 168 174 185 191 206 ><:
36 x 78 915 x 1,9&0 \.658 163 171 184 191 203 209 226
36 x 79 920 x 2,000 \.693 166 174 188 194 207 213 23{)
38 x 83 970 x 2,100 \.976 189 197 213 221 235 242 261
38 x 84 965 x 2,134 \.987 190 199 215 222 237 244 263
40 x 84 1,016 x 2,134 2.203 205 214 232 240 255 263 284
42 X 84 1,067 X 2,134 2.429 220 229 248 257 273 281 304
44 x 84 1,118 x 2,134 2.665 234 244 264 27 3 291 299 323
46 x 84 1,168 x 2,134 2.9 13 248 259 280 290 308 317 343
42 x 90. 5 1,070 x 2,300 2.633 238 248 268 278 296 304 329
46 x 98 1,170 X 2,500 3.422 294 304 328 340 362 372 402
50 x 102 1,270 x 2,600 4.194 334 349 377 390 416 428 462
()
=r
N
Table 12.3 gives capacilies for milis of the sizes most often used, calculated for the follow-
ing conditions:
(a) Preparatory plant: lwo sets of knives and a shredder
(b) Fibre: f = 0.15
(e) Speed: n = 6 r.p.m.
For any fibre content!' other than 0.15, it will suffice to multiply lhe indicated capacity
by 0.15 /!,. However, if we make sorne concession 10 Gaspar's point of view, we would count
as 0.12 all fibre values equal lO or lower than that figure.
For any speed other than 6 r.p.m., we multiply by:
n ' (l - 0.06 n' D) n' (1 - 0.018 n' D»)

6 (1 - 0.36 D) ( 6 (l - 0.108 D)
For any combination of preparatory plant corresponding to a coefficient e' differing from
1.22, mulliply by e' / 1.22.
Comment: The last line is only a lheorelical indication J'or the sake of homogeneity of the
lable, since lhe speed of 6 r.p.m. adopted for the table as a whole would be conducive 10
a linear speed of 24 m/min (78 fl./min), which we know would be excess ive.
Innuence of crusher
We have already pointed out lhat many factories having only lhree-roller milis show
capacities inferior lO faclories having one roller less, i.e. where lhe first mili is repl aced by
an ordinary crusher. Thus in Java, 15-roller trains achieve a mean tonnage inferior to that
of 14-roller lrains (ef. Table 12.4). It may be asked in lhese condilions, whether it would not
be appropriate to separale lhe crusher from the reSl of lhe tandem, lO treat it as a preparatory
unit, in the sa me cJass as a sel of knives; to introduce a "crusher coefficienl", and to count
only the number of units (or of pressures, or of rOllers) in lhe milis proper, in which case
these figures would be fully comparable.
TABLE 12 .4
AYERAOE PIOURES FOR lA YA
Number oJ Tandem NumberoJ Capacily A / .fN Exlracfion Losl juiee

Jaelories rollers (I.c.h .) 0/0 fibre
N A
3 3 milis 9 3 29.5 9.83 91.3 55

3 1 Crusher + 3 milis 11 3.32 31 9.34 93.5 48
26 4 milis 12 3.46 32.2 9.31 93.9 44
93 1 Crusher + 4 milis 14 3.74 41.7 . I l. I 5 94.6 39
15 5 milis 15 3.87 34 8.79 95.4 34
21 1 Crusher + 5 milis 17 4.12 45.5 11.04. 95.7 33
I 1 Crusher + 6 milis 20 4.47 48. 1 10.76 96.7 27
This would be true in tandems conlaining milis only. Sorne such landems are slill in ex-
istence, but forlunately they are becoming rare and, in all modern landems wilh number of
•
roller~ a multiple of 3, e.g. 12, 15 or 18, where lhe first mili is either preceded by a shredder,
or provided with a suitable speed and suilable grooving, lhe capacity should allain and sur-
pass lhat of a corresponding landem of 11, 14 or 17 rollers. For our part, we are strongly
in favour of a first unit of 3 rollers and we have always oblained from such unit s a tonnage
s uperior to that obtained with a 2-roller crusher as first uni!. ,
It is for this reason that we ha ve reckoned the rollers of an ordinary crusher on the same
basis as those of the mills.
The foregoing reasoning also shows why we have introduced in eqn. (12.6) the number of
rollers, N, instead of the number of pressures, N,. It is because, from lhe point of view of
capacity, a crusher has a value approaching thal of a milI. However, in counting the number
of compressions, one reckons a crusher as half a mili, whereas by counting rollers, one
reckons il as two-thirds of a milI.
Reduction to standard dimensions

The influence of the roller dimensions is expressed, in logical capacity formulae, by lhe factor
LD2
In Java, the practice has been adopled of "reducing" the ca pacities of milis to that of a
standard roller dimension of (762 X 1,524 mm) (30 x 60 in.) , by multiplying lhe mean ton-
nage obtained by the ratio:
r = (12 .7)
L and D being the length and diameter of the rollers of the landem concerned,
Ls and Ds those of lhe standardrollers.
1t may be nOled lhal the volume of a roller is given by:
and that in consequence lhe capacilY is proportional to lhe roller volume. Hence it is
eSlimaled in Java that lhe capacily of a mili is 7.25 t.f.h.lm' (0.205 t.f.h .lcu.fl.) of volume
of one of ils rollers. This scale has been derived from an average figure for a number of
tandems comprising 1,254 rollers.
Noel Deerr' has poinred oul thal an average calculated for 110 rollers, in India, gave a
figure of 10.5 t.f.h.lm' (0.295 l.f.h .lcu.ft.) of roller.
These two figures unfortunalely have nOI laken inlo account lhe lenglh of lhe various
landems considered. It would have been interesling to reduce lhe capacilies, nOI only lO a
slandard roller, but also 10 a slandard landem; at lhe lime, lhis was one of 14 rollers.
Al lhe present day Ihis is a landem of 15 rollers. If we apply formula (12.6) to a landem
of 15 rol,lers preceded by 2 seIs of knives and a shredder, and operating at 6 r.p. m., Wilh
rollers of 813 mm (32 in.), lhis dimension serves only to calculale the lerm 0.06 nD (0,018
nD); we shall have:
RELATION OF CAPACITY TO FlBRE LOADING 195
..
Al 0.9 x 1.22 x 6 x 0.7 X 3.873
= 22.740 r.f,h.lrn J
0.7854
Al = 0.0255 X 1.22 X 6 x 0.71 X 3.873

(12.8)
[ Ve 0.654 t.f.h./cu.ft.]
0.7854
or, for any speed n:
3.8 n t. r.h./m l (0.109 n Lf.h./cu.ft.) (12.9)
In South Africa, the length of the tandem is taken into account and work of the mills in
i.c.h. is related to the total volume of all the rollers in the tandem. This amounts to accepting
a formula giving capacity proportional (o (he number N of rollers, and we have commented
(ef. p. 191) that this type of formula would exaggerate the innuence of the number of rollers.
The weight of fibre handled by the milis per hour is divided by the total volume of the rollers
in the tandem, and the quotient is called "specific feed rate". In 198/ the South African fac-
tories had figures ranging from 727 to 1221 kg fibre per hour per m l of total volume of the
main rollers (3 per mili) of the milis in the tandem (45 -76 lb./h/cu.ft.). If the volume of
the pressure feed rollers is added, this would give 692 - 953 kg/h/m (43 - 59 lb../h/cu. ft.).
'
Capacity of tandems with milis of different dimensions

The expressions given are applicable to tandems in which all (he rollers have the same length
L and the same diameter D; but it often happens that tandems are not so homogeneous.
Moreover, very often each mili has its own speed n. In this case in the equation (12.6) the
expression:
o = n (1 - 0.06 nD) LD' (O n (1 - 0.018 nD) LD')
will be replaced by the expression:
(N, - 1) O, + O, + Ol + ... + Gn
Gm = (12.10)
2 (N, - 1)
G" O" ... , 0n being the values of the expression O for the 1st, 2nd, ... , and nth milis,
and 0m being then the value to take for the calculation of capacity of the tandem.
Equation (12.10) was that employed in Java in 1939'°.
RELATION OF CAPACITY ro FIBRE LOADING
If we express the work of a mili as a function of the fibre loading, we obviously have:
Al = 607rDnLq = 188.5 qnLD = 188.5 TnLD' (12.11)

A = crushing rate of the milis, in kg (lb.) cune per hour

! = fibre in cane in relation to unity
L = length of rollers, in m (fL)
D = diameter of rollers, in m (fL)
n = speed of rollers, in r.p.m.
q = fibre loading, in kg/m' (Ib.lsq. ft.)
T = specific fibre loading, in kg/m'/m (lb./sq. ft./ft.).
Equating this expression to the normal capacity of the tandem (eqn. 12.6) we have:
188.5 TnLD' = 900 en (1 - 0.06 nD) LD' .J N (metric units) (12.12)

T = 4.774 e (1 - 0.06 nD) .fN
188.5 TnLD' = 0.0255 X 2.240 en (1 - 0.018 nD) LD' .JN

(British units) (12.12)
T = 0.303 e (1 - 0.018 nD) .fN
e = coefficient relating to preparatory plant

N = number of rollers in the tandem.
This expression indicates the normal values which may be giyen to T in order to operate
the mili under normal conditions (see Table 12.5).
TABLE 12.5
NORMAL VALUES OF SPECIFIC FIBRE LOADING T AS A FUNCTTON OF COMPOSITION OF

TANDEM, IN kg/m 2/m
e nD /2 14 /5 /7 /8 2/
4 12.57 1l.58 14.05 14.96 15.40 16.63

5 11.45 12.51 12.94 13.78 14.18 15.32
4 13.83 14.34 15.46 16.46 16.94 18.29
1.1
5 12.74 13.76 14.22 15.16 15.60 16.85
4 15.33 16.57 17.15 18.25 18.78 20.29
1.22
5 14.12 15.26 15.79 16.81 17.40 18.69
(Far values in Ib.lcu. n.. multiply by 0.0624.)
Capacity ratio o r milis

The capacity ratio e of a milling tandem is Ihe ratio between the tonnage by the tandem and
the tonnage of which it is theoretically capable. We ha ve just calculated these two values:
Tonnage actually crushed:
A! = 188.5 rnLD' kg fibre/h (Ib.fibre/h)
Theoretical standard tonnage which the tandem should normally crush:
Ao! = 900 cnLD'..fN (1 - 0.06 nD) (A o! = 57 cnLD'.JN (1 - 0.018 nD» (12.13)

TONNAGE RECORDS 197
The capacily ratio then is:
A 0.21 T A 3.3 T
() = = e --IN (1 ( () = Ao = e'¡¡;¡ (1 - 0.018 nD)
)
(12.14)
Ao - 0,06 nD)
This measures the relative effort demanded of the iandem:

I f () < 1, the tandem is under ca,pacity
If () = 1, the tandem is working at normal capacity
1f B > 1, the tandem is overloaded. or working aboye normal capacity,
For a given tandem, e, N and D are fixed, n generally varies only between very narrow
limits, and the denominator of eqn. (12.14) may be calculated, For example: e = 1,22, N
= 15, nD = 5 (metric units); hence:
e --IN (1 - 0.06 nD) = 3,3

T = 4.77 x 3.3 = 15.79
Hence:
0.21 x 15.79
o 3,3 =
and it is seen that. for a given tandem, the specific fibre loading measures, to a close approx-
imation, the capacity ratio,
TONNAGE RECORDS
The highest capacities recorded, to our knowledge, are the following:

(a) Tonnage of cane crushed in 24 hours by a factory: 24,000 tonnes, average for 1979 at
Sao Martinho ".
(b) Capacity of one tandem: 12,613 tonnes (Le,) in 24 hours, by Bryant in Florida", in
197&, with 6 milis 990 x 2,134 mm (39 x 84 in.), or approx. 525 I.c. h.
(e) Tonnage of eane crushed in one season: 2,781,021 tonnes (L e.), by Central Romana 13,
San Domingo,
(d) Year's production of sugar by a factory: 295,939 tonnes, by Central Romana", in
1960.
REFERENCES
1 N. DEERR, Cane Sugar, Norman Rodger, London, 1921, p. 219,

2 N. DEERR, op, cil., p, 200.
3 F. MAXWELL, Modern Milling oJ Sugar Cane, Norman Rodger, London, 1932, p. 299.
4 P. N. NAYAR AND P. S. B. PllLAY, [ni. Sugar J., 45 (1943) 190.
5 P. H. PARR, Inl . Sugar J ., 37 (1935) 355 .

6 L. A. TROMP, Machlnery and Equipmenl ollhe Cane Sugar Pac/ory, Norman Rodger, London, 1936, p. 165.
7 J . J . GASPAR , Proc. 11th Congr. ISSCT, Maurl,Ius. 1962, p. 1091.
8 K. J. BVLLOCK, An investigation inlO lhe physical propenies of sugar can e and bagasse, Thesis, University of
Queensland, 1957, pp. 169-171.
9 N. DEERR, Inl. Sugar J., 48 (1946) 234.
10 A . VAN HEN GEL. Inl. Sugar J., 67 (1965) 116.
I1 Sugar Azucar, (Jun. 1980) 15.
12 Sugar Azucar, (May 1980) 113.
13 T. O. ELLts, Sugar J., 25 (5) (1962) 11.
/
· ¡ . ' ;' . ' : : .
13. Mil! Settings

.. . .
" ,
OBJECT
"Setting" a mili eonsists of seleeting the most favourable relative positions to be given to
the 3 rollers and the trashplate, in order to obtain the ,best eonditions for feeding and the
best extraetion re~ults.
Every mil! has provision for adjustments (Fig. 13.1) permitting alterations to be made lo
the position at rest of eaeh of lhe lwo lower rollers relalive to the 10p roller. The relative posi-
lians wilh lhe mili emply delermine lhose when operaling, when lhe 10p roller lifls againsl
Ihe hydraulie pressure, under Ihe thrusl of the bagasse.
. ...
Fig, 13,1. Mili housill!! showing wedges and screws for adjilslmenl uf rollers (Fives Cail - Babcock).
\ .
Adjustment of settings is a delieale and importanl operation. A good setting is indispen-

sable for obtaining good operation of the mili, thal is, regular operalion wilhoul ehoking and
with a suilable eXlraetion .
The seltings inelude two main adjustments:
(A) The selting of Ihe feed and delivery openings
(B) ,The setting of the trashplale ..
.200 MILL SETTINOS . Ch. 13
A. Feed and Delivery Openings
The front roller is a feeding apparatus; the delivery roller a pressure device. The feed opening
should obviously be greater than the delivery opening: if they were made equal, either the
output of the mili would be ridiculously low (small openings), or the pressure would be very
poor (Iarge openings).
The three-roller mili would in fact not be justified: its success and its universal adoption
are due to the fact that, due to the feed-roller pressure and the go-between of the trashplate,
it permits of delivery-roHer pressures which would be unobtainable in a unit of two rollers.
On the other hand, if the feed opening were much to wide, the bagasse arriving at the
delivery roHer would be much 100 \vet, and the mil! would choke or would give very poor
results.
There is then an optimum ratio between the two openings, for a given set of conditions.
It is a question of determining this ratio.
This problem does not allow of a ·mathematical solution: the adjustment is in reality an
arl, based on empirical considerations. But it involves some calculations, if logical and op-
timal solutions are to be attained.
It is always the delivery opening that is calculated first; the feed opening is next calculated
according to the value found.
MEASURE OF THE OPENINGS
The openings are expressed as those between the mean diameters of the rollers considered.
When the grooving of the two rollers is similar, the opening is expressed very simply: the
opening is represented by the distance between any two points on the surface of the two
rollers, situated in their common axial plane and in the same plan e perpendicular to the two
axes (Fig. 13.2).
When the two rollers have different grooving, care must be taken to measure the mean
diameters which are represented for each roller by the mean of the diameter at the tips of
the teeth and that at the bottoni of the gro oves (Fig. 13.3).
With complex grooving, the mean diameter is calculated as that defined by the straight line
which, on a longitudinal section of the roller, intercepts equal full and empty areas. In other
Fig. 13.2. Measure of openings Wilh equal grooving. Fig. 13.3. Measure of openings with differen[ grooving.
201
. JAVA METHOD
words, the mean diameter is the diameter of the geometríc cylinder having· the same length
and the same volume as the mili roller under consideratíon.
However, the Messchaerts should not be taken into account in the determination of me.a n
díameter by calculation or drawíng.
JAVA METHOD
The establíshed method of determiníng settings ís that of the Experiment Station of Java.
The method adopted is the folIowing:
(1) Choíce of mili speeds
(2) Calculation of the delivery opening
(3) CalcuJatíon of the feed opening.
1. Choice of mili specds

lt was considered in Java that mili speeds were not unimportanL We have already seen (p.
182) that the Javan engineers had defin ile ideas on the value as well as on the sequence of
speeds in a milling planL
The Experiment Station had accordingly estabJisheda table of average values for Java of
the thickness of bagasse blanket in each type of tandem, from the first to the,last mill. This
was expressed in grams of fibre per square decimetre of area described by a generatrix of
the roUer (or "escribed area").
We may comment in passing that we fínd agaín here, in a different unit, our concept of
the fibre loading, the use of which in Java, long before our mention of it, confirms íts impor-
tance. We have:
g/dm' = 100 g/ m' = 0.1 kg/m' (= 0.0205 Ib ./sq.ft.)
The Java table gave this value for the standard mílI of 762 X 1,524 mm (30 X 60 in.).
For a mili of different diameter, we should have , following the principie that thickness of
bagasse ís proportional to diameter:
q' D'
-= ": ."
q . D :'-:
..
t." ••• • •
The Experiment Station recommended that a mili speed should be taken which would give
a bagasse layer corresponding to that shown in the tableo The calculatíon is very easy. We
illustrate it by an example:
Example. Tandem of 15 rollers 813 X 1,675 mm (32 X 66 in.), which is required to crush
120 LC.h. at 140/0 fibre. The speed of the 3rd mili is requíred.
The table (Table 13 . 1) gives q = 157 g/ dm'. For a roUer of 813 mm. this corresponds to:
q' = 157 X 813 = 168 g/ dm'

762
202 MILL SETTlNOS Ch. 13
The weight of fibre to be treated is:
120,000 X 0,14 = 16,800 kg/h
Hence the area S to be escribed by the roller:
16,800,000 S
-----=,-----~ = 168 gl d m 2 100,000 dm 2 1h
S
Now:
s 60 n7rDL 60 X n7r X 8.13 ><16.75 100,000
whence:
n = 3.9 r.p.m.
This speed is low for the tonnage planned. We have already commented that the speeds
practised in Java were low, particularly in the later milis of the tandem.
It must be added, however, that the Java method would be equally applicable to niills
operating at speeds higher than those given by Table 13.1, [he important point being the fibre
index rather than [he fibre loading.
2. CaIculation of delivery opening

It is now a matter of fixing the delivery opening with the mili at rest. For this we begin by
determining the opening during operation.
Fig. 13.4. Lirt or accumulators.

.. JAVA METHOD 203
The Experiment Station similarly furnishes atable of mean values recommcnded for Ihe
weighl of fibre passed through unil volume of delivery opening while operating, in other
words, the fibre index for each milI.
The complete table is given in Table 13.1. The Station recommended adoption of a delivery
opening while operating which would furnlsh a weight of fibre per unir volume equal to that
given by the table.
TABLE 13.1
MILL SETTlNGS IN JAVA

---- . _ - ....
Tondem 4 milis Crusher + 4 milis Crusher + 5 milis Crusher + 5 milis

shredder + 4 milis
Q = g jibre per dm 1 oj escribed roller surjoce (D = 762 mm)

Crusher 113 115 107
1SI mili 96 130 1)7 101 132
2nd mili 135 150 143 143 147
3rd mili 144 167 156 157 166
41h mili 166 179 159 168 174
51h mili 183 189
<P = g jibre per dm J escribed volume delivery (flbre index)

Crusher 390 330 320
1S1 mili 530 610 570 370 620
2nd mili 610 750 670 640 720
3rd mili 570 840 720 800 ~10
41h mili 620 940 770 910 870
51h mili 960 960
Example. Conrinuing Ihe calcularian of Ihe previous example, the operating delivery work
opening will have a value of:
q' 168
800
= 0.21 dm = 21 mm
From rhe operaring delivery opening, rhe opening "at rest" is derived by assuming rhat
Ihe mean lifl of Ihe 10p roller has an optimum value of 20070 of Ihe mean value of (he
operating opening (method oi' Helmer); 30% is also sometimes recommended l , a value which
would appear preferable. In the foregoing example, we would have Ihen:
Desired lif( of (he top roller = I:J.h = 21 x 0.30 = 6.3 mm
whence (ef. Fig. 13.4):

corresponding change in (he delivery opening:
l:J.e I:J./z cos :2C< = 6.3 x 0.8 5 mm

204 MILL SETTINGS Ch. 13
Hence:
Delivery opening, after deducting lift = S' = 21 - 5 = 16 mm
The method employed in Java took full accounl of the correclions necessary to convert
from theorelical openings (measured from top of toolh lo botlom of groove) lO ¡rue open-
ings. In particular, lhe empty volume due lO chevrons and lO wear and breakages of leeth
was determined by a test with a piece of clay, leading to Ihe same results as the procedure
with lead which we ha ve recommended (ef. p. 124). The wear of Ihe rollers at Ihe centre was
likewise laken into account. AH these correclions were deducled from the value chosen for
the operaling opening when deciding lhe selling "at reSI" lO be employed; Ihe corrections
for wear al Ihe centre and for the free volume were Ihen deduCled from Ihe value oblained.
Ir these tOlalled 4 mm, we would have:
Delivery setting for mili at rest: So 16 - 4 12 mm
3. Calculation of feed opening

The feed opening during operalion is deduced immedialely from the delivery opening, lhe
ratio between Ihe two openings being fixed al the values given in Table 13.2:
TABLE 13.2
RATIO BETWEEN FEED AND DELlYERY OPENINGS (WHEN

OPERAT1NG) IN JAVA
Far 1st mili: 2.2 ir preceded by a ",usher. 2.6 Qtherwise

Far 2nd mili: 1.9
Fer lrd mili 1.9
Fer 4th mili: 1.8
Example. Conlinuing Ihe preceding example, lhe operaling opening al Ihe feed roHer will
have a value of:
E = 1.9 eA = 40 mm
Hence the opening at rest (in the case of slandard symmelrical housings):
Feed opening, deducling lin = a' = 40 - 5 = 35 mm
and, with the corrections for wear at the centre and for free volume, taken as 6 mm for the
feed roller:
Feed selling required for mili al reSI ao 35 - 6 29 mm

JAVA METHOD 205
Applicalion of Ihe Java melhod In olher counlries

The disadvantage of this melhod is Ihar it is lied lO lhe Java sehool of speeds. lts applieation,
based on lhe Java table (Table 13.1), leads 10 low and deereasing speeds. However, one may
nOI be a partisan of chis sehool of Ihollght, and in eonsequence the milis also may not be
designed for il. The Freneh manufacturers, in particular, do not provide, for their sream-
engine drives, governor pulleys permiuing of sueh low speeds, and their steam engines, elee-
lrie motors and turbines would be, too powerful and would funetion below economical eondi-
lions. FinaJJy, tandems with combined drive do not permit of giving eaeh mill a particular
speed, which the Javan lable demands.
TABLE 13 .3
S(TTINOS r:OR MII"LS IN QUEENSLANO (JAVA MJjTllOO)
Tandem 3 milis 4 milis 5 milis

- - _ . _._ --"._._-
q q' q q' q q'
ISI mili 112 2.3 117 2.4 102 2.1
2nd mili 107 2.2 122 2.5 137 2.8
3rd mili 102 2.1 132 2.6 112 2.3
4th mili 122 2.5 127 2.6
51h mili 97 2.0
q, q,' q, q,' q, </> '

1SI mili 450 28 384 24 336 21
2nd mili 512 32 464 29 450 28
3rd mili 800 50 545 34 480 30
4th mili 672 42 496 31
5th mili 672 42
q = g fibre per dm' roller surface (D = 762 mm) in.

q' = lb. fibre per sq.ft. escribed surface (D = 30)
q, = g fibre per dm ) delivery opening
</J' = lb. fibre per cu. ft. e5cribed volume (delivery).
However, cerlain eountries have adopled the principie of the Java method, while modify-
ing the table. Table 13.3 gives the table eonslructed by Behne, foliowing the settings praetised
in Queensland'.
This table was established for mills with fixed top roller, whieh were frequent at the time
in Queensland. Settings for these would not be the same as for mills with hydraulics.
Russell' comments Ihat, in 1968, mOsl Australian factories, independent of the number of
milis in the tandem, used figures of <p = 486 g/dm J (J0.3 Ib ./cu.rl.) for the first mili, ancJ
821 (51.3) for the last, intermedia te milis having figures belween these values.
Optimal values for Ihe Java lable

Douwes Dekker and Van Hengel 4 have commented that Ihe best figures for fibre in bagasse,
and henee the besl individual mill extraetions, were obtained in Java by milis in which the
delivery opening when operating was designed for a ralio <PI!, = 1.75 kg/ dm J (I091b./eu. fL).
Now we ha ve (cI p. 142):
Af (13.1)
 by its optimal value of 1.75 f' (109 f'):
dm (13.2)
f' being fibre per unir of bagasse for [he mili considered. Values I'or f' will preferably be
chosen as sugges[ed by Table 13.7.
From [he opening while operating, eA' chus derived, we calculate [he opening for [he emp-
[y mili, So, as indicated aboye (p. 203), taking for average lift 300/0 of the maximallift possi-
bJe.
We may comment that the value thus recommended by Douwes Dekker and Van Hengel
gives, for a 15-roller tandem, and for Ihe fibre figures of Table 13.6, I'ibre indices of 530,
705,785,865, and 915 kg/m J (33, 44, 49, 54, and 57Ib./cu.rl.), respeclively, for milis 1105.
We may comment also that these values adopted in the Java method ror ¡he I'ibre index
fix the re-absorption factor r. Taking for example the bagasse rrom the first mili, with cf> =
530 kg/m J (33 Ib./cu.fl.), the weight of bagasse (of 0.30 fibre conlent) corresponding 10 this
weight of fibre will be 530/0.30 = 1,765 kg (33/0.30 = 110 lb.). This 1,765 kg (110 lb.) of
bagassewilloccupyano-voidvolume(ef. p.134)01·(1,765 x 0.873)/1,000 = 1.54m 3 (110
x 0.873)/62.4 = 1.54 cu. fl.). 1f this is to pass through 1 m J (1 cu.I·I.) 01' delivery opening,
the re-absorp[ion factor must be r = 1.54; a similar calculation ror the 5 milis would'give
a re-absorption factor ranging from 1.54 to 1.43 from the first 10 the last milI. Actually, lhe
opening derived by this calculation is not necessarily that assumed by the mili, Ihe top roller
of which will lif[ more or less lhan estimated. The re-absorplion faclor accordingly may be
di fferent.
Nevertheless, we still regard the values recommended by Douwes Dekker and Van Hengel
as very valuable.
METHOD OF CALCULATING OPERATING OPENINGS
We shall give the calculations in the same order as previously.
l. Choice of mili speeds

We attach to the speed of the milis only a secondary importance, on the condition, 01' course,
that itremainsbetween normallimits (ef. p. 181). The speed is nearly always fixed by the
necessity to attain a given tonnage.
The optimal value is given by:
1,000 Al = 60 no7rDLqo = 607rn oD'LTo (2,240 Al = 60 no7rDLqo = 607rn oD'LTO)
whence:
no
Al
5.3 ..--~- 11.88.~f ) (13.3)
LD' To LD' To
METHOD OF CALCULATING OPERATING OPENINGS 207
no aplimal speed, in r.p.m.

A erushing rate required 01' the tandem, in I.c.h.
f = fibre per unil 01' cane
L = lenglh of rollers, in m (n.)
D = diameter of rollers, in m (fl.)
qo = oplimal fibre loading, in kg/m' (lb./sq, ft.)
70 = oplimal specific fibrc laading, given by eqn, (12,12). in kg/ m'/ m (lb.lsq.ft./fL).
II'. for,an)' reason, lilis optill1al speed canlJol be realised, vve silall simply ellcleavour lO ap-
proach it as dosel y as poss iblc, ancl adopl Ihe speed whiehwe are alJle 10 allain, even ir il
be appreciably dil'ferenl.
furlher, this speed mal' be made eonstanl lilroughout Ihe landem, or decreasing from lhe
firsl lO last mili , or better, sligillly inereasing.
2. Calculalion of operaling delivery .o pening

We shall illustrate the calculalion by a concrete example.
Example. Jt is required to calculale lhe operaling delivery openings for a J 5-roller landem
of 990 x 2,134 mm (39 x 84 in .), following three seIs of knives and a shredder:
Crusiling rate required: A = 300 Le.h. with fibre f = 0.15

Speed: n = 6 r.p.m.
1mbibition: t- = 2 dislribuled belween the last two mili s (cf. eqn. (19.6)).
Sequence required for fi bre contents of successive bagasses: 33 - 42 - 46 - 48 - 50.

We assume thal Ihe. brix of lhe residual juices in Ihe successive bagasses are ¡hose found
in Ihe calculalion in Ihe second edilion (pp. 282 - 285):
B, = 18,74 densily 1.075 densilY under pressure 1.0 I x 1.075 1.086

B, = 1628 density = 1.065 density under pressure = 1.01 x 1.065 = 1.076
B, = 12.63 density = 1.049 density under pressure 101 x 1.049 1.059
B. 8.71 density = 1.033 density under pressure = 1.01 x 1.033 1.043
B, 6.32 densilY = 1.023 density under pressure = 1.01 x 1.023 = 1.033
We now calculalc the volumes and rhe densilies for lhe various bagasses under pressure
(cf. eqns. (10.15) and (10.17)):
ISI mili: Va = 1.086

' (,.'~:6 - 0.86) 0.33 = 0.8400
dI = - '-
0.8400 = 1.190 kg/m l (74.3 Jb. / cu.fL)
2nd mili: Va = ,.~76 - (-"-'
1.076
- 0.86) 0.42 = 0.8222
d, = ---'-
0.8222
= l.216 kg/m' (75.9 Ib ./c u. rL)
3rd mili: Va = - -'-
1.059
- (-"-'
J.059
- 0.86) 0.46 = 0.8187
d - , = l.221 kg/ m (76.2 Ib./cu.fL)
) - 0.8J87 '
208 MILL SETTINOS Ch. 13
4th mili: Vo = 1.~.J (1.'o"• , - 0.86) 0.48 = 0.8193

d - , - 1.221 kg/ m (76.2 Ib./cu.fl.)
4 - 0.819J - '
5th mili: Vo = ,.~)) . - ('~¿:J - 0.86) 0.50 = 0.8172
d, = 0.8\" = 1.224 kg/ m J (76.4 Ib./cu.fl.)
It now remains tofix a value for the re-absorpl ion faclor; bUI we can only form an approx-
imale idea of its value. We shalJ not make use, for this, of Ihe t'ormulae (10.74) and (10.75),
on accounl or Ihe uncertainly of lhe constant term and of Ihe coerficients v and </> in the com-
plete rormula. We obtain an approximation to the faclor by assuming Ihal these Iwo faclors
play an equal role, in other words, by taking lhe mean belween Ihe resulls of eqns. (10.73)
and (10.75).
The former gives: r ' = 1.06 + (0,017 x 18.66) = 1.377 for all milis.
For the lalter, we assume as a probable and desirable fibre-index value thal suggesled by
Douwes Dekker and Van Hengel: <1> = 1.75 j', from which: 0.65 <1> = 1.1375 j'.
Hence:
1st mili: r;' 0.87 + (1.1375 x 0.33) = 1.245 r = 1 (1.377

+ 1.245) 1.31 1
2nd mili: r;' = 0.87 + (1.1375 x 0.42) = 1.348 r = 1 (1.377
+ 1.348) 1.362
3rd mili: r;' = 0.87 + (1.1375 x 0.46) = 1.393 r = 1 (1.377
+ 1.393) 1.385
4th mili: r;' 0.87 + (1.1375 x 0.48) = 1.416 r 1 (1.377
+ 1.416) = 1.396
5th mili: r;' = 0.87 + ( 1.1375 x 0.50) = 1.439 r 1 (1.377 + 1.439) 1.408
We mUSI have no illusions as to Ihe precision of these values ror lhe re-absorplion faclor.
However, we have no way of eSlimating Ihem more accuralely, and a more accurale figure
would not appreciably aller lhe value of Ihe selling which we require. We Ihus have 10 be
content with this approximation.
We now write that the volume of bagasse passing through lhe delivery opening. multiplied
by it s density and Ihe re-absorption factor, gi vcs Ihe wciglll 01' bugussc:
60 n 7f DL eA dr B A --
I (13.4)
j'
hence:
Al =---
Al 1 q
( 13.5)
60 7fnDL j' dr 60 7fnDL <1> <1>
with:
Al 300.000 x 0.15
q = = 0. 188 kg/ dm' (3.85 Ib./sq.fl.)
60 7fnDL 60 x 3.1416 x 6 x 9.9 x 21.34
. METHOD
.
OF CAlCUlATlNO OPERATlNO OPENINGS 209
Hen ce (eqns. (10.40), (13.5»:
0,188
1s1 mili: </>, = 0.33 x 1.190 x 1.3 II = 0.515 eA = o. j I j == 0.36 dm = 36 mm
o. J 88
2nd mili: </>, = 0.42 x 1.216 x 1.362 = 0.696 eA = 0.696 = 0.27 dm = 27 mm
o· 188
3rd mili: 4>¡ = 0.46 x 1.221 x 1.385 = 0.778 eA = 0.778 = 0.24 dm = 24 mm
0.188
41h mili: 4>. = 0.48 x 1.221. x 1.396 = 0.818 eA = 0.818 = 0.23 dm = 23 mm
0.188
5/h mili: 4>, = 0.50 x 1.224 x 1.408 0.862 eA 0.862
0.22 dm = 22 mm
If we had used lhe values for 4> fram Java (Table 13.1) or from Russell (Table 13.3), we
should have had:
4> Java </> Russell eA Java eA Russell eA calculaled

Isl mili: 4>, = 370 4R6 g/dm J 51 39 36 mm
2nd mili: 4>, 640 570 g/dm J 29 33 27 mm
3rd mili: 4>l 800 654 g/dm 24 29 24 mm
'
4th mili: 4>. = 910 737 g/dm ' 21 26 23 mm
5th mili: 4>, 960 821 g/dm l 20 23 22 mm
Thou gh differing somewhal due 10 Ihe uncerlainty of Ihe value of the re-absorplion factor,
lhese figu res are quile useful in practice.
3. Delivery opening with mill empty

Knowing Ihe openings when operaling, we now proceed to rix their values wilh (he mili at
rest.
It is customar y lO adopta value as large as possible, but nevertheless surriciently small to
avoid Ihe risk of lhe 10p roller working on ils lower bearings when fluclualions in feed reduce
Ihe blankel of bagasse. A safely coerficienl is lherefore adopled, and lhe praclice is lO allow
a greater margin of safelY when lhere are fewer milis following lhe one under consideration.
We designale Ihis safelY coefficient by>/;:
.1, ___ delivery opening when emply

(13.6)
'1' ave rage d e l'Ivery opemng
. w1len wor k'IOg
This coert'icienl >/; i.l nOl of greal imporlance and consequenlly varies widely. lis only object
in effec l is to assure Ihal 1he bagasse will be conslanlly under full pressure, The margin of
safely whi ch it allows should be grealer when Ihe lhroughput of Ihe mili is liable to be ir-
regular.
Table 13.4 gives values of Ihis coefficienl as advised by Farrel (1971 J, Ihe values ranging
from 0,773 for Ihe firSI mili 100.435 for Ihe last , and varying according 10 Ihe number of
milis in the tandem,
210 MIU SETTINGS Ch. 13
TABLE 13.4
RATIO y., Of EMPTY TO OPERATlNO YALUES OF OELlVERY OPENrNO

(FARREL)
Tondem 4 milis 5 milis 6 milis 7 milis
I sI mili 0.77] 0.77] 0.77] 0.77]

2nd mili 0.657 0.657 0.690 0.707
]rd mili 0.555 0.555 0.594 0.619
4th mili 0.47] 0.47] 0.524 0.555
5th milI 0.4]5 0.47] 0.505
6th mili 0.4]5 0.455
7th mili 0.4]5
Table 13.5 gives values recommended by Fives Cail- Babcock and by Ihe aulhor.
TABLE 13.5
RATIO if; OF EMPTY TO OPERATrNO VALUES Of DELlVERY

OPEN'NG (FtVES CA'L - BABCOCK, FCB; AUTliOR, EH)
FCB EH
-------- -- _ . _._-----~
Crusher 0.6
1st mili 0.65 0.5
2nd mili 0.4 0.4
Inl ermedia¡e milis 0.5 0.]5
Penul¡lm a¡e mili 0.5 O.]
Fi na l mi li 0.45 0.25
Conlinuing lhe previous example, wc lake as delivery sCIlings (t'mpIY):
Isr mili: So = 36 x 0.50 18 mm (0.70 in.)

2nd mili: So = 27 x 0.40 = 1J mm (0.43 in.)
3rd mili: So = 24 x 0.35 8 mm (0.33 in.)
4th mili: So 23 x 0.30 7 mm (0.27 in.)
5th mili: So 22 x 0.25 = 5 mm (0.22 in.)
4. Calculalion of feed opening

\Ve return here 10 the Java solution, which consis ts of fixing a certain ratio m of Ihe
operating openings at feed and delivery:
mean feed opening in opcralion

m = (J 3.7)
mean delivery opening in operation
Table 13.6 indicates values recommended for the ratio m by Farrel, by Fives
Cail- Babcock (FCB) and by the author (EH).
•
.
METHOD OF CALCULATlNG OPERATING OPENINGS 211
TABLE 13,6
RATIO m or FEED ro DELlVERY OPENINGS IN OPERATION
Farrel FeS EH
ISI mili 2 2,3 - 2,5 2,2

2nd mili 2.2 2,2-2,3 1.9
3rd mill 2,4 2, I 1.8
4Lh mili 2,6 2 1.7
5Lh mili 2,8 1.9 1,7
6th and laLer milis 3 1.8 1.7
11 will be seen that there is a very wide divergence belween Ihe different values recommend-
ed, This arises lO a great degree I'rom Ihe predominance given in Ihe American hemisphere
10 capacily ralhcr Ihan eX1J'aclioll,
Fromlhe oper'aling I'eed openings Ihus delermined, we relurn lO consideralion 01' the emp-
Iy openings wilh ¡he commenl ¡ha¡, in milis of typical design wilh vertical caps, ¡he feed and
delivery openings increase by ¡he same amounl as the roller lifts,
Example, Continuing our example, we have ¡he feed openings while operating:
Isl mili: EA 36 x 2,2 79 mm (3,12 in,)

2nd mili: EA 27 X 1.9 51 mm (2,00 in,)
3rd mili: EA 24 x 1.8 43 mm (1.70 in,)
41h mili: EA 23 x 1.7 39 mm (1.54 in.)
51h mili: EA 22 x l.7 37 mm (1.47 in,)
The opening when emp¡y is equal 10 ¡he operaling opening reduced by Ihe difference bel-
ween lhe operaling and emply sellings: Eo = s + EA - eA'
Example,
1s1 mili: Eo 18 + 79 36 = 61 mm (2.40 in.)

2nd mili: Eo II + 51 27 35 mm (1,38 in,)
3rd mili: Eo 8 + 43 24 = 27 mm (l,06 in,)
41h mili: Eo 7 + 39 23 23 mm (0.90 in,)
51h mili: Eo 5 + 37 22 20 mm (0,79 in,)
Corrections for wear are to be added, as in Ihe Java method, We may allow 1 - 2 mm for
a new mili, 3 - 4 in an old mili,
Value of lhe ratio m in various counlries. We have given the ratios adopted In Java (Table
]3,2).
In Australia, Behne ' recommends ralios m varying from 2.3 lO 2.6 for the first mili to
2,5 -3.0 at the las! milI.
In Louisiana, Lowe 6 advises increasing gradually from 1.75 al lhe firSI mili lO 2.25 al lhe
last.
In Cuba, Maiz' indicales ralios ranging from 1.80 al lhe firsl mili, 2.5 al lhe second, to
2.75 al lhe last, for a 6-mill tandem.
For lhe reasons given aboye, the author considers thal lhe high values of m quoled in lhese
counlries are due lO neglecting to calculale lhe openings when the roller begins lO exert
pressure (ef. p. 122). If these are taken into account and delermined with care, it will be
found that the values proposed in Table 13.6 are generally sufficienl and lhal even lower
values can be used. We have operated and obtained excellenl resulls with heavily loaded final
milis set with a ratio m of 1.6. If the mean lift is merely added 10 the opening at resl, er-
roneous and ver y high values of m will obviously be found.
Variation of fibre along lhe tandem

Calculatíon of the operating delivery opening (p. 207) is based on the fibre content 01' the
bagasses leaving the various milis of the tandem. How does lhis factor vary along lhe
tandem?
For correctly set milis, the fibre percentages of Table 13.7 may be taken:
TABLE 13.7
YARIATION OF FIBREf' IN BAGASSE ALONO THE TANDEM
Crusher ISI mili 2nd mili 3rd mili 41h mili 51h mili 61h mili
Tandem of:
11 rollers 28 40 46 50
14 rollers 28 40 44 48 51
17 rollers 28 40 44 47 50 52
Tandem oJ:
12 rollers 33 42 47 51
15 rollers 33 42 46 50 52
18 rollers 33 42 45 48 50 52
Douwes Dekker and Van Hengel' suggest:

Tandem of 15 rollers 32 40 45 48 50
Tandem of 18 rollers 30 39 43 46 48 50
Actually, lhese values vary slightly wilh the fibre and variely of cane, but lhere is lillle
disadvantage in adopling lhe values indicated in Table 13.7, in lhe absence of more precise
data.
DELIVERY OPENINOS AND FIBRE LOADINO
The delivery openings during operation of lhe mili depend on lhe state of preparation and
lhe degree of previous breaking up of lhe cane, on the hydraulic pressure (lO some eXlenl).
on lhe re-absorplion coefficienI, bUl panicularly on lhe fibre loading. Ir, t'or normal condi-
/
t'
tJ
. TABlE 13.8 m
t-<
:;:
VAlUE OF RATIO e A/ q OF DELIVERY OPENrNG IN OPERATJON TO FIBRE INDEX (q IN kg/ m 2) m
~
><
Tandem N=12 N = 14 N = /5 N = 17 N = /8 N = 21 O
FAR FeB EH Fe8 EH FAR Fe8 EH EH FAR EH FAR EH

'"mZ
Z
O
Crusher 2.76 2.34 2.34 '">
1st mili 2.62 2.07 1.90 1.80 1.53 2.62 2.07 1.90 1.53 2.62 1.90 2.62 1.90 Z
2nd mili 1.73 1.41 1.45 1.34 1.36 1.73 1.46 1.45 1.36 1.97 1.45 2.03 1.45 tJ
3rd mili 1.31 0.91 1.28 0.90 1.22 1.31 0.97 1.30 1.23 1.48 1.32 1.56 1.32 ::!l
ti>
4th mili 1.13 0.85 1.15 0.80 1.14 1.15 0.86 1.20 1.16 1.25 1.22 1.34 1.23 ~
5th mili
6th mili
1.05 0.79 1.14 1.13 1.13 1.16
1.12
1.20
1.()9
1-17
1.14
"'Ot-<
1.05
7th mili 1.05 1.12 ~
Z
el
(For opening in inches per Ib ./sq. ft. of fibre index, multiply the figures in the lable by 0.1922.)
'"w
214 MILL SETTrNGS Ch. 13
tions and lhe hydraulic pressures generally employed, we express Ihe delivery openings while
operaling, eA' as a ratio of Ihe fibre loading, q, we shall oblain figures applicable 10 milis
of all dimensions, and Ihus of general value, and sufficienlly accurale for practical needs.
These values have particularly Ihe greal advantage of avoiding Ihe preceding calcuJalions and
of giving a praclically immediale solution 10 Ihe problem of delermining sellings.
Table 13.8 gives Ihe values or Ihe ralio eA / q, as ascerlained from lhe inSlrllClions 01' Far-
rel (FAR) and or Fives Cail- Babcock (FCB). We add Ihose recommended by Ihe aUlhor
(EH).
The operaling opening ror any mili, Iherefore, muy be immedialely oblained by mulliply-
ing lhese values by lhe fibre loading q. For example, if q = 10 kg/m (2 Ib .lsq.fl.), lhe
'
following will be the delivery openings for a 12-roller tandem: 19, 14.5, 12.8 and 11.5 mm
(0.74, 0.58, 0.50 and 0.46 in.).
In Soulh Africa, certain firms are conlenl wilh culculaling working openings by means of
lhe simplified formula:
2.5 Cf
nDLf'
which reduces lo:
q
eA = 0.47 - 0.09 !i ) ( 13.8)
f' f'
C = IOnnage crushed, in I.c.h.

q = fibre index, in kg/m 2 (Ib./sq. fL) .
To reconcile approximalely wilh lhe aUlhor's figures, il is neceSSRry al leasl in melric unils
10 replace Ihe coefficienl 0.47 by 0.64 or lhe coeffícienl 2.5 by 3.4 (or belter, 3.8, 3.4, 3.3,
3.2 and 3.1 for firsl 10 fifth milis, respeclively). This forJl1l1l~ gives very low vallles.
EFFECT OF INCLINED HOUSINGS
We have assumed (p. 211) lhal lhe feed and delivery openings increa sed by lhe same quantilY
when lhe 10p roller lifled. This is obvious in lhe case 01' lhe classíca llype 01' mili wilh verti cal
housings.
However, today several manufaclurers build milI hOllsings wilh Ihe axis 01' Ihe caps inclin-
. c·
.,,-,- towards the feed side (Fig. 13.5).
We shall proceed 10 calculate for lhis case Ihe ralio 01' Ihe increase dE of Ihe feed opening
10 lhe inerease de 01' lhe delivery opening:
dE
= ¡;. (13.9)
de
215
. EFFECT OF INCLlNED HOUSINGS
/ ,,
~
/
/
,
/ ,
/
/
,,
/
/
/
,,
"
rig. . 13 .5. Oi."pla<':~l1lel1[ 01' IOp rol!ef in mili wilh inclined housing.
Fig. 13.6. Ratio 01' inLrea:sc dE 01' feea opening lO increa.se de or delivery opening (i n<.:lin cd housing).
In Fig. 13.6, let:

01./2 be Ihe Ilalf-lop-angle of Ihe milI (about 35° in general, 33! for Fives Lille housings)
{3 be Ihe inclinalion of Ihe milI ca p (15° in nearly al! cases).
We llave:
dE de
dI¡ dh
whence:
cos
dE
l' = de = (13.10)
cos
If 01./2 = 33.5° and {3 = 15°:
cos 48.5° 0.663

/l = - --= 0.7
cos 18.5 ° 0.948
Il follows tha!, when Ihe deJivery opening increases or decrea ses by 25 mm (l in.), lhe feed
opening will increase or decrease by 18 mm (0.7 in.).
With the aid of this ratio, it is easy, in a mili with caps mounled in inclined housings, to
determine the empty feed and delivery seltings by means of lhe corresponding operating
openings (e/. p. 211).
The coefficients m adopted for the standard case (Table 13.6) will, of course, be retained;
and the greater values given for the feed settings "empty" by the new ratio 1-' < 1 will be
accepted.
Exlent oj hydrau/ie lifl (Fives Cail-Babcock, 1973). Safety considerations have led cerlain
manufacturers to provide for a maximum lift of lhe top roller. This lift depends not only
on the dimensions of lhe milI. Provision for it should nol be neglected, otherwise lhe passage
of a stone or metallic object would risk serious breakage. Fives Cail-Babcock suggesl
calculating the normal lift of the roller as a funclion of the maximal lin, and suggesl lhe
following normal amounts of ¡ift:
Maximal tijl: 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 mm
Norma/ /ijl: 1st mil!: 8 10 12 13 14 16 18 mm
2nd mil!: 5 6 8 10 11 12 14 mm
Following milis: 4 5 7 9 10 10 10 mm
1f the fibre index is given, the normal lift will fix the roller speed to adopt.
The lift adopted, mulliplied by the coefficient of increase of opening when the roller lifts
(0.8,0.7,0.96,0.5, etc.), will give the difference between lhe working opening and lhe open-
ing with lhe mili emply.
SETTINGS EMPTY AND OPENINGS IN OPERATION
We have jUSl shown how to calculale lhe openings lO be given lO lhe rollers al rest; openings
which are commonly designated by lhe na me of "setlings".
These settings for the empty mili, however, have only a secondary importance. Whal is
especially importanl is the values assumed by lhe openings when lhe mili is operaling. The
values for the emply mili are of inleresl only in lhe case where the irregularity of feeding
causes a decrease in lhickness of bagasse blanket of the order of lhe coefficienl '" (Tables
13.4, 13.5). If the value '" = 0.3, which we have proposed, is adopled for the inlermediate
milis, lhese milis will ceas e lO exert lheir full pressure as soon as lhe bagasse blanket has
decreased to 300/0 of its mean value.
In other words, the seltings for the emply mill correspond lO a margin of safely against
irregularilies in lhe feed.
Now, a great many persons responsible for the selting of mills do not realise lhis fact, and
atlach considerable importance lO lhe feed and delivery sellings of lhe mili when emply. It
seems childish lo re peal it, bul a long experience has laughl us lhal it is desirable: only the
difjerenee belween lhe feed and delivery openings is of importance (we are discussing lhe case
of standard housings).
Provided the margin of safety is exceeded, it is of lillle importance whether the mili has
'"0-- -
SETTINOS EMPTY AND OPENINGS IN OPERA TION 217
been adjusted 10 a selling of 17/4 (feed opening, empty = 17 mm; delivery opening, empty
= 4 mm) or 16/3, or 15/2, or 14/1, or 13/0 (i.e. 13 mm al feed, and metal to metal al
delivery). In all Ihese cases, the mili will function, in normal regular operalion, with openings
of 26/13 and, as long as the roller has no! descended to 17/4, nOlhing will reveal whether
its SIOp is located al 1, 2, or 9 mm lower.
Conversely, when the 10p roller rests on its stops al 17/4, it should rise as soon as the
bagasse blankel has exceeded tlle thickness corresponding lo 4 mm under the r.h.p. aCling,
and nothing will prevent it attaining 26/ I 3 if a normal quantilY of cane is supplied to il. It
will not rise less readily nor Ooal less readily if it starts from 13/0 Ihan if it starts from 17/4.
Although the margins of safety provided by our coefficients if; are sufficient, there would
be no disadvantage in setting Ihe mili al 13/0 instead of 17/4. This would not be a fault.
lt is by no means the same if a setting of 17/0 is adopted instead of 17/4.
Jt is a rather frequent lendency with many engineers to close in the delivery roller. lf this
is done while maintaining the difference given by the calculation, it is not serious, but very
gcnerally the opposite is found, and the operation of the mili and its extraction suff~r in
conseq uence.
As it is peculiarly difficult to make this understood, it is preferable simply lO insisl upon
lhe normal setting, which has been fixed by calculalion and by praclice.
We say "and by praclice". AClually, lhe calculalion furnishes inleresling informalion, bul
only experience and practice will permil of a final decision on lhe exact value'of the ratio m
lO be adopled for each milI. It may somelimes be advisable lO modify slighlly lhe values in-
dicated in Table 13.6.
B. Trashplate
The posilion of the lrashplate has a greal inOuence on lhe smoolh operation of the milI.
Now, the correct setting of the lrashplate is a delicate operation.
To define ils position complelely, it is necessary lO know (Fig. 13.7):
Fig. l3.7. Position of trashplate.

218 MILL SETTlNGS Ch. 13
(a) The position of the point B where the toe of the trashp late meets the feed roUer
(b) The dimension A, the distance from the toe of the plale to the top roller.
(e) The dimension M, the distance from the pi ate 10 the top rolJer, measured in the vertical
axial plane of the top roller
(á) The dimension Z. the distan ce from the heel of the plate to the top roller
(e) The dimension T, the distance from the heel to the delivery roHef.
Form of trashplate
The bagasse which has just passed between the lwo feed rollers tends to recover its volume
while passing from E to A (Fig. 13.7). If it be conceded th¡¡t the trashp!¡¡te should render
possible the continuation of this expansiono the distance from the surface BC to the top roller
should increase from B to C. If it is postulated that the radial velocity and the tangential
velocity of a particJe of bagasse should be constant in the cOllfse of its path across the plate.
it may be readily shown that the curve BC should take the form of a logarithmic spiral with
centre O (Fig. 13.8). This proof has been given by Bergmann in Java as early as 1889, and
has been repeated by Deerr 9 • We do not propose to revive it.
o W
x
o:
o'
Fig. l3.S. Laying out position or the trashplate.
Setting out the trashplate

In practice, an are of a eircle is used as an approximation for the are of the logarithmic spiral.
Muller von Czernieky and Gogelein, in Java, have proposed eonstructions the best of whieh
is the following.
-"-_. - --
TRASHPLATE 219
In lhe horizonlal Ox passing lhrough O (Fig. 13.8), lake in lhe direclion shown:
OM R+E
o'" = 25 25
South African companies take:
R + Eo
Ow =
20
bUl the centre of the circle is placed not at w, but on the vertical through that point, w', at
0.0055 D mm aboye lhe poinl O, lhe angle {3 remaining al 13°.
The trashplate will be the circle drawn with w as centre and with wB as rauius. The point
B, where lhe loe of the lrash should meet the feed roller, is obtaineu by taking:
a
MO'B = (3 = 6
(13.11)
Ifa = 72°, (3 12°, the are MB has a value of:
(3 7rDa
MB 7rD- 0.00145 Da (13.12)
360 6 x 360
D mean diameter of the roller (MB will be measured on a ridge, but will be transferred
to the middle of the f1ank of a looth, and the middle of (he teeth of the trashplate will
be made to pass through this point)
Ct = top angle of the mili, in degrees.
This diagram assumes that the top roller is lifting at its working position. Then E is the
operating feed opening.
In Java, the settings were designed so that (he working position of the top roller cor-
responded to a lift equal to 30070 of the maximum possible.
To avoid having 100 fine a point al B, which would introduce a marked risk of bending
the points, Ihe toe of the pi ate is rounded (Fig. 13.9), but only slighlly, in order to avoid for-
mation of a pocket of bagasse at the toe of the plate.
Fig. 13.9. Form of the trashp1ate.

Height of the trashplate

There remain to be fixed the dimensions A, M, 2, and T (Fig. 13.7).
These dimensions should be reckoned in relation to the mean diameters of ¡he 10p and
delivery rollers. It should be noted that foremen often make the measurement from I he lips
of the teeth, and that the values to give them in this case should be those calculated in relalion
to the mean diameter of the roller, reduced by half the height of the tooth.
Different authors give a confusion of diverse settings. We shall give firsl ¡he standard
method. Mean operating values, according to this method, rela¡ive to an operaling feed
opening of 100, are given in Table 13.9:
'TABLE 13,9
TRASHPLATE SETTINOS
Feed roller opening E lOO

Heighl from top roller lo toe of trashplale A 150
Heighl in vertical axial plane of top roller M 175
Heighl of top roller al heel of trashplale Z 190
Dislance fr om heel of trashplale 10 delivery roller T 80
In order to deduce, from the working values obtained from this table, the "empty" 'set-
tings to be established, it is necessary to take the difference between the working opening E
and its value empty, eo, to increase il by 20 - 25"70 (to take account of the fact that the dimen-
sions A, M and 2 increase praclically ¡O ¡he same ex¡en¡ as dh when ¡he top roller rises by
dh, whereas E increases only by dh cos 0:12), and deduct from each of the dimensions A,
M and 2 the measurement so obtained, The "empty" values A o, Mo and 20 are ¡hus obtain-
ed,
The dimension T does not change,
Example, Let us calculate the height of the trashplate for the first mili of our example 01'
pp, 207 and 210, We ha ve (ef p, 210):
EA = 79 mm (3,11 in,)
Hence:
A = 79 x L50 118 mm (4,64 in.)

M = 79 x 1.75 138 mm (5,43 in.)
2 = 79 x 1.90 150 mm (5,91 in.)
T 79 x 0,80 63 mm (2,48 in,)
The difference between the feed opening under load and ¡he empty setting chosen is (ef
p,2 11):
79 - 61 = 18 mm (0,71 in ,)
TRASHPLATE 221
.
When this opening decreases by 18 mm, A and Z decrease by:
J8 X 1.2 '" 22 mm (0.87 in.)
and M by:
18, X 1.25 '" 23 mm (0.91 in.)
Hence the sellings empty are:
Eo = 6I mm (2.40 in.)
Ao 118 - 22 96 mm (3.78 in.)
Mo = 138 - 23 = 115 mm (4.52 in.)
Zo 150 22 128 mm (5.04 in.)
To 63 mm (2.48 in.)
Simplified settings
In Java, it was often considered satisfactory to Iocate the toe of lhe lrashplate by the pro-
cedure indicaled by Fig. 13.7. This fixed a certain value of dimension A. The heel of the plate
was lhen simply located to make dimension Z equal to A increased by 4070 ol' the width of
the trashplate:
Z = A + 0.04 L (13.13)
Z distance from the 10p roller to the heel of lhe trashplate

A distance from the top roller lO lhe toe of lhe trashplate
L width of the plale, all being expressed in lhe same unilS.
If L = 30 cm, we shall lake:
Z = A + 1.2 cm
Recommended seUing
Generally, modern milis do not perlllit of ready adjuslmenl of dimensions A, M and Z, as
was possible previously. Once lile relative positions of the 3 mili rollers are fixed, in the posi-
tions considered best, it is, in general, possible lo aller the setting of lhe trashplate in 2 direc-
lions only: vertically and horizontally; that is, it can only be moved bodily, parallel to itself,
up and down or forwards and backwards, the toe of the plate in contact with the feed roller
(Fig. 13.13). In cerlain modern milis, this freedom of action is further reduced: the trashplate
is set on an axis which ilself is 1110unled in an eccenlric (Fig. 18.4); il can tllen be raised or
lowered by rotating the eccenlric, Jnd made to pivol aboul this axis, in order 10 bring it into
contact with the feed roller. We musl agree thal lhese milis function as well as olhers, and
lhat we have never had cause to regrel the restrictions thus imposed on the settings, which
moreover become easier, more rapid and more practica!.
In these conditions, only one of the dimensions A, Mor Z can be realised; in general, M
is selected, and il is the respon~ibilily or the designer to design milis and lrashplales in such
a way that, ror any reasonable value or M, the corresponding dimensions A and Z will have
correct values, whatever the state or wear or lhe rollers. The engineer responsible for che sec-
tings should moreover verify thac Ihe dimension T is kept at a sacisractory value, neither 100
wide nor too narrow.
The heighl Mor the lrashplate, like the reed and delivery openings E and e (obviously we
are considering lhe working openings), depends on the ribre loading, Wilh only this dir-
rerence: that, in a mili with hydraulics, Ihe opening e depends directly on lhe ribre loading
and adjusts its value immediately, whereas Ihe opening E nnd the space M assume the vallles
which the instantaneous position of the top roller gives chem, but which also depend on Ihe
selting adopted. By thus relating the working heights or lrashplate to the ribre index q, we
oblain values applicable lO tande ms 01' any dimension and or all capacilies.
Table 13.10 gives specific values expressed in mm [ler kg / m 2 or ribre indexo
TABLE 13 .10
RATIO M /q OF HEIGHT OF TRASHPLATE (mm) TO FiaRE INDEX q (IN kg/m')
Tandem N = 12 N = 14 N= 15 N= 17 N = 18 N = 21
I SI mili 8 6.5 8 6.5 8 8
2nd mili 6 5.6 6 5.6 6 6
3rd mili 4.8 4.7 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8
41h mili 4.5 4.4 4.5 4.5 4.6 4.6
51h mili 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.5
6lh mili 4.3 4.4
71 h mili 4.3
'rhe lable Ihus gives the correct heighl ror Ihe Irashplale in operalion, laken in lhe vercical
axial [llane 01' Ihc 10[l roller, by mulli[llying Ihe ¡lbuve VJllICS by Ihe ribre inclc.\ q ror Jny milI.
For exam[lle, ir q = 10 kg/m 2 (2 Ib./sq. rt .), we shollld hnve, in a 15-roller landcm, Ihe
rollowing heighls in operalion ror Ihe rive Irashplales: 80, 60, 48, 45, 44 mm (3.15, 2.36,
1.89,1.77,1.73 in.).
This gives only lhe mean values; sorne lechnicians adopl sellings varyin g by lOor 20070
around the values given. Yalues ror the milis when emply are easily eSlablished. lt sufrices
lO sublracl lhe mean lirt (ef. p. 216). 11 should be remembered lhal mechanics orten
measure lhe setling in relalion lO the point 01' the leelh of lhe mili rollers; Ihus il is necessary
to subtracl halr or the height or the teeth.
To obtain the height or the trashplales when operating in inches per Ib ./sq.fl. 01' fibre in-
dex, mulliply Ihe numbers in Table 13 . 10 by 0.1922. For example, for a ribre inde,x 01' 3.85
Ib. / sq.fl., the height 01' Ihe Irashplate in operalion ror Ihe firsl mili of a 15-roller IJndel11
would be: 8 x 0.1922 x 3.85 = 5.92 in.
Considerations on height of trashplate

Sorne engineers have a lendency lO set lhe lrashplale in a ralher high position, others prefer
it low.
TRASHPLATE 223
A trashplale sel 100 high absorbs lOO great a proportion of the hydraulie pressure, al lhe
expense of the extraetion, inereases the power consumption of the mili. and wears more
rapidly. Further, Ihe mili will clloke at a lower fibre loading, and its capaeilY will therefore
be diminished.
Too low a trashplate gives too high an angle of conlaet of lhe bagasse with lhe delivery
roller (Fig. 13.10), rendering feeding at lhis point more difficult and in consequence increasing
the risk of choking. Further, lhe.,bagasse tends to form a roll, since lhe 10p layer is gripped
by lhe top roller while Ihe lower layer drags on the trashplate. Hence chokes, chattering and
poor pressure at Ihe delivery. To prevent small pieces of bagasse from dropping through at
P' , a closer selling musl be adopled for lile dislance T belween lhe heeJ of lhe plale and the
deJivery roller.
Fig . 13 . 10 , Angle of contact with delivery roller.
In making a choice belween lhese lwo groups of disadvantages, a too high lrashplale would
slill be preferable lO one 100 low.
Abnormal noises
When a mili "snores", il is generally due to Ihe facl lhat the toe of the Irashplale is sel lOO
lowat lhe feed roller (angle (3 of Fig. 13.8 too greal) . 11 then forms al B (Fig. 13.9) a pockel
from which lhe compressed bagasse escapes with difficulty, and so produces this charac-
lerislic vibralion and snoring sound.
This is no cause for anxielY; bUI, conlrary 10 a widespread idea, il does nol in lhe leasl
prove a good selling or a proper funclioning of lhe milI.
When a mili "growls". and especially when il "chatlers", il is generally due to a trashplale
set too low, proyoking lhe formalion of a roll of bagasse' on the lrashplale.
Squirting
A mili is said lO "squirl" or "spil" when particIes of wet bagasse are projected at inlervals
through ilS delivery opening. In most cases, this phenomenon is due to too cIose a setting
between lrashplale and delivery roller (dimension T lOO small). The juice, having no further
224 MILL SETTlNGS Ch. 13
outlet, remains entrapped in the pockets formed by the bagasse, accentuating the
phenomenon of re-absorption (ej. Fig. 10.13) to the point where the juice is expelled violently
from the free side at the moment it is released from the minimal space formed by the delivery
opening. The extraction therefore suffers badly .
A mili can squirt, even when the dimension T is sufficient. This then is caused by the com-
bination of all factors causing re-absorption: speed, degree of compression, too great a feed
opening, absence of juice grooves in the feed roller, etc.
Chokes
The term "choke" describes the condition when the mili will not grip all the feed which ar-
rives, which therefore accumulates at the feed roller. Ccrtain chokes may be due to the
following phenomenon: the feed roller has worn its bearings on the feed side. When the
pressure builds up, the bagasse forces the roller into the pocket so formed, the depth of which
may reach l or 2 mm; the roller then separates from the trashplate; the bagasse remains
caught on the toe of the plate, and constricts the passage.
Conversely, if the trashplate is adjusted close against the roller, the roller bears heavily
against it, when the mili runs empty, and wears it rapidl y.
The symptoms of this trouble then are:
(a) Rapid wear of the trashplate
(b) Slight displacement of the fe ed roller towards the feed side, at the moment the bagasse
arrives al the mili.
Chokes are most oflen due to:
(a) Either abad setting of the mili, the feed opening 100 small or too large, Ihe lrashplate
badly placed or poorly adjusted at the feed roller, the space at the heel of the plate too small
(b) Teeth of the plate being lifted or bent tow ards the back
(e) A roller too smooth, or too new, or polished
(d) A roller of too small a diameter, too worn, or with teeth rounded
(e) Excessive imbibition for the crushing rale required, or imbibilion water lOO hol.
Displacement of f1anges
When the trashplate is too low, it often happens that the pressure reacts on the si de flanges
of the top roller, and causes them 10 lift off, by pulling out the fixing screws.
Lifting of the flanges may therefore be a sign of too low a trashplate setting.
However, it can also be produced due to too great a difference in thickness of the bagasse
blanket between the right- and left-hand sides, or due to passage of a foreign body on one
side; or insufficient play between flanges and bottom rollers.
Wear and channelling of trashplate

The surface of the trashplate does not wear uniformly: it generally forms grooves correspon-
ding, at the toe of the plate, to those of the feed roller, but diverging from the cenlre lowards
the extremities of the plate, in the direction of the bagas se movement (Fig. 13.11).
This divergence is due to the fact that the bagasse lo ad al lhe milIs is always inevitably
heavier at the cen tre than at the ends of the rollers. When lhe compressed bagasse, held in
straight channels by the grooves ofthe feed roller. is discharged omo the trashplale. it tends
TRASHPLATE 225
Top roller
Trosh piole
Fig. 13.11. Trashplate worn in grooves (plan view). Fig . 13.12. Groovcd trashplatc.
10 dislribule ilSelf uniformly, and to spread from lhe centre lowards the ends of lhe roller.
The same cause provokes a more severe wear of lhe rollers al the centre lhan al lhe ex-
lremities: lhis is readily apprecialed by placing a slraighledge on the rollers at lhe end of lhe
season. When lhe feed and 10p rollers are worn in this way, lhe bagasse blanket becomes all
lhe lhicker al lhe cenlre, ano Ihe effecl on lhe trashplale is accenluated.
The Archimedean screw which relurn~ lhe fine bagasse from the cush-cush screen 10 lhe
inlermediale carrier al so relurns more of lhis malerial to lhe middle of the conveyor than
to lhe sides, and also contri bu les lO loading lhe cenlre of lhe rollers.
Finally, there is friclion on lhe sides of lhe carriers, relardalion of the bagasse at the sides
. . . ':- , ~., :'-~ .' ' ", ".
Fig. 13.13 . View or míll showing mcthod or nxing and adjusting trashplate. Note double pitch or reed rollee.
226 MILL SETTINOS Ch. J3
in favour of lhal in lhe middle, and obstruction of lhe oUler pOrlions of the bagasse by (he
idler pulleys and lheir supponing runners, which again tends to concentrate the bagasse at
the centre.
AII these causes tend to d'iminish the layer of bagasse at the edges, producing whal is called
¡he "edge effecl"; [he cane which arrives at the milis on the sides of the carrier is less effec-
lively compressed; il somelimes lea ves the first mili scarcely flaltened, and still recognisable
as stalks.
With lhe object of avoiding the bursting stress on Ihe f1anges which is caused by the diverg-
ing movement of the bagasse on the trash plate, cenain manufacturers have supplied plales
machined with shallow grooves corresponding to Ihose of the feed roller, i.e. matching al
a distance those of the top roller, and parallel wilh them (Fig. 13.12). These have ¡he disad-
vanlage of lending to maintain, at the delivery roller, the uneven dislribution of the bagasse
across the width of lhe feed roller, which is in pan correclccI by smoolh trashplales. They
may, however, be 01' interest in cases where the extel11 of Ihe divergenl grooves on Ihe
Irashplate would be liable to lead lo difficullies ar the delivery roller.
Metal for trashplates

Trashplales are made in cast iron, in sleel or in slainless steel. Their cosl increases in the order
indicaled, bul their life similarly, so Ihal Ihe cost per tonne of cane remains approxir¡lalely
Ihe same. Trashplates of slainless steel acquire a mirror-like finish with use, and suffer less
wear. The life of steel trashplates may be considerably prolonged by the application of a fac-
ing of non-corrosive metal by means of eleclric welding (in France, the Super-Saror 60 elec-
trode is suitable).
REFERENCES
K. DOUWES DEKKER, Sugar Milling Res. Ins!., S. A/rica, Rep. No. 40, 1958, r. 2.
2 E. R. BEHNE, Inl. Sugar J., 44 (1942) 127. .
3 G. E. R,USSELL. Thc eXlraclion perrormance or sugar cane crushíng tf<lins, Thesis, Univt.!rsilY DI' QllL.!~ ns!i.llld ,
1968, rp. 191 -312.
4 K. DOUWES DEKKER ANO A. VAN HENGEL, Proc. 32nd Con/. SASTA, /958, p . 61.
5 E.· R. BEHNE, Inl. Sugar J., 44 (1942) 129.
6 T. LOWE, Sugar J., 9 (3) (1946) 44.
7 J. C. GONZALEZ MAIZ, Sugar J., 7 (5) (1944) 42.
8 K. DOUWES DEKKER ANO A. VAN HENOEL, Proc. 32nd Con/. SASTA, /958, p. 57 .
9 N. DEE'R, Cane Sugar, Norman Rodger, London, 1921, p. 204.
14. Power Requirements of Mills
-
FACTORS INFLUENCINO POWER REQUIREMENTS
Work of crushing Ihe cane

In crushing ca ne, lhe resislance presented by lhe pith is negligible compared wilh that ofrered
by ¡he woody parl s, lha¡ is. lhe rind and the nodes; so lhat the re.,iS lance lO crushing is
analogou s lO Ihal which would be offered by a hollow lube partilioned and reinforced by
full discs dislributed along its lenglh (Fig. 14.1).
This is precisely lhe síruclure ü( bamboo, which moreOVÚ ·is dosely related to cane, and
l;VhiSh pos~.~sses lhe?ame woody parls. The only difference is Ihat it has no pulp filling the
, l .• • . ' " ,>. \ • ,_.' ,--" .
~om¡Jar lmenIS lh'usformeo (el p. 32). ...

, .' ,. ..: i . .
InfIuence of Siale of cane
This conf()rmalion of the woody tissues of the cane determines ilS reactions under Ihe in -
fluence ' of pr'essur'e:' If we compa're the 'm anner in which cane and bagasse behave when sub-
jected to a certain pressure P, we shall see thal, for Ihe same increment of pressure dP, the
cane will be deformed by an amount dh greater than rhar by which the bagasse will be com-
pressed. This is due 10 Ihe elasticily of the cylinder of rind and the small partitions of the
nodes.
The definilion of work, .and consequenlly of power, shows rhen Ihal Ihe power expended
in Ihe case of cane issuperior 10 Ihal expended in Ihe case of bagasse. The work is of course
Ihe produCI of a force (here P) and a dispJacemenl (dh),
Inlerdependeiice'of preparilloryand milling equipnienl .' ...

li foírow-s'j'har{l}dpo'wci~exúted by acrLisher Cir a mili \Viii depeha on rhe degreeof prepara-
(ion unctergorieb y lhem'aterüti which ir receives, This also explains in parl how the power
absorbed by ,a shreddercan be recovered in the reSI of the tandem (aclually, over and above
thesaving ' obtiliried owing to the transformarion of Ihe cane into a fibrous and less com-
pressible material; there Ís the additional possibilily of reducing slightly the load on lhe milis,
thanks to lhe ease of extraction of juice from this disintegrated mass),
-
228 POWER REQUlREMENTS OF MILLS Ch. 14
Mllgnitude of power requiremenl

The figures for power which are given in technical books are generally stated as a function
of the lonnage of fibre Irealed.
In sleam-driven planls, Ihese power figures are therefore expressed in indicaled horse-
power per lonne fibre per hour (i.h.p. per t.f.h.) or per tonne of cane per hour (i.h.p. per
I.c.h.).
Deerr' gives Ihe figures shown in Table 14.1. These values are for a mili 01' 864 x 1,981
mm (34 x 78 in.) crushing 45 I.c.h. wilh cane 01' 12.7"70 ribre, under hydraulic pressure of
356 lonnes al Ihe milis.
Maxwell' gives for Java and Hawaii Ihe figures shown in Table 14.2. This table
demonstrates the desire in Hawaii to obtain the maximum from each mili, whichever it may
be.
TrompJ gives figures slighlly different for Java (Table 14.3).
In Mexic0 4 one can reckon on 14-18 i.h.p./I.f.h. for absorbed power and 22 i.h.p. for
power lO be provided.
TABLE 14.1 TABLE 14.2
POWER REQtnREMENTS Of MllLS (DEERR) PQWER REQUlREMENTS Of MILLS (MAXWELL)
i.h.p./t.c.h. i.h.p./t,J.h. i.h.p./t.f.h.
Carrier 3.3 -4.4 26-34 Java Hawaii

Crusher totat av. 3.7 av. 29
1SI mitt Crusher 16- 18 15 approx.
Double crusher 30- 38
I si mitt ir no cru,her 30 - 38 30
2nd mitt 2.2 -3 17 - 23 ISI mitt preceded by crusher 26-3030
3rd mitt totat av. 2.5 av. 20 Intermediate milt 15-2630
4th mitt
.. _----_. __ .
Final mili 15 - 23 30
TABLE 14.3
POWER REQUIREMENTS OF JAVA MILLS (TROMP)
i.h.p./t.f.h.
Extreme values Average
Crusher 8 -35 J7
ISI mitt 15 - 51 28
2nd milt 14 -38 24
3rd mitt 11- 31 19
4th mili 10 -28 18
5th mitt 9- 23 16
Relation between fibre and power. The power figures which we have jusI qUOled are in-
teresting and useful, but ¡he varialiolls shown are considerable.
229
'.
GENERAL FORMULA FOR POWER CONSUMPTION OF MILLS
Thi s emphasises lhal ¡he tonnage of cane and even ¡he lonnage of fibre are relaled only
remOlely lO lhe power developed. We shall proceed lO find lhe reason.
GENERAL FORMULA FOR POWER CONSUMPTION OF MlLLS
The delermination of lhe power ~nsumed by a mili is ralher complex because a number of
faclors enter into it.
To begin with, lhis power may be split up into 6 differenl principal lerms:
(1) Power consumed by compression of the bagasse
(2) Power consumed in friclion between the shafts and bearings of the rollers
(3) Power consumed by friction between bagasse and trashplate
(4) Power consumed by friction of scrapers and toe of lhe trashplate against (he rollers, to
which should be ádded the work of dislodging the bagasse a't these points
(5) Power consumed in driving the intermediate carriers
(6) Pow~rabsor~ed ' in Ihe gearing. ,
Furthermore; rhese components or the power themselves depend ori certain factors rather
dirricult 10 measure 01' estimate, such as: variety of cane (at equal weights of fibre, the
crushing of tWo different varieties can exact appreciably different power requiri!ments), state
of the friction surfaces, quality and regularity of lubrication, adjuslment of settings and of
the trashplate, etc.
Owinglo '!he:impOssibility Oftaking iillo account all these factors, lhere is no pointih seek-
ing grealpredsioni'n the calculalion of power for milling. One mUSl be contenl with an order
of magnitude';sUch ~ figure is a'lf the more useful since many people háve not even a rough
idea on!. TheválUes fOund in practice may'differ appreciably from the mean power figures
which we shall derive . :T his dlfference may be as much as 20 or even 25070 of the normal value
furnished by {he fórmula.
Detailed calculations were given in the second edilion (pp. 224 - 232) for the power absorb-
ed by a milI. The following resuIts were obtained,
1. Power absorbed by compression of bagasse
PI = 0.4 . 6r - 5 . FnD ~
'>Ír(l + ..Jr - 1)
(14.1)
, 6r - 5 . FnD~
)
( PI = 0.12' _
..J r (1 + .v,:-:--¡ ) ,
F hydraulic Idad of the mili, in tonnes (long tons)
=
D = mean diamder of (he rollers, in m (fL).
For power in kW, .replace the coefficient 0.4 by 0.3 (01' 0.12 by 0.09).
. 6r - 5
Table 14.4 glves values of the term for various values of r:
, ..J r (1 + .v,:-:--¡ )
-
230 POWER REQUlREMENTS OF MILLS Ch. 14
TABLE 14.4
VALUES Of r TER M IN EQN. (14 .1)
r 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1. 8 2
6r - 5
..- .. _._._ .. - - - 1.159 1.388 1.587 1.760 1.913 2.049 2.282 2.475
-.;; (1 + ~I)
Example. For F = 340 tonnes, r = 1.3, n = 5 r.p. m., D = 813 mm (32 in.), EA
0.0164, we have
P, = 0.4 x 1.587 x 340 x 5 x 0.813 x 0.1281 III h.p.
2. Power absorbed in friction between journals and bearings
P, = 0.04 FnD (P, = 0.012 FnD) (14.2)
This is a mean va lue whieh may vary between 0.033 and 0.053 FnD (0.010 and 0.015 FnD).
3. Power absorbed in friction between bagasse and trash plate
P, = 0.035 FnD (P, = 0.011 FnD) (14.3)
A mean va lue whlchmay vary between 0.016 and 0.054 FnD (0.005 and 0.016 FnD) . These
values are slighlly lower than those given in the seeond edition. In t'act, t'rom the work of
Murray' a nd C ull en, Russell 6 deduees 'lhal the coclTicienl 01' I'rietion which we have recko ned
as 0.035 is mo re often belween 0.2 and 0.3. Thc calculalion has Ihus been revised wilh lhe
mean va lue 0.3 a nd exlremes 01' 0.2 anu 0.35.
4. Power absorbed by friction between scrapers and rollers
P, = 2 LnD (P, = 0.18 LnD) ( 14.4)
5. Power absorbed ror intermediate carrier drive
P, = 2 LnD (P, = 0.18 LnD) ( 14.5)
Th e values for these five majn factors are tabulated in Table 14.5.
We have taken eare to give in this lable Ihe values which P, and P, assume ror lhe eXlreme
va lues o r set 1ings and o r t he eoefl'jc jen IS o r rriel ion. Th is s hows 1he i mporlance 01' 1he u neer-
taint y involved in eerlain terms, and demonSlrales the cJitTerences whieh may exiSI belween
we ll -Iubrica ted and well-set milis and lhose poorly mainlained .
Moreover, lhe lerms P" P, and P, in turn are subject to variations of nearl y 25070 upwards
or downwards, ei ther as a matter of cane variety, or for reasons similar to those just given.
otn
.;;
';o
,: ~
· TABLE 14 .5
O
;O
POWER COl"S UMPTION FOR MILLS ~
e
Minimum vQ(ue Mean value Maximum \lalue
,.
t""
O
;o
6r - 5
Compre.sion or bagas se P, OA (0 . 12) . . Fnd .J<;, "O
O
-./1-(1 +~} 1':
In
Fri clion in bearings P, 0 .03 FnD (0.0.10 FnD) 0.04 FnD (0.012 FnD) 0 .053 FnD (0.0 15 FnD) ;o
()
Trashplate P, 0.016 FnD (0.005 FnD) 0.035 FnD (0.011 FnD) 0.054 FnD (0.016 FnD) O
Z
V>
Scrapers and toe of lrashplare P. 2 LnD (0.18 LnD) e
~
Intermediale carrier P, 2 LnD (0.18 LnD)
T otals 0.046 FnD (0.015 FnD) 0.107 FnD (0.031 FnD)
'"(5
.;
z
O
L and D in metres (rL) ."
~
rr
V>
IV
'"
232 POWER REQUIREMENTS OF M1LLS Ch. 14
Summing lhese lerms and laking Iheir mean value, we obtain lhe total power consullled
by the mili proper (metric uniIS):
P = nD {F [0.4 . 6r - 5 . ~ + 0.075 ] + 4L\ ( 14.6)

,¡; (1 + ..;r=¡) J
6. Power absorbed in the gearing

We shallluke this into account by dividing eqn. (14.6) by e, Ihe mechanical cfl'icieney of lhe
gearing, which gives the final equalion:
(14.7)
nD { [ 6r - 5 ..J-
( p= - - . F 0.12· - -- -· · . . ' fA + 0.023 ] + 0.36 L
e , *(1 +..Jr - 1)
j)
Value of e. Lehky' gives the following values:
Efficiency of mili pinions = 0.95 X 0.95 = 0.90

Efficiency of each pair of gears = 0.98
Friction in various bearings = 0.95
This gives for theoverall efficiency :
0.90 X 0.98 x 0.98 X 0.95 = 0.82
However, Varona' reports very substantial differences in the efficiencies of differenl Iypes
of gearing:
Double·helical gearing. fine pilch, double reduclion, well lubriculed: 0.96

Ordinary gearing, worn: 0.80
MaeNee' gives for a train of gearing:

(a) For 2 pairs of ordinary gears e
0.90 - 0.95
=
(b) For 2 pairs of helical gearing e
= 0.98.
The following figures are eommonly used for well·mainlained gearing, allowing for I·rie·
tion of bearings:
TABLE 14 .6
EFFICIENCY OF GEARING
--_._--
Eff'iciency of ordinary pinions (effecI on (he lotal power IíIken by (he prime mover) 0.85
Erficiency of "pinion housing " (ef. p. 167) (effec[ on [he [O[al power) 0.97
Erficiency of a pair of ordinary gears 0.95
Erficiency of a pair of hel ical gears 0.96
Erficiency 01' a double·reduc[ ion helical gearing 0.985
Erficiency of a tr;ple·reduc[ion helical searins 0.98
Erriciency
._ - -_. - .. __._- --_.... _
of [Urbine reduclion
...... ----------_._- -_.. -- -- - - _..
0.98
_-
OENERAL FORMULA FOR POWER CONSUMPTION OF MILLS 233
lt follows that the ratio of power exerted on the bagasse to that developcd by the turbine
or motor has a value:
0.98 X 0.985 X 0.96 X 0.85 = 0.78-0.79
Values furnished by eqn. (14.7). We have adopted in this equation values which we have
described as averages. The appli~ation of this formula in practice shows tha! the values so
adopted furnish good results for milis of standard type.
With old milis, with wide trashplate, sluggish hydraulic systems, and mediocre lubrication,
the term 0.08 (0.024) in the brackels should be replaced by 0.10 (0.030). On lhe other hand,
for modern mi.lls, welJ maintained and wilh a narrow trashplate and automatic lubrication,
this coefficient could be replaced by 0.06 (0.018).
1st MilI. The power required for breaking up lhe Slruclure of lhe cane, even when prepared
by knives, is subslanlially grealer lhan lhal absorbed by compression of bagasse (ef. p. 209).
For lhis reason we would recommended replacing for lhe 1st mili, lhe coerficient 0.4 (0.12)
in the brackets in the expression for PI by:
1st mili after knives: 0.5 (0.15)

1st mili after knives and shredder: 0.45 (0.135)
Power for crushers. Repealing lhe same calculations, we obtain for crushers the figures
given in Table 14.7.
Taking into account the erficiency of the gearing, we have then:
P = n~ [ [0.50 . 6r - 5 . .¡-¡: + 0.04] F+ 1.00 L) (metric units) (14.8)

º .JT(I+-Vr- 1) A
For the equation In British unils the numerical coefficients beco me 0.15, 0.012 and 0.09,
respecl ively.
TABLE 14.7
POWER CONSUMPTlON FOR CRUSHERS (METRIC UNITS)
6r - 5 _
Comprcssion or calle P, = 0.50' -
-
--- --
- . FnD .J, A
.Jr(1 + .Jr- 1)
2
Friction in bearings P, ~ - X 0.04 FnD = 0.04 FnD
1.9
Trashplale P, = O
Scrapers p, = 2p X 0.0126 LnD '" LnD

Intermediate carricr P, = O
234 POWliR REQUIREMENTS OF MIUS Ch. 14
General simplified formula

Much 01' Ihe value 01' lhe complex equalion (14.7) is losl due 10 the problemalical narure of
Ihe coefficienr 0.075 (0.023) corresponding lO the componenrs P, and P , 01' lhe power con-
sumplion. When lhe value 01' this coefficient cannol be chosen wirh sufficienl preeision and
when lhe exact value 01' lhe effieiency 01' lhe gearing is nOI known, il is preferable lO be eon-
tenl wilh lhe approximate formulae given by eqn. (14.9):
Normal power: P N = k FnD

(14.9)
Maximum (peak) power: P p = K FnD
The formulae are applicable to all milIs, and lhe coefficients k and K ha ve lhe values given
in Table 14.8 (F in lonnes, D in metres).
TABLE 14.8
NORMAL PQWER AS A FUNCTION OF CANE PREPARATlON; VALUE OF COEFF1ClENT k
Prepara/ion plant 2 knives 2 knives 2 or 3 knives

SO-mm pilch 20-mm pirch + shredder
(h.p.) (kW) (h.p .) (kW) (h .p.) (kW)
I't mili 0.27 t O. t99 0.246 0 . 18t 0.239 0.176

2nd mili 0.230 0.169 0 .222 0.163 0.2t4 O 157
3rd mili 0.205 0.15 t 0 .201 0 . 148 0.20t O. t48
Later milis . O. t 97 0.145 0.197 0.145 0.197 0.145
- - - _." - - -
MAXIMUM PQWER AS A FUNCTION OF METHOD OF FEEDING: VAlUE OF COEFFICIENT K
Manual con(rol
I't mili 0.330 0.243 0 .310 0 .228 0.284 0.209
2nd mili 0.260 0.191 0.250 0.184 0.245 0.180
3rd mili 0.219 0.163 0.220 0 . 162 0.220 0.162
Later mili, 0.209 0.154 0.209 0 . 154 0.209 0.154
Feeler plale
1st mili 0.277 0.244 0.298 0.219 0.273 0.201
2nd mili 0.256 0. 188 0 .245 0.180 0238 0.175
3rd mili 0 .219 0.161 0.219 O. t61 0.218 0.160
Lalcr milIs 0 . 209 0.154 0.209 0.154 0 .209 0.154
DOllnelly chules
I't mili 0.280 0.206 0 .257 0.189
2nd mili 0.238 0.175 0.228 0.168
3rd mili 0.216 0.159 0.215 0.158
Later milis 0.209 0.154 0 .209 0 . 154
- -- - - -- - -- -- - - - _ . _ -- -- - --
These equations assume gearing 01' high efficiency. They are useful for planning projecls,
lO delermine lhe power 10 be provided.
To gellhe power in British unils (Fin long IOns, D in 1'1.), mulliply Ihe coefficienls ofTable
14.8 by 0.31.
GENERAL RELATIONSHIPS 235
Crusher. For a erusher we may lake:
PN 0.15 FnD (PN = 0.0040 FnD)

(14.10)
Pp = 0.20 FnD (P p = 0.0050 FnD)
(5ENERAL RELATlONSHIPS
Influence of crushing rate

Even from eonsideration of lhe more accurale formula (14.7) one faCI is immediately ob-
vious, lhal is, lhe small effecl of lhe crushing rate on the power co nsumption.
If we take for example the case of a final mili of 813 X 1,676 mm (32 X 66 in.) crushing,
olher things being equal: (1) 100 I.c.h. and (2) 80 I.c.h., wilh lhe same ribre! = 0.145 in
bOlh cases, lhe .lame sreed of 5 r.p.m. 3nd lhe .lame t.h.p . oC 340 lonnes, lhe re-absorplion
,'actor bcing 1.39 in Ihe firsl case ancl 1.28 in lhe second, we obtain lhe following figures for
power consumplion:
1st case (lOO I.c.h.): P = 200 kW

2nd case ( 80 I.c.h.): P = 192 kW
For an increase of 25070 in crushing rate, the power consumption has therefore increased
by only 4-5070.
From the point of view of the steam consumption al the milis, il is therefore helpful to
work with lhe thickesl possib le bagasse blanket.
,on Ihe contrary', if lhe in'crease in lonnage is obtained by an increase in speed of the mili,
without alteration to the setting or the fib re load ing, the power consumed will increase prac-
tically in proponion to the speed and tonnage.
Distribution of power among the three rollers

Measurel11enl s have been made on a firsl milI of 813 x 1,676 mm (32 x 66 in.), oreraling
al 5.2 r.p.m., wilh a t.h .p. of 475 lonnes, and crushing 80-100 I.c.h., with an empty setting
of 22 / 3 mm (0.87/ 0.12 in.) rising under full load 10 34120 mm (1.34/0.79 in.). For Ihis mili
(a Fives Lille - Cail C46 unit) the torque, or the power, was dist ributed as follows:
Top roller: 56070

Feed roller: 22 OJo
Deli ve ry roller: 22 OJo
The proporlions belween lhe IWO bollom rollers mighl appear unexpected . 11 is due lO lhe
folJowing facts:
(a) For a first mili, the work of crushing unbroken pieces of cane fibre is effecled
predominantly at the feed roller, and is mueh less al lhe deli very
(b) The work due 10 friclion on lhe lrashplale, which muSI be set closel y against lhe feed
roller, is greater lhan thal due 10 friclion of lhe scraper plate on the deJivery roller.
- -
236 POWER REQUIREMENTS OF MILLS Ch. 14
Results are not available for later mills, bul il is considered Ihat lh e distribulion should
be of the order of:
Top roller: 55070

Feed roller: 10-20%
Delivery roller: 25 - 35%
Torque -load coefficient

Murrylo has commenled that the expression:
N=
G
(14.11)
; ~_ .. _-
FD
N = lorque -load number
Glotal torque fo r driving the IWO rollers considered
F = load applied to lhe top roller
D mean diam eler of lhe rollers
is a dimen sionless coefficient, and characlerises the power consumed in compressing cane or
bagasse belween two rollers.
In effecl:
P Gw
P = power absorbed
w = rOlational speed of Ihe rollers.
We have:
27!"n
P = Gw = G
60
Hence:
60 P P
N= - - - = 9.55 - - (14.12)
2n7!"FD FnD
This agrees well with our formulae ofTable 14.8. Murry moreo ver was inlcrested only in lhe
power absorbed by compress ion (our power PI), and he and Munro suggesled:
N = A.J-¡-; Cg 75 (cane; Murry) ( 14.13)
N = A ~ C~ 21 (bagasse; Munro) (14 . 14)
which are similar 10 our equalion:
(14 . 15)
whi ch is a nolher way of wriling our equ ation (14.1).

GENERAL RELATIONSHIPS 237
Power of a mili tandem

We have jusI been studying Ihe power consumplion of an individual milI. How does the tOlal
power cOllsurnplioll of Ihe lanuelll va ry?
Obviousl y, il is equallo Ihe SUI1l of Ihe eonsumptions of Ihe units ofwhich it is composed.
Bul il uoes nOI follow Ihal Ihe power l'onsumed by one of Ihese unils will be Ihe same,
whelher il belongs lo a landem of J J or one of 17 rollers.
ACluall y, Ihe power <':ol1sumed ~y a mili depends on the hydraulic pressure chosen, on Ihe
speed al whid] il is operaled and Ihe corresponding fibre loading. Now, as we llave seen, par-
liculply for Java (ef. pp. 173 and 182), certain lechnicians modify Ihese elemenls according
10 Ihe position of Ihe milI in Ihe landem.
Two principal schools of IhOllghl were recognised:
(1) Thc Javan sehool, where a lower hydralllic pressure was used wilh milis forming pan
of a longer landem. The objccl 01" Ihis school was lO avoid consuming 100 much power in
long landcms, which, evcll for Ihe ,ame 10lal power, slill give a valuable gain in eXlraclion.
This is Ihe Solulion for COlllllrics wllcrc lhe price 01' sugar is low.
(2) The Hawaiian school, in which Ihe Illaximum work is oblained from_ each mili,
whalever ilS place in Ihe landelll, This is lhe solulion for counlries where lhe price of sugar
is high.
TABLE 14,9
TOTAL POWF.R CONSUMPrrON OF A TANDEM (IN i.h.p.

PE' U,h,)
Tandem Java Hawaii

---- - -- ----- ----_ ..
11 rollers 105 112
12 rollers 107 132
14 rollers 101 148
15 rollers 110 165
17 rollers 110 181
_ __ o
Maxwell" gives Ihe figures reproduced in Table 14.9, for the total power con sumed in each
of lhese IWO cases. The figures for Java are taken from figures published by that country;
lhose of Hawaii correspond lO Ihe values generally reported in the Islands,
It is of inleresl 10 nore Ihal, in Java, il is lhe 14-roller landems which have Ihe lowesl power
consumplion, when ir is relaled lo Ihe lonnage of fibre Irealed.
Maxwell then compares" lile landem s of 14 rollers 837 x 1,981 mm (34 x 78 in,) for lhe
IWO coul1lries, and emphasi ses, in lhis cOl1neclion, Ihe differences in Ihe manner in which Ihe
cane is prepared and in which Ihe milis are operated in the two counlries:
(a) Composilion :
Java: 19 landems of 14 rollers, 837 x 1,981 mm (34 x 78 in.)
Hawaii: 6 landems of 14 rollers, 837 x 1,981 mm (34 x 78 in.), preceded by a set of knives
and a shredder.
(b) Condilions of operalion:
TABLE 14.10
COMPARISON BIlTWEEN 14~ROLLER TANDEMS IN JAVA AND HAWAII
Capacity Power To/al Av. speed (r.p.m.) 1mb. %fib. EXln.

(t.f.h .) (i.h.p./tJ.h.) (l.h,p. tonnes) - - ... ---.----
Lrushers MilIs
Java 8.3 101 1.630 3.15 1.85 150 94.7

Hawaii 7.7 173 1.820 4.13 2.84 292 97.9
---' -~ "-' _._-_...... - ~-- .
The 173 i.h.r./I.t·.h. for Hawaii includes prime mowrs 1'01' lilL' knives and shrcddn.
Whilc Ihcsc are "very old I'igurcs. Ihey Ihrow inlo rclicf Ihe rcasons rol' Ihe higll L'\lraclions
obtained in Hawaii al Ihal period:
(1) Low crushing rales
(2) Applicalion of high pressures
(3) Use 01' high speeds, though much below Ihe limiling speeds possible
(4) High exrendilure 01' power (due 10 Ihe 3 preceding raCIOrS)
(5) High imbibilion.
Parr's formula. Parr 'l proposes lhe following formula for power:
P = 0.3INo AS
P power absorbed by a landem. in i.h.p./I.c.h.

I fibre in cane, rJ/o
N = number of rollers in the landem.
This formula has Ihe disadvanlage that il is based on Ihe lonnage Ireated, whereas we !lave
seen that tonnage aClually has only a small influence on Ihe power consumed. However, il
demonslrales well the economy in power per milI with a long landem. Taking 100 as lhe
power nccessary for a landem of 5 milis according 10 Parr's formula, Ihe 10lal powcr and
power pcr mili 01' differenl landems would be:
Tandem 12 rollers 15 rollers 18 rollers 21 rollers

Total power 90.5 100 108.6 116.6
Power per mili 113 100 90.5 83.3
Power as a funclion of fibre rale

Allhough lhe figures for power related lo weight 01' fibre are not of much significance, we
shall indicate the mosl frequenl values, since they are 01' interesl I'rom lhe poinl of view 01'
lhe praclical efficiency of usage of power by the milis.
This power is expressed in i.h.p./t.f.h. and per mili (i.h.p./l.f.h./m). II is oblained by a
simple rule of Ihree, Ihat is, by multiplying by 3/N the total power expended in lhe landem
per t. f. h. (N = number of rollers (cf. p. 56)).
In a shorl landem, the figures arproach Ihe Hawaiian values: 25 - 30 i.h.p./I.f.!l./Ill.
Somelimes they reach 32 and even 35.
239
In lande rns 01' average lenglh . 0 1' 14 or 15 rollers. lhe values genel"ally lie in the range
20- 25 i.h.p. /t.r.h./ m.
In long and very long landems, or 17-25 ro lIers, lhe values rall to 18 and 15. Central
Tarlac, in Ihe Philippines, wilh 25 rollers (2 crushers and 7 milis of 914 x 2,133 mm (36 x
84 in,)), repons 12.4 i,h.p ./t .r.h./m.
This is lhe lowesl value Ihal has cOme lO Out ¡¡otice. In Soulh Al"rica", we have approx-
illlalely:
24 i.h.p. /t.r.h. per milI ror 15- and IB-roller tandems

20 i.h,p .lt.r.h. per milI for 21-roller tandems.
Influence of variety
We have commenled aboye (p. 229) Ihal, 1'01" Ihe same weight of fibre trealed, Ihe power may
vary with Ihe degrec of resislancc of the parlicular varielY being handled.
Onc faclory, in Australia, handling IWO dil"l'erenl varielies or cane, EK 28 and Badila, has
slated thal its tandem consumed:
With EK 28: 69 i.h.p./U.h.

Wilh Badila: 52.3 i.h.p .l Lf.h.
or one-third more for lhe former varielY Ihan for the latter".
Power lo be inslalled
Knowing Ihe mean power which should be requíred by a mili for lhe maximum va lues of Ihe
hydraulic pressure and Ihe fibre loading, il will be sufficient to ínerease it by 150/0 lo obtain
Ihe power of the prime mover lO be inslalled.
In the case of combined drive, lhal is, if the prime mover under consideralion drives two
or more milis, it would be sufficienl lO fix Ihe nominal power al 100/0 aboye Ihe mean max-
imum power calculated.
Total power for Ihe milling stalion

For 101<11 power consumed by Ihe milling Slation (unloading equipment excluded), a South
Afriean report '6 gives an average figure of 181.3 kW (243 h.p.) per t.r.h., ineluding
numerous diffusion factories, wilh one reeording a figure of 255.5 (343), another 63.2 k W
(84.7 h.p.) per t.f.h. with diffusion or bagasse. A good normal power for exlraetion by diffu-
sion would be 125 (165); for faclories with a landem of milis, 188 kW (252 h.p .) per U.h.,
of which 82.3 (110) would be for can e preparation and 105.7 (142) for Ihe milling landem.
REFERENCES
N. DEERR. Cane Sugar, Norman Rodger, Landan, 1921, p. 194.

2 F. MAXWELL, Modern Milling 01 Sugar Cane, Norman Rodger, Londan, 1932, p. 305.
3 L. A. TROMP, Machinery and Equipmenl ollhe Sugar Cane Faclory, Norman Rodger. Landon, 1936, p. 198.
4 F. S. SILVA, Sugar J., 27 (12) (1965) 35.
5 C. R. MURRY, The mochanics of crushlng prepared sugar cane, Thesis, Universily of Queensland, 1960, p. 147.
6 G. E. RUSSELL, The exlraclion performance of milling Irains, Tilesis, UniversilY 01' Queensland, 1968, p. 19.
7 R. LEHKY, Inl. Sugor J" 39 (1937) 140.
8 M. CH. VARONA , Inl. Sugor J., 39 (1937) 222.
9 A. W. P. MeNEE, Proc. lllh Congr. ISSCT, 1962, p. 1127.
10 C. R. MURRY, op. cil., p. 138.
11 F. MAXWELL, op. eil., p. 306.
12 F. MAXWELL, op. di., p. 307.
13 P . H. PARR, Inl. Sugar J., 37 (1935) 355 ,
14 G. N. ALLAN , Proc. 4Jrd Conf. SASTA, 1969, p. 177.
15 Commillee Rep. of QSSCT, Faels aboul Sugar, 26 (11) (1931) 498.
16 Proc. 541h Rev. SASTA, 1978 - 9, p. 7.
'· c
15. Electric Drive oi Milis

Advantages
EleClricaIly driven milis are lhe exceplion. However, they offer several advantages:
(a) Neatness and c1eanliness. An eleclrie mili house is much neater (han one where the miJJs
are driven by Slealll engines, and even sOlllewhal nealer lhan one wilh lurbine drive: lhere
are no Slealll joinls leaking or dripping, no oil splashing from the crank oiler or dripping
l'rol11 lhe 11Ibricalors; and no cUlllbersome Sleal11 pipes (Figs. 15.1 and 15.2).
Fig. 15.1. Milllrllldclll willl ck'clric driye.
(b) More complete and definile control. Each mili is driven by a separate motor, since elec-
lrie drive lends ilself much beller lo individual drive lhan the sleam engine and at least as
well as the sleam lurbine, withoUI inereasing lhe requírements of floor space or manpower.
The power consumed by each mili is ascertained al any momenl by the simple reading of an
ammeler; thus information is immedialely available on rhe resull of an alreration of setting.
242 ELECTRIC DRIVE OF MILLS Ch. 15
Fig. 15.2. Mili landem wilh dri ve by Siemens "cascade" mOlOrs: cOnstélOl-ralio milis (Fivcs Cail - Babcock) wi,h
Donnelly chutes.
This is an important point in favour of electric drive, and is quickly translated into improved
exlraclion.
(e) Ready general regulation of speed. The speed of ¡he whole mili landem is conlrolled,
very conveniently, from the power house.
(d) Ease of starting and stopping. The milis are slarted by a push-bullon conlrol. Slopping
the milis is equally simple, also their reversal, as required in lhe case of a choke. There is
no allendanl exerting all his slrenglh lO lurn the control wheel of the valve gear, or "swing-
ing" the engine to pass the dead poin!.
(e) Lower operating and maintenance costs. COSIS of lubricalion of electric motors are
much lower Ihan lhose involved for steam engines. In Ihe same way, cosls of maintenance
are much lower: no piston rings 10 be changed, ovalisalion 10 be cor-recled, slack 10 be laken
up, val ves lO be ground, stop-valves to be replaced, or delicale adjuslmenls to be made. A
replacemenl armature Cosls less than a spare cylinder.
ADVANTAGES 243
'.
(f) Accidenfs fewer. No fear of water-hammer, or of fracture of a crank-pin. The spare
armature ordered by the author in 1949 with lhe landem for La Mare was still there in 1970
and had never been used .
(g) Safeguard against passage of large pieces of tramp iron. When a large piece of iron
reaches the mili. the electric motor stops immediately; with a steam engine the inenia of the
flywheel compels lhe foreign bod~ to pass, at the expense of the roller grooving.
(h) Exhaust steam free of oi!. The exhaust steam from the turbo set is not contaminated:
the tubes 01' the first effect. the juice heaters working on exhaust, and pans remain clean on
the outside. In particular. exhaust steam may be used in the distillery, which is much more
econOinical than reduced live sleam: the least contamination with oil is prohibitive for
'manufaclure 01' rum by dislillalion with direct steam (if the difficulty is overcome by heating
the SI ill by l11eans 01' a pre-evaporator, it becomes very expensive).
Disadvantages
On the olher hand, eleclric drive presents certain disadvantages:
(a) Higher firsr Cosl of inslallalion. The combination: high-pressure boiler, turbo-
alternator, switchboards, motors and cables, and supplementary stage of gearing, costs more
Ihan the combination: low-pressure boiler, steam pipes and steam engines; and even more
than the total of high-pressure boiler. high- and low-pressure piping, steam turbines, and
supplementary reduction gearing.
If a factory has low-pressure steam system, the change from steam engines to electric drive
involves either a huge imm.ediate expenditure. or a progressive plan spread over several years
and resolutely followed, so as to allow for full amortisation of the equipment by the time
electrification is completed.
(b) Additíonal double transformaríon of energy. With a steam-engine installation, the

Sleam produced at the boilers is transformed into mechanical work in the mili engines . In
an electrical installation, in addition to the analogous transformation effected in the turbo
set, Ihe energy must also undergo: (1) the transformation of movement into electric energy
in the alternator; (2) Ihe transformation of electric energy into movement in lhe mili motors .
Each of these transformalions involves a loss of efficiency. We shall see later (p. 244) the
final balance of the two systems.
(e) Extra sfage of reduction gearing. The speed of electric motors necessitates the interJ)osi-
tion of an extra stage of speed reduction between motor and mili, taking up additional space
and involving further loss in power.
(d) Less complete speed conlrol. While the regulation of mili speeds is more immediate,
it is conveniently effected only on the general speeds of the tandem; individual speed regula-
lion is generally obtained ony with a sacrifi¿e in efficiency. unless one of the more complex
systems indicated later (p. 246) is adopted; these are more expensive.
244 ELECTRIC DRIVE OF MILLS Ch, 15
With this same reservation, turbines and parlicularly steam engines maintain their power
better at low speeds, and are more flexible, The speed range obtainable with a steam engine
is much greater and more complete,
Herein líes the grealest disadvanlage 01' ele,lrie drive by an ordinary induction molOr.
(e) Accidents more serious, While lhey are less I'requent, lhe accidenls liablelo occur Wilh
electric drive are more serious, and necessilate a judicious provision 01' spare parls,
(f) More spccialised personnel, The eleclric installalion requires more specialised person-
nel.
SYSTEMS OF ELECTRIC DRIVE FOR MILLS
There are four main systems for electric drive 01' milis:
(1) A.c. supply wilh variable I'requency
(2) Ward - Leonard d.c. syslem
(3) A.c. -d,c. cascade conneclion
(4) Direct current obtained by rectification 01' a.c. by means 01' thyristors.
Before describing these systems, we recall that the mili is a machine funclioning al con~tant
lorque. The characterislics which we describe will be inlerpreted as applying 10 conditions
of constant torque.
On the olher hand, the principal consideration in our comparisons \Viii be the manner in
which we can obtain Ihe necessary variations in speed. A mili should be ablc 10 I'unclion bet-
ween 100070 and 50070 01' its maximum speed, II is nOI praclical, and somelimes not possible,
10 operale below 50070 of maximum speed, It will thus be necessary thal the conSlant torque
can be obtaincd al 50070 01' the maximum speeu.
finally, the powcr ucmanu 01' a milI is relalivcly slable, bul il musl ncvcrlhckss providc
for variations 01' demand arising I'rom momenlary overloads, It is lherei'ore necessary 10 pro-
vide the motors with a certain reserve of power, which we sball I'ix al 100'/0 as a minimunl,
We shall now consider how these requirements are realiscd.
1. Variable-frequency a,c, system

This is the simplest method.
General regulalion, General regulation of the landem is obtained by altering the frequency
01' th~ supply, When this system is adopled, a separate lurbo-allernalor nlUSI be provided I'or
the milis, since Ihe changes in frequency provided for the milis cannot be inf'liCled on the
other motors in the factory,
The solution generallyadopted consists then 01' providing 3 lurbo-alternators, which are
01' ten 01' similar power:
One, 01' variable frequency, for the milis
Another, 01' fixed frequency, for the remainder 01' Ibe factory
A third unit, 01' variable frequency, which can serve as a spare I'or either 01' lhe olhers,
245
.. SYSTEMS OF ELECTRIC DRIVE FOR MILLS
This regulation 01' frequency is obtained by means 01' a special governor conlrolling lhe
speed 01' the turbine.
Thc frequency generally adopled by European firms is 50 cycles. The range 01' speed varia~
lion Orlen is ± 20070, í.e. from 40 lo 60 cycles. The standard American frequency is 60 cycles,
and American firms generally provide a regulation 01' + 10 lO -25%, or from 451066 cycles.
If one turbine is provided for use for either variable-frequency or fixed-frequency supply,
il should be provided with lhe margin 01' safety necessary for eilher case.
As Ihe speed is varied, lhe excitation and the load remaining conslanl, the frequency and
Ihe vollage vary proponionally wilh Ihe speed.
The exciler Iherefore should ['urnish a constant current over the range of speeel '.'arialion
adoplcd. lt ,hould be capable 01' furnishing lhis currenl al lhe vollage corresponding lO lhe
10wesI speed, and Ihe form 01' Ihe saluralion curve should allow approximalely Ihe same cur-
rent lO be maintained al olher speeds.
The voltage regulalor similarly mUSl be of special design, with a circuil using reactance
ralher Ihan resislance, in such a way Ihal Ihe currenl will slmilarly remain constant when the
vollage remains proportional 10 lhe frequency.
Individual regulalion, The general speed regulation serves to adjust the speed and con se-
quently the capacity of the tandem to lhe tonnage required. The speeds of all the milis thus
increase or decrease in lhe same propon ion; but we are oflen concerned with one mili which
lakes lhe feed (cane or bagasse) less effectively lhan lhe olhers, and chokes more readily. For
Ihis case an individual regulalion 01' each mOlor is required. It is generally considered suffi-
cielH 10 provide a regulation 01' 101170 below normal speed. This is oblained by means 01' a
variable re,islancc, which thus involves a drop in efficiency due to Ihe energy dissipated as
heal in Ihe rheostat. The speed can thus be varied for each motor between 90 and 100% of
ils normal speed, relalive to lhat of lhe olhers. For lhe crusher, 15% is somelimes provided,
i.e. a range from 85 to 100% of maxil11ul11 speed.
The use of such individual speed conlrol involves inconvenience and loss, due lO the drop
in efficiency, resulling from Ihe produclion of heat, and aboye alllhe necessily 10 reduce lhe
speed, nOI of lhe faully mili, which musl on Ihe conlrary be lefl al full speed, bUI of all the
olhers, or al least lhose preceding il; these are reduced lO 90% of normal speed. Hence the
use of such individual speed control is avoided as far as possible. For this reason, a tandem
of milis driven by this system nearly always functions as a combined-drive tandem, that is,
wilh Ihe relative speeds of the several milis rigidly fixed. This is a great disadvantage.
Voltages. The commonesl voltages are 220, 380, 440 and 500 or 550. Thal of 380 permits
lhe use of 220/380-V motors. This, and lhal of 440 V, are lhe mosl useful; lhey offer lhe
advantage that at the usual power faclors, lhe currenl read on the ammeter corresponds
roughly to the horsepower. Since 1970, the trend is towards voltages of 5,500 and 11,000.
Speeds. The motors may be of 750 r.p. m., giving 730 r.p.m. under load, or of 500 r.p.m.,
giving about 485 r.p.m.
To reduce from these speeds lO those of the milis, 3 stages 01' gearing are necessary; the
-
246 ELECTRIC ORIVE OF MILLS Ch. 15
-
first reduetion is generally mad e by double-helical gearing of high efrieieney, running in an
oil bath. The present tendency is to replace one al least, or even 2 slages of gearing, by an
enclosed speed-reduction uni!' Triple-redu ction units are also made whieh replace any large
gearing.
Types of motor. The motors employed I"or mili orives arc gcncrally wound-rotor induction
moto rs with slip-rings; these have a good starling torque (Fig. 15.1). Tileir direclion 01" rOla-
lion may be reversed simply by interchanging two pllases.
2. Wnrd - Leonard d.c. system

This system was parlieulary widespread in Ja va. Jt com i,l s 01' a squirrel-cagc mOlor (ef. p.
1090) driving al constan! speed a d.c. generawr whicll supp lies currenl 10 a mOlor wilh eons-
lanl excitation. The voltage produced by the generaror may be varied from a cerlain value
in one direction to the same value in the opposite dire clio n, passing through zero. As lhe ex-
citation of the final motor is fixed, 'its speed varies wilh tllis voltage; thus all speeds from
a maximum in one dire ction to a ma ximum in the OPllosite direction may be oblained, pass-
ing through ze ro . The torque varies little with speed. T he elTiciency 01" Ihe assembly is 01' lhe
order of 0.79.
This sys tem comprised 3 machines for one drive, and was therel'ore less dependable and
mOre expensive than the preceding systems of one mowr only. Moreover, its efficiertc y was
only modera te . It has been abandoned in favour of the d.c. system with rectification by
thyristors (see below).
3. A.C. - d.c. cascade connection

This system, equally designated "Kraemer cascade", consisls 01' a wound-rolor induction
motor direct-coupled to a d.c. motor (Fig. 15.2). liS rowr. Ihrough the brushes and a silico n
rectifier, sUJ1p lies Ihe d,c. motor. In this way if, for example, the slip amounts 1020 070 , in
other word s, ir ilS speed is 80070 of synchronous spceo, Ihc mOlor .~ulllll i es lO Ih e shal'l 80%
01' its nominul power, and consequenlly lile rolar l'tlrnishes lhc dil"rercncL' lO lile (I.C. mOlar,
or 20% 01' Ihe nominal power, which lile d.e. mOlor in its lurn sU¡Jllli cs 10 Ihe shaft. The
total power supplied to Ihe shafl is lhen conSlanl and equal 10 100% of Ihe nomin a l power.
Reversal of rOlalion is obtained by cha nging Ihe conneclions 01' th e mOlor and the d.c.
motor, or by a reversing gear.
For a speed range of 50-100%, Ihe nominal power 01" Ihe d .c. mOlor should be Ihe same
as that of Ihe a.c. motor. For a reduced speed range. Ihe po \Ver of Ihe d.e. mOlor could be
reduced proporlionally.
This is lile syslem applied by Siemens al Ihe factory of Jaagbaan. in Soulh Africa, and
devi sed by Hughes'. He poinls OUI thal an electric 1110101' can carry an overload 01" 75% I'or
15 secon ds, a nd 25% for 2 hours. For Ihis reason, it \ViII be sul'ficienl 10 use a cascade
assemb ly of 110% of the power desired.
Tlle sysle m operales as follows. The \Vound -rotor illduClioll motor is for cxample of 650
kW al 6600 Y, running al 1475 r.p. m. The d.c. mOlor on Ihe .lame shafl supplies 160 kW
al 425 V when it runs al 1030 r.p. m., lhe speed 10 which il is expecled Ihe sys lem will drop:
the mili rOlales al 4.2 r.p.m. when Ihe drive shal't runs al 1475 r.p. m., and al 3.1 when lhe
SYSTEM~ OF ELECTRIC DRIVE FOR MILLS 247
sl!nl'! ¡UJlS al 1030 r.p.m. Al fuI! specd (1475 r.p.m.), lhe induclion motor developes all ilS
power 01' 650 kW. Tile d.c. motor is lhen praclically running al no load, lhe slip 01' lhe former
being low. lf we assumc lhal lhe speed descends progressively below lhe maximum speed,
lhe induclion motor furnishcs a lower and lower power output, falling lO 490 kW when the
spced has dropped to 751170, although lhe d.c. motor al thal moment furnishes lhe 251170 of
powcr 10.11 by Ihe inducdoJlIllOlOr (160 kW) in such a way lhat lhe total oulpUl 01' lhe syslcm
Ihus rClllains conSlanl al 650 k W,
The lorque Col' lhe motor incrcmes as ilS speed drops, since e = Pl n, P b~jng lhe power
and n lhe speed in r.p.m. We recover thus the advanlage of lhe steam turbine, whieh allows
coping wílh momenlary loads, as the Kraemer cascade system does here, since the torque of
Ihe mOIOr increases al thal mOlllenl. In el'fecI, when the speed of an induc'lion molor
decreases. il S lorque firsl increases (ef. Fig. 43.16), passes through a maximum, then drops.
11 is Ihc rClllainder 01' Ihe currenl, going to Ihe d.c. molor, which compcnsalc.\ Ihis drop,
prevenls Ihe systclll I'rolll slalling, and enables il 10 copc wilh lhese overloads.
The efliciency varies I'rolll 0.86 10 0.90 when lhe speed varies between 50 and 1001170; Ihe
syslem is lhus very efficienl.
The COSl is of lhe same order as for a Ward - Leonard Uníl up lO about 500 kW, and
becomes more and more allraclive per kW inslalled aboye lhal figure. JI represenls belween
2 and 2~ limes lhe COSl of an induclion mOlor for our system (I).'
4. D.c. system with rectification by thyristors

This is lhe lalesl developmenl which seems Jikely lO replace all others, even including lhe
sleam lurbine. The a.c. supply, for example at 5500 Y, is slepped down lO 500 Y, reetified
by lhyrislors and sent lO a d.c. motor which drives lhe mili lhrough a reduclion gearing or
a lrain of gearing. This mOlOr is of shunl or compound characteristics. FOr a given excitation,
ilS speed is praclically conslanl and independent of load.
The speed may be varied praclically from zero lO full speed, and at leasl from 40 or 501170
(O 1001170 of maximum speed. The efficiency is lhal of a d.c. motor, approximalely 951170; lhe
thyrislors, heating up and requiring cooling, operale al an efficiency of 92 - 951170. The

OI'erall efl'iciency CJn Ihus be reckoned as 901170, and this effieieney is the same whether runll-
il1g al 500"/0 01' 1001170 01' maximum speed. The power consumption is approximatcly 2.7 kWh
per 10nJlC cane al1d per mili, say 18-20 kW (24-27 h.p.) per t.r.h. and pcr mili; lhe power
faclor is aboul 0.65 and can be raised to 0.80 by Ihe use of condensers. The mOlor can carry
an overload of 201170 for 201170 of lhe lime.
The firsl faclory lo instal lhis syslem was lhal of Borotou-Koro, on lhe Jvory Coasl, in
1979. The cost of lhe sySlem is not high, since Ihere is only one motor in place of three for
Ihe Ward - Leonard syslem, and lwo for lhe Kraemer cascad e syslem. Power consumplion
of lhe mili regislers immediately on an ammeter or watlmeter, which is not available with
a Sleam lurbine; the speed may be regulaled al will without affecting lhe power or the effi-
ciency. Steam consumplion depends only on lhe efficiency of lhe turbo-allernalop of the fac-
lory, and that of lhe motor and (he lhyrislors, and compares favourably wilh lhal of a lwo-
slage turbo reduclion gear. Cost of lhe installation and upkeep is not higher than for a steam
lurbine. To sum up, lhis is the best system avaiJable at present for mili drive.
248 ELECTRIC DRIVE OF MILLS Ch. 15
Steam consump!ion
Allhe efficiency corresponding to the system adopted, Sleam consumprion for these merhods
of electric drive is proportional to t he power developed. This is an advantage over turbine
drive, for which the steam consumption per k Wh increases as the speed is reduced.
REF E RENCES
1 D. L. HUOHES. Proc. 38th Conf. SASTA, /964, pp. 66. 74.

·.
16. Mil! Drive by Steam Turbine
This I11clhod 01' drivc \\'as Iried rol' lile rirsl lillle ill 1947 ill Lousiana. JI proved successful
3nd expancled very rapidly; il is lile Sy.\I~111 1110~1 in use al Ihe pre~enl day. 11 ol'f'ers sorne irn-
ponanl advalHages:
(a) 11 avoids Ihe double Iransforrnalion and Ihe Iransmission of energy required by eleclric
drive. Evcn allowillg I'or lile sliglllly 10wcl' elTiciency of Ihe individual mili lurbine relalive
lO Illal 01' lilc cenlral lurbinc prnviclcd rol' lile wl1üle 1,llld(:lll, a saving 01' 15-200/0 01' Ihe
cncf1!,y required rol' lile mili, is rc'l lised.
(b) 11 (lCl'IllilS 01' a Inrgc rnllgc 01' spccu vari,lIiollS rol' lile individual milis, wilhoul serious
• · .:U. .
l·· '···:..
Fig. 16.1. Turbine and r<duclion sear for mili drlve (Fives Cail- Babcock).
250 MILL ORIVE BY STEAM TURBINE Ch. 16
delriment to efficiency. This is a very big auvanlage compared wilh ordinary induclion
mOlOrs.
(e) Comparing il Wilh lhc elcclrified tandem, although the individual lurbine~ are more
expensive lhan lhe elcclric mOlOrs, 11 dispenses wilh lhe lurbo-allcmalor, Ihe Swilchboard in
lhe power hou~e ano Ihe eleclric cables, .50 lhal Ihe complelc installalion i~ les~ expensive.
(d) Il relains Ihe same advanlages ovel' reciprocaling engines as elecnic drive: good Slar-
ling lorque, exhauSI Slcam nOl conlaminalcd Wilh oil, less space laken up, rcdllclion 01' 1113n-
power for supervision and mainlenance, elc.
TURBINES FOR MILL DRIVE
On accounl of Ihe high price 01' skuln lurbines, ano lile Sle<lm ecollomy inherenl in Ihe
syslem, simple lurbines are generally ado[lled, I'or c,'''lInple, Ihose wilh double wheel (Fig.
16.2). Their elTiciency is nOl as gooo as mulli-slUge lypes, lhal is, lheir sleam consumplion
is higher; bUI lhe 10lal Sleum consllmpliOIl of lhe.whole inSlnllaliol1 remail1s very I'avourable.
A typical inslallation is shown in Fig. 16.3.
Governing
The mOSl critical unit in lhe lurbinc-drivcll mili is ccrtainly Ihe governor; il mUSI be very sen-
silive and very rapid in action; il mUSI nOI "hunl", and llluSI assure a perfecl regulalion over
Fig , 16 ,2, Double wheel 01' Sloam lurbine ror mili dr; v",
.,. -
TVRBINBS FOR MILL DRIVE 251
lhe whole range 01' speed varialion oblainable. This range or speed should go rrom 33 or 40
lO 100, whi,h vUl'ialions are rcadily oblainable. A range or 50 - 100 is insurricient having
regard 10 lhe po~sibililies 01' Ihe sleam lurbine.
11 is always al Ihe l'irsl milllhallhe dirricullies 01' regulalion are by I'ar lile mosl serious.
They are already redu eed al [he second mili, and are negligible in lhe rollowing milis. Ex-
cellenl governors are available, even ror firsl milis; bul lhey muSI be or very rirsl-class type.
Power
The steam turbine is a very flexible maehine from 1he poinl or view or power. lIS power OUI-
PUl may be varied over a very wide range. 1I sufrices to adjusI lhe sleam supply by varying
Ihe nUlllber or nozzles belweel1 lhe nozzle chesl and the lurbine wheel. For lhis purpose, lhe
n1<1l1ul'aelurcrs provide Illilllurbincs wilh supplemenlary nozzles, which can be opened when
lhe pOwcr oulpUI ol'lhe lurbillC is 011 lhe poinl 01' becoming insufficicnl. In lhis way il may
alll'ay~ be arrangcdlhal Ihe lurbillc 1't11ll'liolls IIcar ils rullload, so Ihal lhe sleam consump-
lion per kWh remains c10se lO lhe minimum.
Since Ihe lurbine should furnish a peak power eorresponding 10 Ihe maximum demand 01'
lhe mil! which it drives, bUI has to runction al a mean power outpul appreciably lower, il
should be designed with a flat sleam-consumplion curve, and wilh maximum efficiency al
lwo-thirds 01' fuI! load.
Speed
The steam turbine is, however, sensitive lO varialions in speed in thal lhe consumplion 01'
sleam per kWh increases rapidly when il deparls, in one direelion or lhe olher, from its op-
timum speed (ef. p. 1054). JI is necessary thererore to ensure lhal il works in the neigh-
bourhood or lhis optimum speed.
We may comment also lhat, for a given fixed speed, ror example, 5 r.p.m. at the mili
rollers, the specific steam consumplion or an cngine increases with lhe power developed (ror
example, as the hydraulic pressure is increased), whereas, in the same conditions, the speciric
consumption or a steam lurbine decreases as lhe power is increased.
Types of turbine
The aclual installations made have oscillated between two alternatives: either a more expen-
sive lurbine, 01' high efficiency (ror example, one with 4 pressure stages), or a simpler turbine,
or somewhat lower erficiency (fOI' exampJe, a single-wheel turbine). The choice between these
IWO alternatives will obviously dcpend on circumstances, and l11usl be sludieu for éach case.
However, in mOSI 01' Ihe cases which have come 10 our knowledge, il has been advisable to
avoid lhe extreme solutions, ¡.e. bolh the single-wheel tuÍ'bine, as lOO crude, and lhe 4-slage
lurbine, as too expensive for individual mili drive; the besl eompromise lay in a double-wheel
turbine, with two velocity stages. Working between 22.5 kg/c m 2 (320 p.s.i.) and 350 °C
(660°F) admission, and 1.5 kg/cm 2 (20 p.s.i.) exhaust, a IwO-stage turbine or.good design
should have a sream consumption of belween 10 and 15 kg (22 and 33 lb.) steam per h.p ./h,
aecording to ilS speed and load. The lhermodynamic erficiency 01' a double-wheel lurbine is
01' lhe order orO.65; the overall efficiency or lurbine and speed reducer, approximalely 0.56.
The following figures show lhe difference in sleam consumption belween a double-wheel
- -
252 MILL DRIVE BY STEAM TURBINE Ch. 16
turbine (FLC-38Y) and a four-wheel machine (FLC 52 CP) foc admission steam at 22 kg/ cm'
(315 p.s.í.) - 345°C (650°F) and exhaust at l.5 kg/ cm' (20 p.s.i.):
Speed, r.p.m. 1,200 600

Power, h.p. 1,020 510
Steam consumption, kg/h (lb.lh) 10,150 (22,380 7,850 (17,300)

38Y { Specific consumption,
kg/ h.p.lh (Ib .lh.p.lh) 10.0 (22.4) 15.4 (34.6)
Steam consumption, kg/h (Ib.lh) 9,150 (20,175) 7,300 (16,100)

52CP { Specific consumption,
kg/h.p.lh (lb .lh.p.lh) 9.0 (20.2) 14.3 (32.2)
Figure 16.3 shows a turbine-driven tandem.
Fig. 16.3. Mili tandem driven by Slea m turbines.

17. Mil! Gearing
SPEED REDUCTlON
Gearing is required lo reduce the speed of the prime movers:
Ordinary sleam engines : 40 - 75 r.p.m.

High-speed engines: 100-150 r.p.m .
Eleclric 1110101'.\ : 485 -730 r.p.m.
Turbine reducers: 250-750 r.p.m.
to Ihal of (he rolIers, 3 -6 r.p.m.

This reduclion is oblained by Irains of reduclion gearing:
2 slages for ordinary engines

3 slages for lhe olher cases
Olle slage 01' ordinary spur gearing can effecl a speed reduclion of 7 or 8 lo 1, bul ralios
grealer Ihan aboul 5 10 1 are nol generally empJoyed.
Two slages 01' gcaring can Ihus give a reduclion 01' 5 x 5 = 25 , and 3 slage.\ a ratio of
5 x 5 x 5 = 125.
Types of gearing
Such Irains of gearing were generally composed of ordinary spur gears, wilh machine-cul
leelh (Fig. 17.1). Double-helical gearing (Fig. 17.2), while much more expensive, has a higher
efficiency. JI is employed mainl y in high-speed gearing, and for high ratios of reduction. Jt
readily permils of a reduclion ralio of 10 to l.
Ordinary spur gearing (Fig. 17.1) is encounlered less and less. When it is employed, il is
now kepl for Ihe lasl stage before (he milIs, the slowest. At presenl (1982), h\:l.icoidal gears
(Fig. 17 .3) are generally used.
Conslruclion of gearing. Formerly, gears were 01' cast iron. Today, Ihey are always made
of casI sleel, wilh machine-cul leelh.
Wear. When Ihe gear wheels are worn, particularly lhe rolIer pinions, which have a limited
life, lheir working life may be doubled by reversing them end for end on their shafts, so that
th e unused face of the teeth then doe s the work .
Ch. 17
MILL OEARING
54
F\I;.. \1.1. OrdimHY spur gSi\ri\l1;. lUMA).
Fig. 11 .2. Doublc hcli<al gc"ri,,~ (Fives Cai\ - B"bcoc~), \

• SPEED REDUCTlON 255
Fig. 17.3. Helicoidal gearing (Fives Cail- Babcock),
Peripheral speed. It is generally aeeepted Ihal spur gearing can be operated up to a

peripheral speed of nboul 700 - 825 m/min (2,300 - 2,700 fl./min). Double-helieal gearing
may attilin considerably higher speeds,
Oil consumption. Tilis may be reckoned as approxi malel y 0.035 I/h (0,0077 gallons/h) for
each benring of Ihe gearing 01' 01' lhe mili (e/. p. 267).
Encloscd gcaring
The Ircnd is more and more lo replace lhe I'irsl, 01' lhe l'irsl and second slages, of lhe gearing,
by a precision reduclioll gearing wilh oil balll, and encJosed in a gear case. These speed
reducers are made in specialised machine-shops . .They are expensive, bUI much less bulky
lhan ordinary gearing, consuming less lubricanl and giving a much higher efCiciency, of the
order 01' 98 - 990/0 rol' each slage, cOn1pared wilh 90 - 95% for ordinary gearing and
95 - 98% for double-Ilelical gearing.
The only raclor limiling lheir use and preventing their substitulion for Ihe lasl-motion
gearing 01' milis 01' ordinary dimensiolls, is the maximum torque of which .they are capable.
As long as this limil (which is increasing progressively with lechnical progress) is nOl reached,
it is of advanlage \O make use of such speed reducers.
In a lurbine-driven mili, for example, the range oC speeds will be as follows (Fives
Cail- Babcock landem of 920 x 2,000 mm (36 X 79 in.), al Surae, in Morocco :
256 MILL OEARING Ch. 17
The turbine is dcsigned for: 4,500 - 9,000 r.p.m.

The speed reducer allached lO lhe turbine K = 7.5
reduces Ihis speed lO: 600-1,200 r.p.m.
K 27.3
The independenl speed reducer lO: 22- 44 r.p.m.
K 7.5
The helical gearing (pinion and wheel) to: 3- 6 r.p.m.
DRIVE TO THE ROLLERS
Since the top rollers have to lift by some millimelres, Iheir drive must be designed ror and
mUSI allow 01' such movemenl. For lhis purpose, Ihe end 01' lhe shafl 01' Ihe final slage 01'
gearing is provided wilh a square end; lhe end 01' the roller shart is given Ihe same form, and
belween lhe lwo is inlerposed a shafl 01' lhe same cross-seclion, termed a "lail-bar". The lail-
bar is attached lo the ends of the shafls, which il serves to connecl, by means 01' lWO coupl-
ings (Figs. 17.4, 17.5).
For purposes of mounting, lhe taiJ-bar musl have a lenglh 75 -100 mm (3 -4 in.) grealer
than the combined lenglh of lhe lWO couplings, and 13 -25 mm 0-1 in.) shorrer lhan lhe
inlerval belween lhe lwo shaft ends which il is 10 connecl. Tlie ends are oflen cul slraighl,
bul certain foreign manufacturers make lhem spherical, lheir surface forming a portiQn of
a sphere with lhe cenlre at lhe cenlre of gravilY of Ihe lail-bar.
Roller pinions
These are lhe pinions (somelimes called "crown wheel") fixed on lhe end 01' Ihe roller shafls,
which permil the two lower rollers lO be driven by the 10p roller.
They mal' have from 141021 leelh. The smaller lheir number, lhe larger and longer are
lhe leelh, and lhe grealer lhe range 01' sellings for which a praclicable engagement of lhe leelh
can be oblained when lhe rollers become worn (Figs. 10.25 and 10.26).
However, when Ihe pinions are worn, a 14-I(lolh pinion gives a sliglllly jerky 11101ioll, and
al each loolh Ihe lower rollers make a very slighl bUI perceplible pause. Tromp', I'or Ihis
reason, recommends pinions of 17 leelh. The French manufaclurers somelimes keep 10 14
leelh, bUl now lend 10 adopl 16 or 18.
Normal pinions should permil of Ihe same relalive selling being oblained for roller wear
of 6 - 70/0 of Ihe diameler; it should thus be possible 10 adjusl lhe selling of 762-mm (30-in.)
rollers unlil lhey wear down lO 710 mm (28 in.) as a final limiL Fullon' has provided Ihe
1,168-mm (45-in.) milis of Belle Glade wilh pinions permilling a varialion of75 mm (3 in.)
belween the :¡xes of lhe rollers, sal' 6.5% of Ihe diameler.
Keys. The pinions are fixed lO lhe roller shafls by means 01' keys. These keys should have
a laper of 1 in 100.
Previously 2 keys were used, but one is sufficient. The pinions moreover are i'ixed 10 Ihe
shafl while hOl, 'and oflen are very dil'ficull 10 remove.
Cardan shafts
Tail-bar and couplings form Ihe classic and near universal melhod of conneclion belween
257
'. DRIVE TO THB ROLLBRS
Fig. 17.4. Mill urivc by (ail·bar tlntJ coupling (Fivc.s C,:lil - Babcock). 1.100 x 2,134 mm mili bcing one of a landem
of six similar milis. hydrnuli c load 800 lonnes. speed 3.25 - 6.50 r.r.m .. capacilY 8,000 lo nnes/ day driven by 1.500
h.p. turbine.
Fig. 17,5, Tail·bar and couplings.
gearing and milI. German manufacturers sometimes make this connection by cardan shaft
or universal joint (Fig. 17.6, cf. also Fig. 18.16). This method is more flexible and furnishes
a solution which is more mechanical, more elegant and, to sum up , les s crude. It avoids the
strain, the binding, the warping, and the breakages due to the rigidity ofthe assembly oftail-bar
and couplings. It is more expensive than the standard method of drive, but avoids its worries.
258 MILL GEARING Ch, 17
Fig. 17 .6 . Caruan shafh.
Changes in height
At the time of erecting lhe mili, lhe levels mUSI be fixed so lhal Ihe centre line of Ihe final
gear shaft is at one-third or one-half of lhe possible movement allowed for lhe 10p roller,
If Ihe maximum lift of the roller is 30 mm, the cenlre line 01' lhe rinal gear shal'l should be
sel al lOor 15 mm above lhe lowesl posilion of Ihal 01' lhe roller. Since conneclion by tail-bar
lacks f1exibililY, lhis preeaulion is neeessary 10 avoid binding nI Ihe eXlreme upper or lower
posilions of the roller, When the mili is working at mnximum lin, lhe load on lhe bcarings
is grcnlly inercascu by Ihis binding cfreel, <lnu Ihe lif'c 01' Ihe bcarings suffcrs.
REFERENCES
L. A. TR.OMP. Machinery and Equipmenl 01 (he Cane Sugar Faclory, Norman Rodger, Lonuoll. 1936,
p, 191.
2 Sugar Azucar, 59 (5) (1964) 68.
..
18. Construction oi Milis
HOUSINGS
Many dil"l'crellllypes 01' milis have beell built IhroughouI Ihe world, and we llave no intention
01' describing IheIll al!. We shall kccp lO Ihe principal Iypes.
The side frames 01' milis are designaled by lhe name "housings" or "mili eheeks". The
c1assic Iypc 01' hOllSillg (Pig. IR.I) cmries 2 IOllg bolls sel Ilcar Ihe vcnieal, eallcd
"killg[Jolls". wilicil o!,!,ose lile lil'lill~ I'nrce DI" Ihc IOJl roller, Irallsmillcd lO Ihe mili caps by
Ihe ilydraulic plullger alld Ihc·oil prcssure.
Nexl, designers succeeded in elimillaling lhe kingbolls (Fig. 18.2), bUI lhe housing lhen hacJ
a weak spOI, belween lhe openings provided for Ihe shal'ls 01' Ihe IOp and delivery rollers.
Squier lhen illlroduced a Ilew lype 01' housing (Fig. 18.3) in lhe form 01' a V enclosing Ihe
fig. I ~.I. Housillg willl kingholls nnd horizontal bolls.

260 CONSTRUCTION OF MILLS Ch.l8
Fig. 1H.2. Stanuard housing. F¡'g. 18 .3. Squicr hOllsing.
3 shafts, eliminaling lhe weak SpOlS and lransferring lh e IhruSI 10 gudgeons fixing il 10 Ihe
base. This idea has become widcspread and mosl new designs are prompled by it.
Al Ihe same lime, Squier inclined Ihe plales for adjusling Ihe bOllom rollers in such a way
lhat adjuslment 01' feed and delivery openings and lhe laking up 01' wear 01' Ihese rollers is
made withoul altering Ihe top angle 01' lhe mili (Fig. 18.3). This solution has permitted the
elimination not only of the kingbolls, but also. 01' ¡he bollS which took the horizontal compo-
nenl 01' the thrust from the lower roller,,; these were originally long horizontal bolts passing
Fig . 18.4. Slandard indined housing.

HOUSINOS 261
through the mili cheek froln one bearing cap lo lhe olher (Fig. 18.1) and later look Ihe form
01' ,hor! bolts which fixed Ihe bearing caps to the main frame 01' Ihe housing (Fig. IS.2).
Thc standard housing is symmetrical. If it fraclures, il is nearly always on Ihe delivery side.
Cerlain designers lake inlo accounl Ihe difference belween Ihe reaclions al lhe delivery and
feed rollers (ef. p. 161) by conslrucling housings with inclined mounlings for Ihe top roller
(Fig. 18.4). fives has 11ad Ihe original idea, arter inclining the cap by ¡ 5° lowards lhe feed
side, 01' ~urning Ihe wllOle dcsign (orward by 15°, so as 10 bring lhe mili cap vertical again.
They have Ihus oblained lhe housing 01' Fig. IS.S, lhe two lower rollers 01' which are al dif-
rerenl heighls. This rOlalion Ihrough 15° has lhe lheorelical disadvanlage 01' increasing cor-
respondingly Ihe Iravel 01' lhe juice on Ihe rising face 01' Ihe lower rollers, bul in practice Ihis
disadvanlage does nOI show up in Ihe extraclion. lt has the advanlage, moreover, of improv-
ing appreciably lhe feeding 01' Ihe lower roller" which gravity then as,ists al Ihe feed roller
and hinders less al Ihe delivery.
·Fig. 18.5. Fives housing, model C46.
Top angle of Ihe mili

This angle, which we have juSI been discussing, and which we have previously discussed, is
the top angle 01' the triangle formed by Ihe 3 axes of lhe rollers seen in elevalion. The vertical
angle consisls 01' 2 half-angles, a, and a" which are generally slightly differenl, on account
or the different values of the feed and delivery openings (Fig. 18.6). Since AB > AC, C >
B, and a, < a,. There is generally 2 - 3 ° difference. For example: a, = 3?D; al = 35°; a =
72°.
262
_.
CONSTRUCT10N OF MILLS Ch. 18
B~-----+--~------~C
Fig. 18.6. Tor unglo 01' I11ill.
In mills of standard design, Ihe angle a varies rrolll 70 lO 85°. A good value Cor a lllodern
mili is 72 ° .
Designers aim lO reduce the top angle as far as possible. The slllaller Ihe angle a, Ihe nar-
rower is the lrashplale, lhe lower is lhe friClion on lhis trasllplale, and lhe power losl due
to lhis friclion (lerm P l in our calculalion of Chapo 14) becomes lower.
Whal limits the angle a is, in lhe firsl place, Ihe necessity lO allow c1earance bClweell Ihe
piniolls of lhe 2 lower rollers. This difficully has been overcome:
(a) By lhe syslem of allernale pinions (ef. p. 167)
(b) By lhe syslem of a separate lrain of pinions (ef. p. 167).
Consequenlly, lhe angle a is now limiled only by the necessity for accommod¡¡ling Ihe
lrash-bar between the 2 lower rollers. The smallest angle which we know is Ihal allained by
Fives (Fig. 18.5) with 67 ° , by means of alternate pinions or the "cage á pignons".
Fives milI F63 with fixed ralio

The Fives mill of Fig. 18.5 is lhe model C46. This mili has been succeeded by Illodel F63,
which has an interesting special fealure.
We have seen (p. 210) lhat an efforl is made in a mili lo esrablish a certain ralio m belwcen
lhe feed and delivery openings while operaling. This ralio varies according lO the position
of the mili in lhe tandem, but is generally not far frolll lhe value 1.9 or 2.
This ratio, in othcl'words the mili setting, must be based on lhe lonnage al whic:h the mili
is inrended lo operat.:. The lonnage, however, is never fixed; il varies belween fairl y wide
limils from one minute to the nexr, and these changes are expressed in a repeated rise and
faIl of lhe 10p roIler. Now the ratio m chosen is val id only for a given posirion, and one posi-
lion only, of the 10p roller.
In a mili of classical design with symmetrical housings, if Ihe setlillg has been eSlablished
for a ratio of 2, with a delivery opening eA = 15 and Ihe feed opening EA 01' 30 mlll, Ihe
mili will oscillate contillually, ror example, belweell eA = 5, EA = 20 (m = 4) and eA =
20, EA = 35 mm (m = 1.75).
In a mil! wirh inclined housing, we have seen (p. 210) lhal lhe feed opening wil! aller ro
a smaller extent lhan the delivery opening; it wil! increase or decrease by about 70"70 only of
HOUSINOS 263
Fig. I R.7. Consl;¡lll·r:l1io mili housing (Fives Cail-Babcock).
Ihe increase or decrease 01' Ihe delivery openillg. For lhe same selling as aboye, lhe mili will
oscillale belween eA = 5, EA = 23 (111 = 4.6) and eA = 20, EA = 33.5 mm (m = 1.675).
Inslead 01' allowing Ihe plunger 10 rise or rall in a slraighl line, Fives has cOllceived Ihe
idea 01' loa ding Ihe 10p roller by means or a cap which pivols aboul an axis silualed on the
delivcry sidc 01' Ihe mili and localed in such a way Ihal the reed opening opens or c10ses by
un alllollnl approximal ely double Ihe change in Ihe delivery opening (Fig. 18.7). Since the
ralio 171 is eqllallo 2, or in lile neighbourhood or Ihal f'ígure, il does nOI vary, or varies much
less Ihan ",illl dassical Ilollsings, whcre lile displacelllcnl s orl he lwo rollers al'c equal, or wilh
inclined 11Ousings, where lile displacemenls are in Ihe ral io 0.7. The hydraulic plunger is al
Ih e sume lime localed on Ihe I'eed si cle 01' Ihe housing; lhanks lO lhe bcncl'il 01' Ihe lever arm,
Ihi s permils ol'a reduclion 01' ilS cross-seclion by hall', but obviously means thal ils Illovement
is doubled .
It is or inlerest to ascertain what condition musI be rulf'ílled to realise this rixed-setting
mili. Let us l'ix as the desired value or 171, not the approximate value 2, but the value used
in Java ror all inlermediale milis (rf. Table 13.2) or thal which we have recommended ror
Ihe second mili (rf. Table 13.6), which is intermediate between those recommencled ror the
rirst and ror rollowing milis : m = 1.9. A diagram completely analogous (O [hat or Figs. 13.4
and 13.5 shows that the ratio or Ihe respective lirts, dE at reed and de at delivery, depends
264 CONSTRUCTION OF MILLS Ch. 18
only on the angle 8 between the plane of the pivots and the cenlre line of Ihe top roller and
Ihe plane (Fig. J 8.8) of Ihe IOp and delivery rollers.
Using dL 10 designa le Ihe are of Ihe eircle deseribcd by Ihe mili cap when il rises, and 8
lhe angle made with Ow and 00" ex being the top angle of Ihe mili, and replaeing Ihe ares
of Ihe circles with Iheil' tangenls al O, we llave:
~2 = eos 'Y = eos [(ex + el - ~ ] = sin (a + 8)
de
= sin e
dL
and we require:
dE sin (ex + e)
= 1.9
de sin e
or:
sin (ex + e) = 1.9 sin e

sin a eos e+ eos ex sin e= 1.9 sin e
sin a
sin ex + eos ex tan e= 1.9 tan e lan e= 1.9 - COS a
Sinee a is approximalely 76°:
0.9703
lan e 1.9 - 0.2419
0.5852
o'
w
0,
Fig. 18.8, POSilioll 01' pivQI in ¡he constan! ralio míll.

" 'HOUSIN6SJ" 265
Fig. 18.9. Side view of a constant ratio milI.
Thus il is salisl'aclory ir Ihe pi vOl S w are placed in aplane making an angle 01' 30 - 31 o at
O wilh Ihe axial plane 01' Ihe IWO delivery rollers, in order thal Ihe enlry and dclivery lifls
,\hould bc in Ihe ralio 01' 1,9, To oblain a ralio 01' 2, an angle 01' e = 29° would be required;
I'or m = 2.5, e = 23 015' . a being approximalely 76°, the increases in I he openings will be
in Ihe ratio:
dE = dL sin (a + e) = dL sin (76° + 30°) dL sin 106° 0.96 dL

de = dL sin e= dL sin 30° = 0,5 dL
An eccentric (Fig. 18,7) permits af adjusting the angle e between 30° alJ~ 23° and thus
altering the ratio within the range 1.9 - 2.5.
This design offers the advantage that the power absorbed is reduced, due to the fac! that,
wilh movement of the top roller, friction on the sides of the mili cap is replaced by rotation
on an axis with a hinge movcmem.
In recent models, lhe feed roller is placed lower than rhe delivery roller, which facilitates
Ihe f10w ot' juice eXlracted by lhe two lower rollers.
ROLLERS
The dimensions of lhe roller journals are determined by lhe limil of pres.lu re permissible for
the bearings (eJ. p. 125). Th eir lengtil/ is generaJly maJe equallo ¡ of lheir dinlll t' ler d, and
their diameler to half that of the roJlers:
d
D
/ ~d (18.1)
2 4
Sorne recenl milis make d slightly greatcr than D12.

The hydraulic prcssure should be proporlional 10 LD, ami, since d is half of D, il IVould
be logical 10 rnak~ / proportional lo L. Hence we should havc:
D
d= / = 0.3 L (18.2)
2
Designers, moreover, are compelled 10 approach Ihe latler proportions Wilh large rollers,
since rule (18.1) would olherwise lead 10 excessive bearing prcssures in large milis, the roJlers
of which have a ralio LID appreciably higher lhan lhal of slllallmills, according 10 the ;series
regarded as standard.
The fillets of lhe journal should have a radius sufficient 10 avoid lhe risk of slarting frac-
tures, as breakages are more frequent al lhese poinls'. A radius of ro of lhe journal diameler
is recommended : 2 cm for a 40-cm diameter journal, for example. Fracture of roller shafts
mOSI oflen occurs at lhe inner side of the mili ilousing- 0/1 lhe driving side.
Fixing Ihe roJler shell lo Ihe shafl. A mili roller consisls of a hoJlow cylindrical shell of
cast iron conlaining sorne sleel, placed while hot on a shafl of forged "tee!. Thc shrinkage
allowed is gcncrally onc-lhousandth, or SOIllClilllCS O.OOOR. The rollcr is plnced on lhe shell
by heating il 10 a dull red heal and lowering il onlo Ihe shnfl, whieh is eooled willl waler .
Perfeel uniformily and eonlrol of Ihe lemperalure 01' healing are necessary !O lile success of
lhis operalion.
Differences in diameler. Certain designcrs, ineluding Fives Cail- Babcock, give Ihe
delivery roller a larger diameler than Ihe other lwo rollers, tile differelH.:e bcing 4 - 5070. The
feed opening being greater than Ihe delivery opening, this permils of relaining lhe sa me ee-
eenlrics for adjuslmenl of lhe bearings of lhe feed and delivery rollers, lhe more so as lhe
delivery roller wears more rapidly rhan rhe feed roller (eJ. p. 114).
Bearings
The bearings are generally of bronze. The composilion Ol'lhis bronze is ralhcr variable', The
following is an example which may be considered typical: Cu, 84070; Sn, 10070; Zn, 3070; Pb,
3070; Brinell hardness, approximately 85.
We show (Fig. 18.11 (b) and (e)) the form of lhe 10p and bOllom brasses for lhe IOp roller
bearing, also lhal of lhe bearings for lhe lower rollers (Fig. 18.12).
ROLLERS 267
..
~
Fig. 18.10. Constant ratio mili, gear sicte. In shadow, feeder roller and hydraulic plunger.
These are expensive ilems, since lhey are provided wilh passages for circulalion 01' cooling
waler, and grooves ror lubrication of the bearing surface, and are consequenlly complicaled.
Lubrication. Lubrication should be effected by a groove placed along a generatrix, al

aboul 45° ahead of the zone of maximum pressure, bevelled on the side towards which lhe
shafl rOJales, and wider al Ihe cenlre Ihan al lhe exlremilies (Fig. 18.13). 1I is necessary lo
reed more lubricanl lO Ihe cenlre, since Ihe pressure rorees il lowards Ihe ends.
11 is espceially necessary 10 avoid placing oíl grooves in Ihe zone 01" maximum pressure:
l!lis would mean exeessive oil eonsunlplion, and lubrication would be less effeclive.
Oil consumplion varies belween 0.06 and 0.10 1 (0.013 and 0.022 gallons) per bearing per
hour; as an average, 0.07 l/h (0.015 gallons/h).
Tl1is oil should have a viscosily 01' 3,000- 3,200 centipoises at 40°C (17:':. Engler,
15,000-20,000 SSU) and contain the additives: 4.5% of a mixlure 01' sulphur and
phosphorus, 0.5% 01" un anli-foallling agenl, 0.01 % of a lubricanl agenl ("pourpoinl depres-
sanl' 'l.
Cooling water. Cooling water for the six bearings of a mili of 915 x [,830 mm (36 X 72
in.) running at 10 r.p.m. may be reckoned as 1,500 - 2,000 I/h (330 - 440 gallons/h). For dif-
ferent dimensions, this quanlity should vary as the product nDL.
Bearing guides. lt is importanl that lhe top bearings should have long guides: they must
nol bind when t!le roller lends to [ift. Their top edge on lhe feed side should be slightly round-
Pig . 18 . 11. Sliding bl.·~lrillg. 01" IOp rolkr.
"
rig. 18. 12. Lower roller brnss (shdl ~\igl1tl y di.c¡plfl ...·cu 10 sho\\' watc:r-..:in,"ul<l,ion pils.'iag.~s).
ROlLERS 269
Fig . 18, 13. Lubrioation 01' a mili bearing.
ed, 10 avoid jamming, and Ihe face of (he brass should be very carefully firiished, smooth
and polished, similarly Ihe surface of Ihe housing on which il slides. I! is of advanlage 10
lubricale Ihese surfaces by a spedal oil inlel. Some manufacturers pro vide inserted plales of
specinl malerial, giving a very low cocrricient of friclion.
Antifriction bearings. While melal bearings llave been Iried al Ihe Sucreries d'Egyple.
Thcv have Ihe advanlilge Il1al Ihey can be easily re-melalled at Ihe faclory, and that they
never heal up. On Ihe oll1er hand, Ihey fail wilhoul warning if the cooling waler fails. II ap-
pears Ihal Ihey ha ve given satisfaclion in Ihis instance, bul their use has nol spread 10 any
Cxlenl.
Rollcr bearings. The B.M.A. organi.\alion supplies milis in which Ihe rollers are mounted
itl roller bearings insleilu 01' ordinmy bearings (Fig. 18. 14). This arrangemenl has certainly
detllanded Ihe Solulion of several delicale problems. It has rhe inconvenience of requiring a
relalively high 10p angle of Ihe mili, bUI slill in the normal range, i.e. 73 0 • However, it
presenls valuable advanrages:
(a) Large reduclions in power consumption, since Ihe lerm for bearing friction in Ihe equa-
lion rol' power is eliminaled; Ihis represenls almosl 20070 of the 10lal power absorbed by Ihe
mili, since friclion of Ihe rollers is negligible relalive ro sliding fricrion of a shafr on rhe bear-
ing meral. We can reckon generally on a saving of one-sixth of the power consumption (e.g.
250 kW in place of 300).
(b) Elimination of the necessity for cooling lhe bearings, with economy in cooling water.'
(e) Similar elimination of central lubrication of the milI. The bearings are packed with
grease at the beginning of the season, and re-greased periodically.
(d) Reduclion in consumption of lubricant.

The bearings are in enclosed housings and prolecled from conl"cl wilh juice by " layer 01"
grease. The mili housings are 01' Ihe Squier Iype (Figs. 18.3 and 18.15), hence I"clllovnl and
replacement are simplified.
B.M.A. Slress Ihe long life 01" lhe roller bearings and lhe journnls, and nlso lhe simplkilY
01" regulaling lhe sellings of the milI rollers itnd trashplate. They add.a claim oi' improved
exlraclion. In the absence of langible results, one cannot contritdict the litller c1aim, which
however appears ill-founded; but the other advantages are inconteslable. The COSI oi' rollel"-
bearing milis is not slaled, bul il is probably r'alher high. Fig. 18.16 shows a milI Ol'lhis Iype,
wilh individual drive 01' Ihe Ihree rollers by cardan sl¡¡¡ 1'Is, wil houl I he neSI 01' piniol1s, whkh
is replaced by a triple-reduction gear which lakes up ¡illle spuce.
"Lotus" rolJer. The Wen Hsing Company of Taiwan has placed on the markcl a roller
designed by John Bouvet which hits been named lhe "Lotus" roller. It replitces the ordinary
top roller, and consists of a cast steel roller with longitudinal cylindrical passages 01" pipes,
Fig. 18.14. Mili wirh raller bearings (8.M.A.).

ROLLERS 271
Fig , 18,15, Housing or a roller bearing mili (B,M,A,),
about 12 in number", located concentric,with the axis of the shaft, and 10cated a few cen-
lill1elers below Ihe roller grooves (Fig, 18,19) , Al the bOllom of each gro('.ve, 'or allernale
grooves, and jusI aboye each passage, is localed a hole connecling the groove wilh lhe
longitudinal pipe, When lhese holes arrive in lhe zone of maximal pressure, lhey give an
oUllel for Ihe juice which lhen leaves lhe roller by Ihe flanges al lhe end of lhe rollcr.
Such a syslem has the object of allowing ready escape of juice from Ihe zone of maximal
compression, with consequent reduction of recabsorption, permitting of higher imbibilion,
improving lhe extraction and reducing the tendency to mili slip, It is lhe last effecl which
is more marked in pra(tice. There is a gain in eXlraclion, bUl il is nOl large in modern milis.
In sorne tandems where lhe eXlraction is low, Ihe gain would be more important. On lhe olher
hand, the increase in capacity due to the reduction of slip is appreciable and can attain in
certain cases 30070, which would Ihus allow an increased lonnage 10 be obtained from a mili
of given dimensions. To materialise this in(rease, all milis 01" Ihe landem should be equipped.
By examining Ihe space belween Ihe flanges and mili cheeks by the aid of an eleclric torch,
il may be verified lhat the passages deliver juice. Blockage 01" lhe passages can occur, nnd
Ihese can be cleared by blowing Sleam or wmpressed air inlo Ihe end of Ihe passage. During
Ihe weekly shul-down, il is necessary 10 (Iear Ihe holes which may be blocked and 10 clenr
I he longiludinal passages.
Communicalion belween lhe groove and Ihe longiludinal passage may be by a simple hole
in Ihe roller, bul has been replaced by a welded plug wilh a suilnblc opening, placcd cvery
second groove, belween Ihe appropriale leelh of Ihe roller (Fig. 18.19). The sleel roller suf-
fers les s breakages from slones and melallic objecls, bul sul"i"ers sorne deformalion which
mUSI be reclified. Il is useful 10 carry OUI syslemalic arcing la give a permallenl roughened
surface on lhe roller ..
Inslalled on a modern mili, lhis syslem gives a small gain in eXlraclion, wilh a more definile
gain in capacilY, by reducing lhe slip of lhe rollers. However, frequent cleaning is Ilecessary
10 clear passages obstructed by bagasse; on account 01" the dimensions of bagnsse pnnicles,
these blockages are more frequent in the laler milis of the train. 11" such cleaning is neglected,
the roller functions as an ordinary roller. According to the manufacturer, a recent illlprove-
ment in the fomí oC ihe passage through the plug enables such blockages to be complelely
avoided, thüSdi'spensÍng;with rherie'cessity
" , .
for cleariing lhe longitudinál paSSageS with steam
or compressed airo
J7ig. !8.16. Mili Wilh roller bearings driven by cardan shafls (B.M.A.).
ROLLERS 273
I
I
L - - - -I-+<==:=::.::J
Fig. 18.17. Allachmclll of nangc!'i.
Flanges
The flallgcs are now always fixed 10 Ihe lOp roller (Fig. 18.17). Generally, 12-18 screws are
used 10 I·ix Ihe I"lange 10 lhe roller, according 10 Ihe size. These screws should ha ve a useful
lellglh 01" abouI fr, Ihal of Ihe roller, and a diameler about to thal of Ihe roller.
The flallges become worn, alld il is necessary 10 machine Iheir inner faces al the end of
Ihe season.
The clearar:lce 10 be mainlained belween Ihe flanges of Ihe lOp roller and Ihe laleral faces
of the botlom rollers is about 1.5 mm U~ in.). The object of Ihis clearance is lo permil of
unequallil"t dr the top roller, willlOUI risk or jamming, when a foreign body passes towards
olle elld or Ihe rollers, For Ihe saine reason, il is advisable 10 give a slighl conicily 10 Ihe side
of Ihe flange racing Ihe·roller.
Scrapers
The surface or Ihe scrapers should makc an angle or 45 - 80 0 wilh Ihe surface of lhe roller
(Fig. 18.18).
0 <-- -_ _ .,;
Fig. 18.18. Posilion of scrap<rs.

274 CONSTRUCTlON OF MILLS Ch. 18
When Ihe scrapers becollle worn, Ihe poinl PoI' conlacl approaches Ihe plane AO formed
by the plane 01' rhe axis 01" the roller and the shaft 01' the scraper. There is a degree 01' wear
for which there is a risk 01' the scraper being lurned back by jamming against the surface 01'
the roller, and rhe angle {3 must not be allowed to increase beyond a maximum 01' 35 - 400.
Standard dimensions
Alrhough some manufaClurers do nOI follow Ihem, Ihcre exisls un inlernalional serics oi'
roller dimensions which is very generally adopled. 11 is of Amcrican originllnd consequcnlly
based on dimensions in inches.
The Iengths are in mulliples 01' 6 in., increasing in steps 01' 6 in. The diamcters lIrc in
multiples 01' 2 in., increasing in 2-in. steps. There are 2 sllccessive diameters corresponcling
to each lengrh, and 2 successive lengths corresponding to each diameter. Table 12.3 (p. ¡ 92)
gives Ihe combinations so oblained.
A mili dimension is specit'ied by Ihe figure for Ihe c1illlllclcr I'llllowccl by 111<11 t'or ils lenglh.
The dimensions most frequently employed are given in Table 18.1.
TABLE 18.1
COMMONEST STANDARD D1MENSIONS OF ROLLERS
(In ches) (Mi/lime!res)
24 x 48 '610 x 1,220
28 x 54 = 710 x 1,370
30 x 60 = 760 x 1,520
32 x 66 = 810 x 1,675
32 x 72= 810 x 1,830
34 x 78 = 863 x 1,980
36 x 84 915 x 2,134
The smallest roller dimension met with in Ihe sugar I'aclory is 508 x 915 mm (20 x 36
in.). However, so me very nice lillle landems 01' 355 x 508 mm (14 x 20 in.) lIrc l'ol1nd ill
cane juiee distilleries.
Wilh large milis, Ihere is a very definile Irend towards large diamelers, even departing I'rllm
Ihc slandard series. In very large milis in particular, several tandems 01' 1,066 x 2,134 mm
(42 x 84 in.) are in exislenee, in I'aclories such as Central Leclesma in Argcnlina, anel al Dar-
nall in Soulh ,Ar¡lca. The biggesl milis known to Ihe author are in Auslralia" measuring
¡ ,250 x 2,500 mm (49 x 98 in.); another being installed for Ihe 1983 season 4 of 1,375 x
2,750 mm (54 x 108 in.). On account 01' Ihe exceptional size 01' this mili, il is 01' imeresl 10
give several details. 11 will be fitted with pressure feeders, rotating at 4.66 r.p.m., the mili
rollers rotating at 3.59 r.p.m. (coefficienl 1.3), and will be provided with a feed roller belo\V
1he bagasse running at 5.17 r. p. m. I1 will be preceded by a shredder running at 1,100 r .p.m.,
driven by a steam turbine 01' 492 kW (660 h.p.) for approximately 50 kW!t.f.h. (65
h.p./I.f.h.). The rollers weigh 42 tonnes each, the mili and ils drive totalling 600 10nnéS. I1
is designed for a capacity 01' 16,000 t.c.d. (approximalely 667 I.c.h., or 92 U.h.). I1 \Viii be
driven by two steam turbines 01' 820 kW (1,100 h.p.), each roller having its own tail-bar.
Figure 18.21 gives dimensions of rollers 01' the main series for three manufacturers.
ROLLERS 275
Fig . 18. 19. Lotu, ro lle r.
Considerations on length -diameter ratio

We have shown on I he graph 01' Fig . 18 .20 poinls represenling slandard dimensions of
roller s, Ihe abscissae showin g Ihe dialll eler s and Ihe ordinales th e lenglh of Ihe rollers. JI is
illlmedialel y seen thal Ihe Ameri ca n scale docs nOI correspond l O a co nstanl rali o o f LID;
wilh largc rollers, Ihe len gll1 is relali vely gre aler .
I ". I V
.f:' I",QV
'?~"1, ~ v~/
84 . e~
-. / ",g,<"
V
78
_._.
L>2D
-- f- .- - V
72
I 1/ [1 1/
./. ~ ~
I
.- __ _ i _
~~~~fF' -i1 1 '

r 66
• ._. .
e
I-r---_.-1- .- ~~-fd..
o 6 0 1- - . --
I
l-- 1--. -
~
1--- 1-
e'" 54
•
~ 1/
. ---1-- 1-- . --
~
48
! L <2 o
CI '7
1/ 1
42
f- - --- - - 1--. --- 1--
36 -
l/ 20 24 28 32 36 40 44
Olameter
Fig. 18. 20. Propon io ns o r mili rollers or standard dimensions.

276 CONSTRUCTlON OF MILLS Ch. 18
1- -... -1- 1- ~+-h

VAl -+-+-'
... . .. .. .;¿ .~~ - -- - T ;

- 1- -" ~
90 - 1-1- f---f-I-
-- I--f-- -- .. 1- 1- f- .. ..-.1-1-
- 'L
)" ¡. 12200'
: '
F¡
8~W-~--l-t-l--+---I-++l-++-I-++-1 -. -
___ ~-.L - 1-- -- - f---+-I-
..
---- - - .
/ U-
> I 17
.. 1/1/
- ·1· l- '-
!,
,
!-.'
--f---- . --. ... /[-,.~i . . !2000 '
78 -.-_ ... - .-- -- ._-
~. _.
I-+--+-'-+ +1--+-'+-1-++--4 -+
r'
60 ··- - . : ¡..·· f-
1/
/-+.-. H
1+-+-IL..!...I+I.....j:. ,. "
1
-rt -,.
I
-1- , 'l- -"T-~ -r ' i
-j-- - .. ' - -j-T' .j. · ~
.. - .... .. .. I'¡'-.I--I-~-I--II - - l/ - +-l--I-~-
I
--i--+' + .¡-l---l l... r
. 1400
., 1-1---- -.- - -+-f--i-
I --1- : - .
I-I----JI----J-I-+---l--+--JI-.j..+--
I ,~~+~+_+_+ ---!- -- -- -1- - ; -1- - - -1- -;-.
1-..--1- - ~--l--+-hr.lL+---+-+ - _LL
, --H- I .... , -- "1 -1-1-----', . .. ' 1- ¡, . .- -
48 --1--'- ... ' .. ,-+ .. j- -I--: ... -.;..... f--- t-.¡ -,-...; -! 1100
!. :f--t=¡r - R-~~-:HT_=t~;-:-
~2l-1--I1-----I-l+--l--+---HI+-+-I--If--I+--l--+---i--J+I+-+--i+--I- -f--" -1 -- --l -
1 ' 1 : ¡ . ¡, 000 I
I I ' , 1
20 28 32 36 40 """ 4.8"
D¡ameter
Fig . 18.21. F"llon, Farrel and Fi vos Ca il- Llabcuck mili series.
Now, since Ihe hydraulie load F should be proponionallo LD, Ihe slress due 10 Ihe shear-
ing load canied by Ihe roller when in operRlion will vary, for lile roller, for Ihe shafl, or for
Ihe bearings, all Ihe diamelers 01' whieh are proporlional , as:
p LD L
= A' = A" ( 18.3)
7rD' D' D
A' -
4
the A faclors being numerieal eoeffieienls. The shearing foree will Iherefore inerease as the
lenglh of the roller inereases or jls diameler deereases,
• ROLLERS 277
-- 1-
=--.= - - . - - .. _.- - ~
+- il
-¡ 1 1 lIt t t t t
pppppppppp
Fig, 18,22. Load" aCling 011 a roller.
Again , Ihe roller may be considered as a beam unirorrnly loaded and resling on 2 supports
(Fig. 18.22), Lel p be Ihe pressure per unil lenglh or lhe roller, The bending momenl aCling
on Ihe roller in operalion varies as:
L' P L' PL L'D

p = = A--
8 L 8 8 8
whereas Ihe resi slance lo bending varies only as Dl. The bending stress then varies as:
A
L'D
8
A" L' (18.4)
=
A'
7rDl D'
32
l he modulus or resislance lo bending ror a beam or circular section being 7fDl / 32,
Should priorily be givenlo slrenglh in shear and consequenlly 10 lhe rule(18,J), or 10 ben-
ding momenl and rule (18.4)?
To answer Ihi s queslion, we shall compare lhe relalive Slresses in the met al ror Ihe Iwo
cases, cOl11l11cnling Ihal;
(a) Ihe load p di,<lribuled unirorl11l y on Ihc roller has a value
=F=A'J.j~. AD
P L L
As we are concerned only wilh rel al ive values, we shall take p = D.

(b) The maximum shearing stress, which occurs al the nange of the journals, has a value
T = pU2.
(e) The l11aximum bending momenl, which occurs al Ihe mid-poinl of the roller, has a value
M = pL' / 8,
(d) The ma ximum stress due 10 shearing force is given by
t
4
J ' -
T
7fr'
-
where r is Ihe radius of Ihe cylindrical beam.

(e) The maximum slress due 10 bending momenl is given by n = rMI I, where l i, Ihe mo-
menl of inenia of Ihe cylindrical beam.
(f) The momenl of inertia of a circular section is given by J = 'lrd'/64, d being the diameler
of the seclion.
(g) The diameter of Ihe journals carrying Ihe shea ring slress is 0.9 01' Ihe sh"I'1 dianlclcr,
whieh in lurn is half the roller diameter.
We ha ve then:
T = pL DL
(1) Shear load:
2 2
4 DL 13.17 L
j ( 18.5)
2 0.9 x 0.5 x D ) , 'Ir D
'Ir ( - .- -- 2- . _ -
pL ' DL'
(2) Bending moment: M= =
8 8
The bending load, however, is supported panly by the sharl and parlly by Ihe roller shell,
assuming Ihal lhese are firmly held logelher by 1hree conlaCI arcas. 1r il were supporleclwhol-
Iy by the shaft, Ihe Sl ress in the laller would be:
D DL' 32 L'
n' -- =
4 8 D'
.. _'lrD'
... • _-
'Ir
64 x 16
1f il were supported wholly by Ihe shell, ""hiel1 is 0 1' caS I iron, Ihe strenglh nf which in bcn-
ding is 4.5 limes less I han Ihal of slee/, lhe slress in Ihe shell, rel." ive 10 ils capabilil ies relalive
lO Ihose of the shaft, would be
n"
D DI' 4.5 19.2 L'
2 8
¿( D' - ~6J )
'Ir D'
We eould lhus expecl Ihe shaf l 10 suppon Ihe I"raclion 19.2/( 19.2 + 32) ol'lhe 10lalload,
and Ihe shell Ihe propon ion 32/(19.2 + 32). The slress in Ihe shal'I II1lIS b,','olnes:
32 L' 19.2 12
n = X ( 18.6)
'Ir D' 51.2 'Ir
Since L I D should be of lhe order of 2, we .lee Ihal il is Ihe bending momenl whieh is
predominanl, IhOllgh Ihe chances of breakage due 10 lhe IWO ca uses are si milar.
ROLlERS 279
'.
It follows lhal from lhe lwo viewpoillls 01' shearing load and partieularly bending momento
lhe Icnglh of lhe roller is all clcment of weakness and lhe diallleler a sourcc of slrength.
We lhus see lhal lhe ralio of dial11eler lO lenglh should be conslanl for nll sizes. Thesolu-
tion 1110Sl in accol'd wilh experil'llce, and kecping as close as possible lO presclll praclice.
would consisl 01" keeping to the line L = 2D. JI' il were desired 10 eXlend Ihe slandard series
hcyol1d 2.134-111111 (84-in.) rollers, lhe I1ccessily ror lhis would be apparelll. and il is no doubl
Ihis reasoning which has led llle designers of recenl very large milis lO abandono very for-
lunalely, lhe slandard series and 10 ehoose lhe relationship L = 2D for a 1,066 x 2.134 mm
(42 x 84 in.) milJ.
From lhese considerations we can draw Ihree concJusions:
(1) For fahricalioll 01' cqual qllalily. and ror identical metal. a slandard roller of slllall
dimcllsiolls (e.g. 660 x 1,220 111m (26 x 48 in.» would be ablc lO wilhslalld loads, lhal is,
Il)'drillilic prcsslIres. rclalively Iligher lhan could be applied lO large slandard rollcrs (e.g. 915
x 2,1341l11ll (36 x R4 in.)). In olher words, higher values ors.h.p. could be ll1aintained in
Ihe former (cJ. p. 127).
(2) 11 is 01' advanlage lo choose preferably a mili in Ihe zone L ~ 2D of Fig. 18.20, ralher
lhan in Ihe zone L > 2D; 01' at Ieasl lO approach the forlller lOne. In olher words, aboye
1.220 mili (4H in.), prcJ'crencc should begiven tO a llIill ofseries B rather than one ofseries A.
(3) 11 i, ulll'ortunate that Continental lllanuJ'acturers llave not originaled a metric series:
600 x 1,200 mm x
900 1,800 mm
650 x 1.300 mm 950 x 1,900 mm
700 x 1,400 mm 1,000 x 2,000 mm
750. . x
1,500111111 1, 100 x 2,200 mm
ROO x I ,600 111111 1,200 x 2,400 mm
850 x 1,700 mili 1,300 x 2,600 mm
This would give only 12 sizes, the range of capacities covered would be complete, and lhe
series would be more logical and IVould be betler received by well-informed lechnicians.
Stainless stecl. In Soulh Afriea', stainless stecl No. 430 (I70J0 chromium) is recommended
1'01' lhe following ilems: Donnelly chules, juicc lrays, lrays for ill1bibilion juice and under
milis, primary juice piping in diffusers, fine-bagasse conveyors, juice weighers, weIded sheels
to replace oxidised sheeling, and vacuull1 piping (6 mm ; ~ in.) thickness in place of 10 mm
(~ in.».
REFERENCES
t R. L. GEORGE AND D. M. REJD, Inl. Sugor J., 54 (!952) 72.

2 RAM. (July - Dec. 1958) 305.
J Sugar Azucar, (Ser!. t98t) 56; (Jan. (982) 17.
4 P. MAYO ANO D. WRJGHT, Proc. ASSCT, 1983, p. 273 .
5 441h Conf. SASTA, 1970, p. 60.
•
19. Imbibition
OBJECT
Even when bagasse is subjected to high and repeated pressures, il never gives IIp all Ihe jllice
which il conlains. It approaehes a minimum Illoisture, 450/0 in general, 400/0 in Ihe mOSI
favourable cases; Ihal is, il relains a high proportion or juiee, amountillg roughly (O halr ilS
weight.
In order lO eXlraet as much as possible of the sugar which il retains, it is thcrerore necessary
lO resort lO an artifice: since Ihis moisture conlenl cannOI be reduced, rhe el't'ort will be made
lO replace by waler the juice comprising il.
It is Ihis artifice which constitutes "imbibilion".
With dry crushing, the limit of extraetion is very soon attailied in praelice: al' ter lhe crusher
and first mili, lhe bagas se moisture has already been reduced 10 aboul 600/0. Afler lheseeond
mili, it is close to 500/0. After the third mili, it is nOI far from 450/0: il may be eonsidered
that lhe maximum extraetion possible with simple pressure has been oblained. If, al Ihis
slage, Ihe bagas se is sprayed wilh water, Ihis waler spreads in Ihe bagasse and dilules Ihe juiee
whieh il eonrains. The following mili willlhen reeover bagasse al Ihe limilillg moislure, say
about 45%. But this moisture will eonsist, no longer of absolule juice, bUI 01' diluled juice.
Henee sugar will have been extraeted; and the operation may be repealed.
D1FFERENT SYSTEMS OF IMBIBITlON
Aetually, on aeeount of Ihe small difrerence belween Ihe bagasse moislmes, Ihere is every
advantage in eommeneing the imbibilion as early as Ihe delivery of Ihe l'irsl mili; Ihe gain
will be all the more rapid as the juice wilh which the bagasse is still filled will be more easily
diluted and extracled. The quantity of juice eXlracted is then nearly equal to Ihe quantily
which would have been extracted ."ithout addition of waler, increased by Ihe quanlily 01'
water added. The quantily of sugar exlraeled is mueh grealer Ihan Ihal which would have
been oblained withoul addition 01' waler, since Ihe quanlily of juice remaining in the bagasse
(which, as we have just stated, is very nearly Ihe same) now eonsists of diluled juiee instead
of absolute juice.
Simple imbibition
The simplest proeedure whieh comes to mind is to add the water to the bagasse after each
milI. This proeedure is ealled "simple imbibition". If the water is added at one point only,
between the last two milis for example, it will be called single simple imbibition. I f it is added
at 2 points, between the penultimate mili and the preeeding one, and then between the
MATHEMA TIC AL STUDY OF LMBlBlTlON 281
'.
penultimate and the last, it will be termed double simple imbibition: similarly for triple sim-
ple imbibition, and so on.
Compound imbibition
Thi s system, however, consumes much water, which has to be evaporated later. Starting from
single simple imbibition, it has been o bserved thal the dilute juice obtained from the last mili
is mostly wa ler; il has then been taken and sent back before the preceding milI. This is what
is called "colllpound imbibition'", and, in Ihis case, it is double. If Ihe juice obtained in this
way frolll Ihe penultimate mili is again returned before the previous mili, Ihis becomes triple
compound imbibition; and so on (Fig. 19. 1).
~'
O
0"" O .#
00
1
• 1
Ju.ce:1- ji'
Fig. 19. 1. Quadruple' compound imbibili on. F·ig. 19.2 Dry crushing.
MATHEMATICAL ST U DY OF IMBIBITlON
For the sake of a Ihorough understanding of imbibition, which is more complex than it ap-
pears 10 Illany, and which plays an important part in the financial result s of Ihe sugar factory,
we shall si udy in order:
(a) Dry crushing
(b) Wel crushing
(e) Multiple simple imbibitio n
(d) Mulliple cOmpound imbibition.
(a) Dry crushing

Dry crushing consists of all the successive applications of pressure on the bagasse in a milling
tandem , without previous addition of an y liquid.
We shall assume tlle presence of a crusher, and group it wilh Ihe first milI. Suppose we
reserve for dry crushing a number n of milIs. Let us use for each of these milis the subscripts:
1, 2, 3, ... , n.
In Fig. 19.2, let:
f = fibre per unit of can e
282 IMBIBITION Ch. 19
mp fibre in bagasse furnished by mili no. p

bp quantity of bagasse furnished by mili no. p
jp quantilY of jUlce furnished by mili no. p.
Let us consider a unit weighl of can e passing lhrough the milis. We have:
1 . 1 = b, . mi = b, . m, = ... = bn . m n
Whence:
1 1 1 (19.1 )
b, b, bn
mi m, mn
Al the IsI mili, wc have lhen:
ji 1- 1
mi
Al lhe 2nd:
j, 1 _ 1 1)=1{_1 __
1)
m, mi mi m,
Al lhe 3rd:
1 _ 1
m,
Al lhe nlh mili:
( 19.2)
In praclice, il is found lhal lhe fibre in bagasse increases rapidly lowarcls a limil m which
is always in the vicinity of 0.5. In consequence, the quantilY of juice eXlracteu by the suc-
cessive milis falls rapidly and tends towards zero.
Lel m be lhe fibre content of lhe bagasse from lhe lasl dry crushing (which \Ve llave called
m n in lhe nolalion adopled). The juice exlraclion has lile value:
1 --
1
juice exlracled m m -
---
1 ( 19.3)
juice in cane I - 1 m (1 - j)
For normal landems, where lhe dry crushing is effecled by lhe firsl mili only, lhis formula
MATHEMATICAL STUDY OF IMSISITlON 283
82
80
:--r---...
1-----....
78
~ ----.... 1----- '------.
----, r---... 74
-::::: ~
e 70 ---------- '-----
------- 1----- --..t.': i!- '---
------- ~ r-..... 70
-........ -........ ~
O
~
u
...............
--------
'- Ñ h
---- r--. '----- r--... 35 66
o
~ r-------- r'---
r--...... r--......
L
X ~ 3L. 62
W
"- -....
60 ~2
~
--..... ---------- 58
1'-- 30 54
50
10 11 12 13 1~ 15 1&
Fig. 19.3. Juice cXlraclion in Ihe firsl mili .
gives Ihe exlraclion Or jui ce by Ihe rirsl mili , m being Ihe ribre conlenl or rirsl -mill bagasse
(Fig. 19.3). We see Ihe marked inrluence or ribrc in cane, a nd Ihe inrluence or Ihe fibre of
fir sl-mil l bagasse, which is nortnall y 01' Ihc order of 32 - 34, a nd var ies o nl y slighlly when
Ihe fibre f 01' cane varies rrom 10- 16.
The purilY 01' lile eXlracled juice being higher Ihan lhal or Ihe residua l juice, Ihe exlracl ion
of sugar is superior 10 Ihal or juice , a nd has a value:
e = '" - j)
- ,.,(m... _-,.- (19.4)
m (1 - j)
\Vhcre", is ~ coelTicienl h~ving a va lue 01' 1.05 - 1.10 .
(b) Wel crushing

As a rirsl approximalio n, we shall poslulale lh al lhe dry crushing is laken lO lhe slage where
lh e fibre 111 of Ihe las l dry-crushing bagasse app roaches lhe lim il m = 0.5 .
Al lhis slage (Fig. 19.4), we add W of waler before Ihe ro llowing mili, which we call lhe
firsl wCI-crushing Illill. Frotll lh cn on, wc may a,\SUllle Ihal alllhe rollowing milis reduce lhc
bagasses 10 ~ I'ibre in Ihe vicinily of m . They give lherefore f l m 01' bagasse and:
of juice.
284 IMBIBITlON Ch. 19
w w
Fig. 19.4. \Vel crllsiling.
We have then:
f Juiee entering = ~ - f + w
l J uiee exl raeleu = W
The proportion of juiee extraeted is therefore:
w wm
r = = (19.5)
f -f+w f (1 - m) + wm
m
In praetiee, the proportion of sugar extraeted is different:

(1) Imbibilion is eommeneed well before the dry erushing has broughl the bagasse to lhe
fibre limil. In racl, imbibilion is appliecl as early as tlle c1elivery from lile rirsl mili. 1I rollows
that lhe rirst wet-eruslling milis give a quanlily 01· juiee grealer tllan w. However, calculalion
will show tllal the final extraetion is hardly superior 10 wllat il would llave been il" Ihe t"ibrc
limit had be en atlained as early as the first milI.
(2) The juiee extraeted is always slighlly higher in purily tllan lile residual juiee.
(3) On the other hand, the water (or the imbibition juice in the ease of cOJllpound imbibi-
tion) mixes only in a proportion {3 with the juiee contained in the bagasse to whieh it is ap-
plied. There is a proportion of this juiee which is nOI reaehed nor dilulecl by the waler, by
reason of unopened eells, and of the too greal al'l'inilY 01" bagasse I"or waler, whieh causes
the top layer to take the major part of Ihe water applied; this is more readily extraeled by
lhe following mili than the juiee contained in lhe bagasse. Il follows lhal, 01" lhe quanlilY
of sugar whieh it reeeives, this mili recovers only a propon ion:
{3r < r
We shall use the eoeffieient {3 to inelude tlle favourable terms (1) anu (2), as well as Ihe
unfavourable term (3), whieh moreover has a more marked effeet lhan Ihe olhers.
MA THEMA TlCAL STUDY OF IMBIBITlON 285
Simplilica/ion 01 r. Lel
(19.6)
w quantity or irnbibition waler added per unit weight or cane

I ribre conlent per unit 01' cane
A ratio or weight or imbibitiQn water 10 weight or ribre = w/f.
This ter111 A is very userul: it is A and not w which charaelerises lhe imbibition. In rael,
eqn. (19.5) may be written:
Am
r = (19.7)
I - In + AIn
wllieh shows that the eXlraction denends on A, and not on w; r does nOl aller whcn wand
I vary in propon ion .
Sinee m is always in the vicinity or 0.5, we have:
A
r == (19.8)
A+ 1
(e) Simple multiple imbibition

We have seen lhalsimple imbibilion means imbibilion carried out by means or water only,
without any return of juice to lhe bagasse.
Simple imbibition is called multiple when the water is applied at 2 or more points berore
2 or more milis.
[f lhere are n wel-crushing milis, il is cuslomary lO dislribule equally over lhe n milis lhe
quanlity w 01' waler used.
Each mili lhen reeeives w / n, and lhe proportion of juice extracled by each mili is obtained
by replacing w by w/ n in the expression ror r:
Am
r = ----_._-,-- ([9.9)
n (1 - m) + Am
and , rOl" m = 0.5:
r = (19.10)
A+ n
For unil quanlilY o"f $ugar arriving al Ihe rirsl wel crushing, lhis mili recovers (3r. There
remains I - (3r. Ir w/ n or waler is again applied and lhe bagasse is again compressed, lhis
second operalion wilJ again rurnishl/m or bagasse, and w / n or juice, and will recover (3' r '
of lhe .lugar presented tO il.
But r' = r , since the quantilY or waler is lhe same, w/n, and since m' = m by hYPolhesis.
Similarly, wc shall postulate i3' = i3 • .l ince. while lhe remaining juice mUSl have become more
dif'f'icul! of' acccss. !h c bagasse. 10 com[Jensale for Ihis . ha s been bCller [Jre[Jarecl by an addi-
!ional [Jressur e.
AClually. Ihe successive value~ of {3 should decrease along Ihe Irain. since, as Ihe bagassc
becomes exhaus!ed. Ihe juice which remains afler each pressure mUSI be more and more
enclosed in Ihe undamaged ce tts. and Ihe finer subdivision of Ihe bagasse can compensale
only slighlly for !his disadvanlage.
Le! us assume. however, that {3 = {3' = {3" = .... and adopt a mean v[\llI~ 01' {3.
The Is1 pressure will leave l - {3r of sugar. Of this. Ihe 2nd will recover :
(1 - (3r) {3r
The firs! 2 [Jrcssures IOgelher witt Iherefore furnish:
{3r + (1 - (3r) {3r
There remain s:
1 - [{3r + (1 - (3r) {3rJ = (1 - j3r)l
Of this, a Jrd wel crushing will recover:
(1 - (3r)' {3r
Hence these first J pressures IOgelher witt give:
{3r + (1 - (3 r) {3r + (1 - (3r)' {3r
and so on. Aflcr n we! crushings , Iherc has bccn cXlraclccJ:
{3r + (1 - (3r) {3r + (1 - (3r)' {3r + ... + (1 - {3 r)"-1 {3r
a geome!ri cal [Jrogression Ihe sum of which is:
1 - (1 - (3r)"
The 100al cXlr ac !ion of Ihe landem, dr y crushing plus wCI crushillg, IS Ihcl'cl'ore:
ex j)
- (m-- - + [ 1 - ex-(m- ---
- j) ] [1 - (1 - (3r) " ] (19.1 1)
m (1 - j) m (1 - j)
MATHEMATICAL STUDY OF IMBIBITION 287
".
where:
w
r
" + n
" " = J
m = ribre content 01' bagasse from the lasl dry-crushing mili

n = number 01' imbibitions = nU~lber 01' wet-crushing milis
w total weigilt of imbibition water per unit weight or cane
J wcigilt of nbrc pcr unit weigill 01' cane
a is or the order or 1.05 - 1.10

(3 is or the order or 0.60 - 0.80 ror waler.
(d) Compound multiple imbibilion - Iheorelical sludy

Compound imbibition is the syslem which consists 01' applying water berore lhe lasl mili, or
relurning the juice obtained al the la SI mili a, imbibilion berore the second-Iasl l11ill, lhe juice
rrom lile laller mili berore lhe next one preceding, and so on . The juice rrom the 2nd wet-
crushing mili is lhus relurned before lhe 1st wet-crushing mili, and only lhe juice rrom lhis
rirst wet-cru,hing mili goes to manufacture wilh lhe dry-crushing juice.
In Fig . 19.5 lel e" e" eJ, ... be the corresponding quanlities of sugar exrracte¡l'by the 1st,
2nd, 3rd, ... wel-crushing milis, for unil quanlily of sugar remaining afler dry crushing. lf
each of tlle lalter gives a bagas,e or ribre m, each of Ihem will recover w of juice and will
eXlraCI a proportion r or sugar.
As a firsl approximat"ion, we shall disregard the coefficient (3 and calcula te the total extrac-
tion of sugar obtained in this way.
At lhe 151 wel-crushing mili, lhere arrives a quanlity of sugar:
A, = 1 + e,
The 1st wel-crusiling mili extracIS of this:
e, = r A, = r (1 + e,)
O
o 1 st wet 2nd wet 3rd wt:t
crushing
.4 tn wet
crusnlng
'bb~;&
DrYCrU'h~
t
T
,
~.,
e,
Fig" 19.5. Mulliple compound imbibilion.
There remains in the bagasse:
8 I = A, (l - r) = (1 + e,) (1 - r)
Al lhe 2nd mili lhere arrives a quantity of sugar:
A, = e) + 8 , = e) + (1 + e,) (1 - r)
The 2nd mili extracts from lhis :
e, = rA, = re) + r ( 1 + e,) (1 - r) re) + e, (1 - r)
There remain s in lhe bagasse:
8, = A, (1 - r) = e, (1 - r) + (1 + e,) (1 - r)'
The quantity of sugar arriving at the 3rd mili is:
A, = e, + 8, = e, + e, (1 - r) + (1 + e,) (1 - r)'
The 3rd mili eXlraCIS from it:
e, = rA, = re, + re, (1 - r) + r (1 + e,) ( 1 - r)' = re, + e, (1 - r)
Similarly for lhe follo wing milis, Ihere arrives al Ihe (n - 1)lh mili a qualllilY of sugar:
An_1 = en + en _1 (l - r) + en_, (l - r)' + ,,' + e, (1 - r)n-' + (1 + e,) (1 - r)n-l
The (n - I)th mili extracts from this:
en _ I = re" + (1 - r) e" _,
The re remains in the bagasse:
8" _1 = en (l - r) + en_1 (l - r)' + .. , + e, (l - r)"-' + (1 + e,) (l - r)n-I
There arrives at the lasl mili a quanlily of sugar:
An = O (waler) + en (1 - r) + e,,_1 (1 - r)' + ... + e, (1 - r)n - ' + (1 + e,) (1 - r)n-I
The last mili extracts from this:
e" = e" _1 (1 - r)
'.
Ir we se l dowll (he various values f'oulld ror Ihe successive eXlraclions e, alld ir we add lhe
equaliom su obl<lilled, a lar ge nUlllber 01' lerms callcel Oul 011 Olle side or (he olhcr, and we
llave:
e" = en _ 1
ren _ I
en _ = ren
1 + en - 2 ren _2
en_~ = rel! _I + en - J ren _J
= + (19.12)
e3 re. + e, re,
e, rel + e, re,
e, re, + r
.,- "_ ..• _ - --
en = re ll + r - re,
whenc e:
_ _r_ (1 - e, )
I - r
A similar aduilioll may al$o be maue omílling lhe rírsl of lhe equalíons (/9.12). We then
obtain:
en_, ren + reno, + r (1 - e,)
whence:
en _, = (1 - e,) r- +
'.. _ r' ]
[ I - r (1 - r)'
Omíttíng simí larly 2, 3, ... equatíons, we have successively:
e" _2 = (1 - e,) [ .--'--- + ( ..

I-r I-r
!.._)' + (_.!_ )3J
l-r
e, = (l - e,)
[~ + (~)' + ... + (~)n - 'J
But:
e, r
e, r (1 + e,) e, =
r
290 IMBlBlTION Ch. 19
We have then:
e, r
r
Whence:
I + [~+(~~)'+ ... + (~)" - IJ-- - - - - - - -

1 + r [1~r+C~r)'+··+ (~)"-IJ
Bu!:
r =
~
~
+ 1
Hence:
r
1 - r
~ ( 19.13)
Each or Ihe expressions in square brackels in the expression ror e, ubove is u geomelrical
progression, Ihe sum or which is:
~n - I _ 1
~ . .. __..... -
~ - 1
Hence:
~
1 + ~ · .. _._0
~,, - I
~
.
- 1
...
1
-
~ + 1 ~ ~" - I - 1
1 + ~. - - --
~ + 1 ~ - 1
or:
~" - 1
~. ---- ( 19.14)
~n+ I _ 1
This expression postulates ~ *- 1. For ~ = 1, we rind readily, by rererence lO Ihe rormula

in r aboye:
MATHEMATICAL STUDY OF 1MBlBlTlON 291
n
(A l)
n + 1
Hellce lhe 10lal eXlraClioll for lhe landem, dry crushillg plus wel crushillg, is:
a (m -
m (1 -
fJ
+
fJ • [
1 - a
(m~J A
m (1 - fJ A" + 1 - 1
( 19.15)
where:
w
f
Practical resulls
The same 3 causes already discussed on p. 283 inlervene in compound as in simple imbibition
10 modil\¡ Ihe resulls. 11' resulls oblailled in praclice are compared wilh lhose forecasl by lhe
roregoing calculalion, il is found lhal lhe difference oblained may be expressed in lerms 01'
an elTiciellcy coefficienl which we shall define as follows:
sugar aClually exlracled by lhe imbibllion concerned

{3 -------_ ..
sugar which would lía~'e¡;een exi~ac¡ed according lo lhe preeedillg lheorelical formulae
This coelTicienl {3 is unforlunalely variable, and depends on lhe efl"iciency of lhe syslem
of imbibilioll used, 011 lhe condition of the rollers, lhe performance 01" the milis, lhe SIal e
of preparalioll of lhe bagasse, alld, ill compound as ill simple imbibilion, on lhe place of
Ihe lllill in Ihe lalldem. However, il would 1101 be greally in error lO adopl a coefficienl of
Ihe order 01' 0.6-0.8.
Furlher, illlbibilioll wilh waler under pressure, as carried OUI at Ihe lasl mili with com-
poulld imbibilion, and at all lllills wilh simple imbibition, has an efficiency slightly higher
Ihall Ihal 01" imbibition wilh juice f10wing onto the bagasse by gravily.
Similarly, waler applied under pressure penetrates the bagasse better than when it is in the
form 01' a l"ine spray: a distributor in the form of a perforated pipe, wilh holes al inlervals
01" 25 - 40 mm (1 - 1¡ in.), is more effeclive 1han a distribulor wilh alomisers giving a spray
in Ihe I'orlll of a cone wllich spreads lile water more uniformly over lhe layer of bagasse. The
reasoll is IIlal, in lile second case, only Ihe 10p layer of bagasse is welled, whereas in lhe
I'orlller case, lile jels 01" water penelrale furlher into Ihe interior of Ihe bagasse and Ihe waler
is dislribuled more uniformly as regards depth.
We Illay comment in Ihis conneclion lhal Mittal', in India, has found a better efficiency
wilh water under a pressure of 0.5 kg/cm' (7.5 p.s.i.) than under 1.0 kg/cm' (15 p.s.i.). 11
is acl ually advantageous to apply imbibition under a head of 5 - 6 m (15 - 20 ft.).
As a firsl approximation, we may assume:
For water under pressure: (3 = 0.60 - 0.80

For return of juice: (3 = 0.50-0.70
292 IMBlBITION Ch. 19
1.0~----~------,----,,~~~ 1.0,------,--------,-----~__,
0 9 f - - -- - - + - - .0.
.~
.§ o.ell------.- +-c
¡L- r 061f-- - -- I - - - -
l' ~
¡
Il~0.7 g0.7
I
I
¡
e
~ I I "
~ 0.61---------f,t-~~"L~
" 0.6J---~¡....,:~H~-/-=---+--
"
~
( I
II
8
~ 0.51----!/'-I-#.,¡<:-----+-------, &! 0.5
a: I(
0.4 ~fI./.:.-.-I-----.. --. ..- - -. - - 0.4 ... .... .
,/1
03~_+~--~-----+-----~ 03 (1./-.- + -- ---1 - ... - ..-

Theoretical
curves
0.21--11-------+---------+-------- 0.2 -..
Pra cticol curves
<p=O.S)
°o~-------L---------~------~ o 2 3
2 Imbibition). J Imbibitiofl ).
Fig . 19.6. Yariation of residual extraclion as a runcliol1 01' imbibilion. Theorelil:al graph .
Fig. 19.7. Variation or residu al eXlraction as a runction or imbibitioll. Pract ical graph ({3 = 0.8).
t.O,-----~-----,r__---___,
0.9 - -._-._ . .. .. - .- -1---
• 0.6,f- - - - -- - . . - - - - - j- - - - - - I
e
O
j¡ 0.7f--- ----..J--..J- - - - - + - - -_ _-j
~
~
Triple compound imbibition
Triple simple imbibition "
E 0.6 -C;ouble compound
.-- ---
,,-:.-p.,..-":i,.....,"--_-:-~
~ imbibition ~".. .., - (\
... '" ~ ... - . 'o\'oit\O
" O "el -------,~-.,...;...7__..,;-;:::: ~e 1t'0_ _ _.....,
~ ,..>( ;,- . ~\~
> ,./ ..... ,..- ).).'Ow I . 'oi'oit"lon
8 / y 0° . q,e \ti'
& 0.4 ,5~''';;f-''''=------,
0.3f-----.¡#'~/¡<:....------_, - -- - - - i
0.2
Procticol curves
<P·0.6)
O 2 3
Imbibition ).
Fig . 19.8. Varialion or residual exlracl io n al a runclion or imbibition . Pra<ti,aI graph ({3 0.6).
Howevcr, lo avoid eomplicalion, il will suffiee in praeliee lo adopl a single value 01' (3, easy
lo calculale in each case, and which we sllall lake equal 100.60 or 0.65, in Ihe absence 01'
more precise figures.
Case of compound imbibifion. To lake into aceount the coeffieient (3, il will be necessary
Iherefore, in our formula (19.15), 10 replace A by:
{ir
A' = (19.16)
- {ir
We sllow now, for lile 2 methods 01' imbibition:

(a) Theorclic81 graphs oblained by Ihe original formulae (Fig. 19.6).
(b) Tlle same curves cOITeclcd 10 allow 1'01': (1) a coefl'icicnl {i = 0.8 (Fig. 19.7); (2) a coef-
I'icienl {i = 0.6 (Fig. 19.8).
11 is .Icen illlnlcdialely Illal Ihe inlroduclion 01' Ihe coefl'icienl {i is much more disadvan-
lageous in compound Ihan in simple imbibilion. Whereas lhe lheoretical curves which express
Ihe effecl 01' simple imbibition are far below Ihe corresponding curves for compound imbibi-
lion, lile relalive di.llance 01' tlle correcled curves is much less, and if a very low value were
adorled 1'01' (3, Ihese curves would end up by being aprroximately superimposed (or slriclly
sreaking, by illlcLlecling).
Conclusion. (1) The difference in value presented by the 2 modes 01' imbibition il much
less imronanl Ihan Ihe Iheorelical formulae would lead one lO suppose.
(2) The efl'icacy 01' the syslem 01' imbibilion is 01' greater importance in compound Ihan
in simple imbibilioll.
Commenl. Our IlYPollleses (1) 01' a bagasse ribre 01' 0.5 in all cases, and (2) 01' a single and
constanl coelTicienl (3, are approxilllalions only; bul they are sul'ficient 10 sllow al whal point
a mediocre el'ficiency affects lhe results 01' compound imbibition. II is this poinl especially
Ihal we wish lo emphasise.
Brix and sugar confent of juices with compound imbibition

Wc Iwvc c,llclllalcd Ihc eXlraclion wilh colllpound imbibilion by laking as unilY Ihe quantily
01' sugar rCIll,lining ul'ler dry crushing, and caiculaling tlle successive quanlilies e" e" el, ...
en 01' sugar exlracled by Ihe successive wel-crushing milis.
This calculalioll assumed Ihal Ihe quantilies 01' sugar extracted by Ihe various milis were
pl'Oportionallo Ihe quanlities 01' juice exlracted by IIlem (r); in other words, Ihal the imbibi-
lion juice l11ixccl cOl11plelely wilh Ihe juice previously eonlained in Ihe bagasse whieh reeeived
il.
Lel us relain I hese assumplions, and consider now the sugar content 01' Ihese different
juices. Lel:
So = poi contenl 01' lile juice remaining al' ter dry crushing
SI, S" Sl, .oo, Sn = poi contents 01' lhe juice furnished by the ISI, 2nd, 3rd, oo., nlh wel-
crushing milis.
Similarly, lel u~ con~ider the relative poi contents, as proportions or Ihe poi cOlllenl So 01"
the juice remaining after dry crushing:
s, 82
SI S2
So So
Finally, all expresscd per unil weighl of cane, let:

Qo = weighl of poi remaining in Ihe bagasse aflcr dry crusiling
Q" Q2, Q3, ... , Qn = weighls of POi exlraCled by lhe 151, 2nd, 3rd, ... , nlh weH:rushing
milis
j = weighl of juice presenl in each bagasse
w = weighl of imbibilion juice or water app lied al each milI.
NOle Ihal:
j=!
Since:
w j w r w
+
r = 1 - r = = A=
j W j + w j I - r !
we have:
Qo
Qo = jSo - =
Qo
Q, WS I
Q, = wS, = e, = AS,
Qo jSo
Q2 WS2
Q, = wS, = e, = = AS,
Qo jSo
Qn = wSn
Hence we may derive (ef. p. 288):
--
(1 - e,) (A + Al + A' + ... + An -P ")
or:
A
Sp+ I A- 1
= -_....:..:..._-- =
Sp 'A n - + _
p 1
A· - --- (19. 17)

A- 1
".
We llaVe ¡hus oblaincd a recurrence formula. This equalion is valid only for I ~ P ~ n,
slnce:
S, e, S, e,
but =
S, e, So ?
We ,hall . however, verify l ha-! it is valid I'or S, /So , that is, for p = O.
Wc have in raet. assullling that lhe lllixlure 01' juice is complete afler imbibilion, and thal
Ihe juiee eXlracled by Ihe mili and Ihal remaining in lhe bagasse consequently llave lhe same
"lugar con lenl:
S, (w + }) = So} + S,w
S, = rS, + (1 - r) So
S, S, S, S,
r _.+ (1 - r) r . + (1 - r)
So So S, So
S, (.
r
_-
1 - r
)'-1_ I
S,
r . + (1 - r)
So So
(~)" - 1
Hence:
S, (_r_)"
1 - r
_1
So
( ~~ (I~-;: _ 1) -) n I
I - r'
or:
S, )..,n - 1
Q.E.D.
So )..,nd - 1
We have Illen:
)..,n - 1
S,
>-.n.' - 1
S2 'A n - 'A n- , - 'A n- ,

s, = s, - _ . _---- = -
s, Xn + 1 'An - A" +I
S3 'A n-' 'An - 2 'A n- 2 -

S3 = S3 = Xn+1 -
S, X,1t+ I 'An-, -
SP )..n-p+2
- Al! -/1+ - I XI'f -p ~ I -
Sp = Sp_l = - ---_. _.-
J
_._._-_ ... - - . _. = -_ ... _- - -
Sp_, 'N' + I - 1 )"11 -p t 2 1 - Ar/+I - 1
We mal' thercfore calculate lhe poi conlent of any imbibition juice, knowing .,i mply So and
'A. We have:
'An-p+' - I
Sp = So (19.18)
"X" + I - I
n = number of wet-crushing mili s

p number of Ihe wel-crushing mili concerned U.e. ils posilion in lhe seqLlen~e of wel-
cru shing milis)
Sp = poi conlent of Ihe juice of this plh wel-crushing mili
So = poi contenl of dry-crushing juice = poi conlent 01" normal juice
'A w/j = weighl of imbibilion waler per unil weight of fibre.
No/e. We ha ve jusI seen above:
'A" - I
e, = 'As, S,
from which we oblain:
'A" - ·1
e, = 'A
which provides a second derivation of thi s importanl and inleresting equation.
Brix. The relalionships which we have jusI shown for the suga r contenl\ could equally well
have been derived for lhe brixes, if we acceflllhc hYl1olhc\ is Ihal Ihc Ilurilics ol·lhc sUL"l:essive
juice were lhe lame. AClually, they decreasc frolll Illill 10 Illill, bul Ihis sc~rccl y Illore Ihan
compensales for the approximalions due lO our hYPo lheses, and we mal' cqually wcJl w rile:
MATHEMATICAL STUDY OF IMBIBITlON 297
"n-p.' _ 1
Bo ' - - - (19,19)
Bp = brix 01' juice from pth wet-crushing mili

Bo = brix 01' Ihe dry-crushing juice = brix 01' normal juice
n = number 01' wel-crushing milis
p = posilion 01' Ihe wel-crushiltg mili concerned, in Ihe wel-crushing milis
" = weighl 01' imbibilion waler per unil weight 01' fibre = w/f.
Prac1ical conc1usions
The results 01' the preceding Iheoretical discussion, and 01' experience, lead to the following
practical concJusions:
(a) For equal quantity 01' water used, compound imbibilion is supcrior to simple imbibi-
lion,
(b) Compound imbibition leads to a much grealer relurn 01' juice to Ihe bagasse: twice as
much ror double compound, Ihrice as nluch for triple, ror the same quanlity 01' waler, For
lhis reason, when Ihe limiling faclor is, not evaporalor capacity, bul choking al lhe milis,
crushing rale is reslricled much sooner wilh compound than with simple imbibition, In this
case, one may resor! 10 a compromise between Ihe 2 procedures; for exampJ.e, in the case
01' 17 rollers:
Imbibition with waler befare lhe 5th or last mili

Imbibition with water befare the 4th mili
Return 01' 5th-mili juice befare the 3rd mili
Return 01' 4th-mili juice before the 2nd mili
Transfer to manufacture 01' the juices from crusher and 1st mili (primary juice)
Transfer 10 manufacture 'al' the juices from 2nd and 3rd milis (secondary juice),
For average quantities 01' imbibition, it is sometimes sufl'icient to divide Ihe water between
Ihe 4th and 51h milis, which are Ihe ones most susceptible to choking, to relurn their combin-
ed juices befare Ihe 3rd, the juice 01' Ihe 3rd befare the 2nd, and the juice 01' the 1.11 mili
(primary juice) and 01' Ihe 2nd (secondary juice) 10 manul'aclure,
11', on Ihe olher I,land, il is desired or is I'ounclneces,sary to balance lile quanlilies 01' imbihi-
lion between Ihe various milis, as in Ihe case 01' our J'irst examplc aboye, we may commcnl
Ihal il is Ihen necessary 10 send to manul'acture Ihe juice not only 01' Ihe l'irSI 2 milis, bUI
01' the firsl 3 milis,
We add (Fig, 19,9(b)) the simple schemes proposed by B,M,A, for tandems 01' 4, 5 and
6 milis, ror I'ibre 01' 12,5, imbibition 20-25, per 10001' cane,
RELATIVE WEIGHTS OF BAGASSE AND JUICE
The relalive weighls 01' bagasse and juice from Ihe various milis in a tandem are very readily
determined, Wc give as an example a tandem 01' 5 milis anci consider Ihc case 01' compound
•
100 rJ ¡ j,,<01 I ~
w= 36
!
""lr~~'Pb'T
ji': 55 h=51
116M
10W
~ JJ ,Fla
lO 67",JlS
28.'2M
=
:¡;:
33~F/B
67 .... JlB
¿' . .
~8'JlB
F/B 4H,F/B
~J ~ ,Jl8
~O~.FfB
50',)/6
~
~
""
3J'.F/8 ~O',F/B ~5".,Fl8 48' FI8 50',F/8 ~J':F/8

67')18 60'.)/8 55'd/8 ~1 ,if8 ~O'.Jl8 '46'. Jl3
101 t.I
Fig. 19.9. (a) Juiccs anel bagasses in L'ompounu imbibi¡ioll (f = 0.15; IV = 0,36). (b) Diagram 01' juícc amI ribrl'
in 4',5· anel 6·milllanuems (f = 0.125; w = 0.20-0.25) (B.M.A.)
MATERIAL BALANCE OF THE TANDEM 299
illlbibili on. assuming lhal, as is Ihe general case, Ihe inlermediale jui<:es are relurned by
chokeJess flUl11flS wilhoul separalion 01' fine bagasse. The calculalion may be casily modified
I·or any olllcr case.
NOlalion. Wc assume Ihal unil \Vciglll 01" callc arrives a l Ihe rirsl mili, wilh l"ibrc cOlltcnl
f = 0.15 ano illlbibilion w = 0.360:
) weigill 01" juice per unil 01' !;alle
b = \Vcighl 01" bagas se pcr unil 01" callc
F = J"ibrc conlenl 01' bagasse
Q weigill of mixed juice per unit of cane
1,2, 3 . . .. 11 = indices 01" successivc milis.
The basic cqualion givcs:
I + W Q + b"
Hence:
Q = I + w - b n = 1 + 0.360 - 0.300 = 1.060 (Fig. 19. 9a)
Bagasses. Wc assulllc operalion willl lile ¡·ollowing scale of fibre figures:
F, 0.33 b, = 0.15/0.33 = 0.450

F¡ 0.40 b, = 0.15/0.40 = 0.375
F, 0.44 b, = 0.15/0.44 = 0.341
p, 0.47 b, = 0. 15 / 0.47 = 0.319
F, 0.50 b, = 0.15/0.50 0.300
Juice. Equalillg Ihe quantilies entering and leaving a group 01' milis, we rcadily have:
J, = 1 - b, = 0.550 j, = Q - J, = 0.510
)¡ = b, +)¡ b¡ J, =)¡ b, + b, 0.435
}; = b, + J, -
b, ), =)¡ b, + b, 0.401
), = b, + ), - b, J, = ), b, + b, = 0.379
), = b, + w b,
For inlerlllediale milis:
MATERIAL BALANCE OF THE TANDEM
The malerial balance is calculated srarting with rhe mini mal necessary data as follows, for
which we apply by way of el<ample typical vaJues:
I fíbre per uníl of cane: 0,15

w imbibilion per unil 01' cane: 0.36
B, brix of primary juice: 20.73
p, purily of firsl-mill juice: 89
e = exlraclion oblained: 96
Pn = purilY 01' residual juice 01' I'inal bagassc: 50
With brix of juices returned:
Bl = 6,50 B. = 4 B, =3
and purilies:
Pl = 80 p. = 77 Pl = 72
The calculalion is carried out in the following order:
Caneo Brix Bo of absolute. juice is deduced I'rom brix 01' primary juice assuming:
Bo = 0.965 B, = 0.965 x 20.73 = 20
PurilY of absolule juice is similarly:
po = 0.95, or: 0.96 P, 0.85
Hence sucrose content:
So = (1 - fJ Bopo 0.850 x 0.20 x 0.85 = 0.144
Juice ollirsl mili, Soluble mal ter:
M, = ),B, 0.550 x 20.73 = 0,114

Hencc sucrosc rr¡o firSI-mill juicc:
s, = B,p, = 20.73 x 0.89 18.45
and sucrosc in this juice:
S, = 0.114 x 0.89 = 0. 1015
Final bagasse. We have sucrose in final bagasse:
sn = So (1 - el = 0.144 x 0.04 = 0.0058

.. MATERLAL BALANCE OF THE TANDEM 301
Hefll'e so luble Illatter ill the baga.s.sc:
0.0058/0 .50 0.0116
J uicc ill bagasse:
gn = (l, - F,,) bn = 0.50 x 0.300 = 0.150
alld .~ucrosc aJo in lJagasse:
sn /b n = 0.0058/0. 300 = 1. 93aJo
Second-mill juice. Soluble maLeria!:
. .; . 0.0444
Hellcc brix of sceo nd-mill juice:
8 2 = 0.0444/ 0.510 = 8.71
am! .Iucrose:
: SI 0.1445 - 0.1015 - 0.0058 = 0.0372
Sunose aJo 01' juiee:
SI = 0.0372/0.510 7.29
Purity:
P2 = 0.0372/0.0444 = 83.8
Residl/al JI/ice from firsl mili, Soluble materia!:
M = 0.1700 - 0.1140 = 0.0560
Sucrose:
S = 0.1445 - 0.1015 = 0.0430
J uiee:
g = b, -f= 0.450 - 0. 150 0.300

Suerose OJo juiee;
S 0.043010.300 = 14.33
Purity:
p 0.043010.0560 76.8
Third-mill juice. Soluble material:
MJ = 0.435 x 0.0650 0.0283
Sucrose:
SJ = 0.0283 x 0.80 = 0.0226
Residual juice from first mili after imbibilion. Total juice:
g = g, + h = 0.300 + 0.435 = 0.735
Soluble material;
M- 0.0560 + M J 0.0843
Sucrose;
s = 0.0430 + 0.0226 0.0656
Residual juicefrom second mili. This is lile residual juice 01' Ihe rirsl Illilllcss whal lea ves
with the second-mill juice:
Soluble malerial;
M 0.0843 - M, 0.0843 - 0.0444 0.0399
Sucrose:
s = 0.0656 - 0.0372 = 0.0284
Continuing step by step in the same way: residual juice from second mili after imbibition,
residual juice from third mili = residual juice from second mili afrer imbibilion less juice
which leaves as third-mill juice, residual juice from fourth mili, and so 011: we Ihus I'illd Ihe
quantities indicated in Fig. 19.10.
, :. 3>.>
f, 0,1,,0
¡
J"
9F
H3 --
0,435
6.50
0,0283
j.
B.= . 4
H
,t,
=
=
Oh01
= . 0.0160
0.0111"
J. =
8.=
M=
-1 _
,
0,379
0.0114
'1
r'~
..
;::
:>-
'"'l
'"
~ t'I=o..~
-:.
:o
t = 0~50
..... :. 0.1.00
g,_ o~oo
-'\= 0.0226
g:. o.'f.\" ,=O~50 I t

'so1'," !.!.
=O¿;~,
0.0082
l' = 1.1
, 0,,,0
..
):
~:~~b bt~?7Sf.i=I.O ~:.o,676

= O.o&5b
0.1700 ~
H. 1 '. , 'l1
'~ '"~
~~
Be % 70 8= "J:>1 ,..,\lo "- . OS'1'l
:>-
_C"",'l ~ "..1Í51'l30 F.= 50
z
)). = 0.1445 j} = O.()I3l 9=0.225 1 ti : n,0591 l'I ..C>: , q - \lIl'131) ti o..o.,t.ll O
'"O
So = 17
p. = 85
J. = 0.550
H.= 0.1140
s = 11..33 J, = 0,510
p= ~:. H,= O·,04lJ. b :0,0
18
1.
/l :.().OlJl1 &.J /)=
Q$l 'L_ __
"
ti - 140'
...
/) ..
h.= 0.300
."
>-i
8,= 20.73 el = 1,71 9 = 0.1S0 :I:
A,= O,m5 -1,= 0,0372 H = 0.0116 '">-i
St= 1',1.5 5t: 7.29 .4 = o.OQ51 :>-
Z
"'. 89 l' = 83,8 Svcrw %bD9=1.'!3 O
'"
;::
Fig. 19.10. Weighl of juices and bagasses in Ihe ,"ndem.
v.>
ov.>
304 IMBIBlTION Ch. 19
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Optimum imbibition
The eXlraClioll increases, rapidly al firsl, morc slowly laler. as imbibilion is illl'lCaSc'll. Slealll
consumplion inereases wilh imbibilion. Ir Ihe faelOry is consullIing purchascd fud, or ir il
is using ils bagasse profilably, Ihere will obviously be a qualllilY 01' walcr which corrcsponds
lo Ihe maximum benefit. This quanlity depends on Ihe ratio of price of sugar lO price 01' ruel,
and should be calculated for each individual case.
The form 01' lhe graphs in Figs. 19.6-19.8 shows thal gener¡tlly lilc ol'lin1\lI11 illlbibilioll
will be reached al values 01' A of Ihe order of 2.
The exlraclion in facI increases very rapidly as A illl'rcases J'rolll zero lO 1, Slill I'airly rapidly
belween 1 and 2, bul more slowly aboye 2. There is rarely any advai1lagc in cxcccding A =
3, and il is normally never advantageous 10 exceed A = 4.
11 is 01' inleresl, however, to nole that, in Ihe course 01' lesls carried OUI al Ihe experimenlal
factory al Audubon Park, in Louisiana', il was found Ihat exlraclion illl'reased rapidly wilh
imbibition up lO Ihe neighbourhood 01' 30070 (A = 2 - 2.5), and allained a maxilllulll I'or an
imbibition 01' 60070 (A = 4 - 5).
In Auslraliá J il ha's been found, for 3 faclories sludied, Ihal the oplimal valuc \Vas silualed
at A = 2.4. One aUlhor 4 reports, however, a gain up 10 A = 3.2. This would suggesl Ihal,
aboye Ihe economic oplimum, there would exisl also a lechnical Opl imum and I hal one can-
nOI aceept a graph 01' recovery by imbibilion increasillg indel'inilely. In Ihis case a lentalive
explanalion could be found in the facI tilal Ihe capacilY 01' bagassc for absorbing waler is
limited to about seven times the weight al' ribre it eonlains (ef. p. 309); lhac wOllld be no
advantage in going beyond t hat figure,
Theorelical experimerlls (simulalions) in Auslralia' show lilal lilere would bc' a lllaxil11um
for A = 3 in a tandem of 5 milis, or for a value 01' 2.5 in a 6- or 7-mill tandel11, and Ihal
lhe effeel 01' quanlily 01' imbibilion decreases as the lIumber 01' milis illereases.
More recenl experimenls, however, also in Australia, by Crawford 6 , would lelld 10 indicate
thal, if tite f'ccding 01' Ihe mili is not affeeted, Ihere \Vollld be no limit to the gaill ill eXlraclioll
obtained by illcreasing imbibition; Ihis gain would become xl11aller 3nd sll¡¡¡llcr, bUI never
zero. The difference should not be difficull 10 delermine, bUI it x inleresl is purcly Iheorelical.
The higheSI imbibilion quantilies recorded are those pracli sed in Soulil Al'rica. Tite l11ean
figure for imbibition 070 fibre for 1980 - 81 was 344, one l'aClory reporting 400. 111 t hal coun-
Iry, Ihere were 11 diffu sion planls and 11 tandems of milis. The average eXlraclion was 96.89,
wilh seareely any differerice between diffusion factories and faclories with milis. However,
Ihese were nearly all 6- or 7-mill trains, and the only factory wilh intbibilioll less Ihan 200070
on fibre(173) reported an extraction equal 10 Ihat 01' lile others wilh illlbibilion figures 01'
300 - 401. We can however conclude Ihat South African experience provides evidence in
favour of high quanlilies of imbibilion.
Optimum distribution of water in mulliple simple imbibition

In sludying mulliple simple imbibilion, we have assunted a priori Ihat Ihe imbibilion waler
was divided equally belween Ihe various milis.
The queslion may be asked, whether it would nOI be beller to adopt an unequal dislribu-
GENERAL CONSlDERATIONS 305
lion a mong the different posilions, and lO seek Ihe optimal proponions corresponding lo Ihe
best eXlraClion, for a given total quanlily W of imbibition waler.
For silllplidty, we sl1allconfine oursclves lO the case of double simple il11bibition, assuming
we are dcaling wilh Ihe lasl Iwo milis of any tandem, TI1e results oblaincd will be applicable
to Ihe case 01' hybrid imbibilion (e;' p. 296),
(l-x)w xw
/óO~e56)Ye56~
''-~~'
j
j 1 J2 j3
Flg,. 19.11. Oplimum di slribulion or water between IWQ sprays.
Let (Fig, 19,11):

W = IOlal weighl of imbibilion waler 10 be dislribuled, per unil cane
xw = proponion 10 be applied before Ihe lasl mili
(1 - x) W = proporlion lO be applied before Ihe penullimale mili
f = fibre in cane
mi fibre in bagasse from Ihe anlepenullimale mili
m, = fibre in bagasse from Ihe penullimale mili
m, fibre in bilgasse from Ihe lasl milI.
The penullimale mili will give a quanlity of juice:
j, = -
f+
·(1 - x) W
f
mi m2
and Ihe lasl:
h = f + XW _ f
mz m3
Lel:
f f a f f = a'
mi m¡
and lel us designale by b Ihe quanlily of juice remaining in Ihe bagasse from Ihe
anlepenull imale mili, before imbibilion:
J, f '
- - f = b
mi
306 IMBrnITION Ch. 19
The quanlily of juicc rcmaining in the bagasse from Ihe lasl mili bu! one will be:
JJ = L -f = L -f + L f = b - a
m, mi m,
For unit quanlíly or sugar remaining arter the alltepenullimale mili, Ihe I'ollowing mili will
extraet a proportion of juice (or, approximately, 01' .lugar):
a + (1 - x) w
f,
¡, + (1 - x) w
=b + (1 x) w
There remains then in its bagasse a quantity 01' sugar I - f" and Ihe lasl mili recovers
from it a proponion:
)¡ + xw
a'
fJ = =
JJ + xw b - a + xw
On the total, then, we obtain:
e f, + (1 - f,) fJ
We require 10 rind the maximum value of e whell x varies rrom O to l. We have:
or:
+ (a + w) wx + (b - a) (a + a' + w)
w' x,
e
- w'x' + (a + w) wx + (b - a) (b + w)
Lel us set uown the derivalive wilh respecl 10 X or Ihe rUllclion e. Jt has Ihe value:
w (a + w - 2 wx) (b - a) (b - a - a')
e' =
v'
we designa te the whole denominator of e by v.

For e to have a maximum value, e' = O, which ean oeeur only when:
I a
a + w - 2wx O x = +
2 2w
GENERAL CONSIDERATlONS 307
and, su bsliluling Ihe value of a:
I m, m,
x = + (19.20)
2 2A
Commenls. (1) Common values. In general, 11m, - 11m, is of Ihe order of 0.1 - 0.6, lhe
smallesl valucs being oblaincd inlhe 10ngcsI landellls. For lypical values of A (2 - 3), x varies
Ihen frolll 0.58 100.51. 1I is Ihus necessary always lo apply more Ihan half of Ihe waler al
Ihe lasl mili, bUI only slighlly 1110re Ihan half and, if Ihe lasl mili is liable 10 choke on accounl
of C.\CCSS i,nbibilioll, Ihere will be lillle disacJvanlagc in relurning 10 a more nearly cqual
dislribuli on, since Ihe maximum of eXlraelion is never very marked.
(2) Limil oI dOllble simple imbibilion. When Ihe imbibilion has 10 be reúuccú 10 a very
low qunnlily, a poinl is rcached whcre:
m, m,
Consequenlly, x = 1, and Ihere is no rurther advanlage in using double imbibilion: alllhe

waler muSI Ihen be applied al Ihe lasl milI. However, lhis limiling value being very low,
generally less Ihan 0:3, Ihis limil is 1101 likely 10 apply in normal praclice. JI will be simply
remembered Ihal, as moreover is shown by eqn. (19.20), Ihe proportionx lO apply al Ihe lasl
mili should be inereased as lhe quanlilY of imbibilion A is decreased.
(3) Influence oIlhe coellicienl {3. We ha ve assumed lhal ¡he last mili bul one exlracled r,
and Ihe laSl r, of [he sugar reeeived by each. Aelually, we know ¡hat we shall recover al Ihe
firsl only {3r,. There remains lhen (1 - (3r,) , of whieh Ihe lasl mili recovers {3r, (1 - (3r,).
We should Ihen have had 10 aseerlain lile maximum value of {3r, + {3/', (1 - (3r¡), which
is lhe same as Iha\ of:
r, + rJ (1 - (3r,) = r, + r, - {3r,r,
11 is found Ihal Ihe eoeffieienl {3 influences r, and r, symmelrically. and Iherefore should
nOI appreeiably modify Ihe aboye results.
Al what poinl lo apply imbibition

Cerlain lechnicians pUl much emphasis on applying lhe imbibilion as far ahead of the mili
as possible . They consider lhat Ihe dilulion is Ihus more complete, ¡he bagasse having more
lime lo absorb Ihe water or juice received.
Aelually, lhe bagasse has a very greal affinity for waler, and dilulion is very rapid and
almosl inslanlaneous. Numerous experimenls have given resulls scarcely convineing, some·
limes eonlradielory. In Trinidad' imbibilion applied jusI al Ihe entry of lhe bagasse 10 the
mili has even shown a slighl gain relalive lO lhat applied at [he delivery from Ihe preceding
mili, allhough ¡he intermedial e earriers were 8 m (25 ft.) in lenglh.
308 IMBIBITlON Ch, 19
There is thercfore no occasion to attaeh mueh importanee, from this point of view, [Q the
posilion at whieh the maeeration distribulor is loealed,
It seems, on lhe olher hand, that there is some advalllage in direeting lhe jels oC lhe imbibi-
lion water spray in the plane tangelllial 10 lhe delivery rollers, Sinee pan of the bagas se
adheres to the top roller, lhis allows the water lO reaeh the middle of [he bagasse layer, and
also lO spray, during ils fall, the bagasse dropping in a finely divided stale frorn [he top-roller
seraper.
In shorl, care should be laken lO dislribule the irnbibilion as well as possiblc in [he bagasse,
but the best dislribution is still that operating in lhe nip of [he I'eed rollers; irnlllcdia[ely
pressure is applied, the execss liquid is expresscd ami forms a slream passing throllgh the
bagasse layer and welling lhe zones whieh previollsly had remained dry, Mos[ nelV I"ac[orics
now (1981) apply imbibition a[ lhe 10p of tile Donnelly cIJU[e,
Ho( or cold imbibition ,

Should lhe imbibilion water be eold or hot? Experilllen[s made on lhis qllcstion similarly
show litlle agreement. Of lhe author's four faetories, one has shown a fairly marked dif-
ference in extraction in favour of hot water, whereas [he [hree o[hers have railed [O sholV
any differenee in lhis direclion,
It appears [ha[ temperature has li[lle efl'ee[ up [O [he neighbourhood 01" 60 - 70°C (140-
158°F), Above lhis poinl, lhe e!lieaey of imbibilion is slighlly superior with hOl Waler, lhe
gain in extraelion reaching 0,4070 in lhe mosl favourable cases 8 ,
Supporters of hOI imbibilioll explain lhe aelion of lemperalun: by [he deslruc[ion of lhe
lissues 01' lhe cell walls by heal. The mal erial of the eell walls, which is impermeable, or
permeable only by osmosis, would be soflened, and waler Ihus would have dirccl access 10
Ihe juiee eonlained in lhe cells,
The following points may be .noted:
(1) A slighl gain in extraelion is oblained wilh hol waler, somelimes rU[ller dilTicull 10
detecl, and oflen negligible,
(2) The millsdo not lake lhe feed as well wilh hOI imbibilion as with cold. When Ihe planl
is operating al high lonnage relalive lO Ihe normal capacily of the milis, and whcn heavy im-
bibilion is used, performance is limiled sooner wilh hOI waler Ihan wilh cold.
In Hawaii, Haines and Hughes 9 have experienced feeding dilTicullies only aboye 92.5°C
(180°F), Belween 56 and 80°C (133 and 175°F) Ihey had, on Ihe conlrary, a slighl gain,
allowing an increase of lhe quanlily of imbibition Wilh waler lemperature. This IClllperalure
of 80'C would lhus be an oplimum. We may cornmenl [hat lhese aulhors are among those
who indieale 'o a highly significanl difference in eXlraclion with hOI waler noc (170°F): with
milI exlraelion 68, and lhat with cold water 26°C (79°F): extraclion 62.2.
(3) Imbibition with hot waler has Ihe greal advanlage of saving cold waler and 01' pro-
viding an exeellenl use for the hot condensa[e re[urned from Ihe later vessels 01' Ihe mlll[iple
effeets,
Waxes, Cane carries on its rind a eertain quan[ilY of wax, most of whieh is found at [he
"wax ring", below the node, Some varieties (Co 290, B37.161, elc.) are particularly rich in
waxes. Mosl of Ihe waxes mell belween 60 and 80°C (140-175°F), and mOSI ol'len belween
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 309
65 and 75°C; and il has long been believed that imbibition wilh hOI waler had Ihe serious
disadvanlage of inereasin g Ihe proporlion of waxes passing into the mixed juice. However,
HOllig " rqlOrts lilal experinlenls have bec nllladc 011 Ihis subjcct in Java, alld Ihal they have
Icd to tJ¡e cOllclusion Ihat il11bibition with waler al 85 -95°C (185 -203 ° F) doe" not eXlrael
any more wax Ihan illlbibilion wilh water al 28°C (82°F). The proportion varies frOlll 30 to
45% in th e 111'0 cases, but is not appreeiably affected by the temperature of Ihe illlbibition
waler.
On the other hand, tlle tests have shown Ihal the intensity of disintegralion undergone by
the cane plnys a I"avourable role, and lllal tlle bagasse relains an appreciabl y Ilighcr propor-
lion of sub.stances detrimenlal to fillerability of juiee and final raw sugar wllen il is better
prepared and broken up, by knives, sllredders, etc.
We may concludo then that, if il is considered thal Ihere is any advanlagc in using hot
water as illlbibition, there is no objeclion, fr0111 lhe poinl of view of manufaClure, lO doing
50.
A goael tClllpcrature ror illlbibitiol1 wilil hOI walcr is 80-85°C (175-185°F).
Influence of imbibilion on bagasse moisture

In all tlle precedi ng cakulations, il has been assumed thal the quanlity of imbibition had no
elTeel 011 the Illoisturc éf tile bagasse. This is nol slrictly true.
From fundamenlal consideralions, it would appear Ihal the quantity of water introduced
would facilitate rat her than hinder lhe extraelion of juice by Ihe following mili. Actually, ex-
perience show.\ that .lhe moisture of the final bagasse increases slighlly with the quantity of
il11bibilion. In Australia' a case 11as even been found whcre lhe moisture inereased frorri 47.4
tO 500/0 wl1en A \Vas increased from 2 to 2.85.
Allhough su¿h a difference is exceptional and is probably associated wilh an incomplete
applicnlion 01' pressure al Ihe last l11ill, it must be remembered lhal everything 5uggesls that
lhe last mili does not succeed in rel110ving eompletely from Ihe bagassealllhe excess of water
which has been added to i!.
Absorptive eapacity of bagasse

Dry bagnsse can absorb from 5 lO 10 times ils weighl of water. The bagasse from the milis
conlains abolll 1-2 parls of waler 10 one of fibre. Since the quanlily added is only of lhis
arder, it is vcry I'ar rrol11 being salU rated. 1I is fl'om this fael lhat lhe difrieully arises of
dislributing Ihe water properly inlhe bagasse; the firSI layer which reeeives lhe waler.lends
lo absorb i!. Hence the advanlage of applicalion by jels ralher than fine sprays.
As a matler of facl, Ihe distribution of water or of Ihin juices, always more or less defec-
live, is fOrlunalely eorrecled lo a eerta in extent by Ihe flow of liquid under lhe pressure of
lhe rollers (zone A in Fig. 9.9). At lhis poi nI the very wel portions lose their excess of liquid,
to lile advanlage of the drier portions. This favourable effeet, however, should nOI be allow-
ed in any way 10 lead lO neglecl of good dislribution of the imbibilion, which is sli ll impor-
lan!.
Maceration
111 certain cou nlries, espeeially in Australia, imbibilion was sometimes replaced by macera-
lion. The laller consiSIS 01' sleeping Ihe bagasse in Ihe liquid 10 be used as imbibition; ¡he
dislribulion Ihus becomes perfect, and Ihe penelralion more efrective.
This syslem involves a high consumption 01' water and a high dillltion. The bagasse being
saluraled, ils feeding becomes dilTicult, and it is llardly possible 10 use macermion willloul
employing mechanical feeders, preferably pushers or Ihe pressure feeder developed in
Australia for this specific purpose (see p. 94).
Maceration is effected in the bottom of tlle intermediate carrier, whiell is aciapted 10 form
a bath (Fig. 19.12). lts efficacy is often increased by lleating the water 01' Ihin jlliee nearly
to boiling before transferring il to the maceralion balh.
Fig. 19.12. IlHcrmcdiale crlrricr [lile! mnccr~l.Iioll balh.
The gain in extraction oblained by maceration is scarcely wortll Ihe complicalions involv-
ed. In general il is preferred to keep to a higll ordinary imbibilion, lile resulls of whieh are
hardly inl'erior.
Maceralion bath carriers have praelically disappcarcd in Auslralia.
Maximal imbibition
In modern factories, il is very rarely Ihe evaporalion capacilY Ihal limils Ihc quanlily 01' im-
bibilion. Mosl oflcn il is choking al Ihe milis Ihal delcrmincs Ihc imbibilion. and a praclical
limil is gcnerally reached much bclow Ihe o[1limal quanlilY. This limil, 11O\\'cvcr, can be
somelimes improved:
(1) By 1I1ilising waler al a lower lem[1eralure, 01' eh¡lIlging 10 colLl waler
(2) By decreasing Ihe hydraulie pressure
(3) By inereasing Ihe mili speed
(4) By dccreasing Ihe crushing rale.
Haine\ and Hughes '2 in Hawaii ha ve studied the inf'lllence 01' thesc various I'actors and
eSlablishcd a regression formula I'or the I'inal mili al Puuncne. M¡¡king use 01' I\VO 01' Ihcir
reslllls, <lnd eX[1ressing Ihe olhers as a l'tlnclion 01' Ihe rcsulls 1'0 II IllI in lile s¡lme IVay in his
own I'aclories, the aulhor gives:
AM = 554-0.91- 5p + 20v - 30T

(19.21 )
(A M = 570 - 0.5 1 - 0.55 p + 6.1 v - 480 T)
AM = maximal [1raclicable imbibilion load. ~/o on I'ibre

1 = lem[1eralure of imbibilion waler, in oC (OF)
METHODS OF APPLlCAT)ON OF IMBIBITION 311
p sreciric hyuraulic rressure (s.h.p.) (e/. eqn. (10.6» of Ihe mili, in I/dm' (1./sq.fl.)
v = pcriplleral spccu of lile mili, in Ill/lllin (ft./min)
T = speciJ"ic I'ibrc loading, in kg/lll'/lll (lb./sq.fUfl.) (e/. eqn. (10.19».
Exampfe. Taking a final mili of 812 x 1,676 mm (32 x 66 in.), erushing 130 I.c.h, al
12.5070 fibrc, lIndcr an s.h.p. of25 I/dm' (230 I./sq.fl.), running al 12.5 m/min (41 fl.lmin),
using waler al ÓOOC (140°F), il shoulu be possible 10 use an imbibilion load of:
AM = 554 - (0.9 x 60.0) - (5 x 25) + (20 x 12.5) - (30 x 16.00)

= 554 - 54 - 125 + 250 - 480 = 145
lis specific I"ibre loading is:
1,000 x 130 x O. I 25
T = 16.00 kg/lll J (1.00 Ib./sq.rUI"t.)
60 x 12.5 x 0.812 x 1.676
This refers 01' course lO imbibilion applied enlirely al Ihe final milI. There is nOlhing lo
prevenl increase of Ihe delel"lllined quanlily A by adding more waler at the penullimale mili,
Ihe maxilllal quanlily of Ihis being given by lile same formula.
Russell lJ considcrs Ihal Ihe maximum ill1bibilion admissable for any mili is A ;" 3.6. Al
iligher values il is necessary 10 splil Ihe illlbibilion: if, for example, il is desired 10 apply im-
bibilion al a valuc 01' 4.8,3.6 would be used on Ihe lasl mili, and 1.2 on Ihe preceding milI.
Moreover, nOI nlOre Ihan Iwo-Ihirds of Ihe juice can be applied lO Ihe one mili, lhe olher
one-Ihird going 10 Ihe preceding milI.
METHODS OF APPLlCATION OF IMBIBITION
II is nOI possible 10 use Ihe same melhod of applicalion for waler, whieh is free from foreign
maller, and juice, which can'ies wilh il a subslanlial proponion of fine bagasse.
A. Water
Waler is upplieu 10 Ihe bagasse, eilhcr by means of sprays (Fig. 19.13), or by means of per-
roraled pipes (Fig. 19.14). We prefer Ihe second melhod.
According 10 lile IIlickness of lhe bagasse layer, lhe water should be under a heau of 3 - 5
m (10-16 fl.) al Ihe pipe. The diameler of lhe holes in Ihe pipe should be of Ihe order of
3 mm (i in.), or, beller, of 0.004 D, where D is lhe diameler of lhe mili rollers; and lhese
holes should be spaced al inlervals of 25 -40 mm (I-ll in.) along Ihe pipe.
The holes muy be made somewhal larger al Ihe exlremilies of Ihe pipe, for example, over
Ihe firsl and Ihe lasl quaner 01' ils lenglh. Tesis in Cuba" have in fact shown lhal Ihe
polarisalion 01" Ihe bagasse was higher on lhe ends lhan al lile cenlre of lhe roller. This is
described by lile Cubans as Ihe "BelanCOurl imbibilion syslem".
An excellenl syslem for dislribulion of imbibilion is thal indicaled in Fig. 19.15, which can
312 IMBlBITION Ch. 19
.--.-- ."--
fig. 19.13. Irnbibilion by rine sprays. Fig. 19.14. I mbibi, iOIl by pcrforated pipe.
- ----.--------'-----_._ - -
Fig. 19.15. Irnbibilion wilh juiec by Irough wilh long piule .
be equally recommended for waler and for juice. JI is desirable Ihal Ihe inclil\ccI ,hecl ,hould
have a lengl h of 1 m (3 fl.), bul for waler il could be ,horler.
B. Juice
Juice carries wilh il from Ihe milis large quanlilies of fine bagasse, and somelime, quile large
pieces. Hcnce il mUSI eilher be screened, or handled by an unchokable fJUIllP.
For such a pUlllp 10 funclion smoolhly and nOI inlcrmillenlly, il is essenlialll181 ils suclion
should be laken rrom a vessel openlo Ihe air wherc Ihe juice arrives, ror n<lmpk, by a swirl-
ing mOlion (a cylindricallank with tangenlial feed) in such a way lhal, whcn Ihe level I'alls,
lhe pump sucks in a cenain proponion of air wilhoul ceasing lo pump.
The juice is dislributed on lhe bagasse by one of lhe following melhods:
(a) Pipe and steel plate (Fig. 19.16). The pipe discharges again sl a slecl plal e whil:h flallens
METHODS OF APPLICATION OF IMBlBITION 313
Ihe slream 01" juice and spreads il fanwise on an inclincd plale, whieh inereases in widlh 10
Ihal 01" Ihe inlermediale earrier.
This melhod has one disadvantage: Ihe dislribulion depends on Ihe flow of juiee. Ir it is
correel for a eenain flow, it will be too eoneentraled in the middle for a smaller flow, too
si rong al 1he ends for a greater I"low.
(b) Trough open on one side. :rhe juice diseharges by a pipe at right-angles lO one of lhe
side plales 01" Ihe inlermediale earrier i!llo a flal-bottomed lrough sel on a slighl slope, and
oren on one side and narrowing fmlll lhe inlel to the Opposile end; lhis is set almoSI horizon-
lally, bul lile opposile end may be slighlly raised or lowered lO oblain distribulion of lhejuice
aeross lhe whole widlll of lhe carrier. Tl1is syslem has the .lame disadvantage as the preceding
one; il does nOI acl1ieve a good dislribulion lO the ponion of Ihe carrier silualed close lO the
diseharge, <lnd Ihe widlh 01" lhe slream varies f"rom one moment lo the next.
(e) Scrralcu trough. The juicc pipe may lerminate in a horizonlal trough, the two edges
of whieh are serraled (Fig. 19.17). Here, small pieces of bagasse become eaught across the
nOlel1es and hinder proper distribution.
(d) Baffled trough and wide plate (Fig. 19.15). The besl syslem is Ihal already'¡ndiealed
I'or waler. 11" 1l1erc is insul"ficienl space 10 give lhe plale a length of I m (3 fl.), il may be
lefl al 40 cm (16 in.) and the curlain of juice arranged to fall on another plale inclined in
Fig. 19.16. Imbibiliol1 wilh juice by Di De and sleel Dlale.
v= Fig. 19.17. Serraled lrough.

lhe OppOSilC dircClion, also 40 cm in lcnglh; Ihe dislribulion willlhus be improved. The juice
flows in a unii'orm anu conlinuous curlain.
(e) DonneJly chute. Wilh milIs which are fed by Donnelly chules, Ihe sys lem generally
adopled is 10 dislribute lhe imbibilion fluid al Ihe top of the chute.
REFERENCES
B. L. M/nAL, Sugar Azucar, 53 (4) (1958) 52.

2 T. B. ARNOLD, Inl. Sugar J., 45 (1943) 54.
3 Sugar Res. Ins/., Mackay, Queensland, Tech. Rep. No. 26. 1955, abslrac/ca in Sugar. 51 (4) (1956) 58.
4 Sugar Res. Insl., Mackay, Queensland, Tec/¡ . Rep. No. 26, 1955, r. 6.
5 G. E. Ru s!)El.l., Thc cxtraction perrormance 01' Olilling traills, p. 195.
6 W. R. CRAWFORO, Proc. IIlh Congr. ISSCT, 1962, p. 1039.
7 J . G. DA VIES ANO R. D. E. YEARWOOO, Sugar, 35 (6) (1940) 32.
8 Inl . SlIgar J., 57 (1955) 381.
9 W. S. HA/NES AND R. H. HuoHEs, Proc. IIlh Congr. ISSCT, 1962, r. 1024.
10 W. S. HA/NES AND R. H. HU OH ES, Proc . IIlh Congr . ISSCT, 1962. r. 1018.
II P. HON/O, Proc. 81h Congr. ISSCT, 1953, p. 7 16.
12 w. S. H AINES AND R. H. HUOHES, Proc. IIlh Congr . ISSCT. 1962. p. 1022.
13 G. E. .....,6SELL , op . cil., r. 199 .
14 Proc. 271h Conf. Cuban Technol. Assoc .. rcviewcd il/ In/. Sugar J .. 57 (1955) 411.
20. Extraction
The eXlraCli on 01' a Irain 01' milis has a definile meaning which we sha ll define below. The
purpose of Ihe presen l chapler is 10 sludy, in a general manner, Ihe efficiency of Ihc Illilling
work. We shal l rel urn lO Ihese calculalions in Chaplers 21 and 39 wilh Ih e ge neral faclory
conlrol.
MEASURE OF EFFICIENCY OF MILLING WORK
Whal is a suilable sla ndard 10 adop l as a mea sur c 01" lhe c1Ticicncy 01" a l1lilling Irain?
(1) Sucrose per cen t bagasse .

The fir sl figure which one is inclined lO sugges l is Ihal of sucrose % bagasse; bul thi s depends
nOI only on Ihe efficiency of the milling Irain, bUI also on the moi slure CO nlen! of bagasse
and, 10 a sli gh! eXlent, on the sugar con ten! of lhe cane o
(2) Milling 1055

The moislure conl enl of bagasse has been la ken inlo account in Hawaii by adopling Ihe ex-
pression "milling loss", or "sucrose / fibre coefl"icienl":
(20.1 )
TIli s expression correets for tlle effec I of moislur e in bagasse; if, sl aning willi Ihe .lame cane,
\Ve compare IWO bagasses hav ing the same sucrose per ce nt, a, and different J110iSIUre con-
lents, this coefficien! would be closely proponional lO Ihe loss al the mili s, {J, involved for
each of them, since Ihe weight b of bagasse as peree nlage of cane is inversely proportional
lO Ihe fibre l' per cenl of bagasse:
{J, = ab, J
(J- {J, =
J
(J -
Jí J2
This expression, however, does not correel for the effecl of suerose content of caneo
(3) Extraetion
[1is more interesting to know the proporlion of .Iucrose extracted by the milI. This figure
expresses essentially the commerci al efl"iciency, ralher than the technica l efficiency, 01" the
operali on:
316 EXTRACTlON Ch,20
Extraction =SUCI:O~: or poi in mixed juice "70 can e x 100 (20,2)

sucrose or poi % cane
Since lhe sugar exlracled is ciosely [Jroportional, other things being equal, lo Ihe sugar con-
tent of cane, this exrression has lhe advantage 01' elilllinating at least theoretieally lhe faClor
for sucrose in cane; bul il has lhe clisadvanlagc lhat it depencls on the I'ibre conlenl J 01' lhe
cane; lhe higher lhe fibre, the greater lhe loss of lhe sugar in t he bagasse, (3, since:
Sugar 1055 in bagasse % cane = sugar % bagasse x bagasse % cane
(3 ob o
J
l'
For lhis reason, milis handling high-fibre cane are al a disaclvantage, The extraelion figure
thus does not permit comparison of the work 01' IWO different milis, nor even 01' Ihe same
mili Wilh differenl canes,
On lhe olher hand, we see later (p, 318) thal lhe sugar exlractecl is far I'rom being propor-
lional lo lhe sugar % cane, If a given lanclem, Illainlaining the sallle ellieieney, treats suc-
cessivelia':poor cane and a rich cane, the suerose % bagasse will vary very lilile betwcen the
two cases, Hence lhe extraction figure, without applieation of a correclion faclor for lhe
sugar in cane, will nol serve lo express lhe efficiency of a milling plant.
(4) Reduced extraction

Noel Deerr has soughl lo eliminate this predominanl dislurbing l'aClor, J, by proposing as
a figure for comparison, "redllced extraelion",
This is lhe eXlraclion obtainecl by lhe tanclem, modil'ied hY[Jolhetically 10 Ihal which il
would have been if lhe fibre in cane had been equallo a slanclarcl I'igure, chosen by convcn-
lion as 0,125,
The reduced,exlraclion is designated by e",I' Dccrr caJculalcs il as I'ollo\l's, Lel:
e = exlraction obtainecl wilh cane 01' f'ibre J
E = extraction which woulcl have been obtainccl wilh cane 01' I'ibre F,
For these corresponding extraction i'igures, Deerr gives the I'ollowing equalion, posllIlating
thal bolh cases woulcl have fur,!ishecl the same loss of juice% fibre (eJ. p, 319):
(1 - e)(1 -j) (1 - E) (1 - F)
.-_.-._~-
(20,3)
J F
HenLe:
I - J F
E 1 - (1 - e) - - ' :-----::
J - F
or, for F = 0,125:

MEASURE OF EFFICIENCY OF MILLlNO WORK 317
e = 1 - (1 - el 1 - I (20.4)
71
Example. An extraelion of 92OJo has bcen oblained wilil 16% fibre. Whal is Ihe redueed
exlrae/ion? We llave:
0.84
e =.1 - 0.08 = 94
7 x 0.16
Millal' has cOllllllenled Ihal eaeil rerl1l of eqn. (20.3) does nOI really represenl rhe losl juiee
010 ribre, sincc (1 - e) is Ihe sucrose 1055 and rhe suerase is nOI uniformly disrribuled in Ihe
juiee, as is shown by lhe fal! in purily in success ive mili s, and partieularly on aecounr of lhe
water of conslilulion (cf. p. J 34) .
Sinee lhe 10s.5 al Ihe milis is, oliler lilings beillg equal, proporlionallo Ihe ribre/of cane,
il is more logical , in arder 10 eliminale Ihe innucllce o r fibre, 10 relale Ihe loss 10 Ihe fibre
COnlel1l:
1 - e I - E_. (20.5 l
I F
Hence:
F , 0.125 (1 - el
E 1 - (I - e) - e'2.!i = 1 -
_ __ 0 . _ _ _-
(20.6)
I I
Taking Ihe sall1c example as previou sly: e' '" = 93.75.

This "reduced e.\ lraClioll Millal " is more accurale Ihanlhal of Noel Oeerr and should be
subslilulcd I'or il. To fa,'ililale eOlllrarison 01' Millal'.' reduced exlraclion wilh Ihal 01' Oeerr,
il could be wrillen:
I - e
= 1 - (20.7)
81
Millal' has al50 prop05ed a "whole redueed exrracrion" which he considers more uscful
and which is simply lhe colllplelllenr of lhe sucrose- fibre eoefficienl ro unilY:
(]
Whole redueed eXlraclion =
f'
However, all lhese formulae lake inlo aecounr only rhe fibre conlent, an.d il has been jusrly
com menled I hal il would be of advanlage ro correel also for r he effeel of riehness of lhe cane.
1l' a certain mili, operaling al a conSlalll efrieicncy, werelo Ireal in sueeession a eane of 13%
sucrose, lhen one 01' 15% , olher Ihings being equal (lhe same fibre, Ihe same imbibilion,
318 EXTRACTION Ch. 20
saine I.~.h.), il wDuld oblain in Ihe second case a beller exlraclion. This i, a L'llns~qll':ll,e
of Ihe rael Ihal Ihere is a certain quanlily 01' jui(;e, hencc oi" ,ligar, which is ven dilTicul1
10 exlrael by pressure alld which remains in Ihe bagasse; and Ihal Ihis quanli[)" is I'~ry Ilearl~'
1hc .lame in ri(;h calle as in poor caneo I-Iellee I he rich calle shows a beller exl rael ion.
Ugale J has Ihus proposed 10 mulliply Ihe rigllre ror rcdllced cxlraclion Illodil'ieel rOtO I'ibr~
content (Deerr or Mitlal) by Ihe ralio 7.125/(7 + P), where Pi s [he poi [ler unil 01" calle: Ihis
illdieales Ihal he adopts 12.5070 as the standard poi % cane. From Ihe I"ormula oi" Deerr, \Ve
havc ror cxalll[lle:
- (1 - e) (1 -
- - - - _ ... ------
1)J. 7.125
-- (Ugalc) (20.R)
7J 7 + P
Rcin' in South AI'rica has [lro[losed:
E l'
1.'.1.1
= I _ 0 . 1834' \ ~ _-=- e) (1
. J
-=-J] (P)"-"
13
(Rein) (20.9)
P being poi crlo cane, and laking standard extraction as 95 ror 15.5% ribr~ CO[lICnl and 13%
[lol in cane (conelilions closer 10 mean figures ror Soulh AI·ri(;a).
To compare Ihese two formulae, we use ror Ihe Deerr- Ugale rorlllula, Ihe same basi , a,
aelo[lled by Rein (f = 0.155, P = 0.13) and see what \Voll ld be Ihe eXlraL'[ion 01" a lanelelll
glving ror exa m[lle 95CJfo redueed cx[raclion:
Ugale Rein
e = 95
7 + P
-- _. e = - 5 ( ~) lió
7.13
... _ --._--- --
P = 10: 94.60 94.15
P = 16: 95.40 95.59
Th e Rein correclion is much grealer, anu is [lrobably bCllcr rOllnd cu. No L'OUn[J"\ ha,
auo[l[cd il so ror bu[, in rairness, il ,hould be loken in[o aL·counl.
Al Tongaal, I'or a poi COlllCnl a[lprmilllaling 13070, ribrc COlllenl 15 .4070, illlbibilion 36()()7u
on ril,,·c ami an cXlraclion 01" 96%. il is rcckoned Illal a clla ngc 01" 1 [loin[ of slIgar CO[lICnl
\Yllllld Icad 10 a cllangc in Ihe same se n s ~ a[l[lroxillla[ing 0.2 poin[ in ex[rae·[ion. This cor-
r("s ponels rairly \Vel! \Vilh Ihe rorlllllla or Rein ,
Tlle rorlllula ot' Rein, a[lplied [O Millal's redu ced eXlrac[ion (eqn. (20.6», adopling 12.5
as Ihe standard .lugar con[en[, 3nd eX[lressing Ihis as sucrosc, designa[cd r, bccollle s:
e '1 '1
,.... ,_,
= 1- [ ~I_~J~_-=__~ ( .!_) ".ó] 12.5
(20.10)
MEASURE OF EFFJCJENCY OF MILLlNG WORK 319
(5) Extraction ratio

This expression, broughl illlo prominellce by lhe Hawaiians, corresponds exactly to lile
preceding reasollillg:
100 (100 - extr~clion)

EXlraclion ratio (20. I 1)
fi bre "10 calle
.
This is a correel Illeasure, bul it takes inlo accounl only l he faclor which is t he main COI1-
sideral ion agaillsl extraclion, namely, the fibre conten!.
(6) Lost undiluted juice per cent fibre

Tllis figure, origillating in Java, is one which has becll widely used, for intcrnational COITl-
parisons as well as for eOlllp3rlSOnS belwccll faclorics:
of bagasse x 10,000
Losl juice fIlo I"ibre = - _--_ .._--brix
.. -..._- (20.12)
brix of primary juice x fibre fIlo bagasse
where:
poi fIlo bagas se x 100

Brix 01" bagas se (20.13)
purity of lasl expressed juice
This expression possesses lhe fOllowing disadvantages:

(a) Equ3lion (20.13) is inaccurale, since lile purily of the lasl extractcd juice (and aforliori
lllal of lhe final-mili juice, which is often ulilised in ils place) is higher lhan lhal of lhe
residual juice conlaincd in lile bagasse.
(b) Wllal is 01' inlerest in lhe performance of a mili is ils elTiciency in extracling sucrose,
nOl in eXlracling brix. Il would be perfeclly salisfaclory if lhe extraction of a milling plant
were good for sucrose but low I'or the non-sucrose making up lhe brix. The correlalion bet-
ween lhese two quanlities is not cOlllplele; il is even less so when comparing milis wilh dil-ru-
sion.
(e) Thc brix 01" lhe primary juice depends on tlle nalure and sellings 01" the carly Il1ills 01'
t he train (ef. p. 345 and Fig. 2 \.6).
(7) Los! absolute juice per cent fibre

Another allempl al a more usel"ul expression is thal 01' subslituling for lhe brix 01" primary
juice thal of lhe absolule juice in caneo This is cerlainly an improvemenl, bUl we may slill
commenl lhal:
(a) The I'irsl lWO disadvanlages persisl.
(b) The absolule juice necessilates a rather lenglhy calculation.
This lalter express ion may equally well be wrilten in lhe form:
absolute juicein bagasse fIlo cane

LOSl absolule juice fIlo fibre fibre Q,¡o cant:----..
x 100 (20.14)
320 EXTRACTlON Ch, 20
which demonstrates beller lhe origin or lhis expression; bUl il is neve r calcula led in lhis form,
Comparison of (he several cfficiency figures

We consider 1hal:
(1) The milling l os .~ orfe rs only a seconda ry inlereSI¡ il serves only 10 elilllinale lhe in-
f1ucn ce or bagasse moisl ure in co mparing va lucs of sucrose % bagasse.
(2) The fi gure or lost j ui ce % fibre had been adopled in Ja va because il did 1101 reqllire
any weighls o r malerials. T oday , however, there is no raclOry or any consequcnce which does
not have ma teria l bala nces and complete chemi cal conlrol, and ils relel1lion is 110 longer
juslificd.
(3) Jt is cssent ial, for commercia l !'Casons, to relain the cX lraclion !'igure, bul Ih ere wOllld
be no qu es lion or using il as a lechnical crilerion or lhe wor k 01' lh e rnilling Irain.
(4) Noel Deerr's red uced eXlraclion, nOI conlenl wilh cor rec ling Ih e e lTeCl ol' l'ib re by plac-
ing it in Ih e denominalor, I'urlher inlroduces lhe faclor (1 - j) in Ih e numcralor. We s llall
rule il oUl as exceeding lhe slaled objeclivc.
Milla!'" reduced exlraclion ma y be used for valuable compa ri so ns, bul , wilh Ihe eX lrac lion
coel'f'icienl, involves unnecessa ry repelilio n.
(5) The 10Sl absolute juice in bagasse has th e .lame forl1l as lhe eX lr aclioll figure, lt
represenls:
Brix lost % br ix in ca ne Sugar 10Sl % .lugar in ca ne

in stead 01' --.----.. -.. ----- - .....
Fibrc % cane Fibre % ca ne
Jn other words, it measures Ih e bri x eX lrac ti on, whereas lhe exlraclion rat io Illeasures lhe
eX lrac tion of .l ugar . Th ese lwo exlraclions a re very c1ose, as are the rigures wh ich delermine
th e m; some li mes one and so melim es the olher is hi gher, and the ratio 01' Ihe !'irsl 10 the se-
eo nd var ies genera lly belween 0.95 and 1.05 for modern ,nills, giving vallles Iyin g belweell
38 a nd 30, lh c IWO figures len ding 10 be equal al aboul 34, Ihe eXlraclion ralio ralling Ill o re
rapid ly bclow Ihal ri gure and increasin g more rapidl y above il. Wc would llave 1'01' C.\lllllpJe
the following equ iva lenl values:
Exlraclion ralio 30 34 38
Losl absolule juice % ribre 32 34 36
The losl absolule juice % fibre would perhaps meas ure slighll y belle r Ih e mechanical efri-
ciency al' lhe milis , whi ch is a maller 01' volume and 01' juice; bUI we prerer Ihe eXlraction
ratio on accounl of:
(a) The rel ation ship belween Ih e two values, whic h Icnds lillle value 10 lhal argumelll
(b) The simplicilY of the formu la for eXlrac ti o n ratio
(e) The grea ler import a nce of sugar , which is in deed o ur objeclive and our only preoc-
cupalion
(d) Th e poss ible inJ'l uence ofcenain dela ils of Ihe mili s, slIch as preparalion and grooving,
on lhe eX lraclio n 01' sugar co mpared wit h lhal of brix.
We cons id cr also Ihal il is nccessary 10 consider, apart from lhe cXlraclion figur e, Ih e
FACTORS IN EFflCIENCY OF MILLS 321
'.
redu ced eXlraClion la);ing ilHO accounl nOl only lhe I'ibrej, bUl also lhe sugar conlenl r, ulilis-
ing Rein's formula indicaled aboye, which can be redUl:ed 10 lhe ba.,ic lradilional values:
Following Decir, E!:U. 12.~

(20.15)
= I _ [O, 125 (~ -=-~ ] ( __

r )
Following Millal: E,¡, ..', lO . .'
j 12.5
lI.ó (20.16)
Such rorlllula~ ha l (' Ill)l been adoPlctl in lhe IllLllual conlrol schemes 01' lugal' eounlrics,
lllail~ly on accounl 01' lhe cOlllplicalion 01' lhe pOll'er 0.6. Thi s rcason howcvcr is nol valid
11011', since all laboralorics are cquipped Wilh poek~l eakulalors givil1g lhis eakulalion il11-
medialell, sev~ral l11akes 01' cakulalor bcing available.
FACTORS IN EFFICIENCY OF MILLS
The pr incipal elelllenls IVhich inl'luence lhe erl'icieney 01' milling work as measurcd by eXlrae-
lion ralio, or redueed eXlraelion, are Ihe following:
Slale 01' preparalion 01' Ihe calle
Speeirie pressure elllplo)'cd
Lenglh 01' lhe lrain (or number 01' rollers)
Speed or rOlalion 01' lhe rollers
Specil'ic I'ibre loading
Imbibilion
ID IVhieh should be added eerlain I'aclors less easy 10 evaluale, such as:
Correcl selling 01' lhe milis
Teehnieal worth 01' Ihe personnel in charge 01' lhe milis
Mcehal1ieal eondilion 01' Ihe planl,
TABLE 20.1
CAIN IN EXTRACTION OBTAINED BY VARlQUS CANE PREPARATORS

- --------- - - - j '- -
(a) Knives , = _ _ _ '1,
o
N - 6
(b) SearbY-lypc ,(¡rcúdcr ,= 7:.5 .. %

N - 8
(e) Maxw<ll-IYpe shredder , = . _2.5
- ....- %
N - 8
N = number of rollers in ¡he !rain.
(1) Cane preparation

We have already given sorne I'igures in Chaplers 3 and 6 and shall complete lheln here_ For
Ihe eOJlllllon types 01' preparalor, Table 20.1 gives lhe gains in eXlraelion E, reekoned in lhe
322 EXTRACTlON . Ch,20
same unil as Ihe exlraclion (Ihal is 10 say, if Ihe extractiol1 rises froill 90 10 91 OJo, [he gain
f = J %),
Moor' quoles an experinlen[ made al Tongaat where bagas se pieces of variou ,~ .~izes
se paralcd by sieving were anal ysed separalely: pieces lurger [han 25 mm, then 25 - 12, 12 - 6,
6 - 3, and below 3 nlll1- The mean poi % tJagasse was 1.3; lhc fincsl fraclion showed 0.8%,
whereas Ihe largesl rraclion showed 3%. This shows in spcclaclllar rashioll lhe errect of
preparal ion on eXI rael ion,
(2) Specific pressure (cf. p. 130)

The eXlraelion inereases rapidl y aslhe pressure inereases frolll zero 10 161 / dm' (150 I./sq.fl.)
and more slowly lhereafler. The values lllosl inleresling from an eeonomic poinl 01' view
rauge frorn 20 10 25 tldm' (180-230 t.!sq.J'I.).
(3) Lenglh of Ihe tandem

As we have seen for capacily (ef. Table 12.4), Ihe figures published anl111ally rol' Java permil-
led comparisons 10 be made 01' lhe ex lracli ons 01' Ihe var ious combinations 01' milis exisling
in that country. On referring to Table 12.4 (p. 193), we see a regular variation of extraetion
and 1051 juiee per eent fibre, as a funetion 01' Ihe length 01' Ihe landem. We give in Fig. 20.1
a graph derived from Ihese and various olher I'igures, which, however, does nol profess to
show more than Ihe general Irend of Ihe relalionship.
5o 1'\
"- "-
o
" 1"-- ¡-....
....... .......
0 -- - 1- -- r--
I
o -- _.
iii
o
.J
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 ;¡; 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Number of rollers
Fig. 20. l. LOS1 undilUled juice "lo fibre as a func1ion of number of rollers lA ~ 2; {3 ~ 0.6).
It ean be seell that lhe 1051 juice % ribre is represellled approxilllalely by the equalion:
500
j (20.17)
N
j = 1051 undiluled juice % ribre for lhe landelll

N = num ber of rollers in Ihe landem.
In lh e same way, the eXlraclioll may be eXJlressed approximately by Ihe formula:
FACTORS IN ,EFFICIENCY OF MILLS 323
..
~
e = 100 _ 70 (20.18)
N
which assullles an average ribre 01" approxil11alely f '" 12.5070.

II may also be 01" inleresl ror a lechnologisl dealing wilh a shor! or Illcdiulll landclll of milis
(4 or 5) 10 judgc Ibe work of bis landem in relalion lO Ihe results given by longer landems,
of 6 or 7 milis, for example. ,
011 lhis queslion we have suggesled comparing Ihe exlraclions, lhe juice eXlraclions, ex-
lraclion coefriciellls or simply lhe .lucrase 10SI in bagasse by considering lhal lhe work or lhe
landcll1 should vary, as a rUllclion 01" Ihc number or milis and Ihe slIgar conlenl of cane (01 her
lilings being cqllal), as Ihe Nlh rool of Ihe slIgar conlen! R (N being Ihe number or milis).
To COlllpare, ror exa1l1ple, Ihe oucrosc in bagasse a for a landelll or S milis wilh Ih81 which
silould bc oblaincd wilh .3 7-mill landem, we would have:
= (20 19)
(1,
ir R, R, 14, we would llave:
1.695
= = 1.16
(1, 1.458
Illal is, Ihe di!lerenee belween 2.32 and 2, for example.

11 should be poinlccl OUI lhal Ihis rllle, whieh sOlllclimcs applies in praelicc, has 110 ex-
perimental l1asi.s. Table 20.2 givcs valucs of l he appropriale rOOIS (..Jj;¡).
TABLE 20.2
_.. _- - -_.
WOTS 01' R FOR EXTRACTION UY TANIJEMS 01' VARIOUS LENGTHS
-_._ --".
:rR ;¡¡¡ :.rR JR ~
R
.__ ._.__ ._--_.. __ ._-_."_ .
11 1.821 1.615 1.491 1.409 1.350
12 1.861 1.644 1.513 1.426 1.364
13 1.879 1.670 1.533 1.443 I.3n
14 1.934 1.695 1.553 1.458 1.391
15 1.968 1. 7 19 1.5 70 1.472 1.403
16 2 .000 1.741 1.587 1.486 1.414
- - - - - ---_._- . . . - ,, _o _________
(4) RolIer speed

The influencc of roller speed depends on whelher Ihe fibre loading 01" Ihe eruslting rale is
ussullled eons!alll.
In Ihe former case, Ihal is, ir Ihe same Ihickness or bagasse blankel is mainlained, Ihe ex-
Iruelion decreases as Ihe speecl of rOlalion illcreases; il11perceplibly al low speeds, more
del'inilel y, ror the usual roller clialllelers, as a speed of 5 r.p.m. is approached, and rapidly
aboye abOUl 6 r.p.m. ·
324 EXTRACTlON Ch. 20
In Ihe laller case, Ihal is, ir Ihe crushing rale is kerl Ihe same, Ihe eXlraelion inereases wilh
speed 01' rOlalion, bUI very slighlly, and only provided lile limils expressed by eqns. (11.9)
llave nOI been reac hed. Crawrord' considers Ihal Ihere is a gain al lile feed roller which more
Ihan comrensales ror Ihe slighl loss al Ihe delivery roller. However, in bOlh cases , Ihe in-
fluence 01' speed is slig,hl.
(5) Specific fibre loading

The spccific fibre loading 7 is a measure 01' Ihe ralio
lonnage aClually crushcd

() =
Iheorelical capacilY 01' Ihe l andem
as we have seen on p. 196. The sludy 01' Ihe influence 01' specific fibre loading 7 on extraclion
reduces 10 u 's luuy 01' Ihc influcncc 01' Ihc capacilY ralio e.
The eXlraclion, or, lO be more precise, Ihe efficiency al' Ihe mili work, decreases as lile
capacilY ralio (or, whal amounlS lO Ihe same Ihing, Ihe -,recil'ic fibr e loading) increases.
In India il is eSlimaled Ihal Ihe reduced eXlraclion 01' a milling planl ralls by 0.17 when
il is operaled al 10OJo aboye normal rale6. For example, if a mili is ca pable 01' cru shing 100
I.c.h., and ir ilS reduced exlraclion is 95, Ihis sho uld drop lO 94.83 ir Ihe rale is increased
la 110 I.c.h .
Thi, va lue 01' 0.17 arpears low, and would be applicable only ror crushin g rales in Ihe
neighbourhood 01' I he Illeorelical capacilY 01' Ihe planl 01' slighlly below; bUI il ucmollslrales
arresh lhe flexibility 01' a milling planl as regards capacily.
(6) Imbibition
This is Ihe JllOsl inleresling rac'IOr 10 sllIdy rl'OJlllhe roinl 0 1' vielV 01' whal use can be mad~
01' an exisling milling rlanl. 1I is also Ihe one which can be 1110S1 easily con lrolleu, anu whicll
can be mOsl readily va ried .
Dry crushing will generally give an eXlraClion 01' aboul 86 - 90OJo. Ir we a,sume 90%, which
is really a maxi,ilum, Ihe graphs in Fig. 19,8 enable us 10 read offdireclly Ihe final e,~lraclion
corresponding 10 a given imbibilion, For example, wilh double comround imbibilion:
ror A 1: e 90 + 3,8 93.8%

for A = 2: e = 90 + 5,2 95,2%
[n rig, 20,2 is given a graph which, like thal 01' Fig, 20,1, should be regarded as indicarive
only, anu which gives lile generallrend of a series 01' leSIS made in Soulh Arrica on Ihe varia-
lion 01' eXlraclion as a funclion 01' imbibilion, II enables an eSlimare 10 be made 01' Ihe
Illagnilude 01' Ihe change in exlraclion 10 be oblained wilh a given alreralion in imbibilion,
Ar Tongaal, in eondilions already indicared (see p. 318), ir is reckoned' thal a change in
illlbibilion % nbre 01' 1 poinl (frolll 360 10 361, ror examrlc) involves a change in extraclion
in the same direClion 01' 0,01 poinl approximalely (96-96,01),
Similarly, ror (he commoneSI Iypes 01' landems, Fig, 20,3 gives Ihe change in 10SI juice OJo
FACTORS IN EFFICIENCY OF MILLS 325
-.
95 ' - - - c...--- --f--- - --- --

¿/
-- V ----
-----
---b-""- I-- --- - - f- - - -
o 10 20 30 40
Imblbltion ~o cone
Fig. 20.2. Varialion or eXlrattion as a funclion 01' imbibilioll (simple doublc illlbibilion) (f = 0.15).
70 -- _ .-- -- - --
60 ----J I
.. ,- . -- -
• 50 I
-,.
B
~ 40
-3 -[-- -1.--
I
' ,
¡
11 "'0/.
"C
•
." 30 --1 ----j-
! I 14 "01.
"C I
e 1) rOl.
--r-+--1
~
~ 20
-'
lO
I
f--- ----
O 2 3
Imbibition °/. tibre::"
Fig . 20 ,J. Varialioll or lo ~" jui<.'(' OJo fibre as a funclion 01' illlbibilioll % fibre (compound imbibition) ({3 ;:: 0.6) .
326 EXTRACTlON Ch. 20
fibre, as a runclioll or irnbibilion OJo ribre, A. These graphs, again, express average rrsulls
only, and assurnc Ihe erriciency or imbibilion (3 = 0.6, wilh cOlllpound illlhibilion; double
for 11-, Iriple ror 14· and quadruple ror 17-rollcr landems.
To compare Ihe work or Ihe sallle 13ndelll wilh IWO dilTercnl values 01" ill1bibilion or or
difrcrenl landems working wilh dillerenl imbibilion values, il has been proposed' thal Ihe
inrtuence or imbibition W may be eliminalcd by considering Ihal the extraetion oblaincd
should be proportional lo:
100 _ 13~~ (20.20)

10 + W
when W varies; where W = imbibilion fIlo on ca ne.
SANITATION AT THE MILLS
The milling conlrol (ef. p. 328) does not delect physical or chemical losses surrered duríng
the passage 01' the cane Ihrough Ihe milling Irain. The sugar content 01' Ihe cane is indeed
assumed equal to the sum or sugar contained in Ihe mixed juice fIlo on cane and 01' Ihal Iosl
in the bagasse "lo on cane. In Ihis way, all spillage t"rom Ihe mili trays to Ihe rtoor, and all
deslruclion or sucrose laking place during Ihe movemenl or Ihe can e rrom Ihe carrier lill il
leaves the lasl mili, remain unknown. In Ihese condilions il is alllhe more importanl 10 lake
all possible precautions to avoid losses which would nOI even be detecled.
Deslruction or sucrose is due to three causes': acid inversion, enzymalic inversion, and
microbial inrection. These causes have been estimated as causing respeclively 16,22 and 62fIlo
or the lotallosses due to inreclion. When sanitalion at Ihs milis is inadequale, Ihe 10lal or
Ihese losses or sucrose can atlain 2.5 kg (5.5 lb.) per I.C. In a raclory kepl clean and well
disinrected, Ihe losses rrom microbial origin can be appreciably reduced, WilhoUI, however,
eliminaling them completely. It is accepled Ihal an improvemenl of 0.9 kg (2 lb.) of sucrose
per 1.C. can be realised.
Several raclors reveal inadequacy or sanítalion: aeid odours around the milis, presence of
slime or or colonies or Leueonostoe ("rrog spawn"). Laboralory conlrol may show an ab-
normal purity drop belween rirst expressed juice alld mixed juice.
Apart rrom the sucrose losses involved, cerlain strains or bacleria produce gUllls (dexI13n,
etc.) which arrect performance al the pans and lead 10 Ihe procluclion or elongaled cryslals.
In order to maintain good sanilalioll, it is necessary 10 praclise erreclive cleallillg or equip-
menl as well as ulilisalion or a suitable disinrectant in appropriale quantilies.
The principal requirements or a baclericide are:
(a) Erreclive disinreclant power al lhe pH of cane juice (5.5)
(b) Inactivity lowards inorganic matter
(e) Degradability in Ihe course or manuracture; abscnce or traces or Ihe disillfectant in Ihe
molasses, ir intended ror rermentation or ror animal reed
(d) Stabilily during slorage; the erficacy or certain products decreases rapidly when Slored
al ambient temperature in Iropical countries.
REFERENCES 327
The mal1uraclurers (S¡CCA, OUN, HODAG, ROHM and HAAS, TATE alld LYLE) orrer various
produels, varying widely in composilioll, erl'icacy and cOSI: halogen del'ivalives, organic
sulflhur eompouncls, rormaldehyde, qualernary ammonium salls. The lalter apflear very efe
rective, but their use in rood manuracturing flrocesses is rorbidden in cenain countries. Jt
ha.\ been sIJown, IJowcver, in Soulh Arrica'o Ihal onl)' Iraces relllain arter rhe evaporation
flroeess. TIJe orgallie sulphur compoullds would be al leasl equally erreclive, bUI Iheir cost
is Illueh higher. Formaldehyde us~d al Ihe milis has Ihe disadvanlage 01' relcasing irrilalillg
vapours. Halogen cleriv31ives (hypochloriles e.sselllially) presenl the serious disaclvanlage 01'
rcaclillg \\'il11 organic malerial, which dccreascs their clTicacy. Moreover, Ihey are eorrosive.
lhe idcal disinJ'cctant does not exist as ye!. It is up to each factory 10 eheck Ihe malerials
ell1flloyed in terms 01' purit)' drop, increase in aClivilY, allcl glucose ralio belween firsl express-
cd juice and Illi.\ed juice. The dosage will be adapled 10 requirements, whicl1 vary with the
stalc 01' Ihe calle and Ihe ambienl temperalure. The malcrial will preferably be added eon-
lilluously il' il [1msl'sses 110 special pnlflcnies whieh lead illo remain inlhe Illilling plan!. Ca re
\\'ill be laKel1 thal lile wllOlc landclll is disinl'ecled, and Ihis is rcaliscd in pracliec by
dislribuling Ihe malerial equally on Ihe ribrated cane and in the tray 01' the lasl mili. At leasl
OIlCC per shifl a eomplele cleaning 01' the landem should be earried OUI wilh hOI waler (eon-
dcnsalc), Ihe stcrilising and c1eaning propenies 01' whieh are definilely superior 10 Ihose 01'
steam.
REFERENCES
I B. L. MITTAL, ?roe. llrh Congr. ISSCT, 1962, p. 1047.

2 B. L. MITTAL, Proe. lllh Congr. ISSCT, 1962, p. 1048.
3 C. M. UGALE, Inl. Sugar J., 82 (1980) 282.
4 REIN, Proe. 49rll COIlf. SASTA, 1975, p. 47.
5 w. R. CRAWFORD, Proe. 24lh Con!. QSSCT, 1957, p. 95.
ó P. N. NAYAR AND P. S. B. PILLAY, Inl. Sugar J., 45 (1943) 190.
7 MooR, Proe. 151h Congr. ISSCT, 1974, p. 1602.
R S. PEREZ ALONSO, Inl. Sugar J., 61 (1959) 113.
9 Proe. 16111 Congr. ISSCT, 1977, p. 2752.
10 Sugar Milling Res. Insl., S. Afriea, Rep. No. 64, 1964, p. 22.
21. Milling Control
1n Ihis chapler we discuss only matters peculiar 10 the control of the milling plan!. Funher
reference 10 Ihis conlrol will be made in Chapter 39 in its relationship to Ihe general control
of the factory.
EXTRACTION BY DRY CRUSHING
In order to discuss fully Ihe question of efficiency it will be necessary, as we ha ve done al

the beginning of the sludy on imbibilion (p. 280), to distinguish belween dry crushing and
wet crushing.
In praclice, dry crushing corresponds only to:
(a) For tandems wilh a 2-roll crusher, lhe crusher and J st mili
(b) For tandems wilhout a 2-roll crusher, Ihe ISI mili (sometimes described as a mill-
crusher).
If a large number of milis were available, Ihe efficiency of Ihis firsl unil or of Ihis firsl
combinalion would not have great imporlance. The dry crushing could then be pushed 10 its
limil (e/. p. 281), which moreover is rapidly attained. It would nOI, however, be desirable
10 lose even one mili 10 dry-crushing purposes in this way, since nOlhing would be gained,
and one must be content wilh the combinalion or Ihe unil meI1lioned aboye, for dry crushing
(we shall call this Ihe ISI mili, on the understanding thal (he lerm includes Ihe crusher where
Ihere is one). Now, the dry-crushing extraction has a very marked influence on Ihe overall
extraclion of Ihe landem, as eqns. (19.1 J) and (19.15) demonSlrate. In practice, il varies bet-
ween wide limits from one landem to another. The grealer Ihe extraclion of sugar by dry
crushing, al the head of Ihe tandem, the less difficult is the lask left to the following milis
to recover more sugar by the Iroublesome step of wet eXlraclion, and the beller is Ihe overall
extraction of Ihe tandem. 1I is thus important to attain Ihe maximum extraction possible by
the dry crushing. It is considered in Queensland, for example, Ihat a gain of l% in Ihe extrac-
',~1I1 of Ihe 1st mili gives a gain in total extraction of:
0.12070 in 4-mill tandems

0.10070 in S-mili landems
Since Ihe 1st-mili extraction may vary between 60 and 80070, we see the huge influence of
this extraction on the final result, for the same work of the subsequenl wel crushing.
It is desirable, therefore, to follow carefully Ihe 1st-mili extraction, and 10 report the figure
in the weekly chemica] control buIJelins. A tandem of 3-roller units should altain a minimum
EXTRACTlON BY DRY CRUSHING 329
of 60070 exlraclion al [he ISI mili; il may readily reach 70%, and can go as high as 75 - 80%,
according lo Ihe ribre content of cane, ir lhe preparalion is good (knives arid shredder), and
if all necessary allention is given to feeding and selting of thelst milI. Wiih a crusher, these
values may even be exceeded (ej. Table 21.2, p. 332). For a 3-rollú 1st mili wilhout crusher,
Australian workers repon l exlraclions of 81 - 82% and 1st bagasse moistures of 53 or even
50% for a combinalion o[ crusher and 1st mili'. Hawaiian factories' for this combinalion
normally reckon 77 - 80% of >Ibsolule juice (nol of sugar), and in exccllent conditions
80 - 83 %.
Exlraction of primary juice

In order lO know t he extractíon of juice by dry crushing, it is not necessary to weigh it
separalely. A ready calculatíon may be made, in the general case where lhe primary juice is
sampled and analysed separateJ'y and where all the rest of the juice is oblained al fhe second
level (general case o[ compound imb ibilion) [orming the secondary juice.
Let:
S, = sugar f1!o primary juice
S, = sugar % secondary juice
Sm = sugar % míxed juice
e, = primary juice extraction = sugar in primary juíce % sugar in cane
e = total extractíon o[ the landem
Q, = primary juice per unit of mixed juice
x = sugar in primary juice per unit of sugar in mixcd juice.
Equating sugar in mixed juice to th e total of thal in the primary and secondary juice, we
have:
I X Sm = Q, S, + (1 - Q¡) S, (2l.J )
Now:
S,Q,
X = hence Q,
S xl'
'"
Substituting in (21.1) and solving for x:
S, (Sm S,)
x = (21.2)
Sm (S, - S,)
But ¡he sugar in mi-xed juiee = e OJo ofsugar in eane. Thus the extraetion of sugar in primary
juice OJo sugar in eane is given by:
S,)
e, .= xe = 'e (21.3)
S2)
; .' ,
. .330 MILLlNOCONTROL Ch. 21
This calcülation,. however, may only be used when it is definite that there is no mixture
of 3rd-mill juice withthat of the 2nd mili after the sampling point (generally at the juice
. screens). Otherwise the result is obviously false.
The sampling should thus be carned out at the second mili. It is preferable to operate as
follows. Let:
J = fibre per unit of cane
So = poi or sucrose per unit cane
J, = fibre per unit of first-mill bagasse
S, = poi or SUCrose per unit of first -mili bagasse
B, = weight of first-mill bagasse per unit of caneo
We have:
S,B, S, -
1
Poi or sucrose in first-mill bagasse per unit of cane
J,
x So - S, -J
J, S,J (21.4)
Extraction of first mili e, 1--
I x So SOJ,
Thís calculation assumes that the fibre ís the same before and after the mili (actually, a
small amount is lost from the mili with the fine bagasse).
We reeommend this second method as simpler and more accurate. It applies not only to
the first mili, but for all milis. For mili n, the extractíon is:
en (21.5)
Order of magnitude of first-mill extraction; The fírst-mill extraetiori depends on fibre in

cane, and the magnitude of thís extraetion eould be expressed by:
e, = 1 _ _0_.0_6_ (21.6) .
0.34 - /
This formula is empirical, without mathematieal basis. The fibre in the firsl-mill bagasSé
depends on fibre in eane and on first-mill extraetion. It inereases as extraetion inereases, and
roughly e, is of the order of 2/,.
Extraction al successivemills. Table 21.1 gives two examples from South Afriea, for the
. Illovo and Noodsberg factories, with fibre of 14.6 and I.P. of 89 in both cases.
BRlX ORAPHS 331
TABLE 21.1
EXTRACTION (UNJT AND CUMULATIYE) IN SUCCESSIVE MILLS
1110 Yo· NoodslJerg
Unir Cumula/lye Unlt Cumulolive
1st mili 72.5 72.5 72.1 72.1

2rtd mili 25.5 79.5 42. 1 . 83.8
3rd mili 42.0 88.1 43.1 90.8
4th mili 28.5 91.5 33 .5 93.9
5th mili 21.7 93.3 36.0 96.1
6th mili 37.3 95.8 34 .7 97.4
BRIX GRAPHS
One of the best methods of controlling the milling plant is to construct a graph of the brix
of Ihe juices from the successive milis.
We have seen (eqn. (19.19)) how the brix decreases from one mili to the other in the case
of compound imbibilion, which is most genera/ly adopled.
The degree to which the values obtained in the milis approach the theorelical curve in-
dicales how well each mili is doing its work. We give (Fig. 21.1) two graphs by way of exam-
pie:
2o 2o
Bri K sequence Brix sequence
B
! -
Ewo
lB
Coy monos
" :
5
" 15
41--- \ 14
1\
2 \ 1 \
o
\ O
\
8 1\ e \
\ \ e;
5 6
~. ._ - _ _o
_\ ~
.. - 4
\
2 ~ 2 \ ~
1
• o o 3 4 5 5 O o 2 3
No. o( mili
4 b
No. of milI
Fig. 21 1. Brix graph: (a) Ewa; (b) Caymanas.

332 MILLlNG CONTROL Ch. 21
(a) The mean of brix Value5 ob¡ained in ¡he 20-roller ¡andem at Ewa, in Hawaii, during
the 6 seasons 1928 - 33 4
(b) A summary' of the brix figures for the 15-roller tandem at Caymanas, in Jamaica, to
which we have already made reference (ej. p. 57).
Whereas this latler curve i, excellent, ¡here will be noticed 011 ¡he previous one an anomaly
corresponding to the 5lh mili and showing that the 4th is not extracting as much juice as it
should.
lt may be noted in passing that the brix values reported and the corresponding extraction
for each of the milis at Ewa were as given in Table 21.2:
TABLE 21.2
EWA: BRIX AND EXTRACTIQN AT DIFFERENT MILLS
Brix Extraction
Crusher 18.53 69.92

¡st mill 17.41 12.58
2nd mili 9.40 7.11
3rd mill 6.45 3.75
4th mili 4.16 150
5th mili 3.18 2.08
6th mili 1.96 1.22
Total 98.16
[t may be noted also thut the 15-roller tandem at Caymanas has the advantage of being
able to use imbibi¡ion immediately afler Ihe crusher, whereas Ewa cannOI commence imbibi-
tionunlil after ¡he first mili, and thus loses one pressure from ¡he poin¡ of view of imbibi¡ion.
In addi¡ion to the reasons given previously (ej. p. 58), ¡his is a further powerful argument
in favour of the mill-crusher.
To establish these brix curves, the brix of back-roller juice is generally taken. In dry-
crushing mills, the brix of the feed-roller juice is the higher. In wet-crushing milis, on ¡he
contrary, it is ¡he back-roller juice which has the higher brix.
Water
eane
t:9~~~ Bagas se
Juice
Fig. 21.2. Basic equation for milis.

BASIC EQUATlON FOR MlLL CONTROL 333
BASIC EQUATlON FOR MILL CONTROL
The mili control is based on an equation expressing the fact that the wcighl of nlaterial enter-
illg the milling plant is equal to the weight leaving (Fig. 21.2):
Cane + imbibition water = mixed juice + bagasse (21.7)
or, relating all quantities to 10001' cane:
100 + W = Q + B (21.8)
W = imbibition water OJo cane

Q = weight of mixed juice OJo cane
B = weighl of bagasse OJo cane.
Tilis equation, which is obvious in theory, does not work out strictly carrect in praclice.
ACI ually:
(a) The calle is weighed so me lime before it enters lhe milis. In this inlerval, in particular
if it remains too long in Ihe sun at the unloading slalion, il loses weight, especially at lhe
cut ends. This 1055 is multiplieó with cane mechanically harvested and cul into short pieces.
(b) During the crushing itself, lhe surface on which the juice is exposed to evaporation is
multiplied many times: on the bottom and sides of lhe feed hoppers and juice trays, on the
periphery of ¡he rollers, on the surface (very considerable) of the layer of bagasse on the in-
lennediate carriers, and finally in the streams and trickles of juice falling from the imbibition
distributors and lhe lower rollers.
Funher, if the imbibition is hot, evaporation lakes place al the spray pipes or ¡he
distributing plales, which, in this case, are always covered in a cloud of steam.
The time laken for the cane lo Iraverse the milis is obviously much shorter than its sta y
on the unloading station, but the enormous multiplicalion of the exposed surface does much
. more ¡han compensate for this difference, and effecl (b) is much grealer than effect (a).
Assullling a mean period of 4 - 8 hours at the unloading platform, and a normal time 01'
passage rhrough the milIs, belween crusher and pump, we may eslimale roughly:
(i) Loss of weight of cane at lhe platform at less [han 1%
(ii) Loss 01' weighl of juice at the milis al 2-3%.
The former 1055 is very variable, and depends on lhe period involved, on wealher candi-
tions (day or night, sunshine or rain), on exposure of the cane pile (in lhe sur, . or in lhe shade
of the factory), the length of rhe pieces of cane (canes cut by mechanical harveslers are in
short pieces, 0.3 - 0.6 m (I - 2 n.) in length, which mulriplies by 3, 4 or 5 the number 01' ex-
posed ends), etc.
In South Africa 6 a loss of 1.25070 in weight of cane on the platform has been found for
the first 24 hours.
Loss of water by evaporation of imbibition is fairly low with cold waler, but greater with
hot; and in Ihe latter case lhere is a corresponding further 1055 from the juices which ha ve
been heated by mixing with the recirculated imbibition water.
The 1055 of weight of juice is relatively constant.
334 MILLlNC CONT ROL Ch. 21
In experiments, purticulurly those made at the College of Agriculture in Trinidad ', a figure
of at least 3 - 40/0 on weight of cane has been found for lhe 2nd term of eqn. (21.8). In ex-
periments on the industrial scale in Queensland 8 , a 105S of 2.06% (say 2%) on weight of cane
has been found for cold imbibition. This would correspond to a difference of nearly 10OJo
on the weight of bagasse.
Now the basic equation serves predominantly for determining the weight 01' bagasse, the
other three materials being generally weighed.
The bagasse, for its part, also loses before analysis a small fraction of its weight, generally
negligible if the necessary precautions are taken.
We have then:
Cane + water> juice + bagasse (21. 9)
We shall now analyse this statement of inequality. We shall consider for example the total
figures for a week, as folIows:
C weight of cane given by the weighbridge
J weight of mixed juice given by the juice sea les
E weight of imbibition water given by the water scales
e weight of cane lost in the yard by evaporation and loss of smalI pieces
j = weight of juice evaporated at the mills
K = required weight of bagasse actually leaving the milIs.
Assuming the scales correct, the equation becomes
C-e+E=J+j+K (21. 10)
Hence:
K = C + E - J - (e + j) (21.11)
Express ing alI the figures per 100 of cane weighed:
10~ K = lOO + 10~ E lOO J lOO (e + J)

C C
Returning tú ¡he notation of eqn. (21.8):
B
lOO K W = lOO E Q
lOO J
C C C
we have:
B = lOO + W - Q - ('Y + n (21.12)
where Wand Q are the weights obtained at the scales relative to the weight of cane obtained
BRlX OF ABSOLUTE JUICE 335
al lhe weighbridge
'Y = weight of cane lost in the yard rI70 on weight of cane received
I = weight of juice evaporated al the milis rI70 on cane received.
If we assume:
r al 0.5 - 1rI70
1 al 0.5 - 1rI70 (cold imbibilion)
on weight of cane,
1 - 2rI7o (hOI imbibition)
lhe magnilude of the error (r + n would be of lhe order of 2rI7o; bul B varies usually between
25 and 30. An error of 1-3rI7o in eqn. (21.12) could thus lead to an error of 3 - 10rI7o on the
weiglll of bagasse. However, the general praclice is not 10 make any correction 10 take into
accounl lhese losses, and lhe weighl of bagasse obtained is thus in error, bp.ing 100 high.
This error rerJecls on lile fibre rigure (if oblained by calculalion) and has a slight effeCl
on lhe sugar conlenl of cane, which is generally obtained by adding .lugar in mixed juice
(assumed accurale) and sugar in bagasse (which is in error); it also affects the extraction and
other figures for lhe efficiency of the milling train.
This discussion demonstrates the importance of weighing (he bagas se. The aulhor did this
in one of his factories, and has found only a very slight difference relative to the classical
method of calculation. Bagasse may be weighed by continuous integraling scales on the
bagasse COI\veyor (Weiller or Syneyrco), or batch scales such as the Servo-Balans in Holland.
The results obtained would be in agreement wíth the estimation made in Queensland 9 , accor-
ding to which the evaporation at the milis would represent only O.ISrI7o in the case of cold
imbibition or 0.50rI7o with hot imbibition. The former figure is substantially lower than that
reported some years later of 2rI7o (e/. p. 333). In South Africa, however'o, an error of 7.3rI7o
has been found between calculated and actual weights of bagasse.
As a first approximation, we may take
Q'= I + W - 2/
where quantities are expressed per unit (not rI7o) of cane, and fibre in bagasse is assumed as
0.5.
BRIX OF ABSOLUTE JUICE
The brix of absolute juice is an importanl faclor, but rather difficult to determine. The
simplest calculation which gives it directly is the following.
Equating the quantily of material in solution entering (he milis lo lhat leaving, we have:
(21.13)
BA brix of absolute juice

/ fibre per unit o f cane
336 MILLING CONTROL Ch. 21
f' fibre per unit of bagasse

Q = mixed juice % cane
Bm = brix of mixed juice
Bb = soluble malter % of bagasse.
Hence we obtain:
QB + Bb f
"! f'
(21.14)
1 - f
Example. Let Q = 1.0246 f = 0.1346

Bm = 16.96 f' = 0.48
Bb = 2.82 ji!, = 0.2804
Hence we have:
(1.0246 X 16.96) + (2.82 X 0.2804)

20.99
0.8654
FIBRE
If mixed juice and imbibition water are weighed, the corresponding figure for average fibre
in cane may be obtained. The quantity of fibre is substantially constant as it passes through
the milis, and we have:
100 X f = B X f'
f = fibre cane
f' =fibre in bagasse
B = weight of bagasse % on caneo
Hence, substituting B from the basic equation (21.8):
f = f' . 100 + W - Q (21.15)

100
The study on p. 333 has shown that, if the bagasse is not weighed, the fraction appearing
in the second term, which must necessarily be taken into account, will be too high, perhaps
by a small amount, perhaps by up to 100/0. While it is the figure officially adop¡ed, it is
desirable to know its limitations.
VARIOUS RELATroNSHIPS IN MILLlNG 337
VARrouS RELATroNSHIPS IN MILLiNG
RellHive proportions of juice from feed and delivery rollers

For a mili operating well, il is necessary that the extraclion al lhe feed roller should be at
a maximum.
Now, the feed roller extracts first the superficial imbibition water which remains on the
upper or exterior portions of the'particles of bagasse. Consequently, the juice obtained is of
lower brix than that extracted by the delivery roller, which extracts part of the juice enclosed
in the inner cells,
The proportion of juice extracted by the feed roller is easily calculated. Le!:
E = brix of feed-roller juice
S = brix of delivery-roller j uice
M = brix of mili juice
x proportion of juice obtained by the rront roller.
We have:
xE + (l - x) S l x M
whence:
S - M
x (21.16)
S-E
[n Hawaii, il is considered that the work of a lasl mili is satisfactory if x is of the order
of 70 - 80070.
As a general rule: lhe reed roller of the later milis, with wet crushing, should furnish about
~ or the juice, and the delivery roller therefore only j. However, the proportion furnished
by the feed roller may be proportionally greater as the imbibition received by the bagasse is
increased.
Relation between poi contents of juice and bagasse from a mili

The poI ofthe bagasse leaving a milI should always be lower than that ofthe back-roller juice
rrom that milI.
This difference, while marked at the earlier milis,' decreases greatly at the later milis; but,
if these milIs are properly set, the poi of the back-roller juice of the last mil! (Iast expressed
juice) should remain appreciably higher than that of the bagasse.
If the opposite is found, it indicates that the mixing of imbibition water with the bagasse
leaves much to be desired.
The fibre in bagasse is approximately 500/0; hence, if the juice which it retc 'd had the
same composition as the juice extracted, we should have, since all the sugar retal~ed by the
bagasse is present in the juice which it contains:
s
100 a 50 s, or: a - (21.l7)
2
338 MILLlNO CONTROL Ch. 21
a = poI "lo in bagasse

s = poI fIJo juice extracted by the last roller.
Such a result is never obtained. Generally a is of the order of 0.7 s; but there is no need
to tolerate performance where it is equal to s or greater.
Sequence of purilies of successive juices

The firsl pressure gives the highest-purity juice. As we follow lhrough lhe successive
pressures, the juice extracled from the inner cells is of lower and tower puri¡y,
Since the juice of lowest purity is the most difficult to extract, it foltows that the drop in
puri¡y from crusher to tast expressed juice measures in a way ¡he degree of pressure of the
mills.
lt increases wi¡h ¡he extraction and gives an indication 01' ¡he extent to which milting work
has been pushed. This drop is of the order of 10 - 18 points,
Correlation belween extraction and tasl-mill juice purity

lt may be asked whether lhe purity 01' the lasl-mill juice will not fall more and more rapidly
as lhe extraction approaches 100%, for a given fibre figure, Now Haines and Hughes have
shown 11 thal it tends towards an asymplolic limit (Fig. 21.3); this is encouraging when an
improvement in extraction of a tandem is soughl. ,
lt may indeed be asked whether the falt in purilY 01' lhe incremenl of juice oblained would
nol neulralise lhe gain in extraclion sought. Reasoning from lhe graph in Fig, 21,3, we see
that a gain of 1% in exlraclion (e,g, 9S - 96%) would give a juice which we may assume,
75
74
73
72
.~• 71
.2.
'E
- •
.'e
70
"O
.111' 69
'E,
a.
68
93 94 95 96 97 98
Extroction
Fig. 21.3, Yariation of last·mill juice purity with extraction,
VARIOUS RELATIONSHIPS IN MILLINO 339
al lhe worSI, as of 69 purity, assuming lhat it was obtained entirely from the final milI. If
the facIory obIains a molasses purity of 40, Ihe overall gain would be (eqn. (39.1 »:
1 x 100 (69 40)

= 0.70
69 (100 40)
or 700/0 of the gain obtained at.the milis .

. Ahhough this purity drop has a detrimenIal efrect, iI should not discourage the attempt
to obIain an improved extraction.
South Africa l2 has found the relationship:
Puri¡y of cane
= (0.0053 x extraction) + 0.46
Purity of mixed juice
using apparent purities. For diffusion factories, the ratio becomes:
Purity of cane
= (0.0042 x extraction) + 0.58
Purity of mixed juice
Purity of residual juice

This progressive drop in purity would continue to show up if the final bagasse were passed
on 10 a rurther mili. Actually, the drop in purity between juice and bagasse a¡ ¡he last milJ
is very considerable, and the purity of residual juice is of the order of 45 or 50 in general,
rarely being as high as 60; for ¡his reason, it should not be replaced by the puri¡y of back-
roller juice of ¡he las¡ mili, which is much higher.
Java ratio
This expression denotes the quotient:
poi OJo cane

Java ratio 100 X (21.18)
poi % Is¡ expressed juice
It aims to deduce the poi in cane by a simple multiplication, knowing the poi of crusher
juice. It is utilised wi¡h this object in certain coun¡ries where the price of cane to the growers
is based on its sugar conten!.
ActualIy, this ratio represents:
S(I-/)
J.R. = (21.19)
SI
S poi "10 absolute juice

SI poi % of 1st expressed juice
f fibre per unit caneo
Its value varies from 77 to 90, for different factories and different countries. It obviously
-
340 MILLINO CONTROL Ch. 21
depends essentiall y on the fibre content of caneo lnnes 'l gives [he value:
J.R. = 98.5 - 1.34/ (21.20)
Kerr l4 interprets this equation as indicaling that Ihe difference belween 98.5 and 100 could
be due to the water of consti tution of the cane ("brix-free water"), which is of the ord er of
1.5 OJo on ca ne; and lhal a certain proponíon of the "hygroscopic " water, equal 1034% on
fibre, would remain artached to the fibre, and wou ld nOl be extractable.
It appears thal this ratio has furnished a rough but practical method for cane payment ac-
cording lO sugar con tent , and that 1here is no reason tO expect anything more of iL
Hawaii ratio
This is lhe quotient:
brix of absolute juice

k = (21.21)
brix of 1st expressed juice
This ralio is useful for calcu lati ng easily the sugar in cane in factories where neilher imbibi-
lion waler nor mixed juice are weighed (see first edition, p. 259).
II is genera ll y of lhe order of 0.96 - 0.97 bUI, unfortunalely, it also is rather variable from
one faclory 10 anolher; and in lhe one faclory, from one variety to another, though ror-
t unately to a sma ll er extenL
lt is readily determined by a test with dry crushing.
Arceneaux" has found in Louisiana [hat the fibre content of cane had aninfluence on Ih e
coefficienl k. After numerous observations carried out on several varielies af cane, he has
repon ed figures which, except for slighl var ia[i ons peculiar to cerlain varie lies, allow lhe
rollowing equatio n [O be used wit h a good degree 01' approxima[ion:
k = I - 0.002/ (21.22)
/ = fibre % caneo
Innes '6 gives:
k = 1.003 - 0.004/ (21.23)
an expression which, as will be seen, diverges markedly from thal proposed according lO .
Arceneaux , and fllrnishes smaller values of k. The two alllhors, however, are in agreemen[
in indicating a decrease in the coerficienl k with an increase in fibre.
Imbibition and dilution

lt is importan! to avoid confusing these two lerms as is some times done.
1mbibitio n is the total quantity of waler added at the milis, per 100 of ca ne.
Dilution is the qllanti[y of imbibilion wa ter which enters the mixed juice, per 100 of caneo
SUCROSE EXTRACTED OJo CANE 341
The difference belween Ihe,e two figures represenlS the quantity of imbibition water re-
maining in the bagasse, per 100 of caneo
Ir is of interes! to nOle that, for normal values of imbibition, the quantity of water remain-
ing in the bagasse varies but liule. It generally líes between 8 and 12. The remaínder of the
imbibition passes inlo the mixed juice. When lhe imbibition is increased, a weight of diluted
juice approximately equal to lhat of lhe additional imbibition passes inlo the juice, and it
is this quanlily 01" "mixed juice OJo cane" which absorbs almosl wholly lhe variations of im-
bibition.
Shannon lb ' (personal communicalion) considers that the ratio of "dilution OJo primary
juice" to tile "imbibition" should be belween 0.95 and 1.05. If lhe ralio is beJow 0.95, lhe
imbibition figure is 100 high; if aboye 1.05, the imbibition figure is too low.
Example:
Brix of pril:nary juice J 9.16 I Dilulion OJo primary JUlce

Brix of mixed juice 14.98 ~
lOO x ~9_.16 - 14.98 = 27.90
14.98
27.90
1mbibition 29.06 k = 0.96
29.06
SUCROSEEXTRACTED "', CANE
We have:
e = 100 (R - (3)
e = sucrose extracted OJo cane

R = sucrose contenl of cane
(3 = sucrose in bagas se "lo caneo
Or:
e = 100 (R - a: ) (21.24)
a = sucrose OJo bagasse

f = fibre % cane
j' fi b re % bagasse.
Or:
e = lOO f (!!.f - ~)
j'
342 MILLING CONTROL Ch. 21
Evaluation of ellne
In a sugar factory, it is necessary constantly lo delermine lhe value, in lerms 01" su gar, of
various batches of cane, eilher lO determine lhe sugar conlent of one variety or 01" a field
and hence its sugar conlenl per acre, to analyse Ihe various parcels of cane from field ex·
periments, or to determine lhe quanlily of sugar in the cane from each of lhe growers or from
cooperative groups, elc.
Recoverable sugar
One requirement must be firsl reali sed: the interest ing lhing 10 delermine is not lhe sugar con-
teril proper (that is, Ihe quanlily of sucrose contained in 100 pans of cane) bUI the
r ecoverable sugar, in other words, lhe quantity of sugar or 01' sucrose which (he I"aclory will
be able to recover from 100 parls of lhe cane under consideralion. As we shall see laler, lWO
canes of lhe same sugar 'conlen( do not give actually Ihe sa me yie ld of sugar , if their fibre
contents or (he respective purities of their juices are differenl.
We shall allempt lhen 10 determine (he yield 01' sucrose from a given caneo Lel:
R sugar % of cane under consideration
So sucrose % absolule juice
f fibre per uníl of cane
X sugar recoverable from lhe cane
B brí x of primary juice furníshed by lhe 151 míll (or by ¡he combination of crusher and
I SI mili)
S poI % primary juice
P apparent purity of prim ary ju ice = (S / 8) x 100
P' Clergel purity of mixed juice obtained from this cane
M = usual Clergel purily of ¡he molasses from lhe faclory (assumed oblainable wit h lhe
cane under consideratíon).
The sugar entering ¡he faclory, % on cane, is:
R = So (1 - 1) (21.25)
Being unable 10 eXlract Ihe absolule juice, we must be contenl with analysing lhe primary
juice, or dry-crushing juice, bul we know Ihat Ihe sucrose % primary juice bears lhe ratio
k, approximately co nSlanl and approac hing 1, 10 lhe sucrose % of absolule juice. We may
lherefor wl'ile:
R = So (1 - 1) = k , . S (1 - 1) (21.26)
k, = coeffi cient slighlly less than 1, and relalively COnSlanl.

The faclory recovers only a fraction of R . Assuming that the losses in muds and lhe
undelermined losses are small, we may inlroduce a second coefficienl k, 10 lake Ihese IWO
small losses into account. II remains 10 calculale Ihe lWO major losses: loss in bagasse and
loss in molasses .
SUCROSE EXTRACTED % CANE 343
(1) Loss in bagasse. Lel:

f3 sugar lost in bagasse % cane
a = sucrose % bagasse
/' = fibre per unil of bagasse.
We have:
{3=a-
J (21.27)
l'
If we require lhe value of lhis loss corresponding lo a standard extraclion eo (for example,
95%) and for a slandard fibre Jo (for example, 0.125), we should have;
(3 J a a 1'(1 - e)
(21.28)
- = 1 - e, hence
R l' R R J
and we require:
a 1'(1 - eo)
R Jo
The following musl 1hen hold:
(3 J
-
1'(1- eo) (1 - eo) J
R l' Jo Jo
The sucrose oblained afler the milling planl will be:
(21.29)
lt is necessary lO choose standard values for Jo and eo. We shall take Jo = 0.125, the
classical and general figure, and eo = 0.975. The latler figure is chosen on account of the
prcferencc for basing lhe calculalions on ideal or maximal values, and from the faet lhal eer-
lain milling tandems approach or exceed 97%, and since diffusion makes such extraclions
readily atlainable.
Hoarau 17 has shown in Réunion that k, is a funclion of J, and he has given lhe range of
varialion for all the faelories in lhe island. The good correlation belween the graph oblained
and the individual values found for widely differenl landems and faclories allows lhe resulls
lO be generalised and expressed with ver y good precision by lhe formula: ve I
k, = 1 - 0.57 J
SubsliLUting lhe values of k" Jo and eo in eqn. (21.29), we have:

k, . S (1 - 0.S7 f) (1 - f) (1 - 0.2 f)
or:
k,' S(I - 1.77/+ 0.884f' - 0.114/,)
The lerms in l' and /' have little effecl. If we relain only the term in / and modify il in
order to give it the sa me value as the whole polynomial in / would have for a mean value
of /. the sucrose oblained after the milling plant becomes:
k, 'S (1 - 1.65 f)
and il is readily shown that the approximation thus adopted involves an error not exceeding
0.4070 (say 4 parts per 1.000) for extreme values of / such as 0.10 and 0.16.
(2) Loss in molasses.lfwe take a standard purity M for the final molasses. the final quanli-
ty of sucrose recovered from the can e under co nsideralion wilI be (e! eqn. (39.1):
x = k,· S(1 - 1.65f) IOO(P ' - M)

p' (100 - M)
or:
x = k, _IO~ 'S(I 1.65 f) P ' - M

100 - M P'
But:
P
s = B
100
Hence:
B P' - M
X = k, . 100 _ M (1 - 1.65j) p. - P '
COt
Now:
p. P' - M =P-.!:...-M
P' P'
SUCROSE EXTRACTED % CANE 345
If we choose a standard purily of molasses M su eh thal:
M~ 30
P'
which corresponds closely lO M = 29, a value very close to the c1assical figure M = 28.57,
we shall have:
x k, . 100
100 - M
. B (J 1.65 j) P - 30
lOO
Putting:
100
k, . -,--c--- k
100 - M
and commenting lhat:
B . P - 30 = BP - 30 B
s- 0.3 B (21.30)
100 100
\Ve lhen have:
x = k (1 - 1.65 f) (S - 0.3 B) (21.31)
k is the efficiency coefficient for the faclory. lt varies with the exlraction at the milis and
with the recovery in lhe boiling house. However, il does not measure rigorously lhe efficiency
of ¡he faclOry since it depends also on:
(a) The proportion oj primary juice obtained. When lhe primary juice is derived from the
combination of crusher and 1st mili, or indeed from a particularJy effective 1st mili, this pro-
portion is high; the primary juice consequently approaches the absolute juice (k, approaches
unilY) and lhe eoefficienl k is higher. When the primary juice represents only a small fraction
of lhe absolule juice (as in lhe case of a low eXlraction al the 1st milI), the coefficient k is
slightly lower. This is equally the case when the first expressed juice is sampled (crusher juice,
or front-roller juice of lhe J sl mili) instead of the primary juice. This practice moreover is
nOl 10 be recommended, since lhe proporlion of firsl juice extracted depencie,~ a much
grealer extent on lhe instantaneous volume of can e supplied to the mili (in olher words, on
whelher lhe mili is more or less loaded al lhe momenl of sampling), and its sugar content
varies in proportion; it is then more variable than lhat of the primary juice relative to the
sugar conlenl of the absolute juiee.
(b) The cane preparation. The phenomenon just discussed is in fact greatly accentuated
by the degree of preparation of the cane. Munro'8 has obtained the graphs given in Figs. 21.4
24 .
<'o'
2 3 f- . '<
~
~.<J
.,~
22
\ "'.:;
.t\> -
22
21 Moderate prepar¡;¡tion
u ::!.Sr. fine pr.~ ~réit . - - ~ ' j
~
v ~~ 1
. iT ::"'~~'>.
"~'~
~ 20 Fine or{,p¡¡r ..;tion
;(
• \
• \ \
v
:2.
19
\ 1\ boarJe preparat¡l on ~\
15 \
e 16
g
e
&
.: 17
!!
15
K 16
e
al
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 eo 90 100 o 0 .1 02 0 .3 0.4 0 .5 0.6 0.7 O.B 0.9

Volu me 0 1 jUlC e ex tracted JUlce extracted per unit ¡Ulce In cane
Fig. 21.4. Brix of exuacled juice relative to preparation and prOporlion of juice eXlracted.
Fi g. 21.S. Bri x of primary juice as a func ti on of propon ion extracted .
tO 5
-~ -' "10r"
lO 4
___
.~~
"",,ode rat.te pre()~,...
__
I"~tloi?
<:1, .
'~O~~
1.03 "
("epa ratl on
. '---.
\
1.02
):;:-. '--. \,
"\r\\,\
\\ \ '
lO 1
'\
,\ \
\ \
", ,"
1 ",
O 0 .1 0.2 0 .3 0 .4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.6 09
JuicE' e xt rCJcted perunit juice in ( ane
Fig. 21.6 . Ratio 8 / 8, of brix of primary jui ce lo bri x of absolute juice. as a function of cumu lati ve propon ion of
primar)' juice extracted.
DETERMINATlON OF THE VAI.UE OF THE COEFFICIENT k 347
and 21.5, whíeh demonstrate the effecl of fineness of preparatíon on the variations ín brix
or juice exlrac!ed . In Fíg. 21.4, Ihe ordínales represen! !he bríx of Ihe last portion of juice
eXlrac!ed, for each supplementary fraclion obtained under Ihe press. In Fig. 21.5, they repre-
senl Ihe mean brix of the whole of the juíce already eXlracted; lhese are the curves whích are
or inlerest here. In Fig. 21.6, lhey represent the ratio BI Bo of the brix of the fraetíon of juice
eXlracted to the brix or absolule juice. This shows the very marked influence of 1sr-mill ex-
Iraetion on the brix of primary juíce, for the same cane or for identical canes, and emphasises
Ihe caulion which should thererore be used when comparing Ihe primary juíces of two dif-
rerent tandems. 1I will be noted also Ihallhe dífference due lO preparalion decreases substan-
tíally for a propon ion in the neighbourhood of 60 -70rIJo of primary juice; hence the advan-
lage of analysing the primary juice rather than the first expressed juice, which can only with
difricuhy amount to more lhan 50"70 01' the absolute juice, and often amounls to only 40%.
This equalising effect on preparation is readily understood when it is realised that the cells
01' the rind and Ihe nodes contain the juice of lowest brix and of lowest purity; hence in-
complete preparation lea ves them 10 a greal eXlenl intact, in which case they relain lheir juice
when the first pressure is applied; whereas more inlensíve preparatíon breaks the cells and
Ihey can lhus release their juice wíth the firsl application of pressure.
We may commenl Ihal both effects (a) and (b) are still more marked on the puríty than
on the brix, which accentuates their effect on the coeffícíent k.
(e) The exhaustibility oj the molasses (ef. p. 678). If the ratío reducíng sugars/ ash is high,
Ihe factory will more readily oblain a 10w-purilY molasses and consequently a hígh value of
k; ir Ihis ratío ís low, il will ha ve to be conlenl wilh a relalively high molasses purilY, which
will give il a relatively low coefficienl.
(d) The method oj expressing reeoverable sugar. For delermination of sugar conlent of
growers' cane, the recoverable sugar is generally reckoned not in suerose but in sugar "tel
quel" or standard (94 net titre, 96° polarisation, ele., aecording to custom and the counlry
concerned). In this case, Ihe coefficient k will be higher according as the sugar is reckoned
. at a lower polarisation or titre.
DETERMINATlON OF THE VALUE OF THE COEFFICIENT k
For the coefficient k the mean value obtained during the previous season is adopted, or the
"to date" results for the current season. Ir Q is the average yield (in "lel quel" sugar, in 96°
polarisation sugar, or in sucrose, according to the figure used) for the season, we have:
k = Q (21.32)
(1 - 1.65 j) (5 - 0.3 B)
the values of j, 5 and B being the general averages for Ihe factory for the season or the period
u nder considera t ion.
348 MlLLll'IO CONTROL Ch. 21
NORMAL YALUES OF EFFICIENCY COEFFICIENT k
Assuming a sugar of 99° polarisation, a very good extraction and a molasses of high ex-
haustibility, a factory should theoretically obtain, relativ e 10 typical values of fibre, brix and
sucrose % primary juice as furnished by its chemical control, an efficiency coefficient k of
the order of 1.46; this figure assumes no losses in muds and no undetermined losses. Such
a figure, however, is to our knowledge never attained, and most well-conducted factories
maintain a figure between 1.38 and 1.42. Many others remain in the neighbourhood of 1.35,
The value of k deduced frorn the factory control ("faclOry k") must not be confused with
that obtained by analysing fresh cane ("planters' k") as obtained from analyses of cane from
the fields, of experimentallOls, or of planters' cane for payment purposes. Fresh cane, which
has not been sto red in the yard, is in fact always superior, other things being equal, to canes
of the sarne origin which have spent sorne hours in the yard. For factories having a relatively
well-controlled cane supply, but for 12 hours a day only, and consequently having to make
provision for overnight supply, when they crush for 24 hours per day, it is necessary 10
reckon a planters' coefficient kp (fresh cane) about 2 points lower than the factory ku fur-
nished by the chemical control (e.g. 1.38 instead of 1.40). The a.verage k for a factory during
a season, calculated from the analysis of fresh cane from all its suppliers and its growers,
is thus different from the k obtained from the general average fig ures of the chemical control,
and appreciably lower. The difference originates to a small extent from the increase in fibre
content during slOrage, but to the major extent from the drop in purity; the brix remains ap-
preciably unchanged.
USE OF THE COEFFICIENT
We strongly recommend the use of the coefficient k. lt is ¡he best means of measuring the
value of any batch of cane 10 the factory and of relating it tO real sugar produced. It is also
the simplest and easiest means of ascertaining the sugar produced per acre by each variety
in each field under the control of the factory, or the sugar per tonne of ca ne from any outside
supplier.
SPECIAL USE FOR FACTORY CONTROL
lt is interesting to make use of another means of determining k, to assess the work of the
factory. This second method is applicable only to the average performance of the week or
of the season. lt consists of applying the same formula (21.32), but by writing:
100 Qo
(21.33)
(1 - 1.65 f) B (P' - 30)
in which Bis indeed the brix of primary juice, but P ' is the Clerget purity of the mixed juice
and Qo ¡he yield in E.S.G. (ef. p. 842) . This equa¡ion avoids ¡he uncerta inries regarding
SPECIAL USE FOR FACTORY CONTROL 349
purity 01' primary jllice (difference P' - P variable) and of sugar quality, and the only llncer-
lainly remaining is Ihal 01' brix 01' primary juice' (cf. Fig, 21,6).
For faclories having a complete chemical control, we ll1ay advance a Slep rurther towards
precision by calculating:
(21.34)
(1 - 1.65 f) (SA - 0.3 B)
where SA and BA are the calculated values 01' sucrose and brix of the absolute juice. The kA
Ihus determined gives, ll10re sill1ply and rapidly, a better criterion 01' Ihe general reduced
recovery (e 125 . r" - cf. eqn. (39.14)), Good operation then gives a value of kA Iying bet-
wecn 1.47 and 1.53,
Comment. We ll1ay be tempted to replace the factors 1,65 and 0.3 in eqn. (21,31) by par-
ticular figures corresponding to the actual exlraction and lhe acluall110lasses purily oblained
by the faclory, The value 01' k obtained by an analysis 01' plantation cane or suppliers' can e
would then theoretically be ll10re accurate. In practice, the accuracy of the analysis would
not justify this, improvements in the factory would necessitate changing the faclors each
TABLE 21.3
FORMS ANO USES OF FACTOR Y COEFFICIENT k

Symbol
Cane
Calle for analysis Batch of fresh cane Average of cane entering milis
Bases
Brix [O be Primary juice Primary juice Absolute juice
delermined (batch for analysis) (mean for week or season (mean for week or
season)
Ju\cc [O be Primary juice from Primary juice Mixed juice Absolute juice
polarised or batch (mean poi Or app, (mean Clerget pty,) (mean Clerget pty.)
calculated (poi or app. purity) purity)
(for poi or purity)
Fibre DireCI analysis of Calculated figure Calculated figure CaJculated figure

batch
Recovery Raw sugar Raw sugar E.S.G, L·_~~.
Use Evaluation of Basis of Chemical control Chemical control

varieties or cane payment (faclory (factüry
fields performance) performance)
Payment for cane
Normal values 1.32 - 1040 1.34 - 1042 1.36 - 1.44 1.40 - 1.53
350 MILLlNG CONTROL Ch. 21
year, and coefficients for the factory for different periods, or coeffidenls ror il amI otller
factories, would no longer be comparable. It is much preferable lO use a slandard and general
formula, for which tables for the two values concerned may be used,giving wilhout calcula-
tíon the value of the term k (1 - 1.65 fJ.
Examp/e. Jf we take a faclOry giving average values for a season of:

f = fibre in cane 0.134
BA = brix of absolute juíce 17.36
SA = sucrose % absolute juíce 14.54
Id c = yield in E.S.G. 10.82,
its efficiency coefficient has a value:
10.82
1.4886
[1 - (1.65 x 0.134)] [14.54 - (0.3 x 17.36)]
This same factory, operating on fresh cane, obtains u mean "farmers' k" of 1.390. What
sugar yield could it obtain from a field which gave an analysis of cane and primary juice 01"
the following values:
f = 0.136
B = 21.40
S = 18.83.
We have:
x = 1.390 [1 - (1.65 x 0.136)] [18.83 (0:3 x 21.40)] = 13 .38
Surnrnary. The use of the factory coefficient k is very useful, but it is necessary to
dislinguísh c1early between its several forms, as given in Table 21.3.
REFERENCES
1 H. MACKAY, Proc. 281h Conl. QSSCT, 1961, p. 79; C. H. FITZMAURICE. ibid., p. 83.
2 J. D. PERRY, Proc. 281h Con/. QSSCT, 196/, p. 86.
3 Ollicial Melhods ollhe Hawaiian Sugar Technologisls, Elsevier, Amslerdam, 1968, p. 80.
4 Inl. Sugar J" 37 (1935) 19 .
5 D. M. SEMPLE, Fv'" aboUl Sugar, 32 (1937) 354.
6 C. G. M. PERK.'l-roc. 40th Con/. SASTA, 1966, p. 19.
7 J. G. DAVIES, R. D. E. YEARWOOO ANO P. D. SMITH, Inl. Sugar J ., 45 (1943) 79.
8 B. C. AOKINS, A. G. eLAIRE ANO K. W. CROUTHER, Proc. 30th Con/. QSSCT, 1963, p. 214.
9 e. A. ANOERSON, B. J. RUTHERFORO ANO K. A. STUART, Proc. 261h Con/. QSSCT, 1959, p. 29.
10 C. G, M. PERK, Proc. 40th Con/. SASTA, 1966, p. 18.
1I W. S. HAINES ANO R. H. HUGHES, Proc. IlIh Congr. ISSCT, 1962, p. 1028.
12 Sugar Mi/ling Res. Insl , S. Ajrica, Ann. Rep. 1980-81, p. 7.
13 R. F. INNES, Proc. Con/. Bril. Wesl Indies Sugar Technologisls, 195 7, p. 205.
REFERENCES 351
14 H. W. KERR, Proc. 271h Con!. QSSCT, 1960, p, 15.

Il G. ARCENEAUX, Proc. 91h Congr. ISSCT, 1956, p. 743 .
16 R. F. INNES, Proc. Con!. 8rll. Wesl lndles Sugar Techno!oglsls, 1957, p. 205 .
16a C. R. D. SHANNON, personal" communication.
17 M. HOARAU. Rapporl de 1'lnslllul de Recherches Agronomlques Tropicales (Réunion), July 1968, p. 4.
18 B. M. MUNRO, An investigation inlo crushing of bagasse and ¡he innuence or imbibilion on extrae[ian. Thesis,
Universily of Queensland. 1964. pp. 19- 27.
.. .
22. Fine-Bagasse Separators
Many particles of bagasse drop from the milis, falling through rhe space between feed piare
and feed roller, or being extracted from the Messchaerrs by Ihe scrapers, or dropping belween
the trashplale and delivery roller.
The q'uantity of such fine bagasse is very variable, bur generally amounts to berween I and
JO g of dry malerial per lilre of juice (taking into accounr, obviously, only rhe fine bagasse
in suspension, and nol large pieces).
The fine bagas se is known as "bagacillo" or "cush cush", and the separator is an ap-
pararus placed afler Ihe milis, serving 10 screen Ihe mili juices, and 10 relurn ro an in-
lermediale carrier Ihe pieces of bagasse recovered.
Juice trays
To avoid the accumulalion of such bagasse, the sides of the juice pan should have a slope
of at least 55°.
J
=l= ~FF
L-
1- 'J:-....
----
.
I
.
--
~
I
I
1- _...
~ I
.
I
I
"",,=
I I
,j"
1 ¡~
! /r
i
I~
Fig. n .!. Double transverse juice Irays. Fig. 22 .2. Single longiludinal juice Iray.
There are 3 principal arrangements of Ihese juice rrays:

(1) Individual rrays for each mili, fiar, and in one piece; nolV obsolele
(2) Double rransverse rrays under each mili (Fig. 22.1), permitting front- and back-roller
juices lO be separared
(3) A single longitudinallray running Ihe lenglh of Ihe landem (Fig. 22.2). The juices from
rhe various mills are rhen separated by small, removable weirplales.
The gutrers conveying rhe juice lO Ihe separalor should have a fal! of 1 - 2070.
SCREENS 353
Screens
The fine-bagasse separator is a slrainer or screen oflen lermed Ihe "cush cush screen" (Fig.
22.3).
When compound clarificalion is praclised, il is necessary lO keep quile separate the part
of lhe screen reserved for lhe primary juice. In long landems, one screen may be kept for
Ihe pril11ary juice, and anolher instaIled for the secondary juice and Ihe imbibilion juices.
In any case, compound illlbibilion makes jt necessary 10 separa le Ihe comparlmenls inlo
which Ihe juice frolll lhe laler milis is delivered. Each of these comparlmenlS should be able
10 discharge ils overflow into the compartment corresponding lO Ihe juice from the preceding
mili; when one mili feeds badly and chokes, Ihe common praclice is to decrease the imbibi-
tion lO that mili, and il is Ihus necessary, with compound imbibilion, lO divert [he juice being
used as imbibition.
. <.-.
O', .
o: • • " " . : \" •
.;: . . :~-t..:,.. . . _. i. ' " ~~'. ' ,

. •
-
~.,: .f , •
~.'
. ;
.- ~ -
Fig. 22.3. Combined sereen and elevalOr for fine bagasse.

354 FINE-BAGASSE SEPARATORS Ch.22
Area. Generally, an area of 0.05 - 0.1 m' (0,5 - 1 sq, ft.) of perforated sereen per t.<;.h. is
provided, It is of advantage to approach the higher figure, i.e. O. I m' per t.c.h., or better,
0.03 m' per LC.h. plus 0.01 m' per 3-ro!!er mi!! (the crusher not being eounted).
This will give:
0.07 m'/t.c.h. (0.7 sq.fULc.h,) for a 12-14-roller tandem

0.08 m 2 /t.e.h. (0.8 sq,ft./t.e,h,) for a 15 -17-roller tandem
0.09 m 2 /t.c.h. (0.9 sq.fULc,h,) for a IS-20-roller tandem
This area wi!! be distributed between the milis in the proportions: 3 for the 1st mili, 2 for
the 2nd, and one for eaeh of the following milis,
For example, a lS-roller landem would have 0.03 m'/t.c,h, (0.3 sq,ft./t.e,h.) for the 1st
mili, 0,02 (0,2) for the 2nd, and 0.01 (0.1) ror each of the 3 following milis,
lt is gene rally arranged thal the area required for each of the later milis corresponds 10
one sereen; two of these screens are then provided for the 2nd mili and three for the 1st. The
width of the whole unil and the length of each component screen are then chosen accordingly
to give the required area.
Screen pIafes. The juice is generally screened through perforated sheets of brass or copper.
These sheets, being light, should be supported by a rigid checkerwork frame, This, however,
may be dispensed with if thick copper plates are used. Brass is more rigid and gives less risk
of sagging under the scrapers. Copper is more resistant to the reaction of the juice and conse-
quently lasts longer.
The standard series use a sheet of thickness equal to the diameter of the perforalions.
For the first 2 mi!!s, a sheet of copper 0,8 - I mm (J¡ - f, in.) thick will preferably be used,
with holes of O.S - 1 mm in diameter. In the French series they are designated RO O.S S and
RO I S; 1,7 and 2 mm between centre of holes; free area, or area of openings 010 of lolal
area, 20 and 230/0; number of holes, 45 and 29 per cm' (289 and 196 per sq,in,),
For the la ter milis, a sheet of 1.6 mm ((-6 in,) with 1.6-mm holes; designation, RO 1.6 S;
3 mm between centres of holes; free area, 25% (13 holes per cm' (SI per sq.in.)),
The main French supplier of such screens is the firm of Krieg and Zivy,
It is preferable to remove as much as possible of lhe fine bagasse carried by lhe juice, For
this, the finest perforations practicable must be used, In Java, with the precautions and con-
trol measures insisted upon at the milis, use ofperforations ofO.4 mm (o\¡ in,) was achieved',
This is Ihe smallest value obtainable with an ordinary screen.
The perforated sheets will be ordered in the form of rectangles to suit lhe frames of the
separator'"n which they are to be used; it will be desirable to specify thafthey should be made
with a non-perforated border of 25 mm (I in,) along the sides of the sheets and 50 mm (2
in,) at the ends adjoining the neighbouring plates,
It is preferable to fix each screen on a frame which can be introduced 01" withdrawn by
sliding laterally, so that the new frame pushes the other one out. In this way screens may
be removed and cleaned without stopping the scrapers.
Chains. The elevator chains, working in acid juice, are subject to severe wear. It is well
OLlVER D.S.M. SCREEN 355
to examine tilem every year, lO renew lhem frequently, and especially lO choose a well-
designed make.
The scrapers should be or wood or rubber,
Precautions, The cush cush equipment is one 01' lhe ilems or plan! where contamination
is most lO be feared. 1f il is neglecled, il happens al limes that the oUllels become blocked
wilil "frog spawn" (Leuconosloc mesenleroides).
Cleanliness of lhe equipmenl should Iherefore receive carerul altenlion; il should be sleam-
,Ieaned at least Iwice per day, and cleaned completely each week at the same time as Ihe milis.
For this operation, it is convenient to have the screen arranged so that Ihe whole
framework may be lifted by one end, leaving Ihe juice lank fully accessible.
Applicalion. The fine-bagasse separator is still encountered but, in new factories and in
Ihose which are Jllodifying Iheir Illilling equipJllCnl, Ihe juiccs of the various milis are handled
by ullchokable pumps and relurned directly ahead 01' Ihe preceding mili in the Irain. This
sySlem is much simpler, less costly, and offers les s obstruction, as it frees lhe whole of one
side 01' lhe tandem, and saves the cost of lhe separator alld ils upkeep (chains alld screens).
Juice supply 10 Ihe unchokable pumps should be made by a juice tank 01' vortex lype, 10
avoid trouble and losses of priming.
Secondary screening
The separalion oblained by lhe cush cus h screens is coarse only. The juice is orten screened
a second time before being senl to lhe clarificalion process.
The malerial still remaining in Ihe juice consisls predominantly of very fine bagasse (since
il has passed lhrough holes of lhe order of 1 mm (A in.) in lhe separalor screens). Slriclly,
il is only lhis material lhat merilS lhe name 01' fine bagasse or bagacillo.
To separate lhis bagacillo still in suspension, il is necessary to use a fine metallic .clolh.
l f it is arranged as a rOlaling screen, an area of about 0.1 m' (l sq. ft.) of metallic clOlh per
I.c.h. should be provided. These woven screens are generally of phosphor bronze, Nos.
140 - 160 for preference.
Oliver D.S.M. screen

Like the vibrating screen, Ihis type may serve equally well as a 2nd screen or as a 1st and
single screen (Fig. 22.4).
The screen is formed of horizontal prisma tic bars set close logelher, leaving an interval be-
tween lhem of 1 orO.7 mm (B or hin.), and placed in a 45° arc of a circle, the tangent to ¡hich
al ilS upper end is vertical and Ihe lenglh of which along lhe curve is 1.6 m (5 ft. 3 in.). The
screen is made in 6 widths, 91,122,152,183 and 213 cm (3, 4, 5, 6, 6.5 and 7 fl.). The juice
is dislribuled at lhe 10p by means of an overnow box, and flows along lhe are. The suspended
particles are relained on the screen and collected 'allhe bOllom, while the juice passes belween
lhe bars.
The bars are made eilher of stainless steel, which has much beller life, or "everdur"
bronze, which is preferable where there is a risk of contamination, as bacteria grow only with
356 FINE-BAGASSE SEPARATORS Ch. 22
~~
\ . ..¿y
~ .
........
.......
.... .
./
Fig. 22.4. Principie of D.S.I-;I. sereen.
difficul¡y in the presence of this metal. The overflow box and the juice receiver behind ¡he
screen are in stainless steel.
A choice of two spacings for the bars is available, 1 and 0.7 mm (i; and ~~ in.). The former
is employed mostly for a first screening, and the screen may then be inslalled aboye an in-
termediate carrier; in this case a screen is chosen of 15 or 30 cm (6 or 12 in .) narrower than
lhe carrier, in order to give a better distribution of the fine bagasse on the carrier.
The capacity of the screen with I-mm spacing is 7,500 litres of juice per dm of width (23
t.c. h. per ft.). With the narrow spacing, the capacity is 80070 of that figure, say 6,000 li(re~
per dm (18 I.C.h. per fl.). Certain factories, however, report appreciably higher capaci(ies
for the I-mm spacing, and count on 100 t/h of juice per m (30 t/ h per fl.) of width.'
This screen has the advantage of being more effective than those of the cush cush type,
and of having no moving parts, and thus avoids wear and the disadvantages of vibrating
screens. They leave about 0.8 - 1.5 g of fine bagasse per litre of juice (with I-mm spacing),
or 0.7.-1.2 g with 0.7-mm spacing.
Tht,fscreen is c1eaned by means of a jet of hot water delivered by a perforated pipe placed
under the overflow box. Cleaning every 8 hours is recommended.
It is considered in Australia' that factories having a careful preparation of cane should not
utilise screens with openings larger than 0.8 mm (n
in .) if they wish to maintain the fibre
content of c1arified juice below a maximum of 0.2070.
To prolong the life of the screen and to improve its efficiency, it is of advantage': (1) to
pay attention to this sanitation; (2) to reverse the bars end for end when they become worn;
(3) to sharpen the edges of the bars from time to time.
OLIVER D.S.M. SCREEN 357
The D.S.M. ,creen O1ay also be used for screening c1ear juice after clarificarion'. It is then
installed with 0.35-0101 (n-in.) c1earance between bars. In short, it has 3 applications:
(a) As 1st screening, with l-mm spacing
(b) As a 2nd screen, wilh 0.7-1ll1ll spacing
(e) As a c1arifiecJ-juice screen, with 0.35-mm spacing.
Fig. 22.5. B.M.A. - D,S,M, Iype eurved sereen.
Juice inlet
Baga~se
• + ,
Filtered juice
Fig. 22.6. "Vibro-crible" fillering and screening sel with vibraling mOlOrs (1.250 x 3.000 m).
358 FINE-BAGASSE SEPARATORS Ch. 22
Vibrating screens
The second screening may also be effected by means of a vibrating screen. Vibrating screens
today are generally arranged as single screens to perform the whole screening operation.
The vibrating screen permits of a reduction in the proponion of baga cilio in screened juice
to 0.4 or 0.5 g per litre, compared with 0.6 - 1.5 for fixed screens.
Numerous types of vibrating screen are in use. The most interesting, to the author's
knowledge, is the "Vibro-crible", manufactured by Fives Cail- Babcock. It consists of a
framework (Fig. 22.5) set in vibration by two out-of-balance motors rotating in opposite
directions and placed aboye the frame. The f100r on this frame forms the screen surface; it
measures 1.25 m (4 fL) in width and 3 m (10 fL) in useful length. It is of stainless steel, 6
mm el in.) in thickness, designated Z2 CN 1810; the grilles similarly are in stainless steel of
17"70 chromium. They lake Ihe form of bars of triangular section, apex downwards, leaving
spaces belween Ihem of 0.75 mm (h in.). The two motors are of 3 kW (4 h.p.) each, running
at 1460 r.p.m. and giving Ihe chassis a longitudinal vibration of3.7 mm (0.15 in.). The frame
is horizontal, but may be given a slope of ± 2°.
Capacity is 125 m 3 /h (4,400 cu.fl./h) of juice; if preparation is very fine, il is wise ro allow
100 m 3 /h (3,500 cu.fL/h) or 100 I.c.h. To avoid splashing, the juice should be fed from a
plate at 45° terminating 5 cm (2 in.) aboye the screen, thus giving a very low fall onto the
grille.
The grilles are supplied by "Filtres Crepines Johnson" (Chatellerault, France, ·and
elsewhere), or by "Surescreen" (Zillmere, Qld.). They are very solid and durable and wear
very linJe. The chassis is supported 011 4 pads furnished with dampers in butyl rubber.
Maintenance is very simple; lubrication only at the end of the campaign or every 5,000
hours. On the other hand, ¡he grilles require cleaning every 4 hours. This cleaning may be
effected by equipment with a flat and powerful water jet, of the Arker or Symox type, under
a pressure of 50 bars (700 p.s.i.). This takes about 5 minutes per screen. It may be made
automatic, and then operates below the screen, with a mobile carrier and train of wheels.
REFERENCES
1 P. HONIo, Principies of Sugar Technology, Vol. 1, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1953. p. 492.

2 G. P. MEADE, Cane Sugar Handbook, 9th edn., Wiley, New York, 1963, p. 80.
3 G. A. BROTHERTON el al., Proc. 461h Conf. QSSCT. 1981, p. 123.
4 B. G. ADKtNS AND E. D. JENSEN, Proc. 32nd Conf. QSSCT, 1965, p. 241.
5 L. EN GEL, Sugar Azucar, 61 (1) (1966) 37.
23. Diffusion
BRIEF mSTORICAL NOTE
In the great majority of cane sugar factories throughout the world, extraction of sugar from
cane is effecled by means of milis. This was the process originally employed; it has been pro-
gressively improved but never displaced. The only exception was Egypt, where batch diffu-
sion, by a battery of diffusion vessels, as used in the beet industry, was employed for a long
time and was discontinued only lOwards 1960.
However, continuous diffusion, originating before the Second World War, expanded
rapidly aflerwards, with the rebuilding of European factories which had been destroyed.
From 1950 onwards several manufacturers s trove lO adapt to cane the type of continuous dif-
fuser which they had designed and put into operalion wilh beet. In the beet industry, lhe
simplicilY of the continuous diffuser, ilS efficiency and its saving in manpower had caused
it quickly to replace the batteries of diffusion vessels, wilh lheir complicaled inSlallalion and
operalion, which had been universal during lhe firsl half of lhe lwenlielh cenlury. These were
as complicaled, in their way, as mili landems; lhe simplicily of lhe conlinuous diffuser, on
lhe olher hand, was very allraclive. II remained lO adapl illO cane and lO lry il in operalion.
LIMITA TIONS OF MILLS
When one considers lhe greal progress which has been realised in the conslruction and opera-
lion of milling planls, one may well ask whal are lhe reasons which today have prompled
manufaclurers of cane sugar to relurn lO this olher method of eXlraction, namely, diffusion.
Would it be simply a malter of fashion? No. There are sound reasons which have prompted
them:
(a) The mili is a barbarous piece of equipment (ef. p. 132): a tremendous amount of energy
is expended to extract the juiee from the cane; bUl the bagasse, thus deprived of its juice,
re-absorbs juice the moment it has released it, as il passes lhe axial plane of the rollers. Thus
a large propon ion of the benefit just obtained is lost and much of the trouble and power
expended is wasted; no method has been found to remedy this inherent disadvantage of lhe
principie of milling itself.
(b) The milis consume considerable power, out of proportion to the resull obtained.
(e) The milis are very heavy and very expensive, both the purchase price and in costs of
operation and maintenance.
(d) Whatever the power expended, it is acknowledged that a certain proportion of the juice
or liquid contained in the cane or the bagasse cannot be extracted by pressure (ef. pp. 134
and 135). In spite of lhe repeated applications of pressure, in spite of the artifice of imbibi-
360 DIFFUSION Ch. 23
tion, lhere is here a second handicap inherent in the equipment, which puts extraction by
milis in an inferior position.
On the contrary, when it is desired to extract in one operation the whole 01' lhe sugar con-
tained in cane or bagasse, this is effecled no longer by pressure, but by physical extracri:m
by heat, by "diffusion", as is the case. for example, in lhe analysis of cane or bagasse in
lhe laboratory. The chemical control in the faclory is based on lhe faet lhal lhis method 01'
extraction permits of extracting 100OJo of the sugar contained in lhe sample analysed.
DlFFUSION
Diffusion is the phenomenon by which lwo solutions of different concentrations located side
by side or, for example, separated by a membrane, exchange by osmosis across lhe mem-
brane. If it is a case of two solutions of the same substance, the exchange takes place until
the concentralion is the same on each si de of the membrane.
This assumes thal the membrane is permeable in relalion to lhe substance dissolved. [f
lhere are [wo or more substances in solution, the membrane may be permeable to the solvent
and to certain substances, and impermeable to others; it is then described as semi-permeable.
This is the case to a certain extent with the cell walls of the sugar-beet; when certain organic
constituents are removed from them by heat, they allow sucrose to pass more readily than
cerrain salts. This is why, with sugar-beet, the diffusion juice has a purity higher than that
of the normal beet juice.
In the sugar factory, diffusion is therefore the phenomenon by which the cells of the beet
or the cane, immersed in water or a Solulion of lower concentration than the juice which they
contain, give up to that water or to thal Solulion a part or all of the sugar forming the excess
of concentration of their juices.
Laws of diffusion
We shall express these laws by adopting the same mode of explanation as Dubourg'. [t is
evident that the area of contact between the material to be extracted and the eXlracting liquid
has a prime importance in diffusion. The material is therefore divided into small pieces: slices
or cossettes with beet, or chips with caneo Another factor is obviously lhe difference in con-
centration between the juice in the cossette and that in ¡he liquido [t appeared logical [Q Fick
to suppose that the extraction from the cossette opera tes according to the law:
ds -b n dy (23.1)
di dI
s quantity of sugar contained in the material to be exhausted

t time
ds/dl = weight of sugar lost by the material in unil time, at lhe moment under consideration
b coefficient depending on temperature
n = surface area of lhe cossettes or chips exposed to diffusion
DIFFUSION 36J
dyl dl = gradienl of rhe concenlration ¡¡long Ihe line of exhaustion l.

1f we assume fOr example Ihal Ihe cossette is cylindrical and very long, we shal! have:
dy Z-y
=
dI tr
Z = co ncentration of suga r in the cossetle
y = concenlration of suga r in Ihe liquid surrounding it
, = radius of the cylinder forming the cossette.
Neglecting Ihe ends, the area of the cossette is:
L = length of the cossette.

Whence:
ds 2 - Y
= - b . 2 rrr L . 4 - - -
di ,
BUI:
s = 7rr 2 L . Z
Hence:
dZ 8b (2 _ y) - a (2 - y) (23.2)
di r2
C( = coefficient depending on the dimensions (r) of the cossettes and on the lemperature.
A. Fixed extraction
Let us assume the cossettes or chips are placed in a cylindrical vessel closed at lhe base by
a perforaled sheet. Ir we seek 10 exhaust Ihem by spray ing wilh water, the upper layer would
be betler exhausted since il would profil by a greater difference in co ncentration. We should
have for il (y = O):
dZ
= -a2
dt
If the now of water is constant, the quantity W consumed is:
W = kl, or d W = k· di
and:
dZ = _'!. 2 d2
dW k 2
Z = 20 e-la/k) W (23.3)
Zo = inilial concenlralion in lhe cosselles.

Experimenlal values of lhe coefficienl a show lhal, in order lO reach a low concentralion
Z, a very high and prohibilive quantity of waler W would be required.
B. Counter-current extraction
Accordingly, diffu sion is always carried oul in a counler-current manner. We shall assumc
lhal il is carried oul in a pipe or lower (Fig. 23.1), and lhal lhe cosselles or chips are inlroduc-
ed al lhe bOllom and lhe waler al lhe upper end. The exhausted pulp or bagasse will leave
al lhe 10p and lhe juice oblained will be removed al lhe bOllom. Lel us consider lhe level
N, silualed al a distance I from lhe bOllom, and an adjacenllevel N'. If, at N, lhe concenlra-
lion in lhe cane chips is Z and lhal of liquid is y, lhe respeclive concenlralions al N' will
lhen be Z + d 2 and y + dy. We shall seek to es tablish an expression for lhe variaticms in
concenlration from one end of lhe lube 10 t he olher.
We shall suppose, as is always al leasl approximately true, that the weight of the cane chips
does nol vary in lhe course of lhe operalion: water is subsliluled for the juice in the cane
in approximalely equivalent quantilies, in such a way lhat the weighl of exhausted bagasse
e
w~ ~u~tE'd
( ~;~:~SE'
H
, • I
I
Y f----I Z
N
I - - - { Z . d,
t I
I
I
y T dy N'
+ I
I
IL
,I
))
I
I
B ,
Ju,ee) \e~~~ared
Yo .' . Zo
Fig. 23.1. Counter~currenl e Xl raC(jon.

OIFFUSION 363
is approximately equal to the weight of cane chips; and consequenlly the weig ht of juice
removed is, ro a c10se approxima ti on, equ'al to that of the water introduced.
Assuming th8t conditions are steady, we write that the weighl or sugar enlering the seclion
NH of [he rube is equal ro [he weight leaving:
AZ = Qv + Af
whence:
A (Z - f) Z - f
(23.4)
y =
Q Q
A
= sugar fIJo of t he exhausled bagasse

A = weigh t of cane feed, in kg/h (lb./h)
Q = weight of diffusion juice oblained, in kg/ h (lb./h)
Q/ A = ralio of weight of diffusion juice to weight of caneo
This ratio, which is lermed the "draft", plays an important role in diffusion. We shall
designa te il by q:
Q weig ht of diffusion juice obtained

Draft q = = --~--~----~----~77----~~~ (23.5)
A weighl of cane or bagasse subject lO diffusion
We have then:
Z - f
y (23.6)
q
On the other hand (eqn. (23 .2)):
dZ = -a(Z - y)dl
Substituting for y:
a
dZ = --[Z(q - 1) + f] di (23.7)
q
We have also:
'e '
s = cross-section of tube, in m' (sq. ft.)

v = speed of movement of the bagasse in the tube, in m / h (fL/h)
W
A
= apparent density of the bagasse in ¡he tube, in kg/m J (Ib ./cu.rt.)
W A is a measure of lhe degree of packing of lhe material in lhe apparatu s.
Hence:
di
v = (23.8)
di
and:
a SW A
dZ = - - . - [Z (q - 1) + fl di
q A
and putting:
a S wA
= ti (23.9)
A
dZ
-~ di
Z (q - 1) + f q
1nlegrating:
log [Z (q -
•
1) + f] - ~ . til + constant
q
Taking I = O, we have:
constant = log, iZo (q - 1) + fl
Zo is sugar fIJo of (he material at its entrance to the apparatus. Hence:
Z (q - 1) + f q - 1
l og - - - ' til
• Zo (q - 1) + f q
or:
Z (q - 1) + f
(23.10)
Zo (q - 1) + f
Al the upper extremity of lhe lube, Z = f; lhus:
qf = e-q - I Iq - 1)' d L (23.11 )

Zo (q - 1) + f
DIFFUSION AND LlXIVIATlON 365
~I
20 (q - 1) e -q (q - I>OL
f = q - e- q ~(
(Q - (1 ilL
(23.12)
This expression shows Ihal lhe exlraclion will improve, that is to say, f will become
smaller, as l!le absolule value 01' lhe exponenl 01' e becomes grealer. As it conrains 3 factors:
(a) The drafl q should be made as high as possible. With cane it is 01' ten of lhe order of
LOS - 1.10, but somelimes drops lo 1 and below.
(b) The coefficienl 01' diffllsion II should be as high as possible. It depends mainly on a,
which increases: (1) wilh temperalllrc , but a limit is soon rcached here, due lo lhe risk 01' in~
version; lemperature is accordingly mainlained between 65 and 75°C (150 and 170°F); and
(2) with lhe fineness of lhe cane chips or lhe pieces 01' bagasse. II also depends on the degree
of packing wA ' bUI a limil is soon reached in lhis respecl by lhe permeabilily 01' lhe bagasse
layer, and we must be conlenl wilh avoiding channclling, thal is, lhe prcsencc 01' voids or
channels in lh e mass. II will depend finally on SI A, bul this ralio is also fixed wilhin fairly
narrow limil s by lhe condilions 01' residem:e lime and lime 01' contar!.
(e) The lenglh L 01' the apparatus in which diffusion is carríed OUI should be as long as
possíble. We can in facl work onlhis cond ilion, bUI mUSI exercise caution, since lhe residence
lime and consequenlly risk 01' inversion increase with the length 01' palh. We ma)' comment
nlOreover lhat Ihis raclor is lO a great extent identical with the lime faclor (ef. eqn. (23.8)).
DIFFUSlON AND LlXIVIATION
In lhe preceding paragraphs we have used the term "diffusion" wilhout comment. We ha ve
defined diffusion (p. 359) as a phenamenan 01' as mosis. This is eorrect with beet; in cane,
however, the cell membrane, even when its colloids have been removed by heat, is particular-
Iy resistanllo osmolic effecls. In cane diffusion, Ihe fraclion 01' sugar exlracled by lrue diffu-
sion, Ihat is, by osmosis, is very slighl, being 01' the order 01' 3070, for example; it would re~
quire a considerable and prohibitive lime lo exlract all lhe sugar by lhis means alane. Exlrac~
lion is aClually effected by means 01' ruplure of lhe cells, and by washing of lhe broken cells
by the water or juice in contacl with them. The term "diffusion" is lherefore incorrect i l'
understood in the proper sense 01' rransfer by osmosis; it becomes more accurate if
understood in lhe sense or exehange belween phases of differenl concentration in free contact
(lhe lerm is used in lhis sense, ror example, in lhe experimenls of Berlhollel on Ihe "diffu~
sion" of gases); but lhe operalion described as diffusion in the eane raelory is aelually one
of lixiviation, 01' washing, resembling imbibilion in the milis mueh more cJosely Ihan the
melhod of extraetion utilised in the beet factciry.
Moreover , mosl 01' the laws of osmotic diffusion apply to lixiviation, only the coefficients
for time and efficiency being changed; and we shall proceed with this chapter and continue
to use the lerm "diffusion" whiJe simply pointing OUI here the meaning lO be given to this
lerm.
The foregoing comments demonstrate the importanee of preparation in cane diffusion; ex~
Iraclion depends to a great extent on Ihe propon ion of cells broken and on Ihe frecdom of
access of the extracting liquid to Ihe cells.
On the olher hand, while diffusion of beel permils of an improvemcm in purity due lo
the superior permeabilily for 5ucrosc relative 10 thal for impurilies, wilh cane the gain in
purity will be much ~maJler, since the lixivialion extracts sucro~e and impurilies lO a similar
extent.
BATCH DIFFUSION AND CONTlNUOUS DIFFUSION
Diffusion of beet has long been operated in batch diffusers. The diffusion was carried out
essentially in the verlical direction, as indicated by the tube in I'ig. 23.1. Since the length,
in this case the necessary height, was very large (of the order of 30 m (100 ft.)), this vertical
tube was divided into 9, 12 or 14 seclions, in olher words, into 9, 12 or 14 adjacent balch-
diffusion ves~els; one of these would be filling and one emplying, and lhe Olhers would be
connected so as to act as the necessary height (Fig. 23.2, afler Dubourg).
Cosseues
~~
fa;'
Water
f,il ¡
~UIP JUlce
3
2
Head
Fig. 23.2. Balch ·diffusion.
This arrangemenl was first adopted with cane in Egypt.

Due 10 the complicalions of the equipmenl (valves, rolls and piping) and of operalions in
such diffusion batteries, as well as to lhe success of continuous diffusers, the lalter Iype has
completely displaced the batch diffuser. This change look place at lhe lime when cane fac-
tories were becoming interested in diffusion, and toda y lhe only diffusers inslalled, whelher
for cane or for be!:t, are Ihe conlinuous diffusers which we shall study laler.
Conlinuous diffusers themselves may be subdivided inlo IWO types:
(a) Those which are strictly continuous in operalion, or diffusers of uninlerrupted Oow,
for which the lerm continuous may be understood in Ihe mathematical sense of the word;
exhaustion in these follows a regular and conlinuous exponential curve (Fig. 23.3).
(b) Diffusers operating in stages, for which the exhaustion curve is replaced by a succession
of steps, the extraction taking place stage by stage (Fig. 23.4).
"Megasse ". The spenl bagasse leaving the di ffuser, before being pressed, is saturated wilh
water, its water conlenl being of Ihe order of 85070 or reduced to 70 - 80% by pressure rollers.
It is thus a material very different from the bagasse leaving the milis, and particularly final
CANE DIFFUSION AND BAGASSE DIFFUSlON 367
Fig. 23 .3 True continuou, diffusion - eXlraclion graph.
Fig. 2.lA . S!t'rwisC' "l'olllinuous" dinusion. E.,<!r~\clion gr<lllh.
baeasse. which conlains 45 - 50% of moislure . We shall designate il hencefonh by the term
"megasse"; Ihis is an old na me which was used many years ago as a synonym ror bagasse
and which we shall revive here in order to avoid confusion wilh lile malerialleaving the mill-
ing plant.
CANE DIFFUSION AND BAGASSE DIFFUSION
There are two ways of extracling sucrose from cane by diffusion.

The firsl is pure diffusion or diffusion of cane o It consisls of operaling in a manner com-
pletely analogous to lhal with beel; lhe cane is prepared and broken up into small pieces by
means of knives, shredder, or disinlegralOr, and is then sent lO the diffuser. The prepared
cane relajns its full wciglll and sljll conlains all its lugar. 1f Ihe raclory is treating 100 I.c.h.
al 14070 sugar conlent, Ihe 100 10nnes of cane and the 14 lonnes 01' sugar pass to Ihe difruser.
The second method is di ITusion after milis, or di ffusion of bagasse. The cane, prepared
as ror milling, goes firsl jnto a mili (in exceptional cases, IwO milis), which extracts as much
juice as possible, say 65 - 70070 of its sugar conten!. 11 is lhe bagas se from this mili which
is sent 10 lhe diffuser; lhe diffuser thus receives only 30 - 35070 of the sugar in the cane, and
Ihe IVeight of bagasse is perhaps 40 lonnes per 100 tonnes of caneo This melhod of bagasse
dil'fllsion is based on lhe idea that, while it is very expensive lo employ 4,5 or 6 milis 10 ex-
Irael 94 - 96070 of the sugar in cane, il is a much more payable proposition lO employ one
mili 10 eXlracl 70070; Ihe extraction of 70070 by one mili is three or four times superior lO lhat
of 16 - 23070 for each mili of lhe train. Furthermore:
(a) Passage of lhe cane through a first mili wilh coarse grooving convenienlly compleles
lhe preparalion of lhe cane for diffusion.
(b) Losses by inversion and fermenlation during diffusion no longer act on lhe whole of
lhe sugar content of the cane but only on 30070 of it.
(e) The diffuser can be greally shortened, since the materiallreated no longer contains say
14070 of sugar but only 4070, i.e. 30070 of the original sugar in caneo It may indeed be fUrlher
shortened, since aslightly lowerextraction (as a proponion of lhis remaining 30070) may be
tolerated: ir it is desired to obtain the same percentage of extraction in the diffuser (97%,
for example) as in the former case, the total extraction would be:
70% + (30 X 0.97)% = 990/0
a value which is found by experience to be otherwise unobtainable. However, in order to ob-

tain 97% overalJ, it would be sufficient to oblain un extraetion in lhe diffuser of 90%, since:
70% + (30 X 0.90)% = 97%
We have thus a much shorter and simpler diffuser, and we are justified in seeking a higher
extraction.
On Ihe other hand, the width and eross-seetion of the diffuser wiJJ be praclicaJJy lhe same
as in lhe case of cane diffusion, since lhe quanlity of fibre introduced is the same and lhe
affinit y of bagasse for liquid causes it 10 absorb juice unlil ils juice conlent is similar to lhal
in lhe or iginal ca nej lhus an equivalent weight of malerial passes along lhe diffuser . In olher
words, on enlering lhe diffuser, lhe bagasse re-absorbs a quanlity of juice equal to lhat ex-
tracled by lhe mili and lakes this juice with it along lhe diffuser; il is from lhis material and
from lhis juice that the extracting liquid fiowing in the opposile direclion has to remove lhe
remaining suga r. There is, however, a slighl saving in lhe la leral dimensions of the diffuser,
since the extraclion sought is less, and a higher speed of lransi t and a shorte r time in lhe dif-
fuser may be lolerated; hence a slighlly narrower diffuser may be used.
In bolh cases, whether diffusion of can e or of bagasse, lhe megasse cannot be lefl as such;
the cane-sugar faclory requires fuel and il is quile impossible 10 burn megasse, on accounl
of its high waler conlenl. It is therefore necessa ry in any case to press this megasse in order
to remove lhe excess juice. A new and speciallype of press such as lhe French (Fig. 23.18)
may be used, as in Hawaii; lhis uses an Archimedean screw 10 force lhe megasse through
a space of decreasing cross-seclion. Howeve r, most factories which inslall diffusion aIread y
possess sorne milis, and lhe simp lest procedure is to pass lhe megasse lhrough one or lwO
mills. If lhe rollers are oversize, one mili could be sufficienl. Olherwise lwo milis are general-
ly necessa ry to reduce lhe megasse from 85% 10 aboul48% moislure, in olher words, to con-
vert it lo ordinary bagasse, which can be burnt in the boiler furnaces.
We see lhen lhal cane diffusion will require normally:
2 sets of knives + I shredder + l long diffuser + 2 mills
whereas bagasse diffusion will require:
2 seIs of knives + 1 shredder + 1 mili + 1 short diffuser + 2 milis
Retention lime in a cane diffuser is obviously grealer than that in a bagasse diffuser. The
difference is sorne 10 minules.
We shall discuss laler (p. 397) the economic aspect of these lwo methods.
TYPES OP DIFFUSlON 369
H il ES c¡r D HUSlON
The diffusion processes which can claiOl al presenl (1982) to ha ve a place in the world sugar
induslry are the following:
de SOlet
B.M.A.
Silver
Salurne
F.S. van Hengel
de Smet diffusion
Description. The de SOlet diffuser (Fig. 23.5) consists of a long tan k enclosing a horizontal
conveyor on which the prepared cane or bagasse is placed as a layer of uniform thickness.
Throughout its travel from one end of lhe tank to the olher, this layer is copiously irrigated
with the extraction liquido Below the conveyor, the bottom of the tank consisls of II or 17
adjacent trays which receive the juice which has traversed the layer of material. Of these
trays, 9 or 15 are active and 2 spares. The length of the trays in the direction of travel 01'
the conveyor is 2.1 m (7 fL).
100
325 85 85 85 85 30
fig. 23.5. De Sme, diffuser. Ma'eriat batance.
The conveyor extends the full length of the diffuser. The apron of the conveyor consi~t~
of a grille of stainless steel, which allows the juice to pass. A pump takes the juice collected
on each tray and returns it to a distributor placed aboye the preceding (ray or the next tray
behind ít, ín such a way that the juice moves backwards from tray to tray, from the bagasse
discharge end to the bagas se enlry end. There ís thus a counter-current extractíon. The last
tray at the megasse discharge end is situated below the fírst liquid distributor, which receíves
fresh water. The first hopper at the bagasse entry end ís followed by a compartment whích
receíves the diffusion juice whích has traversed the megas se layer 9 or 15 times. From that
compartment, the last pump in the series takes part of the juíce and returns it through one
370 DlFFUSION Ch. 23
or two heaters to the hopper which receives the cane or bagasse at the enrrance to the dif-
fuser. The surplus of this juice, not heated. is sent to manufacture, the flow being controlled
by lhe level of juice in lhe compartmenL
At the oullel from the diffuser, a tumbler drops lhe megasse onlo an elevator which
. transports it to lhe bagassc mili or milis. The thin juice from [ha[ mili is relurned to the first
tray situaled below lhe enrry of lhe imbibition waler.
In order lo reduce lhe number of stuffing boxes and lhus reduce leakage of juice, the
pumps are arranged in groups 01' three on the one shafl and driven by the same mOlOr.
If there is an interruption to lhe supply to rhe diffuser, [he pump may be stopped; rhis is
a big advanlage of electric drive over orher forms of drive. Thus one can avoid flooding lhe
diffuser and inlerrupting the percolalion.
Types. There are 2 lypes of de Smet difl'user:

(a) The TS type, for bagasse diffusion: a shorl difl'user, generally \Villl 9 hoppers, 35.8 m
(118 fL) in length
(b) The TN lype, for cane diffusion: a long diffuser, generally wirll 15 juice hoppers, 48.3
m (158 fL) in length.
In bOlh lypes, the bagasse layer muy be 1-2 m (3 -7 fL) in [hickness, normally 1.80 m
(6 ft.), on which thickness the nominal capaciry of rhe dil'fuser is calculaled. The mechani,al
limit for filling is 2.20 m (7'; fL), but a rhickness of 2 m (7 fL) should nol be exceeded.
At equal capacity, lhe width is lhe same for rhe lwo types. The widlh of lhe conveyor band
is normally 25 mm (1 in.) per LC.h. A TS type may be readily conve-rted lO a TN diffuser
of rhe same capacily.
There is, on rhe olher hand, an importanl difference in lhe lWO syslems of circulalion. In
lhe TS lype lhe [oral flow of juice is pumped from one [ray up lO [he preceding [ray, whereas
in [he TN Iype the juice is divided in[o lWO equal s[reams, one 01' which lraverses the layer
on the even-numbered trays and lhe olher lhat on lhe odd-numbered rrays. The larrer circula-
tion system would be particularly sui[able for fine preparation, such as is obrained wirh a
shredder. By fine preparation, de Smet means those giving an I.P. 01' more than 80.
Zones. Three zanes are distinguished along the diffuser:

(a) The scalding or heating zane, of aboul 3 -4 m (10-13 1'[.)
(b) The recirculation zane, which follows, 3.5 (TS) or 1.5 m (TN) (11.5 or 5 ft.) in length
(e) The diffusion zane, which occupies 15 (TS) or 20 m (TN) (50 or 65 fL).
Power. The inslalled power is of the order of:

(a) TS: 1.8 kW/t.c.h. (2.4 h.p./t.c.h.) for a diffuser of 100 t.c.h., descending lO 1.6 (2.1)
for one of 250 t.c.h.
(b) TN: 2 kW/t.c.h. (2.6 h.p./t.c.h.) for a diffuser of 100 t.c.h., reducing to 1.8 (2.4) for
one of 250 LC.h.
The power consumed is 10 -15070 lower.
Steam consumption. The steam used is ar 105°C (223°F), or 0.2 kg/cm (3 p.s.i.) gauge.
'
Assuming rhe cane is al 30°C (85°F) and ¡he imbibition waler al 50°C (122°F), we Illay
reckon:
TYPES OF DIFFUSlON 371
For healing For Irealmenl 01 10lal

recirculalion water
TS: 25 kg/I.e. ( 55 Ib .ll.e .) 20 kg/ I.e. (44 Ib.he.) 45 kg/ I.e. ( 99 Ib./I.e.)
TN: 74 kg/I.e. (163 Ib.ll.e.) 20 kg/ I.e. (44 Ib.he.) 94 kg / I.e. (208 Ib./I.e.)
For lhe TS type, lhe steam consumption for Ihe healing circuil is influenced by lhe first-
mili extraclion. For an eXlraclion of 55070, this is approximately 30 kg/ l.c. (66 Ib./l.c.); for
65070 eXlraclion, 20 kg/I.c. (44 Ib./t.c.).
Automation. Belween lhe prepared-cane conveyor and lhe diffuscr, for rhe TN type, or
between the firsl mili and the diffuser for Ihe TS, lile prepared cane or the bagasse passes
over a conlinuous weigher; the weight so registered conlrols lhe addilion of waler and the
now of Ihe <.:irculalion pumps 01' Ihe dilTuser, so conlrolling the added waler or draft.
The lemperalures 01' healing and 01' dirfusion are conlrolletl lherllloslalical/y. A
temperalure of 70 - 75°C (160 - 170°F) is maintained for heating, and care is laken to main-
lain Ihe lemperaLUre along lhe diffuser belween 75 and 72°C. In diffusers furnished with
agilalion screws (see below), a lemperature of 80°C (175°F) is somelimes maintained, with
rhe object of decreasing the risk of infeelion al those positions. Heating of the recirculation
waler is lhen not employed, as lhis is sufficient to suppress infection apart from lhe screws.
The diffusion juice is sent to manufaclure al lhe same temperalure (70 -75°C).
The eonveyor operales .al .. variable speed, wilh hydraulic or mechanicaJ drive. The rnove-
menl is cOf.\linuou·s; if;he speed vOf.lhe apron may be reguJaled from 0.24 lO 0.90 m / min
for Ihe TS, general/y 0.65 m / min (2.1 fUmin); and from 0.24 lO 0.70 for lhe TN, generally
0.65 m/min.
Agitation screws. The surface of lhe bagas se bed tends lO become eompacled and SO lose
ilS permeabilily. Wilh the object of avoiding this, sorne faetories instal at one or twO points
on lhe lenglh of Ihe diffuser a transverse sel of vertical eonveyors in rhe form of Archimedian
screws. The rorar ion of rhese screws has Ihe objeer of agilating the bagasse in order lO prevenl
compacling of lhe surface. This operarion is rending 10 be more widely used.
Residence lime. Typical lime for passage of lhe bagasse lhrough lhe diffuser is:
(a) TS: 30-45 min; for juice. 20-30 min

(b) TN: for bagasse,55 "- 65min; for juice, 25 - 35 min.
Drainage rime: ar'theerid' o'['rhe diHúsion is 7 mino The surface area of lhe megasse layer
presented ro rhe juice in ' zones (a) 3nd (b) indicaled above (p. 370) is 0.1 m'/t.c.h. (1
sq.ft./t.c.h.) for each of lhe Iwo zones.
Bulk density. Bulk densilY, reckoned on the weight of cane only, is of lhe order of
550 - 600 kg/m J (35 - 37 Ib./cu. ft.). The density of lhe layer of cane and percolaling juice
logether is of lhe order of 570-620 (36-39), generally 600 kg/m J (37 Ib ./cu . fl.).
-
sri ...
2
----(2) ----(,)
oLc~~~~~~~--~------
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 e 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Stages
Fig. 23.6. De Smel dirruser. brix varia(ion along (he dirruser. (1) TNC dirruser; (2) TSC dirruser.
TABLE 23.1
DE SMET BAGASSE (rS·TYPE) DIFFUSERS
EXTRAGTION DE SMET . BAGASSE DIFFUSERS
TYPE TS 20e 25e 30e 35e 40e 45e 50e 55 e 60e 65e 70e 75 e 80e 85e 90e
METRIC
CAPACITY 2000 2S00 3DOO 3500 4DOO .5DO SOOO SSDO 60DO 6500 7DOO 7500 8000 8500 9000
rONS/DAY
WIOTH M 2.800 3.300 4.200 4.700 5.200 5.700 6.200 6.700 7.200 7.700 8.200 8.700 9.200 9.700 10.900
PRINCIPAL FT 9.2 10.7 13.8 15.4 17- 18.7 19.6 22 23.6 25.3 26.9 28.6 30.2 31.8 35.7
OVERALL LENGTH 35.8 M - 118 FT 39.5 M - 130 FT
DIMENSIONS
HEIGHT ABOUT 8 METRES - 25 FT
INST ALLED Al FULL

APPRQX 100 HP / l00QTONS/DAY APPRQX 90 HP /1000 TQNS/DAY
PQWER CAPACITY
STEAM KGITON
CONSUMPTION OF CANE 80-85
DE SMET CANE (TN-TYPE) DIFFUSERS
EXTRAGTlON DE SMET - GANE DIFFUSERS
TYPE TN 20e 25e 30e 35 e 40e 45 e 50 e 55 e 60e 65e 70 e 75 e 80e 85e 90e
METRIC
CAPACITY 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500 8000 8500 9000
TONS/DAY
WIDTH M 2.800 3.300 4.200 4.700 5.200 5.700 6.200 6.700 7,200 7.700 8.200 8.700 9.200 9.700 10.900
PRINCIPAL FT 9.2 10.7 13.8 15.4 '7 13.7 19.6 22 23.6 25.3 26.9 28.6 30.2 31.8 35.7
OVEAALL LENGTH 48.3 M - 158 FT 52 M - 171 FT
DIMENSIONS
HEIGHT ABOUT 8 METAES - 25 FT
INSTALLED AT FULL
APPAOX 1 la HP I 1000 TONS/OAY APPAOX 100 HP /1000 TONS/DAY
PQWEA CAPACITY
STEAM KGITON
CONSUMPTIQN OF CANE 100-105
Capacity. The de Smet diffusers are made in the dimensions given in Table 23.1, which
illdicales lhe corresponding capacities. A scheme of circulalion is given in Fig. 23.6.
Cane preparation. For preparation of Ihe cane 10 go 10 the diffuser, de Smel recommends:
(a) TS: For diffusion of bagasse: two sets of knives at 500 - 600 r.p.m., the second being
at 20-mm (¡-in.) pitch. It is desirable that the extraction of the milI should be at least 60"70,
and there is no disadvantage if the extraction reaches 65"70 or better.
(b) TN: For diffusion of cane: as for TN, with lhe addition of a shredder provided wilh
a means of adjusling the clearance belween the hammers and anvil.
Water for heating. This may be reckoned as: for TS, 5 - 10 times weight of bagasse; for
TN, 4-5 times weight of caneo Draft is generally of Ihe order of 100-105"70 on caneo If it
exceeds 110, addilion of water is unnecessary.
Height of layer. The thickness oflhe bed of bagasse is an important element, as influencing
the extraerion. When ¡he thickness varies from ilS minimum practical value of the order of
1.4 m (55 in.) up lo 2 ni' (78 in.), the extraction for the various thicknesses remains praclically
constant; lhe poi lost in the bagasse "70 on cane will remain, for example, in the range
0.25 -0.270/0. Al ecjualcapacity, and for heights of layer from 1.4 10 2 m, the corresponding-
Iy longer time of contact compensales for the delrimental influence of the thiCkness of the
bed. In practice, theequipment will normally be operaled at about 1.8 m (70 in.), without
exceeding 2 m (78 in.).
Imbibition"oftlie 'megasse. The supply" of imbibilion water is controlled by lhe input of

cane or bagasse by mean s of a conlinuous weigher installed on the conveyor to the diffuser.
The pumps taking the juice from below the diffuser return il 10 the lrays aboye the diffuser
and feed it to the preceding compartment (or the one ahead); the pipes end in a gutler notch-
ed at both sides in a saw-tooth pattern, which diverts the juice part to one tray and part to
Ihe next, giving a good distribution over the layer of megasse.
The rate of percolation of the juice through lhe bagasse bed depends largely on the state
ofpreparation, and is limited in practice by the f10w Ihrough the grille supporting the bagasse
layer. The grille, oC stainless-sleel mesh, is supported on corrugated stainless-steel sheet with
perforationsalong the Iroughs of lhe corrugalions. This serves lO reduce resislance lO f10w
al lhis poinl. The perforalions are square, 8 x 8 mm (0.3 in.). These grilles normally have
32"70 of open space, bul one recenl model has provided sIOIS, giving a figure of 57%. The
bagas se supported by lhe corrugaled sheel lhus provides zones of lower packing correspon-
ding 10 lhe lroughs of lhe corrugalions, which serve lhe role of colleclors to drain the juice
lowards the perforations. This type of grille has allowed an appreciable increase in the rate
of percolation. The time of passage of the liquid through the bagasse bed is of the order of
2.5 - 3.5 mino This corresponds to a speed of percolation of 0.70 m/min (2.3 ft./min), lhus
of the same order as the speed v of movement of the conveyor. The rates of percolation ob-
tained are:
TS: 14-25 m J per m' of filtering surface per hour, averaging 17 -18 (55 -59 cu.fl./
sq.ft./h)
•
TN: 7 - 15 mJ/m'/h, or an average of 12 (39 cu.ft./sq.ft./h).

These grilles are made in widths of 900, 1,200, 1,350 or 1,500 mm (35, 47,53 or 59 in.), accor-
ding lO the capacity of the diffuser. They are supporled by frames of the .lame width, which
divide the length of the conveyor inlO appropriale sections. They move forward on rollers
extending the fulllength of the diffuser, which atIains 10.9 m (35.7 fr.) in the largest models.
The frames are of art icul a ted cons truction, and the grilles are fle xible.
Cleaning of the grilles is achieved by means of mobile jets of water situated just after the
discharge position, some 30 cm ( 1 ft.) from ir. They give a turbulent tangential jet, acting
from below and delivering lhe bagasse particles toward s the opposi le side where they are
readily picked up by lhe pump.
Treatment of juices from bagasse mili. The thin juices from the final mili are screened,
and heatcd lO 103 °C (217.5°F). Thci r J1H is about 5.5; afler passage through a holding tank,
lhey are limed lO a pH of7. 5 - 8.2, sClllcd, and coolcd lO 75 °C (170° F) ror retu rn lO lhe di 1'-
fuser. Ir is essential lO avoid J1umJ1ing juices afler addi ng lime befare lheir entry lO lhe sub-
sider. This precaution is necessary lO obtain good decantalion, SO that lhe darified lhin juices
do not present problems of percolation in lhe diffuser. Addition of a f10cculant before pass-
ing to lhe subsider is normally nOI necessary.
lt is im J10r ta nl to treat rhe expressed juice in rhe minimum of rime, hence lO have a sel.l ler
of minimum volume. The setIler should have a surface area 01' 0.20 m'/t.c.h. (2 .2
sq.fr./t.c.h .) .
It is poss ible lO dispense Wilh the clari ficalion of rhese lhin juices and lO send lhem direcrly
lO lhe diffu ser ar 75°C (170°F) on condilion that lhey are dislributed over IWO or rhree
neighbouring hoppers. This procedure, however, avoids lhe pasteurisation of lhe juices
which is effected in the subs id er, and so involves some ri sk of infection in lhe diffuser.
When rhe diffu ser is fitted wilh vertical agitaring screws, these lhin juices are introduced
at thar point.
Addition of lime. Liming is e ffected by a light addition of milk of lime in lhe second com-
partmenr from lhe discharge end of rhe diffuser, and may be completed lOwards rhe middle
of lhe diffu ser: in the sixrh or seventh co mpartment from lh e discharge for the TS lype, or
lhe tenth for the TN. It is important lO carry out the diffusion a l pH 6 - 6.5, and especially
not lO exceed 7. De Smel accepl S lhe range of 5.8 - 6.5, which we lhink is gOing roo low.
We consider lhat lhe pH should nOI be allowed lO go below 6. A value 01' 6 - 6.5 is oblained
by addition of rhe thin juice at pH 7 after decanration and by lh e addilion of milk 01' lime
ar rhe second compartment.
Advantages. The de Smet diffusion offers the following advanlages:

(a) Grille of rhe conveyor is very effective.
(b) Good visibili ty of whal is happe nin g in the interior of lhe diffuser.
(e) Opportuniry lO take samp les of juice from each section along the length 01' the diffuser.
O.M.A. diffusion
B.M.A. diffusers, while simi lar lO de Smel in general design (Fig. 23.7), posess .lome dislinc-
TYPE'S· OF D1FFUSION 375
live fealures. They are employed for sugar exlraclion frorn bOlh bagasse and canco The
bagasse diffuser was introduced into the cane s ugar induslry wilh the first general ion of dif-
fusers before 1977.
B.M.A. bagasse diffusers (Fig. 23.8) and cane diffusers (Fig. 23.9) cOllsisl of a horizontal,
reclangular lrough ritted ",ilh a bollom screen. A sys lem of speciaJly designed chains with
variable-speed drive serves to convey lhe feed thr o ugh Ihe diffuser. Essential realmeS of
B.M.A. diffusers are Ihe lwo rows of lifting screws in lhe fronl and middle extraclion zones,
which are designed to impro ve juice percolation, and a low -pressure pre-dewatering unit ar-
ranged in lhe dewatering lOne.
-¡
Fig. 23.7. B.M.A. dirrusor.
STEAH
ARe
l"EXPRESSEO "'llKOFllI'H
JUre [
S(AlOlHú JU,([W=-I~-W=-tl-~R~~"~~~--
H!A ¡¡R SI ¡I I ¡ ,
-----
"-'~E3;:;~;;;rRl
r'r - CARR I[R IJ II II IIIt1eI8ITION .... TER _ _ __
I
~\j~Ol~
8AGAS SE
e[lT (ONVnOR
I1IXEO JUICE
f[~O:~~ I ¡ , , I • J. ~~~
5U,LOIN6 (IRCULArIOH JUICE PUP'lPS
JUICE PUHPS
Fig. 23.8. Flo w di.gram of B.M.A. bagasse dirfusion.

376 D1FFUSION Ch. 23
millo'. of lime
steam heoting
heoting
inhibition
mixed diffu!>er s,ca,lding circulation washing pre$S

;uice juice jUlce juice water water
Fig. 23.9. Flow diagralll of B.M, A. cane dirrusion.
Dimensions. S.M.A. bagasse and cane diffusers are subject in their dimensions to t~e pro·
cess parameters:
(1) The lengLh of the trough, 47.25 m (155 I'L) and 61.25 m (200 fL), and the L1l1ll1ber 0 1'
percolaLion sLages (8 and 12) are deLermined by the ext raCLi on Limes of 36 and 48 min, respec-
Lively.
(2) The megasse la ye r thi ckness of 1.35 m (4.5 fL) and, consequently, the height 01' the
trough are determined by th e perc olat ion conditions.
TABLE 23.2
CHARACTERIST1CS OF B.M.A. DIFFUSERS
Bagasse Cane
processing processing
----~_. _----_._.-
EXlraclion limc (min) 36 48

Percolal ion slages 8 12
Lnycr ¡hickne.liS (In) 1.35 1..15
(fl) 4.5 4.5
Linear speed (m/min ) ) 1
(rl/min) 3.3 3.3
E>.trac[jo!l lcnglh (111) 36.0 48 .0
( fl) 118 157
Trough lenglh (m) 47 .25 6125
( fl) 155 200
Processing rale al IS070 f'ibrc
(l / h) 70 1200/400 70 1200/400
Difruser widlh (m) 2.0 / 6.0/ ) 2.0 2.0/ 6.0/12.0
(fl) 6.6 / L9.6/39 6.6/ 19.6/39
Driver power (k W) LO.5/ 28.0/56.0 13 .0/3 5.5 170. 0
TYPES Of DlffUSION 377
(3) The wid¡h of ¡he trough is delermined by Ihe processing capacity. B.M.A. diffusers can
be supplied in 19 dirferenl widlhs belween 2 (6.6 1'1 .) ancl 12 m (39 n.), Ihe rule 01' Ihumb
being 25 mm lrough width per tonn e 01' cane per hour.
Details are shown in Table 23.2.
The l11egasse layer Ihickness can be varied belweell 1 and 1.5 m (3.3 - 5.0 n.) and ¡he linear
']leed belween 0.5 and 1.5 m/mi n (1.5 - 5.0 ft./min).
Juice Irays for draughl juice, hea¡ing juice and reeirculalion juice are provided below lile
bOllOill screen (slainless-sleel plale, 8 mm conical pert'oralions) (sce Table 23.3).
Operation. Tile feed enters lhe diffuser al ambienl temperature alld is heared lO an eXlrac-
lion Icmperalure 01' 75 °C (167°F) by means of juice previously healed in heal exchangers 10
a lél11pe ra lUre 01' 90-93°C (194-199°F) wilh vapour or exhausl Sleam.
Th e e'lrac lion lel11pCral Ure is l11ainlained al a conSlanl le ve! by healing Sleam blown inlO
Ihe Sllaee below Ihé bOllom scree n.
TABLE 23.3
JUICE QUANTITIES OF S.M.A. DIFFUSERS

-------- -- - _._ - - - --
Bagasse Can e
prucessing processing
Draught jUiCf (Crlo 011 I..'ane) 45,1 105 - 112

Hea!illg juice (070 o n ca lle) 300 360
Recirculation juice (OJo on ca ne) 106 112
¡¡ 55070 juice on cane has alrrad y been rrcssL'd from Ihe fced by ¡he
UpSlrl..?allllllill so Ihat Ih (.' qU;lnlit y of Illi.\<.:d jUiL"t" is approx. !OOO¡o
on callc.
Th e megasse in lhe diffuser eo nlains approx. 83070 water. Prior ro discharge from Ih e dif-
Fíg. 23.10. Interior vicw of a S. M.A. diffuser. Venical stirring scrcws.

-
378 DIFFlISJON Ch. 23
fuser by lhe rowting discharger, lhe waler conlenl is reduced lO approx. 76"10 by Ihe large
waler-fillecl low-pressurc dcw3lcring roller which is a cllaraclerislic fcalure 01' B.M.A. dif-
fuscrs. Final bagasse dewalering loapprox. 50070 proceeds in eonvcntional rnulli-roller milis.
Thc press waler (40 - 500/0 on calle) is adcled 10 tlle megasse bed in rronl of lile second row
of lifting scrcws (Fig. 23.10 and 23.11) withoul having undergone any extra Irealmen!.
"%i,:~, ' W¡\ ' ,

hl
,.
, ,
fig. 23.11. E.M.A. dirru.scr. Vicw I'mm abo\'C' Scrc\\' 1l1010rhct1d':i.

TYPES OF OIFFUSION 379
The pI-! is ma inIai ned at a mean va lue 0 1' 6.5 by adding milk 01' lime (conlrolled
aUloJl1ali cally) in lhe rront and middle dirruser secti ons. Figures 23.12 a nd 23.13 show Ihe
va riari on 0 1' brix and pH a long lh e dirru se r, ror bagasse and cane dirrusers. respec li ve ly.
Aparl fr oJl1 being c1eaned mechanically, lile cilains in a B.M.A . dirruse r a re was hed wilh
parl PI' lhe imb ibilion waler which is subseq uenlly added la Ihe megasse bed IOgelher Wilh
lhe remaining waler.
The 10lal encrgy required 10 drive alllile unils al' a B.M.A. c1il'fuser installalion (t1irru.\er,
screws, discharger, pumps, mili anc1 inl er mediate ca rrier) is approx. 6.1 kW per lonne 01' cane
per ho ur when processing bagasse, and approx. 4 .4 kW per lonne 01' ca ne pe r hour when pro-
cess ing ca neo
Comparison with milis. Tile energy required by a bagasse and cane t1irruser inslallalion
is ap prox. 40 a nd 50 070, respeclively 01' Ihe energy a milll rain 01' comparab le ca pacil y would
require.
Tile 10lal Sle aJl1 consumplion 01' raclories using dirru se r inslallations is 5 - 10OJo highcr
lhan lhal 0 1' ra clOries wi[h conventiona l mili lf ai ns; this is particularly due 10 a high juice
draughl when lhe highesl possib le extraclion figures are so ughl .
S. M.A. (also a manuraclUrer al' mili s) estimale lhe cap ilal cost ror a dirruser insla llali o n
R/'{S5WA R
PH
~ I kf-[J -l' I I l-=FA~-+~[=[~fª

~
AJI(l
_
.JJ({
_
.Al/(I
~
.AJa
, I J • , • I • _ _
Fig. 23. [2. B .M .A. bagasse diffuser. Va rialion or l he brix along ¡he diffuscr.
-- . ~ ~
~ , 1\
;:¡
,
~
~ ~
~ .. ~ .~I+++-++++++++++++-++++-i
.,.,
~. a¡¡
N
~
- -
~
, 1/ l! 1
'"?:: ff.l-H--IH--I.....¡....j
;,.
n
I/v f.:' 1
"
~
" 1I !
O-
~
~
¡;;
· I I
n
~
<
~L
~
o
~
·
o
~
,
;;.
n
,.g ~
~H+I-H-H-+ .
"o I
~
00
~
~ Hlf-I+ +++-++I--+,··H-I-.\-J.-I--J-.-j:...¡...j
;;.
I
"O- • •
~
~
e
iI I i 1 I
,~++++++++~I.~++++~
~
~ "
1 : i! I i 1 :
~ 1 m ·¡ ~if
I - , 1f~l'
, I , I ¡t i 1
J I i 'i 1
.r -r .' r l· t-+ " '
fe: '4:) NOISIH:lIG OSí:

TYPES OF DlFFUSrON 381
al 65"10 Of rh e cost for an installalion with nve mili s, including conveyors and pumps. Ir
should be not ed that a major portion 01' the foundarions required for lhe milis can be dispens-
ed wi¡h. The same applies ro the buildings, as diffusers are norrnall y localed ouldoors.
Maintel1ance COSIS rnay be reckoned as 40 -78"10 01' lhe coslS for a compara ble mili lrain.
S.M.A. point Oul Ihat less wax and slarch are eXlracted from the feed when applying Ihe
eXlraction process in question and Ihat less fi/ter cake is produced. This accounlS fo r a sl ight
extra gail1 in Ihe general sugar balance. Reference is made to Dallon, South Africa, where
5"10 filter cake 011 cane produced with mili extraction was reduced lo 2.5"10 on cane with a
di ffuser.
Sil ver diffusion

The Silver diffuser is also deri ved from lhe de Smel Iype. To sum up, Ihe diffuser is a de
Smel unit fOrmed into a ring and thus cylindrical in sha pe instead 01' a parallelepiped. This
úirfusiol1 process, however, clisplnys ils originalil Y not so i11uch in Ihe diffuser as in the ef-
rorts made 10 break as compl etely as possible wilh the classical methods of extraclion, name-
Iy, knives and milis. Though the items of equipment used are very recent, they have orten
allained their object and are ver y interesting. Their evolution merits sorne consideration, and
cerlain of them are likely ro compel attenrion in the near future.
The Silver diffusion is mainly designed ror diffusion of cane.
Description. On account of the originalily of rhe accessories of the diffuser, to which we

ha ve just referred, we shall describe a complete Silver diffusion process such as has been
realised in lhe typical in slallalion at Pioneer (Hawaii), allhough theoretically the dirfuser
could be installed without its accessories of preparation and dewalering. We shall distinguish
Ihen:
(A) Preparation of the cane
(B) Diffuser proper
(e) The dewatering 01' the megasse.
A. Cane preparation. The cane passes first thr ough a very rudimentary set of knives, carry-
ing only nine blades in Ihree rows of three, set 120 0 apart, thus lea ving 23 cm (9 in.) between
the 9 respective cireles of cut, and set at 75 -lOO mm (3 -4 in .) from the carrier apron. This
device scarcely conlributes anything to the preparation and has the sole object of facili¡ating
feeding of Ihe followil1g equipment. The cane Ihus partially cut passes over a magnelic
separator to protect the following preparalors agail1st large pieces of ir on which may be pre-
senl in the cane.
The cane Ihel1 arrives at Ihe "buster" (Fig. 23.14). This is a hammer mili, or shredder,
rotating al 1,150 r.p.m. It is fed by two feeding rollers, rotaling at about 120 r.p.m., and
a
nlled with pins 20 mm in.) in diameler, and 100 mm (4 in.) in length; Ihese Ihrow the cane
inro the buster. The hammer s, placed in 4 rows, tear the cane and pass it through a grille
formed of circumferential bars co nnecl ed by horizontal anvil bars. This gives a cane coarsely
shredded, in pieces of 7.5 -15 cm (3 -6 in.) in length.
It is then picked up by an elevator, and a¡ ¡his moment receives pulverised lime, conveyed
and dislribuled by compressed air, or milk of I'ime, for the liming before diffusion, lO which
we will return la ter. The elevator drops lhe prepared cane inlO lhe "fiberiser" (Fig. 23.15).
This is a second hammer mil!, resembling lhe classical shredders more c1osely, fed by a
feeding roller similar 10 lhe upper roller of the cane buster, and rOlaling al lhe same speed,
but smoolh. The fiberiser hammers, similarly placed in 4 rows, achieve lhe shredding by
scraping lhe pieces of cane againsl a loothed cylindrical pI ale. 11 rola les similarly ar 1,150
r.p.m. and furnishes shredded cane, conlaining a large proporlion of long delached fibres.
This mal erial is picked up again by an elevalor and a bell conveyor on which il is weighed
by means of a gamma-ray cell, which conlrols lhe speed of lhe rollers feeding lhe cane busler.
Ir is lhen conveyed lO lhe diffuser and dislributed along lhe firsl comparlmenl of lhe diffuser.
\
J
Fig. 23.14. Silver dirrusion. Cane bUSler. Fig. 23 . 15. Silver dirrusioll. Fiberiser.
B. The diffuser. The diffuser (Fig. 23.16) consisls of a moving annular vessel of approx-
imarely 2.5 m (8 fl.) in height, consisring of IWO concenlric cylinders, lhe inner one being
of aboul 60070 smaller diameler lhan lhe oUler. This annular corridor is supporred bOlh on
Ihe inside and on lhe oulside by wheels running on circular rails (Fig. 23.17); radial arms COIl-
necl il wilh a central shaft; ilis rotated by means of lwo hydraulic jacks acting successively
on 36 arms rigidly altached to the outer wall at 10° intervals. The bottom consiSIS of a plate
with perforations in "honeycomb" pattern, 13 mm (1 in.) in diameter, giving verY ' lnrge
drainage area.
Seen in plan, Ihe diffuser shows inside Ihis annular corridor:
(1) The wall alongside which lhe prepared cane is deposiled, and Ihe device for diSlribuling
ir.
(2) 2 recirculation troughs , occupying together 15°.
(3) 16 Iroughs for distribution of extraction juice, each occupying 15° 01' the Clr-
cum ference.
(4) I similar !rough for receiving and dislribuling Ihe Ihin juices.
=
TYPES OF DlFFUSION 383
(5) I similar trough for receiving a na Ói~lrib\l .Ling Ihe firsl extraetion water.
In all, 20 troughs occupying 285°.
(6) 3 pairs of verlical screw conveyors placed side by side, standing again sl lhe fixed wall
which closes the end of the corridor; lhe screws of each pair rotate in opposite direclions and
lhe exhausted megasse meets the screws and is pic ked up by lhem, elevated aboye the megas se
bed and distributed into a horizontal screw conveyor. This takes it out to a belt conveyor.
A verlical plate, suitably curv ed, encloses the screws and prevents the megasse from falling
back inlo the interior of the diffusion space. A scraper blade scrapes the bottom plate and
guides lhe lo west la ye r of megasse into the lower turns of the screws.
(7) A fixed and emply compartment occupying 15°, sepa raling the entry and e.:>(iJ.. ;;<.¡¡JI~.,,,
;:..- .
across lhe full widlh of lhe eorridor, the purpose of this being to give a derinite separation
between the poinls of entry ot' the fresh shredded cane and the removal of the exhau sted
megasse.
Below lhe moving corridor (Fig. 23. I 7) there is a fixed annular tank of the sa me width,
Fig. 23.16. Silver dilTuser.
In$pecl !on
plalform
D'FtrlbUltOn Channel
L Jj [12 ::,uPDOíllng a rms(f,;:t;ed)
JOlnt- .. · -1
Ra oi a i arm - Flxe d snaft
_."..
snal\- --
.. - ..
.'
...
..... '.'
'- ~_ ~ __ c ·_. ~ _. _~ ' _.'~ _

.'
J
I
"g
II:\-'RO
COlum n _.. .. .
~ ~
Pump -8 I
Fig. 23.17. Silver dirfuse r - vertical half-section.
384 DIFFUSlON Ch. 23
divided into 19 lrays for receiving the juice which has percolaled lhrough (he megasse bed.
The bottom of these is inclined LOwards (he outside, and the juice which coJlects is removed
by an equal number of pumps which return it to the distribution trough displaced by 30° or
45° LO wards the cane entry. In lhe Pioneer diffuser, the position of the distributors may be
displaced by 32°. In later installations, there are only two positions possible: one corresponds
to a displacement corresponding to exactly one distribulion trougll, lhe otller LO a complete
recycling, lhrough the tray, of its own juice. The latter position is used in the evenl of an
interruption to cane supply2.
Recirculation of juice immediately after the entry of cane to the diffuser is employed as
with the de Smet system, this juice being re-heated to 80°C (180°F) by bled vapour. This
recirculation has the object of:
(a) Bringing the cane immediately to a suitable temperature
(b) Assuring a good distribution of the lime, and making the mass homogeneous
(e) Relieving any packing effect
(d) Screening the dil"fusion juice before removing it.
Returning the various juices lO a tray 45° ahead has three results:
(a) The juice applied to the megasse bed and percolaling rhrough it is returned, nOI only
inlo the next tray to that from which it is coJlected, but inLO the preceding one
(b) Consequently, its course is partially divided inLO two and thus shortened; hence, a
shorter time of the juice in the diffuser
(e) The difference between the concentration of the megasse and the ex[raclion juice is
sligh[ly increased.
On [he other hand, this displacement of returned juice short-circuils lhe diffusion ro a cer-
tain extent.
The moving annulus slides along lhe upper plates carrying lhe dislriburion troughs, and
along lhe lower tan k conlaining lhe juice trays with a circular joint, Iiquid-tight ro vertical
juice f10w (Fig. 2} 17).
C. Dewatcring. The exhausled megasse conlains aboul 86070 walerl. The original diffllsion
inSlallalion al Pioneer provided lhree different merhods 01" dewalering lhis megasse:
(a) Milis. Parl of lhe megasse was fed wilhout difficulry into the last two milis of lhe old
[andem.
(b) Cone-press . A second portion 01" lhe megasse was passed through a press designed and
conslructed by Silver (Fig. 23.18): it consisled of two cones of perforated metal plale I m
(31"1.) in diameter Wilh apical angle of 170°, with their axes horizontal and converging, and
c10se together al one position, i.e. wirh IWO generatrices silualed in the common axial plane,
parallel to each orher and close together. The megasse was inlroduced inlo the open space,
and lhe eones in rOlaring compressed il inlO ¡he narrow space berween these lWO general rices.
The eones rOlaled ar 3 r.p.m. and gave a bagasse of 45070 moislure. The OlllpUI corresponded
[O 15 I.c.h. and lhe power consllmed was about 3 kW/t.c.h. (4 h.p./t.c.h.). JI seems [har
this is lhe device which has lhe grearesr fu[ure and which could lay claim 10 replacing rhe
dewalering milis. Jt is the device recommended by Sil ver and Dorr - Oliver.
SE zar
TYPES OF DIFFUSION 385
Sil ver manufactures cane presses in 3 sizes:
1,575 mm (62 in.) for 14.9 t.f.h.

1,981 mm (78 in.) for 22.6 t.f.h.
2,388 mm (94 in.) for 33.8 Lf.h.
It is commented that two 1,575-mm (62-in.) presses cost slightly less than one 2,388-mm
(94- in.) press.
Fig. 23.\8. Silver cone ~rc.".
(e) Freneh press. Finally, the megasse leaving lhe diffuser could equally well be senl to a
third type of press. This is a screw press forcing lhe megasse lO pass lhrough a decreasing
area and reducing il lO a moislure of aboul 48070 (Fig. 23.19) .
.Materials balance. The malerials balance of Ihe Silver diffusion is complelely similar 10
thal of the de Smet TN (Fig. 23.20).
Thickness of bed. Silver recommends operation with a lhick bed, of 1.2 - 1.8 m (4 - 6 fl.);
in this he holds the opposite view lO de Smel. The packing factor is of the order of 190 - 320
kg/m l (12-20 lb./cu.fl.).
The lhickness of lhe bed may be regulated by means of the speed of rotalíon of lhe dif-
386 DIFFUSION Ch. 23 ·
Fig. 23.19. French pre•• (opened).
fuser. For a 1.5 m (5 ft.) depth of bed, the percolation rate is about 245 - 295 I/m'/ min (5 - 6
ga l. / sq. ft .l min). 4 The rate of percolation for Ihe Suchem diffusion at Louisa in Louisiana'
is 400-410 Jlm'/min (10 U.S. gallons/sq.ft. / min).
Residence time. This is given as about 60 min for the cane, hence 40 - 50 min for Ihe diffu-
sion process ; the time for the juice is of the order of 20 mino
Temperatures. The recirculation heat s the cane 10 80°C (180 °F) at ils entry 10 the diffuser.
The make-up heater s prevent lhe lemperature from falling below 70° (160°) during ctiffusion,
and maintain it belween 70 and 73° (160 and 165°). The Ihin juices are rai sed 10 80°C beCore
inlroduction lO lhe diffuser. The diffusion juice leaves al aboul 65°C (150°F). AII Ihese
lemperalUres are Ihermoslalically conlrolled and mainlained.
The juices are healed by vapour bled from Ihe mulliple effecls. Parl of Ihis healing is ef-
fecled by direcl injection of vapour, either in the exlraction waler, or in Ihe course of Ihe
diffusion, by two injeclors.
Liming_ The delicale problem 01' liming in Ihe diffusion has been resolved by Silver in Ihe
following way: Ihe lime is added, either as powdered lime, or in Ihe form 01' mil k 01' lime,
between the cane buster and Ihe fiberiser, or before Ihe can e busler, in Ihe ralio of about
0.8 kg (1.8 lb.) CaO per tonne of cane.
Al Ihe enlry to the diffuser, lhe recirculalion assures a good mixture of Ihe lime. The pH
in lhe dirfuscr would be approximately 6.5. and Ihe diffllser juice lea ves at a pH in Ihe
neighbourhood of 7 (6.8 -7.3). The Ihin juice from the press would Ihen have a pH of Ihe
order 01' 6.5, Ihe lime addilion being regulated so that it does not fall below thal limil.
"Y E
Treatment of thin juices. Thc lhin juices oblained, either wilh Ihc Frcneh press, Ihe eone
press, or wilh dewalering milis, are screened successively by 2 DSM screens with bars spac-
ed al 1.5 mm (;', in.), withoul any addition of lime or flocculanl, and are lhen re-heated to
65 - 85°C (150 - 185°F) and sent to a subsider (Fig. 23.20). The clear juice leaving lhis sub-
sider goes lO lhe second last juiee lrough before lhe megasse removal serews, which is Ihe
lasl liquid additioIl excepl Ihal of water. The mud from Ihis subsider is granular and sellles
rapidl)'; the ordinary Oliver filtration does not handle il satisfaelorily and il is necessary to
feed the mud near lhe top of the filler drum. The filler cake would conlain only 0.5"70 of
sugar.
Trials made in Ihe altempl 10 dispense wilh Ihis treatmenl of Ihe thin juices have shown
Ihal lhe malerials which Ihey conlain in suspension are retained by Ihe upper layer of Ihe
mega ss e beu allu appreeiably decrease lhe speed of juice pereolation. The Irealment is lhus
usefuJ.
Power. Power consul11ption for the whole inslallation is given as follows:
kW/ t.c.h. (h.p./t.c.h.)

Knives: 0.5 0.7 )
Cane buster: 5.8 7.8 )
Fiberiser: 4.2 ( 5.6 )
Difl'user - Rotation: 0.03 ( 0.05)
Screws: 0.5 ( 0.7 )
Horizontal bagasse conveyor: 0.03 ( 0.05)
French press: 4.5 ( 6.1 )
Total: 15.5 (21.0 )
The con e press would consume aboui 3 kW/I.c.h. (4 h.p ./t.e.h.), instead of 4.5 for the
French press .
For comparison, extraction by milis would require, for knives , shredders and 5 milis,
about 14-15 kW / t.c .h. (18-19 h.p./t.c.h.).
For the diffuser, however, if the cane buster and Ihe fiberiser are driven by eleclric motors
(they may of course be driven by sleam turbinc), the whole of the power requirement is elee-
Irical, wl1ereas lile greater par! of the power demanded for the milling plant is generally pro-
vided by stealll cngines 01' turbines. [t follows that an existing factory, in which the mili drives
are nOI eleclrical, which is changing to a diffusion wilh aecessories 01' the Silver type, should
have available at its power house about 3-4 kW / I.c.h. (4-5 h.p./t.c.h.) more Ihan
previously . lf lhe milis were electrically driven, lhe saving would on the other hand be equal
10 la or 12%.
Steam consumption. The steam consumption for the heaters and sleam injeclors is of Ihe
order of 4 - 5% on cane, but much of Ihis requirement ean be provided by bleeding from
Ihe multiple effecIs.
388 DIFFUSlON Ch,23
Conel00
Oilluser
Woter 26
OjlttJsion juICe~ _______

100
Thin Juice
76.5
Ropldorr ..---1:-_.:
Filter cake 2.01
Horlzontel tilter
Filtrote 6.64
Fig. 23.20. Silver diffusion - malerial balance.
Mainlenance. Estimates by manufacturers and users, of the maintenance costs for Ihe
complete diffusion equipmenl, wilh ils spec ial accessories, vary belween 25 and 4507001' the
co rresponding expenses for a milling tandem. If use and experience confirm a figure wilhin
this range, this would be an importan! argument in favour of this diffusion system and ils
accessories.
Accessories.We have drawn attention to the originality of Ihe accessory equipmenl for
cane preparalion and panicularly for dewatering of megasse. These are nOI indispensable,
and it would be quile possible to adopt lhe more normal equipmen! which we have discussed
with reference to de Smel and B.M.A. In panicular, wilh c1ean cane, the cane busler could
very well be replaced by a set of knives with close clearance. In the same way, a standard
shredder would givc very much the samc rcsull as Ihe fiberiser, although Ihe lalter equipmen!
appears 10 be a success and could compele advanlageously wilh standard lypes of shredder.
Finally, Ihe dewatering could be effecled by one or two milis.
Moreover, the Eldorado faclory in Mexico has convened to th e Sil ver diffusion process
while retaining precisely th ese standard devices for preparation and dewatering.
Clarification. The diffusion juice leaving the diffuser is senl direclly 10 Ihe evaporators.
Eliminalion of lhe main clarification station is thus anolher poinl 10 be credited to Silver.
The purity of the juice is slightly lower than that of ¡he c1arified juice oblained from the same
cane by means of milis and a standard c1arificatíon, but it is slighlly superior to that of the
mixed juice leaving Ihe milis in the lalter case. In other words, part of Ihe purity rise obtained
by standard c1arification methods is losl. However, it is quite possible that Ihis loss, which
TYPES OF D1FFUSION 389
is sma ll. may be purtially or totally compensated by Lhe raeL IhaL inversion losses laking place
in lhe c1arirication are avoided. in particular those oecurring during week-end slOps. For a
new faclory. economy in space and investment is in any case attractive.
Material of conslrucllon. The metal of the Silver difruser in contact wiLh juices is stainless
steel. This precaution would seem superfluous on accounL of Lhe preliminary liming, and
equipment in ordinary steel would be less expensive.
Sizes. The Silver diffuser is offered in 8 sizes, as given in Table 23.4.
Advanlages and disadvanlages
A. AdvanlOges. The Silver diffusion process offers lhe following advantages:

(a) Reduced mainLenance costs if Silver or French presses are adopled
(b) Su pplementary saving in power in the same case
(e) Possible eliminalion of the normal c1arificalion.
B. Disadvantages
(a) The Silver difl'usion is specially designed for diffusion of caneo Jf iL were desi red lO use
diffusion of bagasse, il would be hardly suilable and it would be desirable lO re~design it for
this purpose, with a smaller number of compartments.
(b) As with any ca ne diffusion process , it does not permiL payment according to sugar con-
Lent as determined by sampling of primary juice or first expressed juice. IL would be necessary
to converl to a system of direct analysis. and this may be conL rary to existing regulations.
(e) Adoption of th e recommended accessories presents no difficulty when building a new
faclOry. but cons LituLes a complete rearrangement of the whole extraction plant for an ex-
isting factory. These accessories. however, may be ruled out and the normal equipment for
cane preparation and bagasse dewatering retained.
(d) There is also the necessit y to provide approx. 4 kW / l.c.h. (5 h.p.lt.c.h.) extra from
the power house. in order to suit the demands of the diffuser accessories, if the milis replaced
are not electrically dri ve n.
TABLE 23.4
SERIES OF Sil VER DIFFUSERS
Diamefer Capacily Po wer reQuiremenr

(JI. and in.) (m) (1.c.h.) (diffuser only)
(kW) (h.p.)
29 ft. 2 in, 8.89 42 92 L23

35ft. 10.67 61 142 190
40 ft. 10 in . 12 .45 84 188 25L
46 ft. 8 in . 14.22 t07 246 329
52ft. 6 in . 16 t38 276 369
58 fl . 4 in. 17.78 t68 373 498
64 f1. 2 in. 19.56 206 415 554
70 f1. 21.34 244 535 714
-
(el The circular form of the diffuser does not permit of adding further companmems and
distributing troughs in order 10 allow for an eventual increase in capacity. However, the
number provided (18) is generously designed and permits a certain Oexibilil Y.
(j) The circular arrangement theorelically has an inherenl disadvanlage: the dislribution
of juice from a lrough should be proportional 10 lhe weight of bagasse which receives il, and
hence the flow of juice from the trough should vary in proportion to lhe radius measured
from the vertical axis of lhe diffuser. This is nol readily arrranged for all possible rates of
flow . [t fo[Jows lhat lhe eXlraclion is [jable to vary along lhe radius.
Similarly, il is difficull lO dislribute the prepared cane evenly in a uniform layer.
Conclusion. [n spile of these disadvantages, the Silver diffusion is a success mechanically

and seems to gi ve good results, wilh extraclions exceeding 97 and somelimes approaching 98.
[l would appear particularly lhat the syslem has shown how lO avoid or reduce losses by
fermentalion and in version. The resulls recorded seem lO indicate that the gain in extraction
is indeed found in lhe overall recovery, in lhe sugar lea ving lhe factory.
Furlhermore, certain accessories for cane preparation and bagasse dewalering, such as the
fiberiser and the cone press, once put into operation, could demonstrale certain advantages
and become general.
Rotocell. In Venezuela a diffuser under the name of Rotocell 6 has been installed; il
resembles the Si[ ver syslem but the vessel receiving the megasse is divided into compartments.
It also gi ves a more con venient discharge of the exhausted material: at the end of its travel,
the botlOm of lhe compartment opens and drops the exhausled megasse.
Compaction and perco[ation. The three types of diffusers described are all of similar
design, following the patlern of de Smet.
There are two faclors which play an important part in this lype of dif fuser, which are imer-
relaled. These are the degree of compaction of the !)laterial, expressed as weight of fibre per
unit volume, and the speed of percolalion; the laller fa clor charac lerises the efficiency of
operalion of the equipment and depends to a greal eXlent on the degree of compaction. In
lhis type of diffuser, lhe weighl of fibre per m l varies generally between 60 and 80 kg/m l
(4 - 5 Ib./cu.fl.). Above 80 kg/ m l , the speed of percolation falls sharply and thus produces
flooding: lhe juice does nOl penetrale quickly enough and forms a pool on the surface.
The speed of percolalion varies from 0. 15 lO 0.35 m/ min (6 - 14 in ./ min); il is oflen he Id
between 0.20 and 0.25 m/ min (8 and 10 in ./min). Ir varies in in verse ralio lO lhe degree of
compaction, bul depends also on olher faclOrs, particularly lhe fineness of preparalion. If
fine preparalion is carried 100 far, lhe rale of percolalion falls and can reach lhe poinl of
causing flooding . In the same wa y, lhe thi ckness of lhe bed plays a part. As it increases, lhe
layers at lhe botlOm undergo a greater degree of compaclion on accounl of the weighl of
lhe upper layers.
Flooding occ urs, for example, with a given degree of preparalion, al lhe percolalion rates
as shown for different degrees of compaction:
Compaclion Percola! ion

(kg I ml) (Ib .lcu.f!.) (m 1m in) (in .lmin)
60 3.7 0.4 15
70 4.4 0.25 10
80 5.0 0.18 7
Shredded cane compacts rather more readily than cane lrea ted with knives.
With the slower percolation, and lhe longer time taken for the juice to traverse the bed,
it will be seen thal the f10w of the juice follows a smaller angle with the horizontal as its rate
01' f10w decreases. This angle also varies from the head of the diffuser 10 the discharge end .
lt may be, for example, 57 0 at the first tray, 38 0 al lhe second, and 14 0 when leaving the
third tray. It follows that the rate of percolation determines the tray into which the juice is
discharged into the canal below. The juice coming from tray n will not deliver into lray n
Fig. 23.21. Soturne diffuser.

392 DIFFUSiON Ch. 23
- 1 excepl for a given rale of percolation and a given deplh of layer. This is of inleres l in
relation to the ability lo advance or relard the corresponding collecling channel (e! p. 384).
The moisture content of the megasse leaving the diffuser varies in the range 70- 80%,
depending on whether or not a compression roller is provided.
Salume diffusion
The Saturne diffuser was devised by Marcel Barre, and is built and so Id by the Societé
Sucriere de l' Atlantique.
The diffuser (fig. 23.21) has been termed lhe "Saturne". It consists of a vertical ring, of
12 m (39 ft.) external diameter and radial thickness about 1.50 m (5 fl.), rotating about a
horizontal axis inside a fi xed casing of rectangular section. It is di vi ded into 18 companments
or "baskels" by grilles of perforated plate. Each basket is enclosed belween lhe inlerior and
outer walls of the casing (which are cylindrical in form) and ilS fronl and back grilles, which
are flal; il is lhus reslricled in direclio n of movement by lhe grilles. When lhe baskel has pass-
ed the top generalrix, which we shall take as lhe origin, or 0 0 , it receives the bagasse by an
opening localed slighlly beyond; when it is about 45 0 further on, it is complelely filled and
receives at the sa me time the juice which has been recyc1ed, limed and heated. Soon afler
it has passed the 90 0 position, i.e. the level of lhe shaft of the ring, the walls of lhe cylindrical
casing become perforated plate, and lhe diffu sion juiee which fills the whole lower half of
the ring escapes by lhese perforalions, passes through a liming bath, is picked up by a pump
and di vided into two portions. One passes through a heater and is recycled and distributed
on lhe bagasse 10 heal and saturate il; lhe other is withdrawn and taken 10 manufacture.
The baskel al lhis stage enlers the zone filled wilh diffusion juice and passes lhrough it.
Thi s zone consists of the lower half of the ring and ends slightly beyond the 270 0 poinl, where
lhe basket receives lhe juice from the dewalering equipmenl; al lhe 315 0 position il receives
waler. The basket then enters lhe discharging zone, and al the 335 0 posilion lhe inlerior cas-
ing lerminates and allows the megasse to fall inlO a conveyor which lakes il lO lhe milis or
olher dewatering devi ees. As lhe ouler casing is also open al lhis posilion, lhe basket is wash-
ed and is ready for the commencemenl of anolher cycle.
The juice lhus circulales in a co unler-current manner. The head necessary lO mainlain lhe
flow lhrough lhe bagasse mo vi ng in lhe opposite direclion is approximalely 4 m (13 fl.), and
varies aecording lO lhe degree of packing sought and lhe degree of preparation of lhe
bagasse.
The speed of rOlation of lhe ring is approximalely 1 m / min (3 ft. / min) al the periphery,
giving one revolulion in about 40 mino JI may be varied belween 0.5 and 2 m/min (1.5 and
7 ft./min), and is cOnlrolled al lhe delivery from lhe conlinuous scale which weighs lhe
bagasse enlering lhe diffuser. The rOlalional movemenl is furnished by a jack placed al lhe
top of lhe ring, which acts on 18 bars connecled lO lhe 18 grilles; the movement lasls 1.5 min,
lhe inlerval between movements is 0.5 mino
The ring resl s and rotates on an u pper roller, and is guided by two other rollers, one
external and one interna!. It consists essentially of a central girder of circular section,
provided with numerous holes so lhat it does not form a dividing wall, and wilh lhe grilles
bolted lO it.
The power necessary lO provide lhe mo vement is approximately 0.75 kW (1 h.p.) per 100
tonnes cane per day. The capacily is approximately 1,000 tonnes per day per melre of width
of lhe ringo
The residence lime for rhe bagasse is approximalely 30 min, made up rhus:
Scalding: 5 min
Maceration: 20 min
Discharge: 5 min
The residence lime of Ihe juice is about 20 mino

Fllr recycling, aboul 5 kg of juice per kg of bagasse are used. A lemperature of 75 - 80°C
(170 - 175°F) is recommended, and a pH of 6.2.
There are two separate conlrols,one for Ihe temperature and pH of the scalding juice, the
other for Ihe temperalure and pH of the thin juice from the final pressing. The lalter may
be re-introduced direclly, or tremed; Ihe treatment may be limited 10 screening, liming and
heat ing.
The megasse leaving Ihe ring conlains aboul 85 OJo water, and lhe excess juice is allowed
10 drain off. The material is al50 passed belween two primary rollers provided wilh grooves,
of which lhe lower, aboul 1.5 m (5 fL) in diameler, is placed below and is hollow wilh a
surface perforated ",ilh holes occupying sorne 30070 oC Ihe surface area. The juice expressed
drains illlO lhe inlerior oi' Ihis roller and is wilhdrawn by illclined gutters and re-inlroduced
inlO the diffuser. The pressure exerted by the small upper roller is adjustable. The moisture
content of lhe megasse is thus reduced to aboul 70070.
The imbibition (Sucallan recommend A = 2) is applied on lhe megasse which is sent to
a second pair of pressure rollers of similar design, but situaled away from lhe main diffuser
ring; Ihese reduce lhe moisture to 65 -70070. The megasse then goes lo lhe final mili or milis.
The SalUrne requires considerable heighl, but il is simple and requires lillle mainlenance.
Fleteher - Stewart - van Hengel diffusion

This is a diffuser designed about 1968 by Van Hengel in South Africa, and built by Fletcher
& Slewart 7 It consists of a series of units each having the form of an inlermediate carrier,
inclined at 30°, and to a great extent overlapping (Fig. 23.22). The conveyor proper, situated
in lhe interior of the compartment, is furnished with scrapers and moves in such a way that
rhe upper run of rhe conveyor descends and rhe lower run rises. The firsr ce.11 receives the
bagasse supplied from a mili following cane knives and a shredder, and discharges it, as do
the following conveyors, mid-way on lhe upper run of lhe following conveyor. JI descends
on the upper run lowards lhe boltom of lhe compartmenl where il is picked up again by lhe
lower run and pass es up 10 lhe upper end of Ihe compartmenl, where il is again passed on
10 lhe following compartment. On these two conveyors it is sprayed copiously wilh water or
mili juice in lhe firsl compartment, and wilh juice from lhe cell ilself, or from lhe following
one, in lhe olher compartmenlS. The imbibilion may be of lhe order of 50070, for example,
bul the recirculalion pumps can recycle 300 - 400070 on weighl of cane, of which, for
example, 150070 comes from lhe following cen and lhe remainder as recycled liquid from lhe
compartmenl considered.
The megasse leaving lhe last compartmenl pass es lo lwo milis lo reduce lhe water conlenl
sufficiently for its use as fue!. Th e expressed juice thus obtained is reheated to 95°C (200°F),
in order to maintain the compartments at a lemperature of 80 - 90°C (175 - 195 ° F).
Compaclion is of the order of I = 80 kg fibre / m J of megasse (5 Ib .lcu. fL). We may reckon
.o n a movement of about 16 m (50 fl.) of bagasse per cell or comparlmenL The capacily of
the equipment is given by:
1,000 Al = L X 60 v x H x t x 0.8 (2,240 Al = L x 60v x H x I x 0.8)
A = tonnes of cane per hour

I = fibre per unit of cane
L effective length of the compartments, in m (fL)
v speed of movemenl of the bagasse in it s trave!, in m/ min (fL/min)
H thickness of the layer of bagass e on the conveyor, in m (fL)
0.8 coefficient allowing for the s pace between the scrap~>rs, due to the inclination of 30 °
of I he conveyors.
Assuming I = 80 kg/ m J (5 Ib .lcu. fL), we have:
Al = 3.8 LvH (Al = 0.107 LvH)
The driving wheels and the end of Ihe intermediate carrier (which forms the mobile element
of the unil) should be at least 1.16 m (46 in.) in diameter, the minimum adopted for the first
installation. lf they are driven at 1 r.p.m . , the speed of the conveyor is v = 3.66 m/ min (12
fL / min).
The residence time for the material in the diffu ser should be about 25 - 30 mino The
number of units comprising the diffuser can vary from a minimum of 5, with a recommended
optimum in practice of 7. The Ihickness of the la yer is 0.6 m (2 fL), or about half that for
diffusers of the de Smet or B.M.A. type. Thus, if we take the residence time as half an hour,
we may determine the conditions of operation; if P is the distance of travel in one unir of
the diffuser, and T the residence time, we have:
7xP 7 x 16 112
v 60T :::; 60 x 0.5 = 30 3.73 m/min (12.25 ft .lmin)
Hence the rotational speed of the dri ving wheel is:
3.73
1.02 r.p.m.
3.66
and the width of the diffuser is:
Al
L = Al )
( L. = 0 . 107
3.8 vH vH
This type of diffuser has several advantages: first, the low thickness of the layer facilitates
:rr '; E
percolalion, which is funher impruved by lhe large number of changes of direclion (lwO per
uni!), which al each change presenls a new surface, loosens and aerales lhe malerial, and so
prevenls lhe lendency lO flooding, which is a frequent disadvanlage where lhe mo ving layer
is undislurbed. The calle preparalion can lhus be pushed to lhe maximum wilhoul fear of
imerference wilh lhe penelration of lhe bagasse layer, which would creale an impermeable
layer al lhe surfare. The residence lime of the mal erial is low, lhus minimising lhe relenlion
01' juice, and consequenlly lhe risk of inversion or microbial aClion; similar/y, 1055 01' lime
during slOppages when for a lime lhe faclory wilI proceed wilhoul bagasse and withoul juice
al lhe slan, wilhout bagasse during [he stoppage.
This diffuser especialIy permils of recycJing a very high quanlily of waler or juice (Pongola
has one of the highesl figures for imbibition "10 fibre in lhe counlry): which permits making
use of lhis imponanl factor in the efficiency 01' lhe process.
On lhe olher hand, the large Ilumber 01' inlermediate carriers is complex and involves extra
pOlYer for elevaling lhe mega5se in each unil, whereas slraight diffusers operate al constant
level; in compensation, however, fewer pumps are required, and the lotal power ronsump-
tion 01' lhe di ffuser is aboul J 2 k W/ t. r. h. (16 h. p./t. r. h.), lower Ihan that consumed by other
diffusers in South Africa.
Al Pongola, lhe eXlraction al lhe preparalOry milI was 71 "lo, lhat at lhe diffuser 48% of
lhe remaining poi content (or 85"70 total for first mili and diffuser), and total extraction
95 - 96%, including the IWO final milis. For the 1980 - 81 campaign, the poi in 'bagasse was
1.12"70, overall extraclion 97.55 imbibition 411% on fibre, Clerget purity 01' molasses 36.6,
loss in molasses 9.23"7001' poi in cane, recovery on mixed juice 87.82, and overall recovery
85.67"70.
'-.. ,
I
Fig . 23.22 . Van Hengel diffuser (Flelcher and S'ewart).

GENERAL CONSIDERATlONS ON DIFFUSION
Wc have described the four principal diffusion processes operaling al presenl. Several olhers
are in existence, sorne in operation, others in the form of pilol planls, many only exisling
on papero Sorne of these extend horizontally, like the four described; others vertically, lhese
being diffusion lowers. Of lhese lowers, one lifts the bagas se upwards by means of screw
elevalors, olhers are based on lhe allraclive hypothesis that the bagas se willlift itself. These
raise the much debated problem of lhe buoyancy of bagasse; if this buoyancy is real and suf-
ficiem, this lype would give simple and economical processes.
In lhe competilion belween milling and diffusion, the milis have one advantage, lhal of
extracting al each pressure lhe maximum quanlity of juice, and then 01' replacing lhis more
or Icss complelely wilh waler or imbibilion juice, lhus achieving a more marked effecl. The
diffuser has more difficullY in eliminaling lhe juice enclosed in cells which ha ve nOl been
completely opened and in thick pieces of bagasse, bUl il balhes lhese more effeclively and
can repeal lhe washings more readily (8 - 18 washings, compared wilh 3 or 6 for milis).
The present trend of invenlors and innovalors is 10 allempl allernate pressure and dil'l'u-
sion, allempting lhus 10 profil by Ihe advamages of bolh syslems. The idea is logical; in order
10 clean a floor mop, it is indeed easier 10 wel it and press il alternately Ihan 10 run a con-
tinuous slream of water over it wilhoul pressure. Processes such as lhese, however, have nOl
yel reached lhe induslrial slage.
Effee! of diffusion on overall reeovery

MOSl manufaclurers of diffusers ha ve given great prominence lO the gains in eXlraction
realised, sometimes very substanlial ones. They have seldom spoken of the final gain in sugar
produced. Now, many pioneer users of diffusion ha ve reporled Ihe gain in eXlraclion, bul
have nOl found il in lhe sugar produced. Somelimes lhe eXlraclion increased by 2- 3 poinls,
whereas lhe overall recovery fell by l or 2 points, disclosing a loss of sugar in Ihe boiling
house of 3 - 5 poinls. This loss was partly undelermined, partly a loss in molasses, eilher in
purily or in lhe quanlily of molasses produced.
The posilion is lhat diffusion is more crilical lO conlrol Ihan milling, on accounl of lhe
risks of inversion and deterioration which are involved. The grealesl danger lies in the con-
lact 01' juice with bagasse, in a hol alkaline medium. Anolher risk lies in lhe separale cir-
cuit of impure juices, dilute and containing fine bagasse in suspension: the thin juices
from lhe dewatering milis. For these two reasons, there is a risk 01' dillicullies in crys-
lallisation, particularly wilh B and C massecuileS, and in lhe exhaUSlioll 01' lhe rnolas-
ses.
In installing a diffuser, the following should lherefore be especially sludied: (a) lhe pro-
blem of liming and of lhe pH in lhe diffuser; (b) lhe juice circuils, where care should be taken
10 reduce the residence limes, particularly of juice in conlaCI wilh bagasse; (e) lemperalures,
laking care to maintain these between 70 and BO°C (158 and 176°F) (ef. p. 437). It is only
on condilion of having found good answers to these problems lhat lhe faclory will be able
to find in its overall recovery and ilS sugar production the gain in extraclion anticipated from
the facI of acquisition of a diffuser.
Recenl experience seems la indicare rhar rhe Chief of Manufacture has lillle complainl as
¡
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON DIFFUSION 397
to the qualily 01' juice received from the Chief 01' lhe Juice Extraclion Department. The
purilies 01' molasses are practically lhe same as in lhe case 01' milling plant. However, lhe
quaI1lilY 01' molasses seems to be influenced by diffusion: South African figures' for lhe
1979 - 80 season indicate Ihe quantity 01' molasses 01' 85° brix "70 on cane as 3.87 for factories
practising diffusion 01' cane, and 4.11 for bagasse diffusion faclories, compared with 3.49
for factories using milling planl only.
For the 1980-81 season, lhe mean for diffusion factories showed 4.30"70 on can e, and for
faclOries wilh milis, 4.05"70, or a 6070 disadvantage in lhe case of diffusion factories: in
sucrose 10Sl in molasses 070 poi in cane, 10.5 for the diffuser, and 10.0 for mills, or 5070 grealer
wilh diffusion. This difference is on the debil side for lhe diffusion process.
On lhe credit side, there should be counled: (a) investment costs about 30070 less for diffu-
sion; (b) mainlenance COSIs much lower; (e) economy in juice healing, due lO lhe high
lemperature 01' diffusion juices; (d) economy in fillralion, due 10 Ihe lower proportion of
muds, because 01' lhe riltering effecI on the bed of megasse during the percolation (3.26070
as againsl 5.26<T/o); and (e) ewnomy in power' concerning lhe diffusers proper: lhere is a dif-
ference belween cane diffusers and bagasse diffusers of 23 kW/I.f.h. (30 h.p./l.f.h.) in lhe
former, as againsl 18 (24) I'or the laller (mean 01' 5 faclories in each case).
As regards tOlal power expended, Lamusse' gives a mean for faclories with mills of 190
kW/l.f.h. (255 ll.p./I.f.Il.), compared with 155 (205) for diffusion faclOries.
Capital and maintenance costs

It has been commenled lhal Ihe COSI of diffusion planl is lower. The 30070 reduclion in COSI
relates lO diffusion of caneo For lhe case of an exiSling faclory desiring lO change 10 diffusion
01" bagasse, it is appropriale 10 compare lhe normal landem, with ils cane preparalOrs and
ils Sor 6 mills, wilh lhe same landem where only 3 milis and lhe preparalory planl are relain-
ed. To show a gain in the capital COSI, il is necessary therefore lhat lhe cosl of lhe diffuser
should be less lhan the COSI of 2 milis wilh lheir imermediale carrier, their drives and gear-
ing; or, i l' an 18-roller landem is being considered, lhe COSI of 3 mills, with drives and gearing
and 2 imermediate carriers. Now, lhe COSI of lhe diffuser is close 10 lhal of 2 or 21 milis.
The initial COSI is Ihus roughly equivalent, or lower for lhe diffusion planl, since il would
require six mills lO give an equivalenl extraclion.
Mainlenance of the diffuser is also less coslly. The difference here is considerable, on ac-
counl of lhe COSI of rollers, Irashplales and scrapers, and parls for lhe steam turbines when
lhese are used for mili drives. II is reporled lhal for diffusion of cane, mainlenance cosls are
only 50 - 80070 of Ihose for an equivalenl landem of milis.
The selling of final dewalering mills differs from lhal of ordinary mills. 11 is commenled
in South Africa 10 that lhe ralio of feed opening 10 delivery opening is of the order of 3 : I
or 4 : 1, as against 2 : I or 2.5 : I for ordinary milis.
Specific heat of prepared caneo This musl be known for calculating lhe heat balance for
diffusion ll • 11 has a value e = 0.25 + 0.81h cal/gI"C, where h = waler conlenl 01' cane
(approximalely 72070). Hence: e = 0.86 approximalely.
Screen area. In South Africa l2 , lhe capacity 01' diffusers is relaled 10 their screen area per
-
398 DIFFUSION Ch . 23
unit of fibre treated. A mean figure or 11.1 m' (121 sq.fL) per t.r.h. is reponed, with values
varying in the range 4.6 -14.8; good results are noted with areas ranging from 5.8 to 10.6
m'/ t.r.h . (62-114 sq.rt./t.f.h.).
CHOICE OF MILLS OR DIFFUSION
In spite or the years thal have passed since lhe inslallalion or lhe first diffusion equipment
ror cane, and the number or inslallalions which have rollowed , technologists are not yet in
agreemenl on the decision to lake when the queslion arises or whelher 10 instal milis or dif-
fusing equipment. Each system has ils supporters. We can, however, enunciate some general
ideas.
The majorilY of factories, operating with a mili tandem, are inclined to remain with milling
planl, to which lhey are accustomed, even when they have increased in capaci ty and are at
a stage where Ihey ha ve to instal further milis or larger milis.
[f the milling landem is old, worn, obsolete or of low efficiency, there is a clearer case for
deciding belween lhe lWO solutions. The consideralions in Ihe preceding paragraphs will
assist to make Ihe righl decision. II will be easier to see whether the new equipmenl can be
installed without too much difficulty or concern regarding the equipment retained ..
For a completely new factory, diffusion appears more attractive on account of the lower
cost of installation and maintenance. The only argument against it consists of the loss of
sugar in molasses, which seems to be definitely slightly higher. The difference is so me 0.7
kg (1.5 lb.) of sucrose per tonne of cane, say 120.7 compared with 120 kg/to nne cane. The
overall economy with diffusion seems gene rall y higher.
Cornment. Diffusion of cane presents one rather serious disadvantage; there is no primary
juice. Analysis of primary juice normally gives the basis for determining lhe overall erficiency
or the raclory, as expressed by our coerficient k, the use of which is importanl and is slrongly
recommended (see pp. 342 - 350).
REFERENCES
J. DUBOURG, Suererie de 8ellerayes, Saillier., 1952, p. 92.

2 J. H. PAYNE, Proe. 131h Congr. ISSCT, 1968, p. 115.
3 J. H. PAYNE, Proe. 131h Congr. ISSCT, 1968, p. 119.
4 J. H. PAYNE, Proc. !3lh Congr. ISSCT, 1968, p. 114 .
5 Sugar Azucar, 65 (Aug. 1970) 28.
6 Sugar J. , 37, (1975) 16 .
7 Inl. Sugar J., 80 (1978) 3.
B Proe. S. A/riean Sugar Teehnol. Assoe., (1980) 1.
9 J. P. LAMUSSE, Sugar Technol. Rey., 7 (1980) 3, 244.
10 J. FITZGERALO ANO J . P. LAMUSSE, Inl. Sugar J .. 77 (1975) 330.
11 T. S. DALE, Proe. 151h Congo ISSCT, 1974.
12 J. P . LAMUSSE, S. Afriean Sugar Teehnol. Assoe., 541h Rey., 1978-79, p. 7.
-r=cw
24. Defecation
CLARIFICATlON OF JUICES
Hundreds of materials have been tried for purification of juices. Thcre are, however, only
five which are of any industrial importance:
(1) Lime (CaO) which, since the beginnings of sugar manufacture, has remained the
universal basic defecant; the treatment with lime is called "defecation"
(2) Sulphurous acid, from SO,: "sulphitation"
(3) Phosphoric acid, from P,O,: "phosphatation"
(4) Carbonic acid, from CO,: "carbonatation"
(5) Magnesia, MgO.
We shall study these various processes separately. We shall commence wirh defccation: this
is the only one of the five methods mentioned which is always practised.
ACTlON OF LIME ON THE JUICE
We shall not discuss the chemical effects resulting from the reaction of lime on the juice.
Many of the organic acids are eliminated, since their lime salts are insoluble (oxalic, tartaric,
etc,); albuminoid matter is coagulated. Pan of the pectin and colouring matter is destroyed
or rendered insoluble. But this elimination of impurities is relatively insignificant, rhe purity
of the defecated juice being approximately the same as that of the juice before treatment.
The gain is generally of the order of 0.5 - 2 points: 83 - 84, for example.
The purification is predominantly physical. A precipitate forms, readily demonstrated in
a test-lUbe; the coagulated material entraps suspended impurities, and brings them down with
it.
Lime
The quality of lime used is important. In many countries the only lime obtainable is very im-
pure, approximately 60070 CaO, containing much sand and unburnt stone.
lt is recommended thal lime conlaining more than 2% of MgO or 01' oxides of iron and
alul11inium should be avoided. These impurities would cause deposits in the mulliple effecIs,
and magnesia would give trouble in the defecation. We shall see, however (p. 429), that
magnesia is sometimes used systematically with lime, precisely in order to avoid scale forma-
tion in the evaporators.
A good-quality lime should test 90 - 95% of CaO. Hydrated lime, Ca(OHJ" is also
employed, its aClivily being proportional to its CaO content.
Pure hydrated lime comains 56/74 = 76% of CaO.
400 DEFECATlON Ch. 24
Milk of lime
Some factories still use lime direclly, adding it lo lhe juice in lhe solid slale.
The solubility of lime in juice increases with the sugar contenl and decreases with increas-
ing temperalure. At 80°C (J76°F), 0.25 -0.300/0 of CaO dissolves in a juice of 10-12%
sllcrose.
As solution is relatively slow and difficult, lhe use of lime in the pulverised state is no!
recommended; cerlain porlions of the juice will be overlimed, other insufficienlly limed. It
is of advantage to make first a milk of lime, by mixing lhe pulverised lime or lump quicklime
with water. It is this milk of lime which will then be mixed with the juice; its mixing will be
much more rapid and ils action much more uniformo
The milk of lime is made up in 2 tanks, one of which is emptied while the other is being
filled. They are provided with a stirrer rotaling at 8 -10 r.p. m., according 10 the diameter.
The capacity of each of these 2 tanks should correspond to 11 or 2 hours' operation of the
factory.
The bearings designed to work in the lime should be of cast iron and not of bronze.
TABLE 24.1
MILK OF LIME
Baumé DensilY g CaD % CaD kg waler reqd.

per !itre by weighl per kg CaD
1.007 7.5 0.745 133

2 1.014 16.5 1.64 60
3 1.021 26 2.54 38
5 1.036 46 4.43 21.6
10 1.074 94 8.74 10.4
15 1. I 17 148 13.26 6.5
20 1.161 206 17.72 4.6
Oensity. Table 24.1 gives the relation belween degrees Baumé and lime contenl of rhe milk.
Milk of lime is generally made at 15° Baumé. A densily of 20° Bé is nOI exceeded, as aboye
this value lhe pumps and pipe lines block too frequently.
When an alltomalic pH reglllator of lhe "Micromax" type is lIsed, a milk of lime of 10°
Bé may be used for lhe fixed initial dose, but a value of 5° Bé should not be exceeded for
lhe variable addition regulaled by the aulomalic conrroller, olherwise control would be
defective. It is oflen kept at 2 or 3° Bé.
Lime consumption. For lhe manufaclure of raw sugar by ordinary defecation, one should
allow for 0.5 - 0.8 kg (l.1 - 1.8 lb.) of CaO per Lc. The aim should be lo use lhe minimum
of lime which will give good clarificalion and good seltling, wilh a pH of clarified juice close
107.0, since any excessive lime is harmful and resulls in an increase in lhe conlenl of lime
in clarified juice. Honig' eslimales thal, in a well-conducted defecalion faclory, lhe lime con-
lenl of clarified juice should nOl exceed 400 mg/l.
DEFECATION PROCEDURES 401
DEFECATION PROCEDURES
The defecation procedures most used are the folIowing:
(1) Cold liming

Tile juice leaving the milis is generally at a pH in the neighbourhood of 5.5. Lime is added
to a pH of 7.2 - 8.3, mOSl often to about 7.8. 11 is lhen pumped to heaters, the heating sur-
face of wilich should be sufficient to bring the juice to its boiling poinl, i.e. to 100.5°C
(213°F) minimum. For safety, one always aims al 103-104.5°C (218-220°F). On leaving
the heater, lhe juice passes il1to a vapour separator or "flash tank", a simple lank placed
in the pipe line, in which it is released to atmospheric pressure and returns to its corres pon-
dil1g boilil1g point, say 100.SoC, with release of steam. It passes immedialely afterwards lO
lhe subsiders, where lhe precipitate formed by the lime is sellled.
The defecated juice, or clarified juice, drops 10 a variable pH, of the order of 6.8 -7.2.
The subsidation is complete al the end of:
hour approximalely for juices of noble canes (which have practically disappeared)
lj- 2 hours for ordinary canes
More lhan 2 hours for juice from refraclory canes.
Cold liming is gene rally sufficient for the first lwo cases, when manufacturing raw sugar.
When the juices are difficult 10 treat, lhe lime is increased 10 raise lhe pH to 8.3. This
system has given good results in Hawaii'.
(2) Hol Iiming

Betler clarification is often obtained by pumping the juice first 10 a heater heated by vapour
bled from the second body of lhe mulliple effects, so as to obtain a temperalure'of about
70°C (l60°F), and lhen proceeding 10 add lhe lime 10 lhe same pH value (e.g. 7.8) ahd finalIy
ileating furtiler up lO 103°C (218°F).
In Java, the first healing is laken 10 90°C (l95°F) or even lO boiling, and the second
heating is then omitted.
Hot liming, according lO Jenkins J , requires 15 -20070 less lime, for a beller clarification.
The author al presenl uses this process, which gives a slight improvement when lhe juices
are difficull and cold liming does not give satisfactory clarificalion.
(3) Fractional Iiming wilh double heatlng

This process has been recommended and put into operalion at the ColIege of Tropical
Agricullure in Trinidad. It is intended especialIy for trealment of refractory juices, and
generalIy gives a subslanlial improvement when lhe ordinary liming becomes insufficienl. lt
consisls of:
Liming lhe cold juice to a pH of 6.2 -6.4
Healing 10 boiling
Re-liming 10 a pH of 7.6 - 8.2
Heating again to boiling
Leaving lO setlle.
The pH values indicated correspond 10 adding aboul one-lhird of lhe total quanlity of lime
402 DEFECATlON Ch. 24
in lhe fírsl addilion, or pre·liming, and lwo-lhirds at the second addilion, or the liming pro-
pero
The pre-liming may be carried as far as pH 6.6, bul this poinl should nOI be exceeded. In
¡he greal majorilY 01' cases, a pH 01' 6.3 gives every sa¡isfac¡ion.
The firSI healing may be laken only lO 93°C (200°F). This was lhe procedure employed al
Central Guanica. Qur own experience is [hal cJarificalion is always less effective if the
temperature falls below 98°C (208°F). For safelY, it is preferable to aim at 104.5°C (220°F).
The second liming may be laken beyond 8.2, but the oplimum value is generally in the
neighbourhood 01' 7.8. Ir the juice is limed to 8.4, the defecated juice remains alkaline:
7.2-7.4.
lt is imperative that lhe second heating should exceed lhe boiling point, and it will be
preferable to insist on 104.5°C so as nOl 10 risk falling below 101°C.
The final pH 01' the c1arified juice should be about 6.8 -7.1.
Advanlages. This procedure has the following advantages over eold liming:
(1) Less seu m is obtained
(2) The c1arified juiee is mueh more brillianl
(3) The muds filler beller, giving dry and porous cakes
(4) The nilrogenous colloids are separaled lO a much grealer extent: aboul 80070 inst.ead 01'
50%.
(5) Waxes are eliminated in a still greater proportion: 90% instead 01' 70%.
Ruplure of floes. The advocates 01' this procedure, especially Davies' at lhe Trinidad Col-
Icge 01' Agricullure, have showll that, once the liming is completed, any violent agilation 01'
the treated juice, such as passage lhrough a plunger pump, or particularly a centrifugal
pump, does considerable harm to the c1arification.
It is recommended therefore that the installation should be designed in such a way that,
once the pre-liming is completed, ¡he juice should pass to the main secondary liming and to
¡he second heating by gravily. This is obviously not easy to arrange, at least wilh ordinary
heaters.
This rupture 01' the f10c would be equally liable to occur in lhe case 01' ordinary cold liming.
These results have been confirmed in India': the use 01' a pump rendered the juice more
difficult to settle and increased the volume 01' muds as well as the percentage 01' colloids,
reducing the rise in purity obtained by the treatmen!.
(4) Liming while boiling

Establishment 01' this fact has led to a modification 01' hot liming which avoids any rupture
01' the floc. This consists 01' liming the juice, not al 70°C (160°F), but al' ter heating, in olher
words, al' ter boiling at 100.5°C (213°F). The heated juice is pumped to a tank aboye the sub-
sider, into which the milk 01' lime is also pumped in such a way as to obtain a complete and
homogeneous mixture with the juice. From this tank, the juice f10ws by gravity, preferably
by an inclined rather than a vertical pipe, inlO the subsider. No time 01' contact is provided,
this being assured in the f1occulation chamber 01' the clarifier.
It is necessary to cool the continuous sample 01' juice taken for the pH recorder-controller,
DEFECATION PROCEDURES 403
for example, by allowing il lO cascade down the stepped bottom of a smalllrough, filted with
a double bOllorn wilh waler circulaling in the double botlom. For lhe pH inSlrument, special
high-remperarure eleclrodes are used, lhe glass electrode being of soda-free glass.
This procedure, in general use in Mauritius in 1966, gives a beauliful c1arified juice, and
has replaced all other meLhods in lhat country.
(5) Java method

The following is a melhod which, according to Honig 6 , promised in 1939 ro become general
in Java:
Pre-liming of lhe juice to between pH 6.0 and 6.6
Separation of the pre-limed juiee into 2 portions:
(1) 400/0 limed eold to pH 9.5
(2) 60% heated
Mixing of the 2 portions, giving a pH of 7.6-7.8 and a temperature of 65°C (150°F).
(6) Lime addilion with saccharate

This melhod of liming has been used in Australia, Mauritius and Réunion, and recently in
South Africa': it is now (1982) very general in Australia. lt eonsists of mixing the milk of
lime wilh clear juice or syrup, maintaining it in eontacl for up to 5 minutes to.give time for
the saccharate lO form, and the lime addition to the juice is then made with this mixture.
Pongola factory, whieh introduced the process in South Africa, has reported that the
defecated juiee was c1earer and nearly one point higher in purity. A further advantage lies
in the handling of the mixture, which avoids the trouble of blockages in the pipes, as ex-
perienced with the normal milk of lime mixture.
lt is neeessary that the lime should be in the monocalcium saceharate form, and for this
the temperature musl be lower than 58°C (136°F) and the ratio of sucrose ro CaO should
be aboye 6.1 : 1. A ratio of 7: I is adopted and the lime prepared at 15° Bé, say 148 g CaO
per litre. Pongola uses 700 g CaO per Le.
The quantity of milk of lime per 100 LC.h. is then:
100 x 700
148 = 473 I/h (105 gal.lh)
and the quantity of juiee at brix B, purity P and density d:
100 x 0.7 x 7 x 100

q l/h
BPd
The mixing tank should have a working volume of:
5
V = 60 (473 + q)
Juice for the mixture may be the cloudy filtrate from the vacuum filters; this may resolve,
at least partially, the problem of disposal of that filtrate.
•
404 DEFECATION Ch. 24
REACTION OF DEPECATED ¡VICE
The final acidi¡y or alkalinity of ¡he defecated juice going lO ¡he evaporators is not unimpor-
tant.
When while sugar is required, an acid juice is desirable, and lhe pH should be maintained
bel ween 6.4 and 6.6.
lf only a good-qualilY raw sugar is required, lhe juice may be lefl slightly alkaline, wilh
a pH between 7.1 and 7.5. This avoids aIl risk of loss by inversion, which is possible in the
case of juices at pH 6.9.
On the other hand, alkaline juice slows down lhe work at the pans, and crystallisation is
less easy. For a pH of 7.5, boiling limes 20070 longer may be expected compared with a pH
of 7.0.
pH CONTROL
Control of juice pH is effected by automatic pH conlrollers. These instrumenls, such as lhe

Leeds and Northrup "Micromax" .or Kent "Mullelec", record on a chart the indicalions of
a galvanometer; they demand careful mainlenance and adjustmenl, but they give precise
values. They are far more valuable if used with automatic lime regulators of the same make;
the combination functions very effectively and gives much improved clarification.
This type of equipment is made by numerous firms: Kent, Foxborough, Beckman,
Honeywell, etc. The measuring eJectrodes become rapidly dirty, and il is recommended that
they be cleaned twice per week with hydrochloric acid.
It is also desirable to check the pH of the settIed mudo lf il is lower Ihan thal of the clear
juice by more than 0.2, it is liable to cause some inversion.lt is then necessary to reduce Ihe
level of mud in the clarifier.
ELIMINATION OF STARCH
Slarch is sometimes found in the juices, depending on the soil and the cane variety. The nor-
mal contenl is of the order of 200 - 300 p.p.m. on mixed juice. Starch is a very detrimental
material, since it is not eliminated in normal defecation and eventually remains in the raw
sugar and reduces its filterability.
In South Africa, Boyes' indicates a simple method of removing 50 - 60% of the starch
from Ihe juice. It consists of passing Ihe fillrate from the rotary filler into the mixed-juice
tank, which reduces the acidity of the mixed juice or even renders it alkaline, and enables
a reaction to take place between the diastase conlained in the juice and Ihe gelatinised starch
in the filtrate. The juice is then heated to about 70-80°C (l60-175°F) and is allowed to
stand for 8 - 12 mino The lime is added only after this.
A method developed in the same country and which, from the aspect of starch elimination,
would have an efficiency of90%, is the Rabe process. As employed at Umzimkulu, it consisls
of an additional step in the usual process of defecation with lime, phosphoric acid and
Pr= r~-' .
OTHER REAGENTS USED 405
Separan; Ihe juice, after liming, phosphating and heating to 65°C (149°F), is pumped lo a
mixer where it receives the f10cculant in a small subsider, of approximately 90 I/t.c.h. (20
gal./t.c.h.); it is held here for approximately 6 min only, and vacuum is applied. The air
saturaling the juice is thus liberated and rises to Ihe surface as bubbles, entraining the
precipitates which are thus removed in the form of scums, while the c1ear juice is withdrawn
from below. It is then hea[ed lO boiling and goes to a normal subsider.
This process depends on Ihe principie Iha[ starch is brought into solution only at 67°C
(152°F); i[ is Ihus a case of getling rid of it before the juice is broughl to thal temperature.
This process has been found too expensive due to the consumption of phosphoric acid and
has been abandoned during Ihe 1970's, [he same improvement in J"ilterability having been ob-
tained by the addition of amylase to the juice.
OTHER REAGENTS USED
Apan from lime, which we have just studied, and SO" P,O" CO, and MgO, which are
discussed in the following chaplers, [he following reagents are also used in various parls of
Ihe world, to an extent sufficienlly imponant to warrant discussion:
(l) Soda ash. Jt may be advantageous to replace pan of the lime by soda ash' (sodium car-
bonate) when it is necessary to treat canes where the juice has been affected by frost or by
a long delay in the ficld after cutting, or burnl cane which has been delaycd in transport,
or generally cane wilh abnormal juice. ILis preferable, however, lO avoid use of soda ash
as a regular praclice, since it is expensive, causes sorne coloration of the juice and con se-
querllly of the sugar, and lends to decrease the fillerability and consequently the refining
qualities of the sugar produced.
(2) Bentonite. This is an aluminium magnesium silicate, which has similarly been added
in c1arification in Puerto Rico, where cerlain factories have expressed complete satisfaction
with il.
(3) Separan AP 30. This is a coagulant added to Ihe juice before c1arifying or lO the mud
before fillration. Jt is expensive, but appears to improve the clarilY of the juice and the sub-
sidalion. It forms an integral part of the Rapi-Floc process (ef p. 485). In present practice,
it is used in the proportion of I -3 p.p.m.; the following dosages are recommended: 9
(a) Normal juice, O. J - 0.2 p. p.m. (to improve capacity)
(b) Refractory juices, 1-1.5 p.p.m.
(e) Maximal usage, 3 p.p.m.
Many other products achieve exactly the same result. We may mention Talosep A3 or AS,
Magnafloc LT 26 or 28, Cyanamid A ¡lO or J 30, and Fabcon Zuchar.
406 DEFECATION Ch. 24
REFERENCES
1 P. HONlo, [ni. Sugar J., 37 (1935) 64.

2 W. L. MCCLEERY, [ni. Sugar J., 47 (1945) 166.
3 G. H. lENKlNS, [ni. Sugar J .. 35 (1933) 421.
4 1. G. DAYIES, [ni. Sugar J .. 44 (1942) 246.
5 R. N. AGARWAL, [ni. Sugar J., 44 (1942) 320.
6 P. HONIG, [ni. Sugar J .. 42 (1940) 34.
7 ?roe. 551h ConJ. SASTA, 1981, p. 71.
8 P. N. BoYES, ?roe. 341h Con!. SASTA, 1960, p. 91.
9 R. R. TROTT AND F. 1. HUTCHINS, Inl. Sugar J., 65 (1963) 18.
25. Sulphitation
Defecation is a universal and indispensable process. With sulphitation it is different; most

of the world's sugar factories do without it. But il is Ihe mosl widespread process auxiliary
lo defecalion.
Actlon of sulphurous acid on juice

The aClion of sulphur dioxide, SO" on juice is as follows:
(1) II eliminales colouring matters (a propeny common to all acids)
(2) II reduces 10 colourless compounds lhe ferric salls which have been formed by conlaCI
with milis, lanks and pipes.
Sulphur
Sulphur dioxide is prepared from sulphur, which is delivered in the form of small slicks or
cylinders. Sicilian or American sulphur is superior 10 lhal from India and Java. Sicilian
sulphur in fact is in the form of oClahedral or a-type sulphur, lhe melting point of which
(114°C) is well below lhat of {3 or prismalic sulphur and of the precipitated or ")'-form
(200°C).
Combustion of sulphur
Sulphur dioxide is a gas rcsulting from Ihe combustion of sulphur:
S + O, - SO,
32 g + 32 g = 64 g
Hence, 1 kg of sulphur requires 1 kg of oxygen; the reaclion releases 2,217 kcal per kg of
sulphur (3,990 B.T.U.llb.).
Combustion lakes place al a lemperature of 363°C (685°F).
If the combuslion were to take place with the lheoretical quantity of air, the weight of air
required would be:
100
= 4.3 times the weight of sulphur
23.15
(air contains 23.15070 of oxygen by weight).

Similarly, the maximum volume of sulphur dioxide in the combustion gases is 21070 (air
conlains 20.84070 of oxygen, by volume).
However, il would not be possible 10 obtain complele combustion with this amoun! of ox-
-
408 SULPHITATlON Ch. 25
ygen, and it is necessary to allow an ex ces s of air aboye theorelical. If it proyed necessary
to use 100070 excess air, a weight of air equal to eight or nine times the weight of sulphur
woulcJ have lO be introduced, and one would obtain only 10% of SO, in Ihe gas. Generally,
12-16% is oblained, or an average of 14%.
Precaution. In lhe presence 01' water, sulphur burns lO giye sulphuric anhydride, SO" in-
slead of sulphurous anhydride, SO,. On reacting wilh water, SOl immediately forms
sulphuric acid. II is lherefore necessary to exercise Ihe greatest possible care lO avoid the in-
lroduction 01' water inlo the sulphur furnace.
Accordingly, the air for combustion of the sulphur should always be dried. For this pur-
pose, the air is passed over quicklime, which has a greal affinity for water and absorbs the
moisture from the air.
II is advisable to renew the quicklime before it has become completely saturated. This may
be done for cxample at each change of shift, that is, every 8 h. This is a detail which does
Ilot always reccive sullicienl attenlion in certain sulphitation factories, alld il proves very ex-
pensivc in loss of sugar, ancJ in corrosion of plates and of pipes.
Sulphur furnaces
1n Fig. 25.1 is shown a sulphur furnace of the type most commonly used, being that furnished
with the Quarez sulphitation apparatus.
It is composed of trays in the form of drawers sliding in suilable guides. On the lower tray,
'by which lhe combustion air enters, is placed the quicklime. The air then passes to the upper
plate, on which is spread the sulphur. Baffles deOecl the air and force il to pass in contacl
with the quicklime and the sulphur. In the absence of Ihese baffles the OUlput of Ihe furnace
would fall by hal f.
At the outlet of the sulphur compartment the gas, which now contains 12 - 16% of SO"
rises to the aspirato!' of the sulphitation apparatus, by way of a sublimalion chamber and
a jacketed water-cooled Oue.
The water which has served lO cool this Oue then passes over Ihe furn3ce, which il cools
in turno
These precautions have the object of:
(1) Protecting the metal of the furnaces, which would corrode very quickly if il were laken
lO red heat.
(2) Condensing lhe portion of the sulphur which has sublimed. In lhe furnace, Ihe grealer
part of Ihe sulphur burns to form SO" bUl lhere is always some which sublimes and rises
in the form of vapour, especially if insufficient air is admitled.
(3) Cooling the sulphurous gas before allowing it 10 come into contact with Ihe juice.
Temperalure. At 1,200°C (2,200°F), sulphur dioxide decomposes:
SO, - S + O,
and the nascent oxygen immedialely reacts with the ambienl SO, to produce sulphur trioxide,
or sulphuric anhydride:
SULPHITATION APPARATUS 409
so, + O - SO)
This reaction begins to be noticeable aboye 900 0 e (l,650°F). This is a fUrIher imporIant
reason against allowing any part of Ihe furnace lO reach red heal, 01" forcing lhe combuslion
lO a local high rale (lhis is possible wilh certain furnaces llsing compressed air supplied
through nozzles).
To rel1love any sulphuric acid which l1lay have formed, the gas is generally washed by bub-
bling through water. The Quarez furnaces, in which combustion is well conlrolled, do nol
provide washers, and the gas which they produce is practically free from sulphuric acid, if
the furnace is well operated.
The furnace temperature is 320 - 350°C (610 - 660°F), with 260 - 290°C (500 - 550°F) at
lhe oUllet. A lemperature of 300 0 e (570°F) should nOI be exceeded al lhis poinl, as this
would cause sublimation.
After the cooler, the gas temperature should drop to between 100 and 205°C (2 l 2 - 400°F).
Capacity. For optimum performance, the tray area for a sulphur furnace should provide
for a capacity of 20-25 kg sulphur/m 2/h (4-5 Ib./sq.fl./h). It is sometimes possible lO
work at 35 kg/m'/h (7 Ib./sq.fl./h) (Honig').
Where compressed air is used, air requirements may be eslimated at 6 m) (assumed at O°C
and 760 mm pressure) per kg of sulphur (100 cu.ft./lb.). This quantilY correspo'nds to a gas
of about 12070 SO,.
Lime consumption. In praclice, this may be eslimated al 0.3 kg/m) (0.02 Ib./cu. n.) of air
inlroduced into lhe furnace.
This corresponds to aboul 1.75 kg CaO/kg sulphur. The consumption of quicklime
lherefore should be about twice that of sulphur.
Sulphur consumption. The quantity ofsulphur consumed depends on the c1arification pro-
cedure adopted, on the final acidity sought, and on lhe quanlily of lime added in the defeca-
lion.
For a given final pH of juice, it may be reckoned thal each kg of sulphur used corresponds
to an additional consumplion of 2.2 lb of lime'.
[n general, when sulphilalion of juices is praclised, sulphur consumplion is 0.25 - 0.50
parIs per 1,000 of cane, or 0.3 - 0.45 kg per lonne cane (0.6 - 1.0 lb./lon).
If bOlh juice and syrup are sulphiled, aboul 0.9 kg (2 lb.) of sulphur is used per tonne of
caneo
Slllphitation apparatus
Formerly, lhe sulphitation apparatus almosl universally adopled in french sugar faclories
was lhe Quarez, SQ called after lhe name of ilS invenlor (Fig. 25.1).
It consists of a reclangular lank divided inlo 2 unequal and connected comparImenls. The
juice lO be sulphited is fed into lhe smaller comparImenl. Il is picked up by a pump which
takes il lO lhe SO, aspiralor. This is designed in the form of a nozzle, on lhe usual principie
01' an ejeclor. Thus il produces an aspiralion of lhe sulphurous gas, and lhe sulphilalion takes
410 SULPHITATlON Ch. 25
'\.
¡,
j
!,
, ,!
I I
I
1 :
I
,
I Quo,..ez I
(~ !
,
r ~L ~ ';
Sulphur : \ :
furnace -- 1-.. 1"1 1
1,---,------, I
, ,
,
I
I
:"¡ \
;
,
--m.'" .
\ I 'j----1I~.AIl-...,.,;"
Illx mc:n Q
'H-~IV'~If-"'i'
-w w ~
Circulatlon pump
,
Fig. 25.1. Quarez and sulphur rurnace.
place by contacl and mixing in lhe vertical descending column relUming lhe juice lO the tank.
The nitrogen and oxygen accompanying the SO, in the rumace gases are released as bub-
bies at the bOllom or this column and are rejected to the atmosphere by a small vent pipe.
The pump is designaled by the name "Quarez circulation pump", lts outpul regulates the
degree or s ulphitation obtained. The SO, content or the juice will therefore be varied by
regulating the speed of this pump.
In general, it should be capable of an output at least equal to 1,5 times the volume of juice
lO be treated.
The Quarez is now being replaced by a sulphitation column, which eliminates the circula-
tion pump, and the standard sulphur rumace with trays is being replaced by a rOlary fumace,
which is more efficienl (Fig, 25.2).
Sulphitation procedures
The slandard sulphitation process was the following:
(a) Cold sulphitation. Starting with the mixed juice:

Sulphite to pH of 3.8 (control by methyl orange or bromphenol blue)
Lime 10 pH o f 7.0 (control by bromcresol purple or phenol red)
Heat 10 boili ng and pump (o (he clarifier.
SUlPHlTATlON PROCEDURES 411
Fig. 25.2. Rotary sulphur furnace and sulphitation column (Fives Cail- Babcock).
The sulphitation maybe stopped at a pH of 4.0 or 4.5 according to the result s obtained.
The fin al pH sought is 6.9 -7.0. In other words, the juice passing to the heaters sho uld be
neutral, or slightly acid.
Before the advent of pH control. this poinl was oblained by check ing Ihat the juice did
not turn phenolphthalein paper pink. nor turn lilmus paper blue.
(b) Hot sulphitation. Sulphitation invoJves [he production of calcium sulphite. This salt
is more soluble cold Ihan ho to the minimum solubility occurring in the neighbourhood of
75°C (165°F); it is Ihus deposited in ¡he tub es 01' the heaters, in col<.l sulphilation.
To avoid this drawback , the stand ard sulphitation process is modil'ied as follows. Starting
from the mixed juice. it undergoes:
Heating to 70-80°C (160- J75°F)
Sulphitation
Liming
Heatin g to boiling
Pumping ro c1arifier.
In 1945, the sulphitation procedure in use in Java was ¡he folJowin g J :
Heating 10 50°C (122°F)
Liming
412 SULPHITATION Ch. 25
Sulphitation to pH of 7.2
Rehealing 10 boiling
Sellling.
From Ihe point of view of colour and colloid eliminalion, Ihe Java procedure, invesligaled
in Ihe laboratory in India, was judged 10 be Ihe best sulphilalion process.
Hot sulphitation reduces appreciably the quantilies of lime and SO, required.
(e) Fraetionalliming and sulphitation. HOI sulphilation is so melimes used wilh success in
the clarification of refractory juices. When il proves insufficient, belter resulls are somelimes
obtained by modificalions similar 10 lhe following procedure, for example, which was
developed in India':
Pre-liming 10 pH of 8.0
Healing to 50 or 70°C (122 or 158 °F)
Sulphitation to pH of 5.1 - 5.3
Second Jiming lo pH of7.0-7 .2
Reheating 10 boiJing.
In Mauriliu s, where the juices are easier 10 Ireat, Ihe following has been devised:
Heating lO 55 or 60°C (130° or 140 0 F)
Pre-liming lO 0.4 g CaO per litre
Sulphilalion lO 0.4 g SO, per litre
Final Iiming lO pH of 7.4
Reheating 10 boiling.
Should sulphitation be done before or after liming?

Sulphilation may equally well be done before liming, or liming before sulphilalion. The im-
portant point is thal lhe same fin al pH should be reached in Ihe juice going lO Ihe subsiders.
However, it is nOI enlirely unimportant which melhod is followed. The rapidity of sell ling
and the volume of muds depend on the reaction of Ihe medium in which the precipilale is
formed:
(a) Ir il is formed in an alkaline medium, il will be hydrated, hence an increase in Ihe
volume of muds
(b) Ir formed in an acid medium, Ihe speed of settling will be grealer and Ihe muds more
compact.
In practice, the following differences are acknowJedged:
(1) Liming before sulphitalion. Settling is slower; voJume of muds is grealer, requiring a
greater capacily in filler presses.
HOI pre-liming decreases these disadvantages.
(2) Sulphitation befo re liming. It follows that, in general, Ihe second process is preferabJe.
11 is particularly indicated in the case of Ireating immature cane, as is Ihe general praclice
in Louisiana.
A good coagulalion of impurilies requires that before th e addilion of lime, the sulphil at ion
should be made:
t\DVANTAGES AND DlSADVANTAGES OF SULPHITATlON 413
(a) Al high ncidity (pH 3.8 - 4.0) and low lemperalure (30 - 40°C; 86 - 104°F)
(b) Al low acidily (pH 5.1 -5.3) and high lemperalUre (70-75°C; 160-165°F).
From rhe poi nI 01' view 01' impurilY eliminalion, which is measured by rise in purily bel-
ween raw and clariried juice, reporls are connicling. For example, we ha ve nOlcd lwo con-
rradiclory poinls 01' view coming from Ihe same counlry (Indial.h). It is probable, lhen, Ihal
resulls alrer according lo circumslances, and il is besl lO Iry bOlh merhods.
Indian lechnologists moreover insisl lhal Ihe lwo operalions, liming and sulphitalion,
should be carried oul simu{laneous{y, as nearly as possible. They are carried OUl in lhe one
vess el, and lhis ensures lhal Ihe resulls are superior lO lhose oblailled either wilh sulphilalion
rirst or Wilh liming firsl.
lt is ill1portant lO ensu re aboye a ll Ihat lhe juice is not held al high alkalinilY and high
lemperalure al Ihe same lime, as lhis would destroy reducing sugars and would ¡ncrease for-
mal ion of colour.
Advantages and disadvantages of sulphitalion

On cOlllparing Ihe praclical rcsullS 01" sulphilalion w;lh Ihose 01" orc1inury dcfecalion, lhe
following advanlagcs anc1 disadvanlages ma y bc nOled:
Advanlages:
(1) The juice settles more rapidly (hence impro ved capaeity of subsiders)
(2) The ll1aSSeeUiles are less viseous and boil fasler
(3) Beller cryslallisation in consequence
(4) Marked improvement in colour of the sugar
(5) Savings in lime in cJarificalion and boiling
(6) Slighl gain in capacilY 01' cemrifugals
(7) Beller eliminalion of phosphales and waxes (Douwes Dekker'), leading to beller refin-
ing qualily and fillerabilily of Ihe sugar produced.
Disadvanlages:
(1) Much heavier deposils in healers; lhese may be avoided by sulphiling hOl, bUl this in-
volves an inerease in Ihe heating surface required
(2) Higher ash contenl 01' the sugar oblained 8
(3) Grealer expe nse (Quarez, circulalion pump, sulphur, corrosion of vessels and pipes,
elc.) .
Sulphilalion of syrup
One of lhe besl melhods of oblaining whitc sugar is lO proceed 10 a sccond sulphitalion, afler
eva poral ion.
Lime is added, and sulphur dioxide. The operalion is generally carried out on lhe sy rup ,
afler lhe mulliple effecls, but in Hawaii sulphilalion 01' juice from the 3rd effecl has been
praclised, removing Ihis juice from Ihe 3rd effecl and relurning il conlinuously.
Lime and SO, were added simu llaneously, mainlaining Ihe pH in Ihe ncighbourho od 01'
7.0. The quantily 01' lime varied from 1.6 lO 2.0 kg/tonne cane (3.5 -4.5 Ib./ton), and Ihal
ofsulphur from 1.4 to 1.8 kg/ lonne (3 -4Ib./lon)9. Thejuice lreated was filtered on a Vallez
-
414 SULPHITATION Ch. 25
filter, and the cakes obtained sent lO the Oliver filter used in clarification. On entering the
4th effect, the pH was 7.1.
The processes vary somewhal, but generally consisl 01' healing , sulphiting, and fillering .
Deerr 'o recommends adding milk 01' lime 10 Ihe exlenl of 2-2.5070 on weight of syrup, or
0.3 - 0.4070 of quicklime. Sulphitation to neulralily follows immediately; ¡he dense
precipilate formed is fillered, and lhe juice is re-su/phited 10 a slight acidity.
In India" the syrup is maintained belween 6.0 and 5.5 pH, and consumes only 0./-0.2
kg 01' sulphur/ lonne cane (0.25 - 0.4 Ib./ton).
REFERENCES
1 P. HONIG, Prinóples of Sugar Technology, Vol. l. EI,ev;cr, AmSlcrdol11, 1953, p. 1>52.

2 O. S. MALLEA el al., Inl. Sugar J., 60 (1953) 158.
3 T. N. VERMA ANO K. S. G. DASS, Sugar, 40 (10) (1945) 44.
4 D. R. PARASHAR ANO K. SHANKAR, Inl. Sugar J ., 44 (1942) 184.
5 S. V. RAMANYYA ANO A. S. SASTRY, Sugar, 36 (1) (1941) 29.
6 D . R. PARASIIAR, Inl. Sugar J., 43 (1941) 373.
7 K. DOUWES DEKKER, Sugar A.ucar, 59 (4) (1964) 50.
8 G. P. MEADE, Cane Sugar Handbook, 91h edil ., Wiley, New York. 1963, p. 109 .
9 Sugar, 38 (10) (1943) 34.
lO N. DEERR, Cane Sugar, Norman Rodger, L on don, 1921, p. 291.
1 l S. N. GUNOU RAO ANO K. SHANKAR, FaCIS aboUl Sugar, 35 (6) (1940) 30.
26. Clarification with Phosphoric Acid
Role of phosphoric acld in the juice

Phosphoric acid occurs in the cane in two principal forms:
(a) Soluble phosphates 01' the juice
(b) In combination as protein in the cel! material.
The latter compounds being insoluble, only the soluble phosphates take part in the defeca-
lion. They react with the lime and form a precipitate which constitutes an important part 01'
the floc produced in Ihe juice by Ihe lime.
It has been shown that the greater the amount 01' phosphoric acid in the juice, the easier
is Ihe clarification. The mean phosphate content 01' normal juice is approximatel y 250 mg
P,O, per litre.
Unforlunately, certain varieties 01' cane give a juice poor in phosphoric acid , and which
is difficult to treat. These are Ihe canes termed "refractory", typical 01' which is POl 2878.
These juices are improved by adding to them artificially, before defecation, 'the quantity
01' phosphoric acid by which they are deficient.
QuantilY of phosphoric acid necessary

This quantity will therefore vary, depending on the variety 01' cane and the circumstances.
It is considered in general that at leasl 300 mg 01' P,O, are required per litre 01' juice. Now,
cenain canes, such as POl 2878 and Co 290, ha ve generally only 200 mg, and sometimes as
little as 50 mg. It is therefore necessary to add th e balance.
Action of phosphoric acid on the juice

The phosphoric acid added to Ihe juice precipitates pan 01' the colloids and colouring matter
which it contains.
The precipitate formed with lime is mainly tricalcium phosphate. This unfonunately is a
gelatinous precipitate and difficull to filter.
Forms in which phosphoric acid is used

PIJosplJ oric acid is available commercially for use in lhe sugar faclory in powder or paste
formo Packard superphosphate, asbuslite, sumaphos, etc. Failing these, ordinary super-
phosphate or dicalcium phosphate may be used.
These malerials contain 30 - 60070 P,O,; sumaphos, 42%; dicalcium phosphale, 38 - 42%.
They are diluled to form a solution 01' 12° or j 5° Baumé.
Procedures
TIJe phosphoric acid will be added before liming. Then follows the clarificalion process
which has been adopted. To obtain the same pH al' ter liming, it will evidently be necessary
416 CLARIFICATION WITH PHOSPHORIC ACID Ch. 26
lo add more lime, in arder lO neutralise the added acid; lhis will have reduced (he original
pH 01 lhe juice, generally aboul 5.5, lO 4.5 or 4.6 for an average dose. However, certain per-
sons comider lhal, in praclice, lhe use of phosphoric acid leads lO a saving in lime.
Phosphoric-acid clarification may without difficully be combined wilh sulphilation. For
example, the following is a procedure employed on refractory juices in India':
Addition of phosphoric acid to the mixed juice
Liming to pH :;, 8
Healing lO 70 or 75°C (160 or 165°F)
Sulphilation lO pH of 6.8 -7.0.
Advantages
The use of phosphoric acid improves the clarificalion of refractory juices.
It often permits of eliminating lhe sulphitation. In olher words, il is possible, lO a cerlain
exlenl, to replace sulphurous by phosphoric acid.
Considered from this angle, phosphoric-acid clarificalion is much less expensive lhan
sulphitalion, does not require special equipmenl, avoids corrosion of plates and pipes, and
reduces scaling at heaters and multiple effecls.
However, phosphoric acid should rather be regarded, not as a replacemenl, but as an ad-
junct to the clarification, which should be considered when exceptional difficulties are en-
countered in subsidalion or filtralion.
REFERENCES
A. N. KAPOOR ANO G. D. WALAWALKAR, Fac/s abou/ Sugar, 33 (8) (1938) 30.

27. Carbonatation
Action of carbon dioxide on juice

Carbonatation was originated in the beet sugar factory by Perier and Possoz, in 1859. They
reported that . if a precipitate of calcium carbonate be formed in the juice, il entraps colour-
ing maller and gums, if the reaction remains alkaline, and lhus furnishes a marked additional
degree of clarification. The precipitate so formed is granular and fillers easily:
CO, + Ca(OH), - CaCO)1 + H,O
The sa l1le rea ction has been ulilised in the cane sugar factory. However, lhough carbonata-
tion is general practice wilh beet, il remains the exception wilh caneo
Procedures
There are various ways of operaling, lhe mOSl importa nI of which are:
Single carbonatation
Double carbonatation
De Haan carbonatation
Middle-juice carbonatation
Double carbonatation, which is more effective lhan single, comprises in general:
Hea vy liming
Carbonatation leaving a very high alkalinity
Filtration
Second carbonalalion unlil the alkalinity falls to a very low value
Boiling
Second fillralion.
Carbonalalion should never be ca rried out at a temperalure aboye 55°C (131° F), the max-
imum permissible if deslruclion of reducing sugars is lO be avoided. Reducing sugars, apan
from their value in lhe distil1ery, se rv e lO prevenl the loss of a corresponding quanljty of
sucrose in the molasses.
On the olher hand, below 45°C (113°F), the reaclion is very slow and incomplete. One
tllust be careful, therefore, to approach 55°C (131°F), and lO conserve a margin of safelY
in bOlh direclions, a lemperature of 50°C (l22°F) is generally main lained.
This lemperalUre is obtained eilher by passing lhe juice through a healer, or by means of
steam pipes in lhe bottom of lhe carbonating lanks.
In lh e course of the [irst carbonatation, there is formed by the lime, the CO, and lhe juice,
a sucro-carbonale of lime:
-
418 CARBONATATION Ch. 27
which is gelalinous and insoluble, and would hold a large quantity of sugar in combinalion.
Portunately, it is decomposed aFter a cenain time.
This viscous compound also promotes lhe formation 01' abundanl frOlh.
The juice will thereFore be held in lhe carbonaling lank For a lime 01' 25 Illin for lhe firsl
carbona tation, ,ay 30 min including fiJ ling and emptying, and a total 01' 15 min for the se-
co nd. The capacily 01' lhe 2nd carbonatalion lanks should lherefore be half thal 01' lhe firsl.
Double carbonatation. The consideralions which have given rise 10 double carbonatalion
are Ihe following:
(1) If Ihe aClion 01' CO, were pushed 10 lhe limit, th e insoluble lime sa lts Formed would
be decomposed, and would thus be re-dissolved in the juice. Hence lhe ca rbonatation is stop-
ped at the degree of alkalinity desired to prevent this dec omposi tion. After Fillration, which
removes these sa lts, carbonatation may be continued, or rather a second carbonatat ion com-
menced, which will then be ca rried practically to neutrality.
(2) Large pieces 01' poorly mixed lime would continue to dissolve slowly after a first car-
bonatation, and would gradually render the reaction alkaline. When the juice passes to the
heaters, the reducing sugars would suFFe r decomposition (since such decomposition occurs
at high pH and high lemperatures), and the juices would again develop colour. The First
Filtration and the second carbona tation eliminate these pieces 01' lime and so stabilise lhe pH.
In beet sugar work, sometimes even 3 successive carbonatations are carried out.
Sulphilalion. With the same objecl oF removing all alkalinity, sulphitalion may be combin-
ed with carbonatation by sulphiting al'ter lhe first fil!ration, to neutralily or slight acidilY.
This i, lhe process which would give lhe best white sugar.
It renders Ihe second carbonatalion superfluous.
In Pormosa' , double carbonalalion is operated with double sulphitalion. The juice is
healed to 55°C (131 °P), carbonaled balchwise for 10-15 min in a venical tower, while lhe
milk 01' lime al 15° Bé is introduced al the top oF the tower, in the ralio of aboul 2070 on
weighl 01' juice; lhe juice thus reaches a pH of 10.5, which gives a cop ious precipilale oF lime
salts enlraining col loid s. The funher steps are as follows: ISl fillralion (using 0.7-0.8
m'/t.c.h. (75 - 85 sq.ft./t.c. h.»; heating to 85°C (l85°P); second (continuous) carbonata-
tion, to remove lhe excess lime sa lts, 10 a pH oF 8.5; second Filtralion (2.8 -3.2 m'/t.c.h.
(30-35 sq.Ft./t.c.h.) of Filter-press area) ; 1st sulphitation to neulralil Y; evaporation to 60°
brix; 2nd sulphilalion and 3rd Filtration. This gives a c1ear and colourless syrup which goes
to the vacuum pans. The process gives a sugar of 99.6 - 99.9% poi, 0.04% moisLUre, 0.04%
reducing sugars and 0.06% ash.
De Haan carbonatation. De Haan ha s conceived the idea of adding the lime and CO,
simultaneously, so that the alkalinilY rem ains relatively low.
This procedure has the greal advanlag es of:
(1) Suppressing the frothing
(2) Avoiding the Formation oF the gelatinous suero-carbonate.
The juice is heated to 55°C (l31 °P) in the healers and sent to the carbonati ng lanks. Gas
is inlroduced al the same time as the milk oF lime is run in, so mainlaining lhe pH at a cons-
QUANTITIES OF LIME NECESSARY 419
lan! value, which is checked wilh lhe aid 01' a special phenolphlhalein paper lrealed with ox-
alic acid, and which changes colour al a given alkalinily. When lhe desired quantity 01' lime
has been inlroduced, lhe carbonatalion is conlinued lO neulralily la phenolphlhalein, and is
finished as for single carbOnalalion.
This process permits of a subslantial economy in space, while increasing lhe capacily of
Ihe heaters, and giving a marked economy in lime consumplion, wilh a slight rise in purity,
and gives a beller quality sugar. It is, according to Douwes Dekker', the process which
assures the best elil11illation of nOI1-sugars.
Middle-juice carbonatation. The term "middle juice" is used to designate juice which has
beell panially concelltrated, and withdrawn from the evaporators at a poil1t where it has
reached 35 - 42 o brix.
Middle-juice carbollalalion c0l11111enced about 1938 in Java, but is today confilled to For-
mosa , where it is gradually extending (Cilou)). l t consiSls of lhe followil1g stages:
(1) Heat the juice lO 101.5°C (215°F)
(2) Add lime to pH 7.0 - 7.2
(3) Send the juice thus limed lO lhe evaporators, where it is passed lhrough vessels 1,2 and
4',
It lea ves at about 35 - 42° brix and 55°C; the choice of the laller vessel is made because this
temperat ure is t he opt imal for carbonatation
(4) Lime and carbonate la pH 01' 9.8 -10.3
(5) Filler
(6) Second carbonalation lO pH 01' 8.2 or 8.5
(7) Heal 10 77 - 80°C (170 - 175°F)
(8) Second fillralion
(9) Sulphitalion 10 pH 01' 7.0 or 7.3
(JO) Relurn to the evaporalors, to 3rd vessel
(11) Second sulphitation 10 pH of 6.0 - 6.2.
This process would offer lhe advantage of reducing subslantially the consumption of lime,
by about 40070; 01' giving a betler purificati on alld a greater elimination of nOIl-sugars; of giv-
illg a better-quality sugar; of considerably decreasing scale formation in the multiple effects,
\Vit il consequent economy in soda ash for cleaning of the vessels.
On the other hand. it is very sellsitive to operate and necessitates close control.
Quantilies of lime necessary

Table 27.1, after Prinsen Geerligs', gives the quantilies, in kg/lonne cane, 01' lime required
for the principal clarificatioll procedures, also for lhe corresponding quantities of limeSlone
and otiler primary materials.
We have completed lhis table by adding the last line.
HOllig' estimales 25 - 30 kg (55 -65 lb.) 01 limestone per t.C. (probabl y for de Haan car-
bOllalalion); 15 kg/t.c. (33 Ib./ l.c.) in lhe case of middle-juice carbonalalioll.
Rault 6 stales that the more lime used, the belter is the eliminatioll 01' gums.
420 CARBONATATlON Ch. 27
TABLE 27.1
MATERIALS USED fOR THE Vt\RIQUS CLARIFICATlQN METHODS (kg/t.c., X 2.2 ror Ib.l(.<.!.)
CaO Limeslone Cake Sulp/¡ur P, O,
Sulnhilalion 0.8 - 1.5 0.5

Sulphilalion anu phosphoric acid 1 0.1 0.1
Single carbonalalion 18 35 4 0.2
Continuou.s doubte carbona la{ion 18 35 4 0.2
Ordinary double carbonatation 20- 23 40-45 4.4 0.2
De Haan <.:arbonatation 12 23 2.5
Middlc-j uice carbonatalÍon 9 20 2
__
-_._ ._. . . _ ------- -- - -- --------
Lime kiln
The CO, nec cssary for lhe ca rbonatation is produced at the sa me time as the lime, in a lime
kiln adjacent to the facLOry.
As lime is a solid material and comparatively easy lO slOre, defecation factories can buy
it from oulside sup pliers. Carbon dioxide being a gas, it ha s so far not been possible tO pro·
cure it other than by preparing it on the site, using as raw material limestone or coral, which
consists of more or less pure calci um carbonate; quicklime is oblained al lhe same time:
CaCO) - CaO + CO,
Fuel. In order lO promole this dissociation, it is necessary to supply in practice about 700
kcal / kg (1,260 B.T.U.llb.) of limeslone. This heat is obtained by burning coke or other fuel
in lhe kiln. To ensure lhe proper dislribution of the heat in lile mass of limestone, layers of
coke and of limestone are fed inlo lhe kiln alternately.
Generally, 8 - 10 kg of coke are lIsed per 100 kg of limeslOne. In exceptional cases, this
is reduced to 7 kg.
The coke contains 75 - 90070 carbon, averaging 85070. lts caloriric value is about 7,000
kcal/kg (12,600 B.T.U .l lb.).
In Java, a mixture of coke and charcoal is used as fuel, in the propon ion of I of coke
to 10 of charcoal. On stani ng the kiln, the firsl two layers are prepared using 1 of coke 10
5 of charcoal.
Tromp' repon s that bagasse has been used successfully as fuel in lime kílns, wíth excellent
results.
Limestone. The limestone is obtained either from limestone quarries or from coral
deposits.
Limestone generally contains 85 - 98070 of CaCO), averaging 90070_ Coral deposits, such as
those normally used in lime kilns in Mauritiu s and Réunion, contain 87 - 94070 of CaCO).
Again, 90070 ma y be taken as an average figure.
Coral limestone, if recently recovered from lhe sea, should be washed or left ín the rain,
to remove lhe sa lt which it contains. [t is recommended that coral lime with a high proponíon
of magnesia should be avoided. This recommendation is ratller inconsistent with lhe pro·
cedures described in Chapter 28.
= 'rO
LIME KILN 421
11 is desirable ro use slones or approx imarely rhe same size, olherwise lhe large pieces will
be insufficienrly burnl ("uncJerburl1r"), and lhe smaller olles overburnl. The pieces of coke
should be aboul half lhe size of lhe pieces of limestone (0.5 -0.6).
Operallon of Ihe kiln. Th e remperalure in lhe kiln sl10uld be maintained berween cenain
limirs; ir ir exceeds l ,350°C (2,460°F) ir gives whar is known as "dead-burnr" lime, i.e. an
inen and unsuirable lime.
Tl1e dissocialion of lit11csrone begins al about 600°C (1, J 10°F). The temperalure of a good
lime ki ln is t11ainlain~cJ belween 1,100 and J ,300°C (2,000 and 2,400°F) .
Kiln. We give in Fig. 27. I a view of a Khern lime kiln, which is the type mosl used. Charg-
ing (by skip) is effeCled al lhe lOp, also removal of lhe CO,; ignition of the fuel, and removal
of lhe lime, from the bOltom.
The gas leaves at a temperature of70-120°C (l60-250°F), and passes through a washer-
c1eaner and dUSl remover which reduces it to abour 60 °C (i40°F) . Al rhis remperature, J kg
of CO, occupies 617 lilres under almospheric pressure (10 cu.ft./lb.).
Capacity of lime kilns. This capacily is very variable. Tromp8 estimates a procJuclion of
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- --.., l' , - - - - -
L~-1
Fig. 27.1. Lime kiln (seccional view).

422 CARBONAT ATION Ch. 27
370 - 1,235 kg Ca0124 h/m l (23 - 77 lb. CaO/24 h/c u.fl.) of vo lume. A figure of 480
kg/ m l l24 h (30 Ib./cu.ft.124 h) may be taken as an average.
Composilion of gas. Let us assume the following condilions:

Limestone al 900/0 CaCO]
Coke al 85% ca rbon
Pr opo rtion of co ke 10 SlOne 8%.
The dissocialion gives:
CaCO l CaO + CO,

% o/Iimeslone: 100 56 44 (27.1 )
Theorelical weighls: 90 g 50.4 g 39.6 g
This decomposilion is endolhermic and absorbs 42.5 kcal per mol, or say 425 kcal / kg
CaCO) (765 B.T.U ./lb.) .
This 39.6 g CO, will occupy a volume of:
39.6
22.4 x 44 = 20.1 6
The combustion of the 8% of coke used to furnish lhe necessary heal for lhe dissocialion
will give:
C + O, - CO ,
% o/ /imeslone (0.08 x 0.85 = 0.068): 12 32 44 (27.2)
Theorelical weighls: 6.8 g 18.1 g 24.9 g
In volume: 12.67 1 12.67 1
since:
22.4 x 18 . 1 = 22.4 x 24.9 = 12.67 I

32 44
BUl (he 12.67 1 of oxygen bring with them:
12.67 x 79.16 48.13 1 of nilrogen

20.84
Th e max imum proportion of CO, lherefore is:
(20.16 + 12.67) 100 32.83 x 100

- - - - = 40%
20 . 16 + 12.67 + 48.13 80.96
In pracli ce, ir is nOl poss ibJe ro operare wirh lhe exaCl rheorelical quanlily of air, and il
CO, PUMP 423
is necessary lO tolerale a certain excess of airo Il follows lhat in practice the proroclion of
CO, by volume in lhe kiln gases varies from 25 lO 331170, averaging 30"70.
The uncombined oxygen in lhe gas varies from 0.5 lO 81170.
An exceplional performance is lhat 01' Tirlemonl Refinery', in Belgiul11, giving 381170 CO,
in a very 1110dern and improved kiln, anu reuucing the coke lO 7"70.
Wc fllay COfllmcnl lhal, for lhe conditions adopteu aboye, we oblain:
39.6 + 24.9 = 64.5 g
of CO, for 50.4 g of CaO, or aboul 128 g CO ,1 I 00 g CaO. Even allowing for lhe low efficien-
cy af lhe carbonaling tanks, lhis quanlily is amply suffieienl to supply lhe carbonalalion.
CO, pump
The CO, gas leaving Ihe washer is al a lemperalure of aboul 60 c C (140 F). lis rressure, al
C
Ihe suelion 01' Ihe pUl11p, varies 1'1'0111 - 510 - 12 cm (- 210 - S in.) 01' mcrcury, l11os1 ol'len
-7.5 to - 10 CI11 (-3 10 -4 in.).
The delivery pressure varies 1'1'0111 0.3 lO 0.7 kg/cm' (4 - 10 p.s.i.). As an average, we may
lake 0.4 kg/cm' (6 p.s.i.).
Pumps for CO, are fully analogous 10 air pumps, which we shall discuss laler (Chapler
40). However, Ihey do nOI require waler cooling, Ihanks 10 Ihe small difference belween suc-
lion and delivery pressures.
Specification of a CO, pump. To fix our ideas, lel us lake a concrete example. Given:
Crushing rate: 100 t.c.h.

Consumption of CaO: 18 kg/l.c. (40 Ib./l.c.)
Proportion of CaCO, in limestone: 90"70
Limestone. Basing our calculations on lhe CaO required, we see from lhe reaclion (27.1)
thal we shall require per lonne cane:
100
18 x 56 x 35.7 kg (79 lb.) lil11estone
0.90
To allow for los ses and un burnt, we shall allow for
35.7 x 1.05 = 37.5 kg/t.c. (83 Ib.lt.c.)
Density 01 CO,. Lel us assume Ihat lhe withdrawal of gas from lhe lime kiln is carried out
al an absolute pressure of 68 cm (27 in.) of mercury (8 cm vacuum). The dellsily of CO,
relalive 10 air is 1.529. Al 60 c C (140 F) and 68 cm absolute, lhe density of the gas will be:
C
68
1.293 x 1.529 x - x 1.450 kg/m J (0.091 Ib./cu.fL)
76 1 + (0.00367 x 60)
-
Volume 01 CO,. Our calclIlation I'or tile composition 01' gas has shown that 100 kg 01'
limes!Ol1e 01' 90% CaCO" with coke 01' 851170 C, would produce aboul 64.5 kg or CO,; or,
per l.C . :
37.5 x ~~g = 24.2 kg (53.5 lb.) CO,
occupying a volume or
24.2
16.68 m' (588 cu.rl.)
1.450
Volume oIgas. We have seen lhat the gas contains 011 an average only 25 - 33% CO,. Bas-
ing our rigures on 30%, we shall have a gas volume or:
16.68
= 55.6 m)/t.c. (1,960 cu.n. / l.e.)
0.30
Total volume. For 100 l.e.h., we shall have:
VI = 5,560 m' / h (196,000 eu.rUh)
I nereasing this by 10% ror sarety:
V, = 5,560 x 1.10 = 6,116 mJ / h (215,600 cu.rUh)
The volum etric errieiel1cy or CO, pumps varies rrom 0.60 100.75. Taking 0.70, we shall re-
quire:
6,116
V, = 8,737 m'/h (308,000 cu.rt. / h)
0 .7
11' lhe pump is double-aeling, we should have:
60 x 2 x L x S x n V, (27 .3)
L = slroke or the pump, in m (rl.)

S errective area or the plunger, in m (sq.rt.) = (1I'D') / 4 or [11' (D' - d ' )]!4
'
D = diameter or the pump, in m (l't.)
d = diameler or the piSlon-rod and lhe tail-rod, in m (rt.)
n = speed or rotation or lhe pump, in r.p.m.
From (27.3), we calcula te the product, nL (D' - d 2 ), and hence the specirications ror the
pump, by choosing:
(1) A convenient proportion L/O
(2) A reasonable speed.
CARBONATlNO TANKS 425
This specd should be maintained constant, olherwise tile performance 01' lhe kiln \ViII
become erralic and difficul! to conlrol.
Power for Ihe pump. On account 01' the small difference in pressure belween suction and
delivery pressures, Ihe CO, pislon, in Sleam pumps, is appreciably greater than lhe steam
piston. In general, its diameter is double.
Power required is estimated at 1.1-1.5 kW/mJ/h (0.04-0.06 h.p./cuJUh).
Carbonating tanks
The carbonalalion is generally carried oul balchwise in a set of carbonaling tanks or
"boilers". These are venical tanks, of rectangular or circular cross-section. They hold juice
to a depth of2-3 m (7- 10 l' t.), and lhe tanks extend to a height of4-7 m (13-23 fl.),
lhe difl'erence serving 10 allow for Ihe copious l'roll1ing 01' tlle I'irst carbonatation.
The tanks for lhe second carbonalalion are identical except for the height, which is less,
as the rrothing is practically negligible.
Rectangular tanks take up less space than cylindrical ones, but should be provided with
stay-rods lO avoid bulging of the walls under the pressure of the juice. Moreover, the juice
near the corners of lhe lanks is less effectively carbonated.
The carbonating tanks are sometimes provided with a cover which leads intoa flue serving
to evacuate the gas after it has passed through the juice in the tank. Often, they are left open
al the topo They have a coil for heating with steam, a pipe for admission of lhe CO, which
lerminales in a star-shaped distributor, with serrated edges (Fig. 27.2), a juice inlet pipe, an
overflow pipe, and, generally, a device for breaking the foam, made from a perforated pipe
blowing small jets of steam in a horizontal plane aboye the surface of the juice.
Fig. 27.2. Slar diSlribulor.
Capacíly of carbonaling lanks. A carbonatation installation will be planned on a basis of

3 - 6 vessels, preferably 4, foro each of the two carbonatations. Ir will be assumed that one
is emptying, one filling, allowing 5 min for each of these operations; and the capacily of one
426 CARBONATA nON Ch. 27
vessel will be deduced from lhe height 01' juice chosen (2 - 3 m) and from Ihe necessily 01'
allowing lhe juice lO remain I'or alleasl 20 min in each vessel during the saluralion wilh ca"
or aboul hall' an hour 101al, I'or single carbonalalion 01' ¡'irSl carbon3l31ion, and 15 min I'or
lhe second carbonatation.
Honig'O specifies:
(a) A volume 01' healers for 1st carbonatalion 01' lA - 1. 7 mJ/t.c.h. (50 - 60 eu. rULe. h.),
for a juice-holding period 01' 8- 12 min per batch, wilh a juice deplh 01' 2-2.5 m (7-8 l' t.);
milk 01' lime 01' 15 - 20° Bé.
(b) A heater volume for second carbonalation 01' 0.11 - 0.15 m 3 /1.c.h. (4.5 - 6 cu. t't./
Lc.h.), corresponding lO precipilalion 01' 200-400 mg 01' CaO per lilre 01' juice I'illered and
healed lO 70°C (160° F).
Conlinuous carbonalalion
Plant ror continuous carbonalalion has also been used, which reduces lhe labour re-
quirements and simplifies operation. These are similar 10 the batch carbonators, but are
designed 10 facilitate and pro long as much as possible lhe contacl between ca, and juice.
Control 01' the proper degree 01' saturalion is more delicale, and is effected by regulalion
01' Ihe juice f1ow.
Continuous carbonatation is very commonly mel with in the second carbonatatio!), les.,
often at Ihe first.
When the second carbonatalion is carried out continuously, lhe 2nd-earbonatalion tanks
are generally given a juice capacity of 150 I/Lc.h. (33 gal./l.c.h.)", although some factories
are content with 60 I/t.c,h. (J 3 gal./t.c.h.).
The juice from the 2nd carbonatation should be filtered at 70°C (l58'F). Wilh filrer-
presses,3 m' (33 sq.ft.) 01' filtering surface should be provided per I.c.h.; wilh Sweetland
fillers, 1.7 m'/l.c.h. (18 sq.f!./I.C.h.) should be adequale.
The healers for bringing Ihe juice lO 70°C will preferably be healed wilh vapour from Ihe
2nd or 3rd effec!. The neeessary heating surface may be reckoned as 16-20 m'/Lc.h.
(175-220 sq.fUt.c.h.) using vapour from lhe 2nd effecl, or 20-22 m' (220-260 sq.l't.)
with vapour froln the 3rd effect.
Efficiency of ulilisalion of CO,

The compleleness 01' utilisation 01' Ihe ca, depends mainly on the surface 01' cantael betwccn
juice and gas, and on the duralion 01' this contact.
Consequenlly, lhere are two principal raclOrS ini'Juencing lhis ulilisalion:
(a) The system 01' gas dislribution in the mass 01' juice. We ha ve rel'erred lO the distributor
in Slar form with serrated branches. The smaller and more I1Ulllerous Ihe bubbles formed,
lhe grealer will be the area 01' contaCl.
(b) The Jenglh 01' lhe gas palh from the distributor pipe to the surl'ace 01' Ihe juice, ¡.e. for
ordinary carbonaling lanks, the depth 01' juice.
The elTieiency is never perl'ecl. The elTiciency 01' utilisation 01' the ca, is 01' lhe order 01':
30 - 750/0 according to Quillard 12

40 - 60070 according lO Tromp' 3
EAVOURABLE CONDITIONS FOR USE OF CARBONATATiON 427
Jt somclimes reaches 80 - 90% in Ihe mos! favourable circumslances". Even in this case,
Ihe gases discharged by the fiLie still contain about 12-15070 of CO,.
There is indeed no need to seek perfection in utilisation of CO" sinee the quantilies fur-
nished by Ihe lime kiln and corresponding 10 Ihe nOl'mal quantities 01' lime used are always
al11ply surficienl for Ihe needs of the carbonalalion.
Favourable conditions for use of carbonatation

Carbonalalion, and especially double carbonalation and Ihe de Haan process, is the standard
Illelhod for white sugar manufacture.
11 is, howevcr, expensive, bOlh on accounl Oflhe eXlra equipment required, and on account
of Ihe eXlra raw malerials which it demands.
liS use will logically be reslricled, therefore, 10 cases where both the two following condi-
lions apply:
(1) The factory plans Ihe systemalic and conlinuous manufacture of white sugar. If il were
desired 10 make while sugar only in an incidenlal or accessory I'ashion, sulphitation would
be indicaled, since il requires only an insignificant amount of extra equipment; [Jutting il ¡nlo
operation 01' shutling it down dOes not involve a great upsel lo the operation 01' the factory.
(2) The faclory can procure readily and cheaply the necessary limestone or coral.
A carbonalation faclory has an efficiency generally sU[Jerior 10 that of faclories working
on simple defecalion or on sulphilalion. This can generally be. reckoned al ¡' - 2070 higher
yield of sugar. Honig lO eSlimates 1.5-2.5070.
Steam consumption
I! is eSlimaled by Pódder" in India Ihat a carbonatation factory consumes 10 - 12070 more
steam (070 on cane)than adefecalioti or sulphitation faclory. Mean figures for Ihat counlry
would be:
Sulphitation 55070 steam on cane

Carbonatation 66070 steam on can e
In Taiwan l6 it is also agreed that carbonatation involves a 20070 increase in consumption

relalive lO that for defecation.
REFERENCES
I H. S. Wu. SlIgar Alllear. 60 (5) (1965) 48.

2 K. DOUWES DEKKER, Rev. Agr. Sucriere l/e Maurice, 44 (1965) 254.
3 T. Y. CHOU, in P. HONIG (Ed.), Principies of Sugar Technology, Vol. 1, Elsevier, Amslerdam. 1953, p. 711.
4 H. C. PRINSEN GEERLIGS, Pracrica! Whire Sugar Manufacrure, Norman Rodger, London, 1915, p. 69.
5 P. HONIG, in G. P. MEADE, Cane Sugar Handbook, 9Ih edn., Wiley, New York, 1963, p. 119.
6 J. RAULT, Proe. 39rh Conf. SASTA, 1965, p. 59.
7 L. A. TROMP, FaCls abour Sugar, 35 (12) (1940) 40.
B L. A. TROMP, Machinery and Equipmenr 01 rhe Cane Sugar Facrory, Norman Rodger, Londan, 1936, p. 342.
9 E. KOPPESCHAUER, Facrs abour Sugar, 26 (7) (1931) 313.
10 P. HONIG. in G. P. MEADE, Cane Sugar Handbook, 9Ih edn., Wiley, New York, 1963, p. 117.
II P. HONIG, Principies of Sugar Technology, Vol. 1, Elsev;er, AmSleru"m, 1953, p. 688.

12 CH. QUILLARD, La Sucrerie de Sel/eraves, Baíllíére , París, 1932, p. 216.
13 L. A . TROMP, Machinery and Equipment oi (he Cane Sugar Faclory, Norman Rouger. LOlluon. 1936, p. 380.
14 A . BARTA, Inl. Sugar J., 42 (1940) 362.
15 V. POD DER , K. LENZ ANO H . S. CHATURVEDI, Proc. 9th Congr. ISSCT, 1956, p. 521.
16 C. J. Lu, T. W. HUNG ANO C. M . H WANG, Sugar 1.,31 (10) (1969) 20.
28, Use of Magnesia in Clarification
Actio" of magnesia O" the julce

The aClion of magnesia is similar lO that of lime, bUl il has often been stated ¡hat magnesia
was undesirable and Ihat i¡ \Vas important to avoid Ihe use in defecation oflime containing
more than a certain proportion of magnesia.
Magox
"Magox" is a very finely powdered magnesium oxide which may generally be partially, or
in exceptional cases completely, substi¡uted for lime in the defecalion process. It is never
employed only to replace the lime, since its use is more expensive, but ralher with the object
of avoiding scale formalion on the multiple effecls.
This resull is due lO lhe facl that certain magnesium salls, particularly the sulphate, are
soluble, whereas Ihe same salls of lime are insoluble and the magnesia tends to be Subsliluled
for the lime in lhe compounds formed.
Due lo ¡he lower molecular weight, l kg of magnesium oxide (MgO) replaces 1.390 kg of
quicklime (CaO), or 1.837 kg of hydrated lime (Ca(OH),). The b.est results are obtained
generálly when 50 - 80070 :of tlíe lime (expressed in terms of pulverised hydrated lime) are
replaced by lhe corresponding quantiiy of MgO. If we assume that the factory conducted its
c1arificalion wilh, for example, 0.8 kg (1.8 lb.) of lime per LC., these quantities correspond
lO:
0.4 kg (0.9 lb.) of lime + 0.2 kg (0.5 lb.) of MgO, or a 65 - 35070 mixture, or:
0.15 kg (0.35 lb.) of lime + 0.35 kg (0.78 lb.) of MgO, or a 30-70070 mixture
both of these being equivalent to 0.8 kg (J.8 lb.) of lime used previously.
It is convenienl for a slarl to commence, for example, wilh lhe lalter mixture, then each
week to reduce il and replace 10 g (0.025 lb.) of magnesia by using an additional l8 g (0.045
lb.) of lime, so long as lhe tubes of the multiple effects remain c1ean, so as 10 arrive at the
minimal pmportion of Magox which will give the desired result.
The tubes in fact remain clean and brilliant. The expense of Magox is thus involved, as
it COSlS 2 - 3 times as much as the corresponding quantity of lime; however, the savings, in
additioh lO lile lime replaced , include the labour of descaling (generally at overtime rate at
weekends), lile cOSl of descaling tools (ef. p. 548), which wear rapidly, also the cost of flexi-
ble drives froh1 motor (o (he descaling lools; lhe COSl of replacement motors, COSlS of soda
and hydrochloric acid Jor scale removal, as well as wear of lhe tubes due lO cleaning. Further-
more, there is lile advanlage of a multiple effect lhe efficicncy of which remains constant
throughout the week. Sorne users of this method quote in addition an improved purity rise
in c1arification, a c1earer juice, and even a better exhaustion of molasses. These lalter effecls
are scarcely significant and are somewhat doubl fui, bU! il must be remembered thal the use
of Magox permits the Solulion of certain problems due to tenacious scale, and il is easy lo
430 USE OF MAGNESIA IN CLARIFICA nON Ch. 28
work oul lhe balance of advantages and economies as opposed lo lhe expense due to Ihe cosl
of lhe malerial.
Care mUSl be taken on account 01' lhe low rate of reaction 01' magnesia, especially ir lhe
volume of Ihe healers allows only a shorl lime 01' contacl. The pH musl be watched; if il
conlinues 10 rise afler the healing lanks, t'or example, in Ihe healed juice, il is beca use lhe
Magox has nOl had lime to reac!. The pH should be equal in lhe various comparlmenls 01'
lhe subsider. If il increases from the 10p compartment 10 lhe bOltom one, it is dlle 10 an ex-
cess 01' lhe clarifying agenl. In lhe same way, if Ihe pH of Ihe mud is higher lh,m lhal 01'
the clarified juice, il indica les excess of Magox. In general, il is advisable 10 allolV 20 minules
conlact before reheating'.·
Any pulverised burnl magnesia may be used, provided [hal Ihe powder is sufficienlly fine,
99070 passing lhrough a 325-mesh Tyler screen.
REFERENCES
R. K. HAMILTON AND J. H. PAYNE, Proc. 12/h Congr. ISSCT. 1965, p. 1764.

"" ". ,
29. Subsidation
When Ihe juiee has undergone Ihe desired Irealmenl - simple defecalion, sulphilation, or
carbonalalion - il mUSI be allowed 10 sellle in order to separate the clear juice from the
precipilale formed in lhe body of the juice. This settling is effected in continuous decanters
or "clarifiers".
Dilution
The main faclor controlling settling is the difference in density between the material to be
settled and Ihe liquid in whieh it is mixed. The area and lhe shape of lhe particles thus play
an importanl part, as well as the viscosity of the liquid.
It follows lhal lhe lime necessary fór settling depends mainly on the difference in density
between lhe juice and Ihe particles of the precipitate.
At Clewiston, in Florida, tests have been made on the time necessary for seltling as a func-
tion of the dilution of the juice'.
(a) Mixed juice: 78 min

(b) Mixed juice + 10"70 of water: 38 min
(e) Mixed juice + 20% of waler: 28 min
In addition to the effeet of difference in density, the viscosity of lhe juice falls wilh
decreasing brix, thus assisting settling.
Salinas', in Cuba, takes as basis a juicc of 16° brix, and estimates thal it is necessary to
allow a settling area 2070 greater for each degree brix abo ve 16, in other words, a settling time
approximately 2% longer.
Although the Clewiston resulls appear much more striking than what is observed in normal
operalion, it is important to remember thal increasing imbibition improves the subsidation:
the gain realised in the time of settling much more than compensa tes for the increased volume
of juice.
Speed of settling
The speed of seltling of an average juice is approximately 75 mm (3 in.) per minute, until
the concentration of the muds near lhe bottom has reached a maximum. Then the speed of
settling diminishes rapídly and approaches zero.
Surface area and volume of subsiders

The speed of seltling .of the particlcs comprising the precipitate is constant for a given juice.
11 follows lhat the seltling tillle is proportional to lhe depth of juice. In other words, the
capacity .of a subsider is independe¡;¡t 01' its depth: a subsider of twice the height will contain
432 SUBSIDATION Ch. 29
Iwice as much juice bul will lake Iwice as long lo settle. Thus only Ihe surface area is impor-
lant.
Subsider capacilies should therefore be expressed in area rather lhan in volume. They are
oflen found, however, slill indicated in terms of volume, but this is a designation liable [O
introduce errors. However, in lhe case of rapid (tray-Iess) crystallisers, [he volume does play
an important role.
CLARIFIERS OR SUBSIDERS
"Clarifier" or "subsider" is the name given to a continuous se[tler.

A continuous subsider is a vessel into which lhe juice to be settled is fed unirormly and
continuously, and which is large enough to reduce lhe veloci[y of flow and of circulation of
the juice to such a low value that it does no[ prevent settling from laking place. The clear
juice obtained is similarly withdrawn from the upper pan of Ihe subsider ili an equally
uniform and conlinuous manner, as also are Ihe muds from Ihe lower portion.
Descriplion oC a cJarifier
Clarifiers are generally divided inlo several compartmenls, so as to increase [he area for senl-
ing. .
Since c1arifiers are sim'ilar in principIe, and vary in delails only, we shall describe the
"Rapidorr", which is perha'ps the mosl widely used.
It is provided wi[h a central hollow shaft, rota[ing very slowly (12 rev.lhour), which carries
scrapers of sheet melal which slowly brush Ihe bOllom of each companment.
The juice to be clarified enters [angentially a[ the 10p, into a companmenl half Ihe
diameler of [he main clarifier; this is [ermed [he feed compartmen[ or floccula[ion c!lamber.
Here sorne scum rises [O Ihe surface; [his is eliminated by a special scraper which pushes i[
inlO a small la[eral discharge canal leading [O [he mud oulle[ box.
The Rapidorr 444 consists of 4 superimposed compartmen[s, each forming a complete
clarifier independenl of Ihe o[hers, and fed separa[ely by a rota[ing cen[ral [ube by means
of openings situaled in Ihe upper part of the compartment. The en lering juice cncoulllcrs baf-
fle pla[es designed 10 ensure good dis[ribu[ion 01' [he juice. II flows radially lowards [he ou[er
wall, the veloci[y decreasing in in verse ratio [O [he radius. Sellling of [he mud proceeds
simultaneously, and [he muds deposi[ed on [he bOltom pla[e are moved by scrapers mounled
on arms connec[ed 10 the central tube and pushed IOwards [he centre; Ihere Ihey se[lle into
a mud Iray from which they are extrac[ed by diaphragm pumps a[ controlJable rates; the mud
from lhe various Irays is pumped 10 a mud lank, from which il goes 10 Ihe fillralion planl.
The clear supernalanl juice is wilhdrawn from each compartmenl by a circumferenlial in-
[ernal pipe wilh several openings which wilhdraw lhe juice close 10 Ihe roor of Ihe compart-
ment. The juice lhen passes Ihrough an overflow box, by vertical pipes filled wilh sliding
sleeves which permil regulalion of lhe rate and overflow leve!.
Verticallubes lhrough lhe roof of lhe equipmenl alJow escape of gas from each compart-
ment 10 almosphere.
The Rapidorr 444 does nOI require any addilion of f1occulanl, bu! such addilion does im-
CLARIFIERS OR SUBSIDERS 433
prove the subsldation and reduces Ihe necessary settling lime. The subslder has a c~pacity
slightly greater than that of previous models.
The claririer is enclosed, exeepl ror a door giving aceess to the floeeulatíon ehamber. lt
is complelely lagged; thanks to Ihis proteetion, and especially to ilS dimensions, which give
it a very small ratio of external surfaee to volume, the juice lea ves at about 99°C (210°F).
After being shut down over Sunday, the juiee is still at 90 - 95°C (195 - 200°F) when starting
up on Mond¡¡y morning. This represents a cooling rate ofO.16-0.22°C/h (0.3 -O.4°F/ h) in
general, for a clarifier of 100 - 200 m' (3,500 -7,000 eu. fL) .
.'.," ' :1~'~ft':" ;' <. :;

. :.: ° o, _:-"< .: .
· 0 •• ,\
Fig. 29.1. Dorr "Mullifeed" elaririer.

The Rapidorr wa s preceded by the Dorr "Multifeed" (Fig. 29.1), which cons isted of three
10 five companmenLs, only th e bOllom one being arranged I"or collectillg mud s . 1I was suc-
ceeded after lhe war by Ihe A.T.V. model, designed for Ih e beet sugar indu Slry bu[ also utilis-
ed with cane; lhen by Ihe A3T model, whichconsisred of lwo supedmposed subsiders each
of two co mpartments; and was finally repla ced by the Rapid o rr 444 (Fig. 29.3 ).
A clarifier very similar lo lhe Dorr is Ihe Graver (John Seip) (Fig. 29.2). The muds in Ihis
design move down, no longer by Ihe centre, but around the periphery; Ihe settling area of
[he compartmenls is lherefore slightl y less Ihan the cross-section of the clarifier. The clear
juice is wilhdrawn from Ihe 10p of a bell in such a wa y lhal Ihe juice musl [heore[ically pass
Ihrough Ihe curtain of falling mudo We ·do not consider lhal Ihings happen exaclly Ihis wa y
in realit y. However, one faclory, which had tried pa ss ingjuice lhrough Ihe Graver which had
already been settled rapidly in ordinary settlers , has indicaled lhal [he clarification became
F ig. 29 .2. Graver clar irier.

CLAIUFIERS OR SUBSIDERS
435
better as the juice entering carried more m\.Jd; which tended to confirm the theory of the in-
ventor: "upward sludge fillration", that is. filtration of the rising juice through the descen-
ding curtain of seltling mudo
-,.,
Fi~ . 29 .3. Rapidorr 444 clariricr (D o rr - Oliver) .
Operation of a c1arifier
When the factor y is started up, the clarifier becomes filled with juice up lO the overflow level
of the clear juice outlet pipes.
This level ma y be regulated by a handwheel, each turn af which raises ali the sliding lubes
simultaneousl y by a small amounl of the arder of a millimelre. In addition, each tube may
436 SUBSIDA TlON Ch. 29
be adjusled by means of an individual handwheel which permils lhe oulpUl of lhe correspon-
ding compartmenl 10 be increased or deereased.
COrrecl adjuslment should give praelieally equal juice flow from lhe several compart-
menls. Adjuslmenls should be made by very small amounlS of one lurn of lhe handwheel
al a lime. Correel regulalion is reeognised by lhe fael lhal funher adjuslments are nOl
necessary.
The general level should be sel so lhal lhe scum formed in lhe flocculalion chamber is
readily pushed by lhe scraper into lhe foam canal wilhoul laking liquid juice wilh il. This
necessilales conslanl allenlion by the operalOr in charge of lhe c1arificalion slalion; lhe
aUlhor has oflen nOliced lhat lhe foam canal was nol funclioning, or was funClioning al very
long inlervals. Por lhis reason he recommends lhe installalion on lhe c1arifier of an aUlOmalic
juice-Ievel regulalor (Masoneilan, for example). When removal of scum is not carried out
smoolhly and regularly, the c1ear juice conlains fine bagasse which cannol be removed and
which finally is found in lhe sugar.
[n the "Mullifeed" and mOSI of the older designs, lhe compartmenlsare connecled by lhe
central column, and there is only one mud companmenl, lhe bOllom one. [n this case, lhe
mud pump will be adjusled so as 10 remove mud al a conslanl raleo Since the proportion of
mud changes wilh lhecane varieties lreated or lheir slale of maturity, lhis adjuslmenl is
ralher delicate . Jt is effecled by altering the slroke of lhe plungers. At lhe limit of the adjusI-
menl, corresponding to very small rates, the sensitivilY may be increased by removing one
of the val ves of the pump, which is generally of lwo- or three-throw type. In any case, it is
advisable lO avoid the method of pumping alllhe mud, and then slOpping lhe pump for some
time.
When it is necessary 10 force the output of the pump, it happens sometimes that the strokes
of the plunger have repercussions on the general level of the liquid, produ ci ng a pulsalion
in lhe flow of clarified juice. This phenomenon is detrimental to lhe subsidalion, and should
be avoided.
Distributing tank. When a factory is operating Wilh a battery of several clarifiers, it is

desirable lhat the juice be dislributed among the several c1arifiers in proportion 10 lheir
respective capacities. Por this, the juice will be run into a distributing tank having as many
overflow weirs as there are clarifiers in lhe battery. The crests of lhese weirs will be al lhe
same level, and the width of each of them may be sel by means of an adjuslable sliding plale.
[n this way,.their rates of flow will remain in lhe sa me proportions, independent of the varia-
tions in the total flow.
Liquidation and losses during weekly shutdown. On accoulll of lhe lIlagnilude of lheir
volume, it is generally not possible 10 liquidale lhe clarifiers during lhe weekly shutdown of
the planl. One or more clarifiers are accordingly left full; bUI lhis cannOI be done withoUI
some losses of sucrose. These losses have been sludied by Noble and Henderson in Austra-
lia)' )'. The losses are of two kinds:
(a) [nversion losses, more marked al high lemperatures, aboye 80° C (175 °P)
(b) Losses due to action of micro-organisms, which are more marked al low temperalures,
below 70°C (l600P),
• J
5
•
-- ~
"-
3
1/ "
O \
"e
2
\ / o.
e
u 2
\
, \\ / 1
\ ,~
/'
o ----
60 . 65° 70 7S" 80 · 85"
Temperalure ( OC)
9 0· 5.0 55 &0 &.5
Final pH
7.0 75 8 .0
Fig. 29.4. Puril y drop over 40·h our period, as a runcli on of temperature.
Fig. 29.5. Purity drop over 40·hour peri od, as a fu"cli o" of pH .
These losses are measured by purity drop, which will thus be minimal belween 70 and 80°C
(Fig. 29.4). They are also closely relatcd to the pH , and increase when the pH of lhe juice
falls below 7.3 (Fig. 29.5).
In order !O reduce these losses 10 a minimum, it is recommended lhal lime should be added
10 the juice, before shutting down, al the rate of 150 p.p.m. of juice (0.35 Ib .!t). Lime is
cheaper and twice as aClive as sodium carbonate (SI. Antoine 4), This amounl corresponds
10 raising the initial pH tO 8.7. Furthermore, in order to keep the juice at the conditions cor-
responding to the most advanlageous portion of the graph of Fig, 29.4 (which, however, has
been eSlablishec! wilholJl any addilion to the juice), il i, advisable lO cool Ihe juice which is
lO be left in the clarifier, Ihal is, the juice Irealed during Ihe lasl 3 or 4 hours of crushing.
Wilh this objecl, Noble suggesls regulating its lemperalure lo 80°C (175°F) or, after shutling
down, passing lhe juice Ihrough a, heater the vapour space of which has been provided with
admission and outlet connections for cold waler, which thus can be circulaled. This lower
lemperalure will nOI harm Ihe clarification if care is laken lO add al Ihe same lime a f1oc-
culanl such as Separan AP 30. The reduclion 01" temperalure 10 80°C is much more crreclive
Ihan raising the pH4.
Once Ihe juice has been adjusled lo 80°C or below, formalin may be added, in the ralio
ofO.5 -0,6 p.p,m. of juice. According to Noble, Ihis represenls only 60/0 of Ihe value of Ihe
sucrose which would olherwise be 10sI. lt is advis¡¡ble lO mix it well, by adding il for example
from a charging lank at the entry lO lhe clarifier. There is no poinl in adding lhe formalin
aboye 85°C (l85°F), as il would volalilise rapidly , For Ihe same reason, il is desirable nol
lO add il unlil Ihe juice has been reduced lO 70°C (l600F) or below.
As Ihe pH indicares very clearly rhe purily drop, the laller may be detecred by observing
rhe pH when it falls below 7.2: delerioration becomes evident.
438 SUB SIDA nON Ch. 29
It is preferable, however, to carry out two or preferably severalliquidalions in lhe l:Ourse

of a season. Advantage will be taken of lhese lO clean tlle vessellhoroughly. For this purpose,
times will be chosen when lhe factory has [O be ShUl down for more lhan 40 hours (in Réu-
nion, for example, thetraditional holidays of ISl - 2nd November, possibly lhe 15th Augusl,
when it happens to give a 2-day holiday, C1C.).
Inversion losses. During the subsidation, the pH of lhe juice changes, falling by about half
a unit, for example, from 7.5 to 6.9. This drop is more marked in lhe bOl[Om compartment
than in the upper ones.
In spite of al] the precautions taken, sorne inversion losses take place in lhe clarifier.
Honig' estimates such los ses at 0.2 or 0.3070 of the sucrose, in general, bUl ¡hey can increase
sometimes lo 1% (cf. p. 541).
The muds deteriora le more rapidly than clear juice. 1f they are mainlained at a lemperature
of approximalely 95°C (203°F) and a pH 01" 6 - 6.5, lhe purity drop observed 6 is of lhe order
of:
(, I
Llp = - - «( ,...>- 10) = - (O < ( ,¡;; 10) (29.1)
100 10
Llp lOlal purilY drop

( = residence lime, in hours.
Decomposition of reducing sugars. During lhe period the juice is in Ihe darifier, al high
lemperalure, so me decomposilion of reducing sugars always occurS. Honig ' eSlimates lhis
al abolll 1% of lhe reducing sugars, per hotlr, al 100°C (212°F), when Ihe pH is in lhe
neighbourhood of 7. However, lhis decomposilion can reach 3% per hour, if lhe pH is in-
creased [O aboul 8.
Velocity of juice. The juice, al lhe enlry lO Ihe clarifier, should llave a maximum velocily
of 15 m/h (50 fl. / h). Al lligher rales, it creates eddies which are delrimenlal [O lhe subsida-
t ion.
In lhe interior of a compartmenl, lhe sellling lakes place undel' lhe following co ndilions,
depending on lhe velocily V of lhe liquid:
V = 3 - 6 m/h (10 - 20 f1./h): perfecl laminar flow
V = 6-1.2 m/h (20-40 ft./h): sleady flow. giving excellenl subsidalion
V = 2 - 15 m/h (40 - 50 ft./h): irregularilies begin: subsidalion slill possible
V = 15 m/h (50 fl./h) or more: flow becomes lurbulenl: subsidalion is no longer possible.
Olher types of clarifier

In addition lO lhe Dorr and Graver, there are olller lypes ofciaril"iers, 1l01ably lhe Bach (Fig.
29.6), rather widely dislributed in Brilish counlries, and of a design broadly similar lO lhal
of lhe Dorr. However, il is generally not covered, lhe sllrface of lhe juice being simply
covered by a layer of oil Wilh the objecl of avoiding cOllveclion currellls al lhe surface; lhe
10p companment lhen lakes pan in Ihe subsidalion process like Ihe olhers.
Fig. 29.6. Badl clarificr (Mirrlees - Walson),
Rapid cJarifiers
Since the introduction of continuous clarifiers, some defects have been apparent. lt was
found tilat in tile laborator y, or with ccrtain pilot units, the speed of settling could be much
higher. In seeking t/le causes of this inferior performance of eq\lipment of industrial dimen-
sions, it was round that certain ver y simple details. once modified, ' gave a substantiaI im-
provemellt in t/lc settlillg time of juice in the equipment. These were:
(a) Introduction of the juice to the subsider with the minimum of disturbance, at much
reduced velocity, without eddies; and regulating the f10w as much as possible, for example,
by provision of a storage tallk (20 m' (700 cu,ft.)/IOO I.c,h,) to smooth out fluctuations in
Ihe rate of flo\\',
(b) Reduction of lengtil 01' travel 01' thc juice between enlry to Ihe equipment and exit.
(e) Provision of more points for juice outfJow, in order to reduce dist urbance al lhose
points,
(d) Arranging for Ihe juice to trave l upwards Ihrough Ihe flocculated juice, so lhat lhe par-
tieles in suspension are retained in Iheir f10w by Ihe exisling flocs ("upward sludge filtra-
li on ").
(e) Diyision into compartments was found [O be delrimenlal 10 performance.

These considerations haye led lO the developmenl or the S.R.1. claririer, designed by Hale
& Whayman 6 at the Sugar Research [nstitute in Australia (Figs. 29.7, 29.8 and 29.9). Entry
and distribution or the juice are errected by a circular channel 01' radius equal 10 two-thirds
or that or the subsider; it overflows by a notched channel into an annular downtake, wich
deliyers lhe juice at the mid-height or lhe yessel; it then meets a deflector or double slope
1,2 'EfO Nl(IS

) fUD lllVl'fO(1I
4 'L(CI .... f.n
5,6 1... ( orr ~"'VIIIO(.s
7 Cl ... lfo[C\ J.JI:.f. O\JlllT
Fig. 29.7. S.R.1. clarifier·(plan).
1~,---_'o'D".-I------_' I
)
.
......... í:f ..... , ... ~ ..
,
~t~~g~r-l FEEO LAUNOER

1 F (EDWELL
J OEfLEC1QR PLAT(
.,'l T.A.KE OFF LAUNO(R5
6 ClARIFIEO JUICE
OUTLET
1 SA"IO SCRAPERS
Fig. 29.8. S.R.1. e1arifier (,ec(ion).

Fig. 29.9. S . R. /. cJaririer (brOkell seclion) (Flelcher and Slewarl).
which distributes it laterally in the equipment. The settleq mud accumulates on the bottom,
where it is scraped towards a mud well and removed. The scrapers are carried on rotating
arms.
The clarified juice overflows by two notched gutters, both circular and concentric; the first
or inner one is 01' radius one-half or two-thirds that 01' the enlry channel, the second approx-
imately hall' way between the latter and the outer wall of the tank. Fixed scrapers avoid ac-
cumulation 01' lllud on lile doublc-sloped defleclor which is fixcd to lhe rotating arms.
The rate Of settling is of the order of la cm (4 in.) per minute, caJculated on the interior
cross-section 01' the vessel reduced by that of the deflector. Area may be reckoned as about
0.2 m'/1.c.h . (2 sq. f( ./1.c.h.). The depth between the bottom of the annular feed channel and
the conical bottom is approximately 1.20 m (4 fl.). The residence time of the juice is approx-
imately 20 min, that of the mud some hours.
442 · SUlISIDA nON Ch. 29
Reckoning on the total cross-section oF the vessel, we' should allow about 0.15 m'/t.c .h.
(1.5 sq.Ft./t.c.h.). On account oF the brief lime of Ihejuice in the subsider, the pH falls only
by 0.1 between limed juice and clarified juice; hence there is a decreased risk of decomposi-
tion of juice. These considerable gains in speed of settling and residence time are made possi-
ble only by the use of a nocculant. The dosage may vary between 1.5 and 3 p.p.m. It is in
facl f10cculanls which have rendered rapid clarifiers possible.
The S.R.!. rapid subsider now predominates in Australia and has 10 a great eXlenl replaced
older clarifiers in Ihe Auslralian faclories. These factories express every satisfaction and
report no inconvenience or Irouble resulling from slale cane or refractory juices.
In the beet sugar industry, a similar gain has been obtained by introduction of the Eis
clarifier, of the Enviro-Clear Co., following the same principies. This c1arifier has moreover
been fitted : with a photoelectrk analyser to detect the surface of separation belween cloudy
and clear juice and maintain it steady. This clarifier has attained a sedimen!ation rale c10se
10600 kg of solid material per m 2/h (120 Ib./sq.ft./h), or 12.7 m J /m 2/h (42 cu.rt./sq.ft./h)
of juice, and has also been installed in cane sugar factories in the American lOne.
Modification of existing subsiders

Many factories are interested in the gain in capacily and in space rendered possible by rapid
c1arifiers. On the other hand, Ihey hesilate on accounl of troubles which have sometimes been
experienced with the use of these clarifiers. They may in facI be concerned due to more severe
condilions of brief duration: refractory juices, cane affected by gumming, or cane held too
long since cutting. They also.hesitate to dispense with equipment which is slill in good condi-
tion. There is in such cases an ·elegan! solution, applied by Lindsay Lincoln in Réunion.
This consists of allering the normal c1arifiers 10 semi-rapid clarifiers. The change is simple
and inexpensive. In a factory which had a Multifeed and a Rapidorr, both of 7.3 m (24 fl.)
diameter, the Rapidorr has been altered and is sufficient for a capacity increase 10 200 I.c.h.;
in another factory which had four clarifiers, a 1.2-m (l4-fl.) and a 5.5-m (l8-fl.) Multifeed,
a 6. I -m (20-ft.) Graver, and a 6.7-m (22-fl.) Rapidorr, Ihe Rapidorr has been altered and
is sufficient alone for a capacilY increase 10 150 I.c.h . We may comment lhal lhe jui\:c 01'
a variely R, general in Réunion, is ralher difficult to c1arify, wilhoul being really rerractory .
The idea has been nOl 10 seek a truly rapid c1arifier, which may risk somelimes be\:ollling
insufficient, bul to aim at a semi-rapid unit, Ihat is, one calculated for a residence time of
50- 60 mino The following, for example, describes the alleration of an older c1arifier:
(a) Remove the intermediate plates to convert the equipment to a two-compartment
c1arifier. 11 would be permissible to remove all the compartments, bUI maintaining two com-
partments permits operiHion as an ordinary clarifier in case of a lack of f10cculam for any
reason.
(b) Increase the volume of the flash lank, which would become too small for the quanlity
of juice to be handled (see later calculation for flash lanks).
(e) For the same reason, enlarge all the piping and openings for juice feed.
(d) Locate the openings for feed of dirty juice to the two compartments, so ¡hat they are
placed at the level of the top of the mud pi!.
(e) Widen and deepen Ihe mud pits at Ihe bottom of the two compartments which are re-
tained. Replace their vertical sides by plales inclined al 45°.
CLARIFIBRS OR SUBSIDERS 443
(j) Modify the scrapers and the supporting arms so that they (it the bottom plates of the
mud pil and the compartment.
(g) Locale Ihe scrapers so that Ihe whole bottom surface is swept, and incline them al 45°
10 lhe direclion of rOlation, giving them a slight overlap.
(h) Arrange lile scrapers. not vertically, bul pivoted and trailing, so thal lhey follow betler
Ihe irregularilies of lhe bOllom plale. Tiley should be terminaled at lhe bottom by a small
a
vertical rebate 10 mm in.) in height, which scrapes more effectively than an inclined plale.
The slope to be adopted relalive 10 lhe bOllOm pi ale is approximately 60°.
(i) Place Ihe openings for discharge of clear juice in the upper angle of each of the com-
partmenlS, and provide an increased number of such openings. For example, placing one
every 15° on the [\VO se micircular pipes so localed, this corresponds 1024 openings. These
openings would be placed on Ihe upper surface of Ihe pipe, but every 30° an orifice on the
lower face of Ihe pipe should be localed lO ensu re complele draining of Ihe pipe for cleaning.
Each half pipe covers 180°; il should be of uniform diameter throughoul its length. The juice
oUllet openings are circular, wil hOUl reslrÍ<:lion, oblained by simple cUlling. There are six on
each si de of lhe oullel pipe LO lhe clear-juice box, of which lhe three c10sesl to lhe oullel are
DI3, and lhe olher lhree DI2, D being lhe diameler of lhe pipe, which remains open on ils
lower third, al lhe end.
U) Ensure salisfaclory remova l of the mud from the bollom of each mud wel!.
(k) Place al the lOp of each compartment two degassing pipes discharging at 0.50 m (20
in.) aboye the roof of lhe subsider, 180° aparto
(1) It is desirable lO mainlain al lhe top of the subsider a small fIocculalion companment,
lhe level of which will be regulaled aUlomalically so as lO J11aintain a sligilt accumulatioll of
scum.
The clarifier thus modified will have a minimal horizontal pathfor juice and an even
smaller vertical path, Wilh Ihe deparlingjuice having 10 pass Ihrough Ihe seltling flocs already
formed. Tile use of a nocculanl is essenlia!. Il \Viii be added after lhe flash lank at the rate
of 2 - 3 p.p.m., according 10 ils erficacy. This can be increased to 4 p.p.m. if considerecl
desirable. II should be inlroduced by metering pumps al a controlJed rale o
Since such alteralion or clarifiers is somewhat complex, il is recommended that
lechnologists wishing to make such changes should enquire from Tale & Lyle (Process
Technology), sending them plans of the old equipmenl to be altered. They will furni sh
designs permilling lhe necessary modificalions.
Flash tank
Clarifiers are normally preceded by a flash tank. This is a simple cylindricallank located just
aboye and ahead of lhe clarifier, wilh a flue open to the atmosphere. The juice from lhe
heaters discharges tangentially inlo this tank; since the juice has been brought to 101.5-
104.5°C (215 - 220°F), it partially flashes into vapour when discharged into this vessel al at-
mospheric pressure. This flashing removes from the suspended particles the air bubbles at-
tached lO them, which, if nOl removed, \Vould prevenl particles of bagas se from sellling dur-
ing Ihe clarificalion process.
"
444 SUBSlDATION Ch. 29
Mainlenance of clarifiers
At the end of the crushing season, the interior of the clarifiers is sometimes paimed: this is
very useful for preserving them during the slack season but, even ·if the paint selected is con-
sidered to be resistant lO acid juices, the paint disappears during the first weeks of the next
season.
Heighl and number of Irays

We have already remarked (ej. p. 431) that the volume of seulers does not influence the
sedimentation; the area only determines the operating capacity. Thus, there might be a
tendency to reduce the height of the trays. This is limited, however, by the necessity to allow
for inspection and maintenance of the apparatus.
Generally, the height per tray is made not less than 60 cm (24 in.). The usual heighl, for
the Dorr Multifeed, was 69 cm (27 in.). The bottom compartment, where the muds collect,
was two or three times higher than the other. In the Rapidorr, the upper compartments are
122 cm (4 ft.) in height, and the mud compartments 183 cm (6 ft.).
The Multifeed was made in 3, 4 or 5 comparlments; the Rapidorr always has 4; and the
Graver gene rally has 4.
A c1arifier is moreover more economical, in cost and space occupied, if it has more com-
partments. It has sometimes been maintained that the juice was c1earer if the c1arifier had
fewer compartments. However, in faclOries having a set of c1arifiers with differing numbers
of comparUnents, a consistent and detectable difference between their juices has scarcely ever
been detected . In particular, the juice of the Rapidorr is not superior lO that ol' the Multifeed
types.
Evolulion of clarifiers
The foregoing considerations on compartmented c1arifiers establish the point Ihal, since the
appearance of continuous decantation, subs iders have evolved continually in Ihe direclion of
a decrease in the number of comparlments for simple decanting of juice relalive lO the
number for thickening of mudo The evolution of the Dorr clarífier is very definile from Ihis
pointof view: the Multifeed had 5. 4 or 3 compartments and only one mud Ihickener. Then,
in 1956, Sabi' commemed that the surface required for thickening of mud was Ihe important
faclor in Ihe capacity of Ihe equipment. He eSlimated accordingly that, according 10 Ihe
nalure of the juice and Ihe cane variety, il required 0.50 -1 m', averaging 0.75 m' (7.5
sq. ft.). for thickening of mud per I.c.h. Since Ihe speed of sellling is approximalely I cm / min
= 60 cm / h (2 ft. / h),"and since 1 t.c.h. corresponds roughly lO 900 dml/h of juice, an area
of 0.75 m' would permil the settling of 0.75 x 0.60/ 0.900 = 0.5 t.c.h.; consequenlly. Ihe
capacity per Iray for setlling would be half Ihal for Ihickcning. Hence rhe Rapidorr A3T,
which has two trays for settling for each thickening Iray. This would make 1-2 m' (10- 20
sq.ft.) of total area/t.c.h., averaging 1.50 m'/ t.c.h. (15 sq.ft.lt.c.h.).
Progress has continued in the efficacy of the equipment, and Dorr has finally produced
the Rapidorr 444 with 4 independent compartments superposed, all providing decantation
and thickening at the same time. The rapid c1arifiers without compartments are the outcome
of this evolution.
Capacily
This evolution explains why it is difficult to give figures for capacity applicable to all
c1arifiers. The scatler of values is particularly marked where volume is concerned; it is less
marked for surface area for decantation. The values given have evolved parallel with the con-
ception and the efficacy of the equipment. Commencing from the older multicompartment
models, capacities are as follows:
Volume Area
(m)/t.c.h.) (cu JI.II.c.h.) (m'll.c.h.) (sqJt.lI.c.h.)
Hawaii' 2.5 - 3.8 (av. 3) 90-136 (av. 108)
Cuba" 2.4 86 2.5 27
Puerto Rico 1 1 2.1-3.8 75-136
S. A/rica l2
Old c1arifiers 2.5-3.7 90 - 133
Rapidorr 444
(one factory) 2.4 86 1.7 19
S.R.!. only
(3 factories) 0.65 -0.92 23 - 33 0.22 - 0.33 2.4-3.6
Juice flow per unil vol. Juice flo'w per unil area
(kglhlm)) (lb.lhlcuJI.) (kg Ih 1m 2) (lb.lhlsqJI.)
Auslralia
1968 1 ): Bach 550 34 500 102
Dorr ATV 450 28 650 133
1969 : Bach
14
400 25 500 102
ATV 500 31 750 154
Philippines ll
AMS 650 41
(In some cases it is stated that capacity varies with refractory juices.) Table 29.1 gives figures
for the Rapidorr 444 Series.
Surface area. The area of the c1arifiers for decantation is reckoned on the gross crOss-
seclion, thal is, the interior gross area of the vessel, without deduction for the central tube,
multiplied by the number of compartments. In the case of the Graver, the total cross-section
is similarly taken, incliJding the peripheral channel, since it participates in lhe settling.
Consequent on t he remarks indicated concerning compartments, the capacity is better
when the ratio of total number of compartments to number of thickening compartments is
lower; for example, Multifeed < A3T < 444.
446 SUBSIDA TlON Ch. 29
TABLE 29.1
RAPIDORR 444 SERIES
Diameter Vo.lume Area Capacily

(m) ({l.) (m') (U.S. gal.) (m') (sqJI.) (I.c.h. in (nominal,
Javouroble shor! !ons/h)
condílions)
3.048 10 41 10,800 29 312 18 16

3.658 12 59 15,600 42 452 26 23
4.267 14 81 21,300 57 614 36 32
4.877 16 105 27,800 75 804 47 42
5.486 18 133 35,200 94 1.016 59 53
6.086 20 164 43.400 116 1,254 73 69
6.706 22 199 52,700 141 1,516 88 79
7.315 24 237 62,700 168 1,830 105 94
7.925 26 278 73,400 198 2,128 124 111
8.534 28 322 85,000 229 2,460 143 128
9.144 30 369 97,600 262 2,824 164 147
9.754 32 421 111,200 299 3,220 187 .168
10.363 34 474 125,200 337 3,630 211 189
10.973 36 533 140,800 378 4,068 236 212
In these clarifiers, the height of the cylindrical portion is 5.5 m (18 ft.); for lhe earlier
Rapidor~ clarifiers, it was 6.1 m (20 fL).
Dorrclones
Modern methods of cane harvesling send 10 the faclOry, with lhe cane, nOI only lrash proper
with CUI ends and roots, but also foreign malter of various kinds, sorne of which are
dangerous, such as stones (see p. 48). These items consist inainly of soil, sand, and gravel, .
of which only the finest particles are conveniently handled with the muds in fillration.
The largest particles contribute to wear of the pumps, and inlerfere Wilh Ihe I·abricalion.
The Oorr - Oliver Company offers equipment designed for eliminating them: lhe "Oorr-
clone". It is composed of cycJone separators into which the mixed juice, unscreened, is
pumped under a pressure of aboul 1.5 kg/cm' (22 p.s.i.). The juice is inlroduced tangentially
and spun in the equipment. The cJear juice I.eaves aboye lhe point of entry, while tile heavy
particles fall to the bottom of the cyclone and pass inlo a sand box, where lhey are extracled
intermittently by an automatic device.
On account of the wear to which they are subjected, these cyclone separalOrs are lined with
rubber, which normally lasls a fuJl season.
The operation takes place in Iwo slages. Afler passage through a l'irsl sel 01' cyclones, the
solid maller from the equipmenl is deposiled in a bath where il is w"shed with waler 10
remove lhe entrained sucrose. The mixlure is lhen passecllO a second cycJone, Ihe refuse I'rom
which is discarded and the clear juice sent for use as irnbibilion, since il conlains a lillle
sucrose.
Since lhe equipmenl must funclion under pressure and al a constant rale, Oorrclones can-
not be subjected 10 stoppages of Ihe factory: hence they are arrangccl 10 operale wilh recir-
culalion, assuring a conSlant rale of throughput.
REPERENCES 447
JI is preferable thal Ihe cyclone be inslalled vertically, but they may also function in an
inclined posilion , provided that the slope of the cone remains al a positiv e angle.
There are Ihree sizes of Dorrcloncs, designaled by the diameter of Ihe enlry chamber;
D = 152 mm ( 6 in.): capacilY = 11- 25 mJ/h (47- 110 U.S . gal./min)

D = 305 mm (12 in.): capacily = 42 - 84 mJ/h (185 - 350 U.S. gal ./min)
D = 610 mm (24 in.): capacity = 162-345 mJ/h (710-1,520 U.S. gal. / min)
They are oflen installed in balteries of 3 cyclo nes for ¡he firSI slage, wilh 1 for the second
slage.
REFERENCES
1 F. J . CASABLANCA, {1I1 . Sugar J., 39 (1937) 467.

2 J. G. SALINAS. {1I1. SIIgar 1.,42 (1940) 330.
3 A. G . No "LE, Proc. 3011> Conf. QSSCT, 1963, n. 141.
3a C. S. HENDERSON, PrOc. 30lh ConJ. QSSCT, {963, p. 147 .
4 J. D. DE R. DE ST. ANTOINE AND E. C. VIGNES, {nI. Sugar J., 68 (1966) 13.
5 P. HON/O, Proo . 91/1 Congr. {SSCT, 1956, p. 550.
6 HALE AND WHAYMAN, Sugar Res. {nsl., Mackay, Queensland, Tech. Rep. 17, p. 13.
7 P. HON/O, Proc. 91/1 Congr. {SSCT, 1956, p. 587 .
8 NESTOR SABI, Proc. 91h Cong o ISSCT, 1956, p. 619.
9 M. A . DOOLAN, {ni. SIIgar 1.,41 (1939) 385 .
10 Facls Aboul Sugar. 35 (April 1940) 31 .
II M. B. FLORO, Inl. Sugar J., 50 ( 1948) 313 .
12 SASFP!, 1981, n. 16.
13 P. N. STEWART AND K. J. NIX, 351h ConJ. QSSCT, {968, p. 154.
14 P. N. STEWART AND K. J. NI X, 361h ConJ. QSSCT, 1969, p. 251.
15 C. M . MADRAZO AND R. N. MARCELlNO. In l. Sugar J., 83 (1981) 101.
30. Juice Heating
We ha ve seen that in the course of treating the juice, it must be heated at least once. High-
pressure steam being very valuable, exhaust steam is used for lhis healing or, if possible,
preferably bled vapour from the evaporators. Jt is thus necessary lO have a heal exchanger
belween vapour and juice: this is provided by the juice healers.
The juice healcr (Fig. 30.1) consisls of an asscmbly 01' lubes: lhe juicc circulalcs through
the tubes, and the vapour oUlside thcm. Suitablc hcaders force ¡he juicc 10 pass a cenain
number of ¡imes from bottom \O 10p and from top \O bottom of the hcalcr by rcstricling the
juicc each lime 10 a few of ¡he lubes.
r------Jutc~ ¡nlet
J ulce outlet
Light ,
~f~,
-~
incond ensables
",,'
5team
"
I!¡
",1:1 .
¡:i~'
,.,
.
"
"
::.'"
"
,,',,'
"t!¡-'- - ' - - - + - - 3,900 m long t ubes
HeClvy
Incondensables . - Condensntes
Drain volve
Fig. 30.1. J uice hea,c,. (Fil'cs Cail- Babcock).

CALCULATIONS FOR HEATERS 449
Specific heat of sugar solulions

The specific heal e of sucrose solutions is given, to a close approximation, by Ihe equation:
e = I - 0.006 B (30.1 )
B = brix of the solulion.

This formula may be applied wilhoul serious error lO juices, syrups and mola~ses of dif-
ferent purilies.
11 follows thal a Iypical mixed or defecated juice, of 16° or 17° brix, will have a specific
heal of approximatcly 0.9. Using Ihis value for juice will never involve a ~erious error. For
grealer precision, \\'hen the brix differ~ appreciably from the mean, il will be preferable 10
use the value givel1 by cqn. (30.1), which 1110reover i~ simple and readily calculated.
According to Gucker and Ayres', more accurate values would be obtained by replacing
the cocfficient 0.006 by 0.0056 in eqn. (30.1), and by taking inlo account the temperature
I (OC) an9 purily PoI' Ihc juice:
e = I - [ 0.6 - 0.0018 I + 0.0008 (100 - P) ] 1~0 (30.2)
Heat losses
According as the lagging of I he healer is more or less effective (and, foc' balleries of heaters,
the lagging of the piping connec¡ing the heater 10 the following one), the 10ss of heat, which
determines the efficicncy of Ihe heat-exchange operalion, will range from about 4 10 8"10,
averaging 5% for a heater suitably lagged and covered wilh woode.n ballens.
CALCULATlONS FOR HEATERS
Calculations for heaters are complicated by the faet thal whilc one of the fluids, lhe vapour,
is at constant temperalure, the other, i.e. the juice, is al a varying temperalure in ilS passage
from entry to exit. This introduces an integral which is cxpressed by a logarithm. This renders
the calculation somewhat lengthy, but any precise cakulalion would nOl be possible other-
Wlse.
II will be seen, moreover, in Ihe following example, rhul the resulting complication is in-
deed minimised: there is nOl cven need for a lable of logarithms; a -simple slide rule will fur-
nish results sufficiently precise for practical requirements.
The whole calculalion for heaters is conlained in Ihe 3 equations following:
(a) Quanlily o/ heal Iransmilled:
M = pe (T - lo) (1 - e- kS/pc) (30.3)
(b) TemperalUre oblained:
T - (T - lol e- 'Slpc (30.4)

450 JVICE HEATlNO ' Ch. 30
(e) Healing surfaee:
. pe T - lo
S = - ·In (30.5)
k T -1
M = quantity of heat transferrcd lo the juice, in kcal (B.T.U.)

S = healing surfacc of the healer, in m' (sq.fl.)
p = weighl of juice lo be healed, in kg/h (lb./h)
e = specific heal of lhe juice (approx. 0.9)
T = temperature of the heating vapour, in oc (OF)
lo = initial temperature of the cold juice, in oC (OF)
1 = final lemperature of lhe hot juice, in OC (OF)
k = coefficienl of heal Iransfer, in kcal/m'JOC/h (B.T.U./sq.t"t.JOF/h).
Reca.11 that lhe expression y = e- x reduces lo:
- x = In y = 2.3 log Y (30.6)
Hence:
log e- kSlpe 0.4343 kS (30.7)

pe
and that, when a logarithm has a negative value, we must write, for examplc:
log x = - 0.372 = 1.628
Value of heat-transfer coefficient

AII authors are in agreement in indicating the marked influence exerted on the heal-transfer
coefficient k by the velocity Vof Ihe juice circulalion in the tubes; but opiniolls diffcr concer-
ning the law expressing the relationship of lhese two quantities.
Hausbrand' gave:
k = 750 ~ V + 0.007 (k = 103 ~ V + 0.023) (30.8)
k = heat-transfer coefffcient of the heater,in kcal/m'JOC/h (B.T.U./sq.ft.JOF/h)

V = vclocity of juice in the tubes, in mis Ift./s).
However, his work was done on clean tubes.
An expression previously used in Australia 3 was:
k = 900.JV (k = 100.JV) (30.9)
Speyerer' gives for V = 1 mis (3.28 fUs):
k = 222 + 3.6 I (k = 45 + 0.41 (T - 32)) (30,10)

However, these formulae have the di sadvantage of raking ¡mo aeeounr only the effeer of
heat transfer frol11 IlIbe (or sea le) ro jlllce, il1 whieh the juiee veloeiry is important. It is
de sirable [O [ake il1lo m:COlll1l equnlly [he resis[ance olTered lO heat [ransrcr frol11 vapour lo
me[al. The comple[e JI1c1 cxaCI lheorc[ical formulae are l11ueh loo complicaled for praclical
usage. They involvc lite viscosilY and [he NlIsscll, Orashol· and Prandtl numbers, al various
powers. The mlllliplieilY of praelieal formulae offered and the greal variability of the eodri-
eient k in prae[ice have promp[ed the aulhor lo pro pose a formula whieh should be lhe
simplesl possible, while laking into aeeoulll lhe resulls now galhered on lhe influence of
veloeity U of jlliee. We propose aeeordingly;
U) 0 .8
(k (~) 0 8)
k=6T (-1.8 =0.7 (T _ 32) (30.11)
which gives, lo,r exalllple, wilh heating stcam al 115 °C (239°F);
For U = 1.5 mis (5 ft./s); k = 596 keal / m' jO C / h (125 B.T.U .lsq.fI P F/ h)
For U = 1.8 mis (6 rt./s); k = 690 keal / m' jO C/ h (J45 B.T.U .ísq.rt P F/ h)
For U = 2.1 · mis (7 ft./s): k = 780 keal / m' lo C / h (164 B.T.U .lsq.ft P F/ h)
Influence of senle on heal transmission

Formation of scale on lhe healing sur faces has a marked influen,ce on rhé eoefricient of heat
transfer. On an exchanger with straighl tubes, we have in effeel:
1
+-+ (30.12)
k k, k, k,
k, heal-[ransfer coefficient, s[eam [O [ube

k, = hea[-transfer eoefficient across the tube = e,/).." (e, = thi ckncss of wall)
k J = heal-[rallSfer eoefficienl from tube lO juice.
Staub and Paturau ' give lhe following values, which are expressed here for lubes J.2 mm
in thickness (35.6 x 38 mm, for example):
k, = 10,546 kcal /m ' /o C / h (2,160 13.T.U .lsq.ft. jO F/ h)

k, = 1,758 kcallm' jOCl h ( 360 B.T.U .ls q.ft./ °F/ h)
).." = 37 kcaJlm' jO C/ h/ m (25 B.T.U.lsq.ftPF/ h/ ft.) for stecl

).." 94 keallm' l oC/h/m (63 B.T.U.lsq.f[.jOF/ h/ ft.) for brass
and:
k, 30,830 kcal / m' jO C/ h (6,350 B.T.U.lsq.ft. jO F/ h) for sleel

k, 78,300 keallm' jOC / h (16,000 B.T.U.lsq.ft./ °F/ h) for brass
452 JVICE HEATINO Ch. 30.
Hence:
k 1,437 kcal/m'¡OC/h (294 B.T.U.lsq.ft.¡OF/h) for steel

k' 1,477 kcal/m'¡OC/h (30.3 B.T.ü.lsq.ft.¡oF/h) for brass
This shows that the influence of the melal used for Ihe tubes is insignil'icanl, contrary to
general ideas.
On the other hand, if scale is formed, lhe factor l/k, in eqn. (30..12) should be replaced
by l/k. and I/k l , for the transmission from metal to scale, and from scale lO juice. respec-
tively. Now if these coefficients are much lower lhan k" somelimcs of the order of several
units, depending on the malerial and composition of deposils, they will cause a substantial
drop in the final overall coeflicient k, as Ihe deposition 01' scale increases.
Formula (30..11) makes a large allowance for scale, and lhe cocfTicienl 6 (0..7) can oflen
be replaced by a figure up to 8 (0..9), if there is little fear 01' scale I'ormalion.
Very approximalely, we may say that the heat-transfer coefficient 01' a healer c1eaned
regularly is 01' the order 01' 60.0. kcal/m'¡OC/h (125 B.T.U./sq.ft.¡OF/h), and that it would
fal! to approximately 40.0.-300 (80.-60.) if it were operated for two or more weeks without
c1eaning.
Giving a well-studied formula and taking into account the number 01' hours H since the
last c1eaning of the heater, Wright 6 gives, for tubes 01' stainless steel (metric units):
1 DO." + 1 + 0..0.0.35 HO' (1 + IO.~63) + (30..13)

K 4.35 13.5 0..283 DO.' UO.8 1m 0.401
D diameter of tubes, in m
K heal-Iransfer coefficienl, In kW /m'¡OC
1m mean lemperature of juice, in oC; we may take: 1m = (t + 10)/2
U velocity of juice, in mis.
If it is a case of a primary heater, the figure 4.35 may be replaced by 3.8, and 0..283 by
0..295. For brass tubes instead of stainless steel, 13.5 would be replaced by 64.
If il is desired lO ascertain the lowesl efficiency of lhe heater in lhe course 01' lhe week lak-
ing into account Wright's resulls, eqn. (30..11) may be modified, laking:
_
k - 5 T (U
- )0,'.(135 - HO.,) (k -_ 0..6 (T - 32) (U)o.,
- (135
--_ - .. -HU.,)) (30..14)
1.8 . lOO. 6 10.0.
2nd formula. We give another formula which avoids the use of the power 0..8, while still
laking inlO accourll the increasing scale formalion and which givcs analogolls resllllS. The
derivation of the formula follows.
In most sugar countries, the faclory is operaled conlinuously e!ul'ing the wcek ane! is shut
down on Sundays lO clean heaters and evaporalor vessels. These ilelDs.uf equipmelll are thus
practically clean on Monday morning and accumulale scale lhtougholll 1he week (or
throughout the fortnight, where c1eaning is done only at allernale weekene!s), 11 is inleresting
10 stue!y the variation 01' this eoefficient 01' heal transmission cluring that periodo
Il is logical lO aSSUJ11C lllal lile IhickllC.'S of scaJe in (he healers and cvaporalors is propor-
lionallo lhe weighl of liquid healcd or cvaporaled, lhus lO lhe quanlily of heal transmilted.
We may lllus wrile:
k (30. J 5)
+AM
ko
t = time elapsed sillce previous cleaning

k = heal-lransfer coefficient at lime I
ko heat-lransfer coefficienl at I = O
M = total quanlity of heat transferred since time I O
A = coefficient.
Hence:
M=~(~-~)
A k ko
(30.16)
M, Ilowever, is proportional lo lhe coefficient k and to time:
M = Cl.kl (30.17)
Ct = numerical coefficient.
From (30.16), we have:
dk
dM
Ak'
and, from (30.17):
dM = Cl.k di
Hence:
dk dk
Ctk di = CtA di
Ak ' kJ
Integraling:
2 Cl.AI + b
k'
where b constant.
454 JUICE HEATING Ch. 30
Or:
k
..j b + at
plaeing 2 atA = a.
The relationship just established for tlle apparent heat-transfer coefficiellt k may be equal-
Iy well established for the evaporation eoeffieient e (cf. p. 571 J.
If we express t in days and it is desired 10 express lhe eoeffieienls a and b as I'unclions 01'
figures generally est abli shed, we may write:
C = co l A~ J
(30.18)
ko heat-transfer coeffieient at t = O
Co evaporation eoeffieient at t = O
A = a number varying with the rap,idity of seale deposition , whieh in turn depend s on the
juiee, intensit y of eireulation in equipment, design of equipment, ele.
J = number of days elapsed sinee cleaning lhe healer or lhe vessel.
We may lake for an ordinary healer or·multiple effeet:
For favourable eonditions: A 6

For average eonditions: A 4
For unfavourable eonditions: A = 3
Example. A heater has an overall heal-transfer eoeffieient ko of 1,000 keal / m'¡OC/ h (205
B.T.U ./sq.fl. / oF/hJ on Monday morning. If it is operating under fairly good condilions,
eharaeterised by A = 6, the eoeffieient on Saturday night will fall to
k=l,oooj 6 1,000 x 0.707 = 707 keal/ m'¡OC/h (145 B.T.U ./sq. f¡ jO F/ h)

6 + 6
lfil is desired lo lake into account the varialion in heUI-lransfer coelTiciel11 aver the C'ourse
of ¡he week, we muy lake:
k=7T (l.8U) o., j A+J

A (30.19)
an equalion taking into aeeount ¡he day of ¡he week. We may also replaee days by hours by
substituting for:
lA
j ---;¡-
+ J
¡he fraetion: l 24A
24A + H
H hours clapscd since cJeaning.

Variabillty in the coeffícíent

The following tablc , quoted by Perk', gives an indieation of Ihe variability of Ihe heal-
Iransfer eocfficicnl k, as asccrtained in an investigalion made in Java in 1940 on lhe value
of Ihe overall cocfficient k for various vcrtical heatcrs in 9 faclorics:
Value 01 k
(kcallm 2 jOClh) (B. T. U. l sqJI./°Flh)
Hcaled by exllausl Slean¡: 225 - 1, 127 46 - 231
Hcatcd by Isl-effeet vapour: 212-1,080 43 -221.
Heatcd by 2nd-clTcct vapour: 201 - 630 41 - 129
Hcated by 3rd-efl'cet vapour: 129- 612 26 - 125
Heatcd by last-crfcet vapour: 276- 517 57 - 105
Webre' reekons approximalely 1,200-1,500 keallm 2 /°C/h (250-300 B.T.U .lsq,ft. l

°F/h), valucs apprcciably higher than lhose quoled by Perk.
On aeeount 01' t hese variat ion s, it is advisable to dClerJllinc the eoeffieicnt k ror lhe existing
healers in the faclory, lO deduce rrom it the value 01' a factor to apply to Ihe seeond lerm
01' eqn. (30 . 11) 01' (JO.191 and, using 'lile variolls valucs 1'0UIl(J, lO apply lilese equalions wilh
I h<: faclor ",hidl nppears 111 os 1 suilablc ror lhe case under consideration.
lt may be recalled ¡hal al lhe beginning of the week, lhal is, wilh c1ean lubes, a eorreclly
designed healer, wilh suffieienl juice velocity, has a heal-Iransfer eoeffieienl of Ihe order of
1,000 keal / 1l1 1 /oC/ h (200 B.T.U.lsq.ft./°F/h).
'Circulation veloeily
We ha ve seen Ihe importanl crfeet of juice veloeily in the lubes on lhe effieicncy of a heater.
This is lhe reason rol' dividing healers inlo comparlmenls separaled by ba/lles.
For effecli ve use of this equipmenl, il is advisablc lhal Ihe juice velocity sll ould not fall
below 1,5 mis (5 rl. /s). Olherwise, not only would lhc heal-transfer coefficienl be lower on
Monday morning, bUI Ihe heater would foul morc rapidly, and the temperalure of Ihe hOI
juiee would fall all Ihe more rapidly during lhe weck.
On the olhcr hand , al lligh vclocilies Ihe passage 01' lhe juice through lhe heater causes
a marked pressure drop, which rapidly becomes prohibilive. For this reason, a veloeilY of
2.2 mis (7 - 7.5 I·t.!s) is seldom exceeded, and the besl velocilies to be aimed al, from Ihe
economic viewpoinl, are between 1.5 and 2 mis (5 and 6.5 ft. /s).
Pressure drop
The pressure drop suffcred by Ihe jui ee in ils passage Ihrough a healcr is ealculaled according
to lhe following eonsiderations:
(1) The kinematic viseosily of the juiee, v = 'lglw, is of Ihe order of (0.5 - 1) x 10 - ·
m1 /s allhe rehealing lemperatures (40-100°C) (ej. p. 1117):
v = kinematic viscosilY, in ml /s
.¡ = absolule viseosity, in kg s/m2
w = specifie gravity, in kg/m J
g = 9.81 m/s 2.
-
456 . JUICE HE ATINO Ch. 30
(2) The Reynolds number R = VDlv (dimensionless - ef. p. 1116) is of the order of
50,000 - 200,000. The flow is therefore turbulcnl (flow is laminar whcn R is less than 2,320,
turbulent if R is aboye 3,000): .
V = veloeity of juiee in the tubes, in mis
D = diameter of tubes, in m.
(3) The eoeffieient of resistan ee ~ (ef. .p. 1118) va ries considerably according to th e eondi-
tion of the tube. When it is new or clean, il may be eonsidered as smoolh; the cocfficient
~ (dimensionless) is then of the order ofO.016-0.020. As soon as the lube becomes scaled
or dirty, it should be considered as rough, and the eoeffieient then varies bClween 0.025 and
0.100. It ma y be assumed that al the end of the week it often reaehes 0.05.
Sinee head losses are generally used in ealeulating pump requircments, it is desirable lO
base them on the values assumcd by ~ at the end of the week.
(4) The loss of head due lO Ihe 180 0 change of direelion at the end of eaeh pass may be
considered as equivalent tO a lenglh or 1,5 times lhe diamctcr or the tube. Sinee there are
2 changes of direelion for eaeh tube, one al eaeh end, the equivalent tubc lenglh, taking these
into aceount, beeomcs:
L = I + (2 x 1.5) D = I + 3D
The he~d loss is Ihus given by:

.: ' .
6.p = ~ ~ U' L (30.20)

2g D
6.p = loss of head in the whole healer, in kg/m'

L = total equivalent length of travel in the heater, taking into accounl comment (4),
with:
L n (1 + 3D)
n numbcr of passes in the healer

=
I = lenglh of tube, in m.
Taking the value at the end of the weck for A and the mean values for the tcrms:
Ap = 0.05 x 1.050 x V' x n (1 + 3 D) :::: 2 5 V' n (1 + 3 D) k I ' (30,21)

2 x 9.8 D' D g m
If it is de si red to express Ap in mctres (reel) of water, Ihe aboye valucs mUSI be divided
by 1,000. We have then:
J = 0.0025 n U' (~ + 3) (0.00075 nU' (~ + 3)) (30.22)
J pressurc drop causcd by passage th rough thc hcalcr, in 111 (ft,) 01' waler
CAl.CULATIONS FOR HEA TERS 457
v "" vcloeily 01' juicc in Ihe lubes, in mis (r!.Is)

n number 01' passes in Ihe ilealcr
I "" lenglil 01' caeh lube. in m (1'1.)
D = insidc diamcler of lhe lubes, in m (rL).
Temperalure margin
Praclical applieation or juicc-hcaler calculalions shows Ihal, ir cxecssive valucs or healing
surface are 10 be avoided, il is dcsirable 10 arrange for a ecrtain margin betwcen lhe
lemperalurc Tof lilc ilcaling vapour and Ihe lempcralurc I rcquircd for lhe hcaled juice Icav-
ing Ihc ilcatcr.
Wilh the objcel 01' cconomy, onc should strive to ¡imil lhe temperature 1 required, in sueh
a way as to maintain lhe margins of lempcralurc givcn in Table 30.1.
TABLE 30.1
MARGIN OF TEMPERATURE TO BE ALl.OWED IN JUICE HEATERS
Hea¡ing medium Temperafure margin T - (

(0<::) (0f)
ExhauSI ,<¡lcam 5- 8 10-15

Vapour rrom l.q vcsseJ 10 - 12 18 - 22
Yapour rrom othcr vcssels 15 - 20 27 -36
Olhcrwisc, Ihc cxccssivc healing surfaec which will bc ncee ssary to oblain a hottcr juice
would be out 01' proportion lO the gain in lempcraturc so obtaincd.
Juiee hcating is gcncrally donc in stagcs, at Icast in the main battcry of hcatcrs, by taking
vapours from lhe various vcsscl s 01' thc multiple cffecls in turn, and finishing with exhaUSl
Slcam; thus a battery will bc oblaincd having a rcasonablc numbcr 01' hcatcrs 01' oplimal
hcaling surfaee.
DESIGN OF A BATTERY OF HEATERS
Dala. Suppose:
Crushing ratc 01' thc faetory: 100 t.e.h.

Wciglll 01' l1lixed juice produecd: 100070 on canc
Dcnsily of mixed juicc: 1.05
TCl11pcrnture of eold juiec: JODe (86°F)
Back pressure: 0.5 kg/ em 2 (7 p.s.i.)
Quadruplc cffeet: 4 c'qual vcsscls eaeh 720 m2 (7,750 sq.fl.)
We shall assumc lhal this quadruplc effcel operalCS undcr thc following scale of
lemperalures:
458 ¡VICE HEATlNG Ch,30
Temp, T Lalenl heal r

('C) ('F) (kcal/kg) (B,T.U.llb.)
Stcam to 1Sl effecl III 232 532 957

Vapour from 1st CrfCel 102 216 538 967
Yapaur fram 2nd cf[cel 92 198 544 979
Yapaur [ram 3rd e[[cel 80 176 551 992
Yapour fram 4lh c[[cel 55 131 566 1,019
and that the evaporation capacity of cach cffect is according to rhe following scalc (ef. p,
580):
---~------
H.S. Evap, rale TOlal evap.

(m') (sqJI,) kg/m'/h) (lb.lsqJt.lh) (kg/h) (Ib.h)
151 c[[cel 720 7,750 38 7.8 27,360 60,450

2nd c[[cel 720 7,750 32 6.6 23,040 51.150
3rd c[[cel 720 7,750 24 4.9 17,280 37,975
4th cffcct 720 7,750 22 4.5 15,840 34,875
------------
Choice of heating stages

Wc shall srrive 10 urilise ro lhe bCSI advanlagc lhe possibililics 01' caeh vcsscl by blccding I'rom
cach lhc quantily of vapour which il can supply abovc Ihal ncccssary for Illc I'ollowing vcsscl.
Wc shall assumc lhal no vapour bleeding is used for pans.
Howcvcr, wc shall nOI make usc of Ihe cxecss of Ihc 3rd cl'fccl ovcr lhc 41h, which is nOI
wonh lhe lrouble. We shall suppose in Ihis easc Ihal lhe lasl2 vcsscls cqualisc ancl cach fur-
nish 16,500 kg/h (36,400 Ib.lh).
Heater No. l. The surplus of the 2nd effcct is thercforc:
23,040 - 16,500 = 6,540 kg/h (14,750 Ib./h)
Using lhis in a hcatcr rceciving lllc eold juiec, wc may hcal Ihis juicc lO a lcmpcralUrc 1,
such thal:
100 x 1,000 x 0.9 (t, - 30)

6,540 ---------------_.-
544 x 0.95
whcncc:
t, = 67°C (154°F)
Healer No. 2. In ils turn, thc 1st effect has a surplus of 27,360 - 23,040 = 4,320 kg/h
(9,300 Ib.lh) and could Ihus hcat Ihe juicc Icaving No. I hcalcr 10 a lcmpcralurc 1, sueh Ihal:
DESIGN OF A BATTERY OF HEATERS 459
100 x 1,000 x 0.9 (1, - 67)

4,320 = "_ .. _-------
538 x 0.95
whence:
HealerNo. 3. JI rCl11ains then 10 raise lilejuiee from 91°C to 103-104°C (218-220°F)

by means of exhall sl sleam .
Caleulalion of hcaling surfaces

We may antieipate Ihal lile required healers will be found for example in a series of 75 m'
(807 sq.ft.) with 14 passes eaeh of 13 stuinless-sleel lubes of 35.6 x 38 mm.
The volume of jllicc 10 be heatcd is:
100 x 1,000
Q = = 95,240 I/h (3,420 eu.f't.lh)
1.05
As Ihese hcaters give an oulput 01' 46,600 I/ h for a juiee veloeity of I mis (or 502 eu. ft. / h
for 1 ft./s), the velocil)' for an OUlpUI of 95,240 I/ h of juiee will be: .
95,240
V = -- - - -- = 2.04 mis (6.8 ft .ls)
46,600
This is a very high I'c locit y, bUI is aeceptable if no inerease in tonnage is planned I'or the
faetory. Jt is desirablc 10 seek vclocities of the order 01' 1.6-1.9 mis, which will leave a
slightly grealer l11urgin i'ronl Ihis poinl of view. The principal dilliculry with a velodly of 2
mis (6.5 ft./s) lies in lile pressure drop, which necessilales Ihe inlerposition 01' a secono
pump, afler Ihe I'irsl 111'001' Ihrce healers, in order 10 avoid burSling of Ihe bOllOIll doors
by excess pressure .
. No. 1 healer frOI7l second effec/. The heal-Iransfer eoeffieienl of lile first heater will be
(eqn. (30.1 1)):
k , = 6T (--1.8U)
--
(l.'
= 6 x 92 x 1.333°. = 610 keal/m'/oC/h (125 B.T.U .lsq.ft./°F/h )
_
and its heating sUl'faee (eqn. (30.5)):
pc 111 T - /0 100 x 1,000 x 0.9 92 - 30

S, = - In -
k, T - 1, 610 92 67
460 JUICE HEATlNG Ch. 30
or:
1,000 x 100 x 0.9 62

S, = -----,~--- x 2.3 log - = 339.3 x Q.394 = 134 m' (1,484 sq.rt.)
610 25
We shall choose two hcaters cach of 75 m' giving 150 m', which will givc a good margin of
safety.
Normally, we shall thus obtain, instead of lhe temperaturc of 67°C (154°F) sought, a
tempe rature 1, (eqn. (30.4)) given by :
1, = 92 - (92 - 30) en
whcre :
610 X 150
n = 90,000 = 1.01667
log e- n = -0.4343 X 1.01667 T .55846

Hence:
e- n = 0.3618
1, '= 92 - (62 X 0.3618) = 92 - 22 = 70°C (15 8° F)
In fact, it is wise not to count on th e margin of safety thus cakulated , but 10 reckon only
on the 67°C (154°F) originally adopted .
No. 2 healer from firsl vessel. We havc in the samc way:
k, = 6 X 102 X (2.04) 0.8 = 676 kcal / m,/ oC/ h (138 B.T.U .lsq.J't P F/ h)
1. 8
s, = 90,000 In 102 - 67 = 154 m' (1,600 sq.ft .)

676 102 - 91
Wc shall take again two heatcrs each 01' 75 m', identical to tile two prcceding ones .
No. 3 healer using exhausl sleam. We have in the same wa y:
k3 = 6 x 111 x 1.105 = 736 keal / m,/o C / h (155 B.T . U ./ sq. ftPF/h)
S3 = 90,000 In 111 - 91
= 112 m' (l,229 sq. ft.)
736 111 - 103
Wc shall takc again, to complcte the standardisation, two heatcrs cadl 01' 75 m'. It is likely
DESIGN OP A BATTERY OF HEATERS 461
thal one of lhese two will suffiee on Monday and Tuesday, to attain a temperature of J02°C
(216°F), the other on Wednesday and Thursday, and the two together to finish the week.
We shall thus have a large and homogeneous battery, which is valuable for provision of
replacement tubes.
Commenls. (1) In ea eh case we could, instead of starting again for each stage from the
temperature choscn for the previous stage, calculate the temperature which the heatirig sur-
face chosen will give, and commence with that temperature as lo. The degree of accuracy of
the heater ca1culations does not justify this .
(2) Our eqn . (30.11) corresponds to a co;,servative average. Even at the end of the week,
better heat-transfer coefficients are sometimes obtained . If these aresufficiently assured, the
second term in this equation could be multiplied by an appropriate factor, sueh as J.I or
1.2.
(3) To avoid ri sk of depriving the following evaporator vessel of part of the vapour' which'
it requires, it will be necessary either to avoid providing too great a margin in the choice of
heating sur faces, or to throttle the vapour valve so as not to exceed the set temperature.
(4)When the back pressure is sufficient (above about 0.7 kg/cm 2 (10 p.s .i.», a
temperature of I03°e (218°F) may be attained with vapour from the first vesscl and thus
exhaust steam will not be required. It is thus advisable to provide for the last heater an
exhaust-steam connection regulated by a controller of Schlumberger, Amri, Masoneilan or
similar type, admittingexhaust steam when thejuiee temperature falls below 101 or 102°e (214
or 216°F).
(5) Some heaters may advantageously be provided with two vapour connections; second
and first effects, or first effect and exhaust, for example. At the beginning of the week, the
vapour of lower temperature may be used; when the heater becomes fouled and does not give
the required temperature, a change will be made to the higher-temperature vapour.
Final temperature
A temperature of losoe (222°F) leaving the final heater should not be exceeded. Webre 9 con-
siders that the iligher tile juice temperature, the greater is the risk that waxes, molten at sueh
temperatures, will be emulsiried by the ebullition occurring in the nash tank ahead of the
c1arifier. They then become vcry difficult to remove.
Definltlon of heatlng surface

The heating surface of a juice heater refers to the inside area of the tubes. This convention
is not universal, but it is general in France, and it is logical, since it is the coeffieient of
transfer from tube to juiee that is the limiting factor; lransmission from vapour to the outer
surface of the tube is mucil more rapid. Jt is therefore lhe area of the boundary between tube
and juice which determines lhe capacity of the heater, and it is certainly that surface which
is the best measure of capacily.
The area of tube pi ate between the tubes is neglected. However, cerlain manufacturers,
who neglect this, lake it into account in some measure by calculating the area from the overall
lenglh of the tubes, be[ween the outer faces of the tube plates. This is the system adopted
in particular by French manufacturers.
English manufacturers calculate the heating surface from the outside 01' the tubes (Pcrk IO ).
American manufacturers (Meade ll ) follow a similar practice. It is as well 10 be aware of
this; with tubes of 31 x 35 mm, the difference bet\j'ecn the two arcas cxceeds II OJo.
Total healing surface required

What is the total heating surface required in an ordinary cane sugar factory, using defecation
or sulphitation?
Deerr l2 specifies 4 m'/t.c.h. (45 sq.ft./t.c.h.), TromplJ 3 -4 m'/l.c.h. (35 -45 sq.ft.l
I.c.h.).
In Soulh Africa l4 installations vary from 2 to 9 m'/t.c.h. (24-100 sq.rt./t.c.h.), 4 being
considered a standard figure, but more recentlyll increased to 8 m'/l.c.h. (84 sq.I·t./t.c.h.)
including the reheaters before the evaporators.
In Cuba l • 3.5 m'/l.c.h. (38 sq.ft./t.c.h.) was recommended for a juice velocilY 01' 1,8 mis
(6 ft./s).
In Puerto Rico l7 the meañ for all factories for the 1948 campaign gave 3,3 m' (36 sq.ft.),
the extreme figures being 2 and 5.1 m'/t.c.h. (22 and 56 sq.ft.lL.c.h.).
If heating is to be done in stages, with vapour bleeding from at least 2 cffects, it is
necesssary to reckon on:
4.5 -6 m'/t.c.h. (50-65 sq.ft./t.c.h.) for the normal ballery
1-1.5 m'/t.c.h, (10-15 sq.ft./t.c.h.) more, in the case of fractionalliming and double
heating.
Addition of a heater-con'denser would in crease these figures appreciably.
CONSTRUCTION OF HEATERS
The cylindrical shell containing the tube plates is extended at e¡¡eh end beyolld the tubc pi ate,
the extended portion being divided into compartments by baffles.
Excepl for the first compartmenl, by which the juice enters, and the last, or outlet, both
of which are located in the top upper recess for vertical heaters, each compartmeIlt provides
for 2 passes: upward and downward. If there are 10 tubes per pass, for exall1plc, lhere will
be 20 lubes for eaeh compartmenl, 1,0 for upward and lO fOI" downward I'low. We give (Fig,
30.2) a view from abovc of lhe top compartment and of the bOllom cover, showing the mode
of circulation,
The shell is generally of mild steel plate. The extensions at bOlh ends were previously of
cast iron, but are much stronger if made of cast steel. The doors also should be of steel, if
they are to withstand the pressures produced by the pressure drops corresponding lO high
velocities in long batteries of heaters.
Tubes
When the tubes reach or exceed 4 m (13 fl.) in length, there is a risk of trolible due to the
difference in expansion between tubes and shell, since the former are always holler than the
latter; it is then advisable to construct the shell in two portions separated by an expansion
joint. Certain manufacturers go as far as 4.5 m (15 ft.) withoUl a joint, bul il is then found
that Ihe tubes become bent and wear more rapidly witll c1eaning.
CONSTRUCTION OF HEATERS 463
Seclion ot top
(view (rom aboye)
Juice
outle t
o Tubes in VJhich t¡'e julcP. r-ises

$ T ubes in wl1ich the juice descends
Section at bottom
(view 1rom aboye)
Fig. 30.2. Juicc circulatiol1 in a hcalcr.
TABLE 30.2
SERIES OF HEATERS (FIVES CAIL- BABCOCK)
Series /
Short Ver/ical Heo/ers
/2 Passes: Leng/h oJ Tubes 3.9 m (35.6 X 38./ mm)
Hea/ing surJace (m')
40 50 60 75 /00 /20 /50 200
Numbcr of tubes % 120 144 180 240 288 360 480

Tubcs pcr pass 8 10 12 15 20 24 30 40
E,l. dia. D (mm) 740 780 850 890 1020 1100 1220 1350
Tube cro ss- section (dm l ) 0. 7% 0.995 1.194 1.493 1.991 3.389 2.986 3.981
Juiee now (m'/h) (v = 1 m i s) 28.7 35.8 43 53.7 71.7 86 107.5 143.3
Senes 2
Long Vertical Heaters
8 Passes: Length oJ Tubes 6 m (35.6 x . 38, I mm)
Hea/ing surJace (m')
150 200 250 300 350 400
Number of lubes 240 320 392 472 552 632

Tubes per pass 30 40 49 59 69 79
Exl. dia. D (mm) 1071 1196 1326 1401 1511 1586
Tube cross·seclion (dm') 2.986 3.982 4.877 5.873 6.868 7.863
Juice now (m' / h) (v = 1 mis ) 107.5 143 .3 175 .6 211.4 247.3 283.1
FaclOry capacilY (l.c.lday) 3,000 4,000 5.000 6,000 7,000 8,000
Fives Cail- Babcock did not exceed 3.9 m in tube length, but now make hemers with 6-m
(20-fl. ) tubes (Table 30,2) wilhout apparent trouble due to expansiono T he same long tu be
heaters are supplemented by a "sweeper" series, in which Ihe juice tra ve ls f'rom top 10 bot-
tom and bottom to top in concentric annular spaces, thu s assuring effeclive vapour - juice
circulation and reducing the loss due to incondensible gases.
The tube plates should preferably be of the same metal as the tubes, to avoid electrolytic
effects.
The tubes we re previously in brass, the compositioll 01' this metal being for example: 700/0
Cu, 29% Zn, 1% Sn. In France, brass designated U·Z 36 = 64% ClI, 36% Zn wns 01' ten
used. The tu bes are 1l0W generally made in stain Iess steel type 430 or A 151304, which gives
the longest life. The commo nest diameters in brass are:
32 x 35 mm 35 x 38 mm 42 x 45 mm 46 x 50 mm
(1*x Ji in.) (lt x Ji in.) (¡¡ x li in.) (lH x 2 in.)
and for stainless steel, generally 35 or 35 .6 x 38.1 mm (1 j x q in,).
It is not logical to retain different diameters so c10se IOgether and it 1V0uld be desirable
to adopt a single standard diam eter, such as 35.6 x 38.1 mm (li x lj in.), as recommended
by Fives Cail- Babcock.
For this exterior diameter 01' 38.1 mm (I! in.), the thickn esses recommended are:
Brass: 1,6 mm (0.063 in.)

Copper: 1,6 mm (0.063 in, )
Steel: 2.0 mm (0.079 in.)
Stainless steel: 1.2 mm (0.047 in.)
Each heater should be furnished \V ith two thermometers, dc signed for ca,)' and immediare
reading, giving the entry and exit temperatures 01' the juice,
While tubes of sta inless steel are 10 be recommended for a Ilew hemer, lhcy are not in-
dicatcd for rcplacing a set of tu bes in a used heater; ¡hey are less adaptable 10 being expanded
CONSTRUCTlON OF HEATERS 465
into tube plales which are somewhal worn. The replacement tubes should be of brass or cop-
per, and should all be replaced al Ihe one lime.
Horizontal and vertical heaters

The Brilish praclice is lO build healers wilh the axis horizonlal, while IheFrench use vertical
types. The laller arrangemenl generally allows lhe healers 10 be accommodaled and grouped
more readily. On lhe olher hand, horizontal healers are considered lo have a higher heat-
transfer coefficicnl: Buchanan '8 estimates this differcnce at 13-28070, according to the
degree of cleanliness of Ihe healing surfaccs (28070 for clcan surfaces, 13070 for scaled sur-
faces~, or aboul 20070 as an average. Healers of diameler grealer than 1.2 m (4 fl.) are general-
Iy arranged horizontally.
The Iype of healer adopled very gcncrally in Auslralia is somewhat diffcrent from the nor-
mal type as shown in Fig. 30.1. These are heavy horizontal cylindrical heaters without com-
partments; thc juice passes through several tubes in parallrl, and Oow is repeatedly rever sed
by headers fixed lo Ihe end lube plales, which lake the place of end covers in the more com-
mon lype of heater. The healers are normally not opened for cleaning, cleaning being ef-
fected by chelllical Illeans, wilh circlIlalion Ihrough Ihe tubes of a 7070 solulion of caustic
soda.
Incondensable gases. Healers using exhaust steam are generally provided wilh a simple
incondensable-gas pipe discharging lo almosphere, and it is sufficienl 10 leave this just
"cracked" open.
Heaters working on bled vapour, on the other hand, demand a generously designed
inco nden sable-gas pipe. The wilhdrawal should be made with a drop of one stage of pressure
when lhe heater is close 10 the evaporalor (lhe incondensables from a heater using Ist-effect
vapour should be taken lO the top of the 2nd effect), but of 2 stages if the heater is at a
dislance (lSl lO 3rd effecl).
The incondensables should be withdrawn from the lop as well as fram Ihe bOltom of the
shell. The wilhdmwal pipe serving the bOllom of Ihe heater should terminale 10 cm (4 in.)
from Ihe bOltolll. in order lO avoid picking up condensa te.
The incondensable-gas pipe should have a cross-seclion of at least I cm 2 per 10 m 2 (l sq.in.
per 700 sq. 1'1.) 01' healing surface.
Condensales. Condensale oUllets from Ihe healer should be sufficienl to ensure Ihal Ihe
velocily of flow 01' the waler does not excced I mis (3 ft.ls).
Vapour pipes. The steam and vapour pipes should be so dcsigned that the velocity of the
vapour does not exceed 30 mis (100 ft.ls).
The vapoul' enlry should be placed about one-quarler of the lenglh down from the top of
the healer (in the case of a vertical heater). This arrangement avoids excessive vibralion and
breakages of lubes, and facililates escape of condensa te along the tubes (Perk '9 ).
In long lube healers, lhe shock of vapour entry lO Ihe lubes may be avoided, and Sleam
dislribulion improved, by lhe inslallalion of a skirt in Ihe heater, surrounding Ihe lubes. This
cylindrical skirt is more effective if placed eecenlric lO lhe body of Ihe healer, forming a space
466 ¡UICE HEATlNG Ch. 30
proportional to lhe quantity of steam remaining: i.e. maximul11 spacc llcar the entry and
minimum at the opposite side of the heater.
Pressure test. Heaters are tested, according to the iritended vapour pressure:
Vapour side: at 5 bars (73 p.s.i.)
Juice side: at 9 bars (130 p.s.i.).
The permissible working pressure is 2.5 bars on vapour sidc, 6 bnrs on juice side.
Pressure on bottom doors

The pressure on the lower doors and bottom portions of the hearers is calcularcd as follows:
we take the delivery head of juice from the heater outler lO lhe final juice-discharge level;
we add lhe height of juice in the heater, the 1055 of head in lhe healers following il; and ir
i5 assumed that the pressure due to the loss of head in the heater under consideration is equal
to half the total 1055 of head I'or rhar heater.
Generally the difference in density between juice and water is neglected, and the height of
juice abo ve the bottom is taken as equal lO the height of lhe lubes.
Examp/e. To calculate the pressure acting 011 the bottom 01' Ihe l'irsl healcr (obviously the
heaviest loaded) 01' a battery of 3 healers of 12 pass es each of 19 tubes of 31 x 35 mm (l~
x I¡ in.) healing 100,000 l/h (3,600 cu.ft./h) of juice.
Hcight of juice discharge aboye the ourler 01' the healers:
h = 2 m (6 fr.)
Lengrh of tubes of each healer:
/ = 3.7 m (12 ft.)
So/u/ion. Cross-secrion of juice passage in lhe hearers:
7r x 0.31'
s = 19 x---------- = 1.43 dm' (0.1620 sq.ft.)
4
J uice flow:
100,000
Q 27.8 l/s (1.00 cu.rt./s)
3,600
Velociry of juice in lhe hearers:
v = 27.8 19.4 dm/s = 1.94 mis (6.17 fUs)

1.43
CONSTRUCTiON OF HEATERS
.. .. <j ' • ...-"
467
Loss of head in ca ch hcalcr (cqn. (3 0. 22)):
J = 0.0025
. (3 7
x 12 x 1.94' 0.¿31 + 3 )= 13.80 m (40 n.)
Pressure aCling on lhe bottom of lhe first heatcr:
m JI.
Head above healers 2.0 7
Height of juice irl healer: 3.70 12
Loss of head:
In delivery pipe (estimated): 1.0 3
In Ihe lasl Iwo healers = 13.8 x 2: 27 .60 80
Mean in 1st . hea ler = 13 .8 .:.. 2: 6.90 20
41.20 122
I f il were desired 10 calcula te the delivery pressure at Ihe pump pumping Ihe juice through
the healers, \Ve should have:
m JI;
Discharge head : pump to heaters: 4.50 15
heaters to final level: 2.0 7
Losses of head:
(a) in delivery pipes (pump to heaters + heaters lO di scharge): 1.50 5
(b) in three healers (13.8 x 3): 41.40 120
49.40 147
II will be seen Ihal high vclocilies of circulalion lead 10 high pressures for the lube sizes
normally employed by French lIlanu faclurers. The healers and Iheir pumps should be design-
cd accordingly.
Heater-condenser
11 will be seen in Chapler 32 (see p. 566) Ihal Ihe further advanced the vessel from which Ihe
vapour bleeding is done, Ihe grealer is Ihe steam economy. If it is Ihe vapour from the last
effecl that is utilised, economy will be complete, since Ihis vapour would olherwise go lO Ihe
condenser and be 1051.
Further, by ulilising this vapour, lhe load on Ihe condenser is reduced by reducing Ihe
weight of vapour 10 be condensed.
Hence a hcaler is sometimes interposed, called a heater-condenser, in Ihe vapour pipe bel-
ween Ihe lasl effect and Ihe condenser.
468 JVICE HEATING Ch. 30
This healer can work only on cold juice, since the lemperature of the hot juice which it
can delivcr is limiled by that of the vapour, lhal is, by the vapour lemperature corresponding
to lhe vacuum in the condenser (50-60°C; 120~ 140°F). ltis difficult, in these conditions,
lo maintain an economic margin of temperature between vapour and hot juice, and this leads
LO largc hcating surfaces, and hence LO an expensive unil. lt will be necessary to balance its
cost against the small gain in heat units lo be expecled from il. Similarly, the extra lenglh
of juice piping required, sometimes rather long and eomplicated, musl be taken inlo accounl.
The healer-condenser is calculaled as for an ordinary healer. When one is installed, it
amounts in ilself lO about 3 m 2 /I.c.h. (32 sq.fI./Lc.h.).
Series of heater sizes

We gave in Table 30.2 data for lhe series of healers supplied by Fives Cail- Babcock. Jt is
obviously possible to fabricate healers with tubes of any diameter desired, but the series in-
dicated is recommended as standard.
AII the heaters ha ve similar tubes:
Outside diameter: 38 mm (lí in.)

Total Icngth: 3,900 mm (12 fl. lO in.) and 6,000 mm (19 fl. 8 in.)
Effeclive length between plates: 3,835 mm (12 fl.7 in.) and 5,935 mm (19 fl. 6 in.)
Thickness (stainless steel): 1.2 mm (0.047 in.)
The true heating surface, which depends on the thickness, will depend on the metal chosen
for the tubes.
The output Q' in hllh of juice for a juice velocity V' is deduced from the output Q given
for a velocity of I mis by multiplying the latter by V' : Q' = Q x V'.
REFERENCES
't F. T. OUCKER ANO F. D. AYRES, Inr. Sugar J., 43 (l94t) t54.

2 E. HAUSBRAND, Evaporaring, Condensing and Cooling Appararus, 51h Engl. edn., 8ellll. LOlldon, t 933, p. 33 t.
3 Publications Commiltec, QSSCT. In/. Sugar J., 38 (1936) 438.
4 C. O. M. PERK, Proc. 9rh Congr. ISSCT, 1956, p. 600.
5 P. HONIG, Principies oi Sugar Technology, Vol, JlI, EIsevier, Amsteruam, t963, p, 46.
6 p, O. WRIGHT, Proc. 46/h Con!. QSSCT, /98/, p. 138,
7 C. O, M. PERK, Proc, 11th Congr. ISSCT, /962, p, 601.
8 A. L. WEBRE, in O, P. MEADE, Cane Sugar Handbook, 91h edn" Wiley, Ncw York, t963, p. 141.
9 A, L. WEBRE, Sugar J" 13 (t t) (l95t) 25.
10 C. O. M, PERK, Proc. 9/h Congr. ISSCT, /956, p. 599,
tt o. P. MEADE, Cane Sugar Handbook, 9th edil" Wilcy, New York, t963, r. t62.
t2 N. DEERR, Cane Sugar, Norman Rodger, London, 192t, p. 273.
13 L. A. TROMP, Machinery and Equipmen/ oi the Sugar Cane Factory, Norman Rodgcr, Landon, 1936, p. 360.
t4 A, C. WATSON, Inr. Sugar J., 35 (1933) 243.
15 O. N. ALLAN, Proc, 43rd Con!. SASTA, /969, p. t77.
t6 J. O. SALINAS, Facrs abou/ Sugar, 35 (4) (1940) 30,
17 C. LANG, Sugar J., 13 (5) (1950) 53.
18 E. J. BUCHANAN, Proc. 40th Con!. SASTA, /966, p. 94.
19 C. O. M. PERK, Proc. 9th Congr. ISSCT, 1956, p. 597.
31. Filtration
The clari rication process separa tes the juices treated into two layers or two parts:
(a) The clear juice, which rises to the surface
(b) The mud, which collects at the bottom.
The clear juice goes to manufacture, that is, in general, direct to the evaporators. The mud
has first to be filtered, in order to separate from the juice the suspended matter which it con·
lains, with the insoluble salts formed and the fine bagasse entrained with them.
CONDITlONS FÓR GOOD FILTRATION
Filtration is sometimes a tricky operation, and difficult to control. To combine the best
. chances or carr ying it out satisfactorily, it is necessary to observe several point s:
(1) Temperalure. The viscosity of the juices and especially that of the gums and waxes,
which have to pass t hrough the filt ering surface, decreases as the temperature increases. 1t
is therefore of advantage to rilter the juice at a high temperature. Preferably, temperatures
aboye 80°C (175°F) will be used.
(2) Reaclion. Alkaline juices filter better than acid or neutral juices; hence it was general
custom to add lil11e lO l11uds before sending them to lhe filtrati on process, raising the pH to
8 - 8.5. This was necessary with filter presses, but is not done for rotary vacuum filters.
TYPES OF PILTER
The following ty pes of filter have been used in the sugar factory:
Filter presses
Meehanieal or leaf filters ". ' .
Continuous rotary vaeuum filters.

The first two lypes have disappeared from the defecation and sulphitation faetories, to
their benefit. However , filter presses still remain the standard system for carbonatation fae-
tories, for the filtration of juices after first and second carbonatations. We shall therefore
give a brief re view of them.
J .;
FILTER PRESSES
Description
A filter press (Fig. 31.1) consists of a series of plates (Fig. 31.2) separated by frames of the
470 flLTR,I\TION Ch. 31
same thickness, separate and movable, which slide on twO supporting bars and can be held
firmly against each other by menns of a screw device or by hydraulic pressure.
When pressure has been applied and the filler is "c1osed up", lhe openings a and b,
siluated in Ihe lugs of lhe plales and frames, form a conlinuous passage. The juice to be
filtered enlers by the pas::iagcs a. Between each plale and lhe adja~ellt I'rame is inlerposed a
filter c1oth. The juice passes inlo the frame, Ira verses the c10th and lea ves by the passage e
(Fig. 31.3) after leaving behind on the c1oth, in the interior of the frame, the suspended mat-
ler which it conrained,
The solid mass formed by this suspended matter, when all the available space has been fill-
ed, is called the filter cake.
Fig. 31,1 Filter presses (Fives Cail- Babeo,k).
Plales. The plate consists of a machined border, and a thinner cenlral ponion, lhe surface
of which is in the form of ridgcs or designs in relief, belween which the juice can f10w in
spite of the pressure, which tends lO force the c10th againsl Ihe plate.
Frame. The frame has a similar machined border, bul its illterior is open.
The Ihickness of the frames and plates is 01' the order of 32 - 38 mm (I¡-I ¡. in.). The
greater Ihe thickness, the longer the time taken to form Ihe cake.
FILTER PRESSES 471
Piole
0,
I~ "
- ~-
i _= ,
I l.I.JJ
'-l'- : '
I
¿¡ ,
,
, ~
- ,----1-----
I
1
1
I
-
1
Frome
Fig. J 1.2. Plale and frame of filler press.
Frames and plates are always of cast iron.

The number 01' movable plates, which is one less than the number of frames, is generally
of the order of 40 - 45.
PI ates and frames are supported by two strong bars of steel which also serve as cross-braces
and absorb the tensile force produced between the two end members by the pressure exerted
in c10sing the press.
The cocks fitted to each pinte discharge into a longitudinal trough by which the clear
filtered juice is removed.
Cycle
It requires about1- 1 h to open up, discharge, cIean, re-assemble and cIose up a fiJter press.
Filtration proper lasts 11- 2 11.
Washing with water and steam requires about l h.
472 FILTRATION Ch. 31
Hence the duration 01' the cycle:

r
Discharging and re-assembling: ~ h approx.
Fillering; I~ h
Washing: P
Total cycle: 3 h
Filtering area
The filtering area is equal to the useful area available for the passagc of the dirty juice
through the filler cloths.
For plate and frame filter presses, lhe filtering area is given by the expression:
s = 2NHL (31. I )
S fillering area 01' [he press, in m' (sq. ft.)

N number of frames in [he press
H = inlerior height of the frame, in m (ft.)
L = interior widlh of the frame, in m (fit.).
el Plates Frornes
\
Filtered juice
Fig. 31.3. Opcralion uf filler prcss.
Normal dimensions
The mosl common size corresponds to a fi/ter press of 40, 42 or 45 frames or 1,0 16 x 1,0 16
mm (40 x 40 in.).
These are the external dimensiom of lhe frame. The corresponding filter area is about 915
x 915 mm (36 x 36 in.), say aboul 1.7 m' (18 sq.fl.) per frame, or 70m' (750 sq.fl.) for
one filter. The overall area of lhe plates, here aboul 1.8 m' (20 sq.fl.), has no meaning as
regards fil[ra[ion .
flLTER PRESSES 473
Flltration pressure
The speed of fillralion depends on lhe pressure undcr which lhe juice js forced into the filter.
This pressure is providecJ by lhe mud pump.
Il is normally 2.8 - 3.5 kg/crn (40-50 p.s.i.). It may fall as low as 2.1 kg/cm' (30 p.s,i.)
'
in rhe mosl favourable cases, and may rise lO 4.6 kg/cm' (65 p.s.j.), al lhe washing period,
and in unfavourable cases.
Capacily
The filler area adcqunle fol' a faclory per Le.h. varies gl'early accordjng to lhe ca rbonararion
process adoplecJ and accol'ding as more or less complere washing of filler cake is adopled
(ef. p, 474).
Deerr l and Tromp', respectiveJy, specify the areas given in Table 31.1.
TABLE 31.1
FILTER AREA REQUIRED (PRESSES) PER I.c.h.

-_ .._----- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Deerr Tromp
(m') (sQjr.) (m') (sqjr.)
1st carbollé\tH1ion (de Haan) 8 90 6-8 70 - 85

I SI \:~ruo"a(¿\lion (ordinary) 10 - 13 110 - 135 9-11 100-120
2nd carho natat ion 4-5 40 - 50 4-5 40 - 50
Filtralion 01' syrup )-4 30-40 4-5 40 - 50
Tromp advises adopring rhe lowesr figures when kieselguhr is used bUl, if lhe qualily of
juice 10 be handled is nOl known, it will be prudent 10 increase these figures.
Filler cake
When filrration is good, lhe cake is dry and porous; when il is bad, lhe cake is semi-Jiquid
and s1imy; densily approx, 1.3.
Water contenL The water contenl of lhe cake obviously depends on its physical condition,
lf il is good, I,e, dry, ir is abour 50-60%; when ir is slimy, il rises 10 70"10.
Sugar conten!. Before washing, lhe water content of the cake corresponds 10 its juice con-
tent. In the same way, its sugar content originates entirely from the juice; if it conlains 70%
of juice (say about 55 - 60070 of water), its sugar content wilI be 70% of that of the juice from
which it originales. Hence the advanlage of filtering only rnuds derived from weak juices;
hence also lhe advalltage of subSliluling waler for the juice in lhe cake, by washing, and by
carrying lhe washing as far as possible.
Weight of cake. The weight of cake oblained in a carbonatalion faclory goes up to 6 - 12%
on caneo
Loss of sugar in Ihe cake. With good effective washing il is possible to teduce lheloss of
sugar in the cake to 1070 on weight 01' cake or less, say 0.05 - 0.15070 on can e or 0.5 - 1.2070
01' the sugar content 01' cane·.
Washing of Ihe cake

Pumping 01' mud to lhe filler press is stoppcd when the cake is complelely t'ol"med, which
is observed by lhe decrease in f10w 01" c1ear juice from the drain cocks 01' 1he plates. However,
better conditions for washing are obtained if il is arranged lo stop slightly sooner lhan this,
while there still remains a cavity in the cake.
Al that moment, the juice which impregnates lhe cake and which fonns more lhan half
its weight, isthe juice from the carbonatation, which generally contains 12-15070 01' sugar.
An effor! is made thercforeto displace il, by driving it OUI Wilh waler or SICal11. This is what
is called "washing".
Jt may be effecled in two ways:
(a) Simple washing. Here water is simply substituted for juice: il follows Ihe same paln
in the filter and leaves by the juice outlet cocks.
(b) Syslemalic washing. We have seen (Fig. 31.2) lhat, in addilion to lhe juice passage a
located in the rear lug of the pi ate, the frames and plales are provided Wilh a passage b in
the front lug.
Furthermore, lhe even and odd numbers of plales are differentiated by giving them alter-
nately a short and a long outlet cock. This renders the handling of these cocks easy, which
otherwise would become confusing.
2 4
I
I
5t
Fig. 3 J .4. Sys(cmatic washing.
FILTER PRESSES 475
The even plates cOl11municale with Ihe passage b.

Syslematic washing is then conducted as follows: water is admitled by the passage b, and
the clear-juice cocks on the even plates are closed (all the long cocks, for example). The water
lhen enters by the even plates, traverses the cloths and lhe adjacent cakes, and lea ves by the
cocks 01' the odd plates, which are left open (Fig. 3IA).
This procedure gives better results than the preceding one.
French manufacturers furnish filter presses with the water passage b communicating with
the interior of all the plates. This practice has the object of:
(1) Permitling 01' simple washing by using the passage b
(2) Maintaining interchangeabililY 01' lhe plates.
1t is then neccssary to block the small connecting passage inlo all the even plates, for exam-
pie. lt is 01' advantage to use for this a resinous cement, readily removed, rather than plastic
metal.
Limil to washing. When at the finish 01' the filtralion, the juice is replaced by water for
the washing proccdure, the brix 01' Ihe clear juice flowing from the outlet cocks al firsl re-
mains lhe same: this is the juice contained in the cake, which then flows out, displaced by
tlle waler. TIlcn. Ihc brix falls suddenly; this is the water coming through. According to the
filtering area available, the washing is thenstopped, al the moment when the brix falls to
3 o, 2 o, or 10. At 3 ° brix there would be a high 105501' sugar in Ihe cake, bul there is no advan-
tage on the other hand in going lower Ihan 1° brix; this would recover more impurities Ihan
sugar.
Since the wash waler is alkaline, il is nOI mixed wilh Ihe juice, and is preferably reserved
fo,r mixing lile milk of lime.
Afler washing, lile cycle is concluded by forcing oul lhe waler in the cake by passing steam
into the filter.
External washing. The cake may also be washed outside the filler press. In Ihis melhod,
it is dropped frOIll the press inlo a receiver, where it is thinned out with 90"70 01' ilS weighl
ofwaler, at 60 0 e (140°F). 11 is mixed well and re-fillered. The second nllration is rapid, and
furnishes a cake conlaining not morc lhan 1-2% 01' sugar.
Difficullies in filtration
11' the filtration is difficult, and the cakes slimy, this could be due to the waxes contained
in Ihe juice which, solidifying towards 66°e (l50°F), deposit on lhe cold c10ths when lhe hot
juice is inlrodm:cct into lhefilter. To avoid this effeet, the filter press may be put on steam
. before adl11itting juice.
11' the cake remains slimy, lhe trouble could be amelioraled by increasing its content 01' fine
bagasse, either by inlroducing fine bagasse, separatecl by a special screen, c1irectly into the
muds to be filtered, or by replacing the perforated screens of the cush cush separator by
screens with larger holes.
Filler aids
Kieselguhr may also be added. This is a siliceous deposil obtained from mines 111 North
476 FlLTRATlON Ch. 31
Africa and in America, and derived from accumulated deposits of diatoms. The very fine
structure of these minute creatures gives to their siJiceous skeletons useful properties as fi!ter
aids.
The kieselguhr is mixed with the juice to be filtered. TrompJ gives a figure of 0.43 kg/m 2
filtering surface/h (0.09 Ib./sq. fUh).
Filler clolhs
Filter cloths consist of fabric which may be cotton, linen and cotton, hemp and cotton, jute,
or of nylon, the latter material having a much longer life.
They are supplied either in strips of the desired width Cut at the factory in pieces of the
desired length, or in separate cloths ready made up. Generally, the c10th is supplied with the
gloss removed and guaranteed unshrinkable. However, it is of advantage to provide sorne
excess ofwidth and length. We give in Fig. 31.5 the best dimensions to be adopted forcloths.
intended for filter presses of I m X I m. The reinforcing bands shown give twice the
thickness of c10th at the points where it is most liable to wear. These double its life without
doubling its cost, and are to be reLommended. They should never be done with lap joints,
since each extra thickness causes leakages of juice at the point where it comes bct ween plate
and frame.
2.20m
-"'~=----------1
15 ~ _. - II
.
2,90
, I
1100
Fig. 31.5. Made-up clOlh for filier press ¡ x ¡ m (unshrinkable).
For shrinkable c10ths it is necessary to use dimensions of 2.25 and 1.07 times the side
of the plate.
A filter cloth weighs about 0.8 - 1.0 kg/m 2 (2.6 - 3.2 oz./sq. fL) according to quality, not
including reinforcements.
CONTlNUOUS ROTARY VACUUM FILTERS
The typical and most widely used filter of this class is the Oliver - Campbell. jt is this type
which we shall describe.
Description
The filter is composed of a hollow drllm rotating about a horiwntal axis (Fig. 31.6) and part-
Iy submerged in the liquid to be fihered. The periphery 01' the drllm serves as the filtering
surface: it is divided into 24 independent sections, each occupying 15° on the circumference,
CONTlNUOUS ROTARY VACUUM FILTERS 477
\
\
\
- - ----/1"-
~
-~ / /1 "- "-
/ I "-
/ I "-
/ 1
lo...., vacuum
Fig. JI .6. Dií\gramma[ic operarion or a conlinuous rotary vacuum filler,
and eXlending along lhe rull length or the drum. Each or these sections is connecled in-
dividually lo a vacuum syslelll by a small melal pipe terminating in a dislribuling valve
silualed al one end or the drulll and carrying lhree dir¡'ercnl sectors:
(a) One wilhoUl conneclion to the vacuum, but connected to the atmosphere
(b) The second COlTIlTIunicaling wirh a chamber where a low vacuum, or lhe order or
15 - 30 cm (6 - 12 in.) or mercury, is maintained
(e) The lhird connecling to a chamber where a higher vacuum is mainlained, or lhe order
or 40 - 50 cm (J 5 - 20 in,) or mercury,
The exterior surrace or lhe drum consists or a sheet or copper or stainJess s(eeJ with very
rine perrorations, covering the 24 seclions (Figs, 31.7 and 31.8) ,·
Operation
As lhe rilter rotates. the section which rirst enters the liquid is immediately connected wilh
lhe low vacuum, This produces an aspiralion or lhe liquid, which pass es through the rine pero
rorations, However, lhe latter soon become coated with pieces or rine bagasse and suspended
matter. The rirsl juice which passes Ihrough is lhus obviously badly rillered and very lurbid;
il is called "c1oudy riltrate" and is direcled toa special receiver.
Having now been coated wilh a thin layer which rorms Ihe beginning of Ihe filter cake,
Ihe seclion nexl pass es lo the valve seClor connecling 10 the higher vacuum, JI is indeed
necessary lo increase the vacuum, since lhe resislance orrered by Ihe cake increases with its
thickness. However, Ihe juice which now passes lhrough is more errectively rillered by its
own impurilies and by Ihe rine bagasse wllich it conlaino, which thus lhemselves rorm the
478 f1LTRATION Ch. 31
neeessary filtering surfaee and whieh eolleel on lhe surface of lhe drum. This filtrale lhen
eonslitutes lhe "elear filtrale", and is sent lO another receiver. The filter cake continues lO
build up, until lhe seclion concerned emerges from lhe liquid. The juice picked up al lhe sur-
face f10ws baek into the lank, while the juice eomained in the body of lhe cake which has
formed continues to be drawn through into the compartment of the drum.
The fi!ter seclion lhen passes under several rows of atomisers p which spray hot water on
lhe cake. This is lhe beginning of lhe washing. The vacuum draws lhe water through slowly,
and lhe makers assert lhal lhis washing has been designed in such a way thal lhe water has
jusI sufficienl lime, on lhe fraction of lhe rotation remaining, lO pass through lhe cake and
to displace the juice. Actually the de-sugaring is very effective, ülld yet the brix 01' lhe clear
juiee is only very slightly lower than thal 01' lhe c10udy riltr¡¡te.
Arter lhe sprays, the washing is continued by pipes and sheet-mel¡¡! distribulors r which
allow waler lO drip on the cake, 10 balance Ihe tendency of the surrace 10 dry out as lhe waler
is drawn through it.
After lhe lasl drip pipe, drying commences: the waler is drawn lowards lhe insidc wilhoUl
addilion of waler on lhe outside.
Fig. 31.7, Ollver-CampbL'1I filter 2.4 x 4.9 m (8 x 16 rl.) (vicw showing sprays ,-lnd drip pip~s).
CONTlNUOUS ROTARY VACUUM FILTER.:i 479
Fig . 31.8 . Oliver - Call1pllcll filter: vi,w froln cake d ischarge ,ideo On the dist ributing valve are seen the regulating
vn!\'C's for Ihe IWQ suclion pipes ror low and high vaCUUnl.
Just before the section re -en ters the liquid in the tank, il arrives at a scraper formed by
n rigid strip of rubbcr beltin g which bea rs lighlly on Ihe copper screen. When lhe filter section
is about to reach the scraper, the dislribulo r val ve breaks lhe vacuum which has held the cake
against the filler surface. Then Ihe slighlesl con tact of the scraper delaches lhe cake en bloc,
and it drops inlo a screw or belt conveyor which removes il oUlside lhe building (fig. 31.9).
Out in the yard, it is dropped inlo a Irailer which, as soon as il is filled, is laken by lraClor
forspreading the filler cake on Ihe fields, and the trailer is immedialely replaced by anolher
one.
Dry substance in muds, The propon ion of sol id s in lhe muds going lO lhe fillration should
be nOI less than 4.5 ulo, The recommended propon ion is between 5.5 and 6UJo.
Perforated screen . The perforaled screens are of copper, of brass or of stainless steel, per-
forated with 625 holes per sq.in ., of 0.5 mm (0.020 in.) in diameter.
The copper screens are 0.45 mm in thickness, 1 mm belween centres of holes, and 23070
o f clear openi ng.
Their designation in [he French series is RD 0.5 S. The width of [he seclions is 324 111m
(12~ in.) for the Oliver or 345 mm (13 ~ in.) for Ihe Eimco filler.
Screens of copper are preferable to lhose in stainless sleel; they are more flexible and less
fragile.
The screens suffer very little wear, and may be used for several seasons WilhoUl being
replaced. They are, however, fragile and delicate. In the slack season, LO avoid damage,
breakages due lo cyclones, etc., il will be wise to cover the filler with a layer of fell or such
protective material, which can be fixed around the drum by circumferelllial slraps.
The capacilY and operation of the filter are improved by feeding the mud nol only al one
point but at three points along the length of the filter tank; at the middle and at each end. 4
The distribution on the drum is then more uniformo
Agitator. 1n order to avoid allowing the muds in the filter lank to settle out, they are kept
in movement by an agitaLOr oscillating 10 and fro, pivoted on the axis 01' the filler, alld driven
by a separate small motor. To avoid ruplure of Ihe l'Iocculenl mud partirles, the bagacillo
mixture should be fed by gravit y4'.
Motor. The filter drum is driven by a small electric motor of about 1.5 kW (2 h.p.).
Speed. The speed 01' ¡his motor is constant: generalJy, 1,450 r.p.m. II drives the fi/ter drum
by means of a belt and a double-worm reduction gear. A speed-regulation device conlrolJed
by a handwheel permits the speed reduction ralio 01' the V-bell to be varied; accordingly, the
final speed of rotation 01' the drum may be regulated between a maximum of 1 rotation in
3 min and a minimum of 1 in about 10 mino Thus a scale 01' speed regu lation is provided
allowing the speed to be varied between eXlreme values in the ratio 01' approximalely 1 to
3. It is estimated in Louisiana 4b that, by doubling the speed, Ihe fillration rate is increased
only by a factor 01' 1.4. On average, a speed of 1 revolution per 5 min is used.
Filler cake
The filter cake obtained appears dry and porous, bUI nevertheless contains, 75 - 80% 01'
water.
On account 01' the bagacilJo which is added LO lhe mud to facilitale filtralion, il is necessary
[O reckon on about 3 -4 kg 01' filler cake per 100 kg of cane (specific gravity 1.3 - 1.4).
The thickness af the cake is variable, but generally of the order 01' 7 -13 111m (t- t in.).
11 has been found in Louisiana" lhal oplimal exhauslion of the cake was oblained with a
Ihickness of 7 mm, since washing \Vas mOSI effective al Ihal I hicklless.
The filter turns out 60 -75 kg 01' filler cake per J112/ h (12 - 15 Ib./sq. fl./h), or more
precisely, 125 kg/ m 2/ h per cm (64Ib./sq.fl./h per inch) 01' cake thickness. In South Africa l ,
arate of 75-80 kg / m 2/h (IS-16Ib./sq.fl./h) is reponed.
Temperature. The mud for filtration should be al leasl al 85°C (185°F) afler addilion 01'
the fine bagasse. Below thal temperature, there is a risk of waxes blocking Ihe gauze. In this
CONTINUOUS ROTARY VACUUM flLTERS 481
Fig. 31.9. Oliver-Calllpbell filler : cake discharge .
connection, overflow of mud from the filter tank should be avoided, since that involves
recycling, which in rurn causes cooling of the material.
Sugar loss in cake. The filter cake contains 0.5 - 3070 of sugar, averaging 1 - 2% . This cor-
responds to a poi loss of ab oul 0.2-0.8070, averaging say 0.5%.
Filtration rate
A filtration rate of 250 - 400 l/ m' (5 - 8 gal. / sq. ft.) of filtering surface/ h may be expected.
However, the capacity of filtrate pumps is reckoned as 480 - 500 IIm 2 / h (10 gal./sq. ft./h).
Capacity
The filler area considered necessary varies in difl'erenl counlries. The following figures have
been qu oled:
Average Ex/remes
(m'/r.c.h.) (sq,f/ .//.c .h.) (m' / /.c.h.) (sq.ft.// .c.h.)
Cuha 6 0.30 3.2

PhiJipr'lines 1 0.44 4 .8
Quecnsland' 0 .55 6.0
Nalal 9 0 .64 7.4 O.J) - 1.0 3.6 -))
Hawaii 10 083 9.) 0.67~ ).0 7.4 -))
Puerto Rico II 0 .59 6.5 0.20 - 2.2 2.2 - 24
Generally, an area of 0.6 m'/Lc.h. (6.5 sq.rt. / t.c.h.) 15 5pecified In lile American
hemisphere.
482 FILTRATlON Ch. 31
We estímate that, cvcn with juices difficult to treat, a capacity 01' O.J m' / I.C.h. (J.3
sq.ft./I.C.h.) would be salisfaclory.
Wilh lhe "Rapifloc" syslem (el p. 485), Dorr- Oliver eslimates thar a figure 01' 0.35
m'/l.c.h. (3.8 sq.ft./t.c.h.) will be sufficienl inslead 01' 0.6 (6.5). II is even possible 10 go
as low as 0.25 m'lI.c.h. (2.8 sq.rl./l.c.h.).
Proportion of c10udy filtra te

For every lOO parts 01' fillrale supplied by the filler, it may be estimated lhal there will be:
30 - 60070 01' cloudy filtrale

70 - 40% 01' clear fillrale.
These IWO fillrales togelher may contain between 2 and 12% 01' suspended maller expressed
as dry malerial".
Oisposal of filtrales
II io oflen diffi cu ll lO decide what is lhe besl way to deal wirh Ihese lwo l'ilrrales.
(a) For lhe cloudy J'iltrate, lhe I'irsl idea which comes to mind is to send it to Ihe filler lank
or to the mud tank preceding it. However, this dilutes the filter feed, and is not tO be
recommended. Jt is necessary to return the cloudy juice ahead of the clarifier. In compound
clarification, there is a choice between returning it before the primary clarifier or before Ihe
secondary. The former Solulion is preferable.
(b) As regards lhe clear fillrale, unfortunalely ir has ncilher the brilliance nor the c1arity
01' the clarified juice. 1I is greyish and still slighlly cloudy. JI wOllld not be desirable to send
it to manufacture with the primary c1ear juice. Accordingly, il is generally relurned to process
ahead 01' the clearifier.
In simple clarification and often in compound clarification, it is therefore common prac-
lice to mix the two filtrales and relurn the mixed filtrale lO process ahead 01' the clarifier.
Tl1is is the disadvanlage 01' lhis lype 01' filler: ir overloads lhe clarification sial ion. When
Ihe laller is working near Ihe limil of ilS capacilY, il is undesira ble to inerease the volume
01' Ihe juices, and consequently their speed 01' circulalion in the clarifier, by a fraclion which
represenlS approximalely:
Simpl.e clarification: 12 - 20%

~ Primary clari fier: 10-20%
Compound clarificalion
( Secondary clari fiel': 10-15%
One Solulion con siSIS 01' re-clarifying Ihe Iwo fillrales in a special small clarifier, afler
rehealing and re-liming. A very clear juice is thus oblained, logelher with thick mud, which
is relurned lO the rOlary filler'J The filtrates may also be Irealed in a cenlrifugal separatOr,
of the Westfalia Iype.
Washing
For lhe reason indicated in discussing Ihe operalion of this filler (el p. 477), Ihe quantily
CONTINUOUS ROTARY VACUUM FILTERS 483
of wash water which pass es into the clcar filtrate represent only a small fraction of lhe waler
used al lhe filter, about 20 - 25070. The greater part remains in lhe filler cake. Jt is necessary
lherefore to determine the quantity of water lO be used for washing according to the dilution
of lhe c1ear fillrate, and not according lO lhe quantity of water sent lO lhe filter.
The efficiency of washing is of more importance (han the quantity of water used. In Sout h
Africa, one factory using water for washing equivalenl lO 100070 on filter cake oblained 0.3070
poi in cake, whereas another employing hall' as much obtained 0.4070.
Fig. 31.10 . Filtratioll s[ation B.M.A. rillers.
Generally, wash water amounling to 100,150070 on cake is used. In Iran, wash water is
reL'Koncd as 1.38070 on cane by weight. In general, one may assume 14-20 kg/ l.c. (30-45
Ib.ll.c.), 01' 1.4 - 2.0070. One South African faclory reporls 12.6 kg/l.c. (28 Ib .ll.c.).
This would preferably be water at 75-80°C (I67~ 176°F). However, Webre 'J , considers
that it is desirable not lO exceed 60°C (140°F) to avoid risk of enlraining waxes contained
in lhe filter cake. We do nOl share this poinl of view, for a reason complelely analogous to
that demonstraled by Honig for hot imbibition (ef. "Waxes", p. 308). In Loui siana, the
484 FILTRATlON Ch. 31
minimum lemperalure for wash water is stated as 82°C (180°F) and the oplimal lemperalure
as 88-90°C (190- 194 °F), al a pressure of 3 -4 kg/ m (0.6-0.8 Ib ./sq.fl.). The small
'
nozzles for water spray should be spaced aboul 30-40 cm (12-16 in.) apart, and about 16
cm (6 in.) from the surface of Ihe filler. They should have an opening of 3 - 3.2 mm.
The washing could be continued so far as 10 reduce the polarisalion 100.2070, in co mpound
clarificalion, or 0.3% in simple clarificalion; bul it is doubtful whether Ihis is desirable,
since, in seeking such low figures, Ihere is a risk of reducing Ihe purilY of Ihe filtrate by
washing 10 such an eXlenl Ihat Ihe nelt result is a loss of sugar.
Parl of Ihe soluble impurilies are picked up during Ihe washing, resulting in a drop in puri:
Iy belween the juice reaching Ihe filter and the clear fillrale leaving il. This drop is generally
of Ihe order of 2 - 4 unils.
A rule is also quoled (Perk 14) that the purity of the filtrate should not differ from lhal
of the clear juice by more Ihan 1.5 unils.
The difference in brix belween rhese two filtrates, for a well-controlled washing, is between
30 and 40%.
Retention
The "retenlion" is rhe proponion of suspended malter extracled by the filter, expressed as
a percentage of the suspended maller contained in the mud arriving at Ihe filter.
This retention sometimes falls very low, below 50%.
Now Ihe filter must exlracl the whole of the suspended malter supplied 10 il from rhe
clarifiers, otherwise t.here would be an accumulalion of suspended malter. Thus if the reten-
liun is unly 50%, this means thal Ihe two fillrates maintain in circulation belween c1arifiers
and filters a quanlity of suspended malter equal 10 Ihal which is removed with the filter cake.
It is obvious thal this involves a serious overload for Ihe clarifiers, which greally reduces rheir
capacilY, and which increases Ihe risk of having very fine panicles passing 10 manufacture
with the clear juice from the c1arifier.
Tests by Jenkins 'l in Queensland showed Ihat retenlion varied from 48 10 88%, averaging
70%. 11 was concluded from Ihese lests Ihal il was easy 10 altain a retenlion of 75 - 80%,
represenling a very substanlial improvement over 50%, if Ihe following precautions were
observed:
(1) Increase in Ihe proponion of bagacillo in the mudo For Ihis purpose il is recommended
Ihal for Ihe bagasse sc reen a woven gauze of at least 8 meshes 10 the inch should be used.
(2) A reduction in Ihe speed of rotal ion of the filler. It is preferable that the speed should
nol rise aboye I rolalion in 6 or 8 min, and if possible, Ihe minimum speed sho uld be maill-
lained, which is of Ihe order of I rOlalion in lOor I J mino
Later lesls by Fosler'6 have shown lhal filter speed is nOI imponanl, provided Ihal the
bagacillo content is sufficient; a high ratio of bagacillo 10 mud solids, and a high concentra-
lion of mud solids in the filler feed, are Ihe main essentials for good retenlion.
It is considered in Mauritius (Houareau") that the optimal concentralion of insoluble
malerial in muds is approximately 6%. Iflhe concentration rises 1012%, the retention would
faH to 60%; if it drops to 4%, the retention drops similarly. To obtain the oprimal propon ion
of 6070, lhe bagacillo added should be increased 10 aboul 60% on lhe weighl of insoluble mat-
ter, and retention can then exceed 80"70.
CONTINOUS ROTARY VACUUM FILTERS 485
Mud and scums. According to the method of harvesting and the state of the cane (straight
stalks or mechanical harvesting), we may reekon 180 - 240 kg of mud per Le. (400 - 540
Ib./t.e.), giving 25 - 40 (55 - 90 lb.) kg of mud per tonne caneo
Dimensions
The normal diameter of the Oliver-Campbell fi!ter drum is 8 fL However, filters of 10 fL
are in use in Mexico, of 12 fl. in Australia and of 14 fl. in South Africa (Table 31.2).
TABLE 31.2
AREA OF OUVER FILTERS (IN m 2; IN BRACKETS, IN sq.n.)
Diameler Length (m)
(m) (/t.) 2.7 (9/t.) 3.7 (12 /t.) 4.3 (14/1.) 4.9 (16/1.) 5.5 (18 /t.) 6.1 (20ft.)
2.44 8 21 (226) 28 (302) II (l52) 37 (402)

3.05 10 35 (377) 41 (440) 47 (503) 52 (565) 58 (628)
l.66 12 42 (452) 49 (528) 56 (603) 63 (679) 70 (754)
4.27 14 74 (792)
In new or expanding factories, the tendency is towards increased dimensions of the filters
rather than increased number of filters. In Australia '8 a filterof 240 m' (2,580 sq.fl.) has
been installed.
"RapifIoc" filtration
In 1961, Dorr - Oliver patented a new system of filtration which it christened "Rapifloe".
This system (Fig. 31.11) consists of adding a coagulant, "Separan AP 30", manufactured
RAPI - FLOC
• Fine baga sse

Drip
pipes
Overflow Raplf10c cloth
Coagulator
Clarltier muds
J_LUJ_LLLI
1-ryryrrIT
Filtrate
pump r-~--'
pH meter
.. TO evaporators
Fig·: 31.11. RapiOoc system.
486 PILTRATION Ch. 31
by Dow Ch.emical, Midland, Michigan, in the ratio of about 1.5 p.p.m. of juice. The
coagulanr is added in a special receiver, termed the coagulator, just before the mud goes to
the filter. The latler may be an ordinary Oliver filter, which requires only minor modifica-
tions; it is covered with a porous cloth of felted polypropylene covering lhe perJ'oraled metal
sheet, and is furnished with a new distributing valve and a de vice for washing the cloth bet-
ween the position where the cake is detached and that where the drum re-enters the mud feed
tank (Fig. 31.12).
Feed t a nl<.
Fig. 31.12. Washing or clOIh in Rapinoc riltration.
This new system gives a clear filtrate which may be sent directly to the evaporators, thus
avoiding (1) overload of the clarification station and the filter due to recycling filtrates, (2)
the long time which this portion of juice s pends in these stations, with consequent losses by
inversion.
The filter capacity is increased and , according to the manufacturers, almost doubled. It
would be increased from about lOO .to 170-195 kg/m'/h (35 -40 Ib ./sq.ft. / h) of cake at
80070 moisture. The thickness of the filter cake is indeed greatly increased. From this point
of view, the "Rapifloc" is clearly indicated when the increase in crushing rate of the factory
is too much for the capacity of the existing filter plant, which will thus be sufficient with the
new system. In South Africa 19 a figure of 100-150 kg of filter cake per m'/h (20-30
Ib./sq. ft./h) is assumed.
A certain gain in capacity may be obtained by replacing the normal perforated sheets (0.5
mm opening) by sheets with holes of 4 - 5 mm.
The water for washing increases the water requirement by approximately 2.3 l/s (0.5
gal./s); the brix of the filtrate is slightly lower, but the purity appreciably higher; a gain of
about one point is obtained. Sucrose loss in the cake, however, shows hardly any decrease.
The life of the cloth is about 1-3 months for Dacron, 2-6 months for polypropylene.
The consumption of Separan may vary, according to conditions, from J to 5 p.p.m. Nor-
mally, 1.5 - 2 p.p .m . is suffi cient.'o
487
.
ACCESSORIES FOR CONTINUOUS ROTARY FILTERS
~ .... '
Separan may also be replaced by the other flocculants cited (p. 404).
In addition to propylene and dacron, a Belgian c10lh (Lainyl) may also be used.
Difficulties. 1t happens at times that di fficulty is experienced in stretching the c10th or in

maintaining it tight on the drum; after operating for one or two days, it becomes loose and
forms waves at the position of discharging the cake. A better tension will be obtained by
keeping the filter under vacuum while placing the c10th in place; the c10th then stretches more
readily and remains tight while the holding bands are secured.
To ensure Ihal the washing is effective and does not lead to a choking of the cloth, it is
necessary Ihat the wash water should be at 80- 90°C (175 -195°F), under a pressure of 4
kg/cm 2 (55 p.s.i.), and should strike the drum at an angle of about 110° (that is, in aplane
inclined at 20° to the vertical and against the movement of the drum). A water consumption
of 1.5 lis per m (1 gal .ls per 10 fl.) length of drum may be assumed.'1
Eimcobelt filter
This system was introduced before lhe Rapifloc, and is very similar to it.
The filter drum is surrounded by a tightly woven clOlh of polypropylene which passes over
. a discharge roller, around an aligningroller and anolher tension ro.ller, and then returns to
the drum. The ends of the c10th are joined together by means of a metallacing and a "Iightn-
ing" fastener. The c10th is kept clean by means of two perforated pipes which wash it after
the discharge roller, the wash water being recovered in a Irough from which it may be remov-
ed and recycled or used for imbibition; its polarisation is approximately 0.2070. A third spray
pipe washes the c10th from below just before the discharge roller, thus assisting discharge
of the cake.
The c10th may have alife of 4 - 5 months. Separan AP 30, diluted to 0.5%, is mixed with
Ihe mud, lo which bagacillo has been added. A good dosage of Separan is 2 p.p.m.; at 5
p .p.m ., Rabe" has found in Soulh Africa that the cake does nOI adhere 10 lhe c1oth; and
at 1 p .p.m., the filtrate is dirty and the c10th chokes.
It is important that Ihe wash water should be at leasl at 3 kg /c m 2 (40 p.s.i.) and 80Ce
(175°F), otherwise the cloth beco mes blocked. Changing an ordinary Eimco filter to an
"Eimcobelt" doubles it~ capacity. A capacity may be expected 2J of about 100 - 120 kg/m'lh
(20-25 Ib./sq.rt .lh). This OUlput can hardly be decreased below 60 without disadvantages
nor increased aboye 155 kg/ m'lh (32 Ib.lsq,ft./h).
The filtrate is sufficiently c1ear to be sent directly to the evaporators.
Efficiency. The "dressed" filters, Rapifloc or Eimcobelt, have a high retention; they
reduce the suspended matter in the filtrate to 0.03 - 0.05070, compared with about 0.80% for
the bare filters."
ACCESSORIES FOR CONTlNUOUS ROTARY fILTERS
Air pump .
FaclOries installing filters often attempt to'a~oid the small vacuum installation involved for
488 FILTRA,\,IQN Ch. 31
the filter. The vacuum, however, should not be obtained from the central con den ser or from
(he effect con den ser or those of the vaeuum pans, beeause:
(a) The quantity of air entering at the filter is considerable and would dislurb the central
vacuum
(b) The eonditions required for the two vacuum systems are very different
(e) The filter does not necessarily always operate at the same time as lhe vac uum pans.
A small air pump and a small barometric condenser are therefore supplied with the filter.
The condenser is a small cylindrico-conical vessel, to which a water separator is connected.
The barometric column is of SO - 7S mm (2 - 3 in.) diameter.
These small air pumps are sometimes replaced by ejector-condensers aCluated by steam,
which are smaIler and less costly (ef. p. 901). A single-stage ejector is then sufficient, being
ample for th e maximum vac uum required.
The best solution, however, is lhal of an air pump actuated by a ring 01" liquido An excellent
French type is the Neyret-Beylier "Hydro" lype NE, desig naled "for low vacuum". This
type has its oplimum efficiency at vacua of SO - SS cm (20 - 22 in.) of lllercury, and costs
only about 701170 as much as the "Hydro" pump type B specified "for high vacuum" design-
ed for use with multiple effects of vacuum pans. Of foreign vacuum pumps of similar type,
the most widespread is the Nash (Fig. 31.13) . Nash recommends for these pumps lhe follow-
ing capacities expressed in m' / h (cu.fl./h) of air displaced per m (sq.fl.) of filtering area:
'
Ordinary Oliver filter: 12.8 m'/ m' / h (0.7 cu.ft./sq.ft./min)

"Rapi floc" Oliver fil ter: 31-32 m' / m'/h (1.7 cu.ft./sq.ft./min)
In Louisiana", a capacity of 15 - 18 m'/ h per m (0.8 - 1.0 cu. ft./min /sq . fr.) of filterin g
'
s urface is specifi ed for an ordinary filter operating under a vacuum of SO cm (20 in.).
These pumps take up little space, do not require large foundalions, can be inslalled on the
boards of a platform, and require only a small quantity of cooling waler and lillle supervision
and maintenance.
The low vacuum (25 - 40 cm) and the high vacuum (40 - SO cm) are maintained at the
desired values (gene rally 30 and 45 cm (12 and 18 in.) respectively( by IwO diaphragm valves.
Fig. 31.13. Nash eL 702 vacuum pump for roca ry filter.

';'CCESSORIES FOR CONTINUOUS ROTARY FILTERS 489
Bagacillo screens
Filters of the Oliver type gene rally do not furnish a satisfactory filtration unless a certain
quantity of baga cilIo is added to the muds, This is obtained by screening, and consists mainly
of thread·like fibres about 3 cm (I¿ in.) in length and of pieces about 1 mm in diameter. The
mixture of these two materials gives a substantial increase in the filterability of the other
materials in suspension which constitute the muds. The fibrous threads in particular form
a layer over the screen and so provide a network which forms the actual filter medium.
Quantity necessary. The makers estimate" that it is necessary to introduce about 7 kg (16
Ib.)-of bagacilIo per tonne of cane.
In Cuba" a figure of approx. 6.5 kg (15 lb.) of fine bagasse at 48070 moisture is stated.
In Louisiana 4' 6 - 10070 of fine bagasse on weight of wet filter cake.
In Queensland" 4.5 kg/t.c .. (10 lb.lt.c,).
In South Africa" 4.5 - 14 kg/t.c. (10 - 32Ib.lt.c.); more recently (Perk 29 , 1960) 15 kg/t.c.
(34 Ib.lt.c.).
In Mauritius, with an average value of 4 kg/t.c. (9 Ib./t.c.), Wiehe JO comments that a bet·
ter result was obtained with 6.5 kg/t.c. (15 Ib./t.c.), the loss of sugar in the cake falling by
half.
As will be seen, this quantity is rather variable, and depends on the ease of fiILration of
the juice. We ha ve found it possible to descend to zero while obtaining an excelIent sugar
recovery. As a general figure one can assume 3- 6 kglt.c. (7 - 14 1b./t.c.).
lnslallalion. A shaker screen is located under the bagasse conveyor (Fig. 31.14), preferably
between the two chutes feeding bagasse to the first two boiler furnaces. A slide similar to
those feeding the furnaces allows the bagas se to fall on the .screen, which allows the fine
bagacillo to pass and rejects the remainder to the two neighbouring chutes.
In order to obtain the desired quantity of bagacillo which is necessary for a filter treating
all the muds from the factory, it will be necessary to pass over (he screen between 25 and
60070 of the total bagasse produced by the factory. With compound clarification, 25 - 35070
will be ample.
Gauze screen
----- - ,
__ :-
-':- :'.... --"'1._
~ ~\
f/& Oversize
\\ ~ \ - bogosse
, :~ '" dlscarded
'-<1\\
~~\~
8.0g0CiIIO)
Fig. 31.14, ROl.ex shaker screen ror fine bagasse.

',.
However, in the great majority of cases, this small item of equipment mayO be omitted by
simply replacing a certain length (2.5 - 5 m) of the bottom plate of the conveyor by a per-
forated plate with holes of 10 mm (Ain.) diameter. It is convenient to place this in an inclined
section of the conveyor.
A fan conveys the bagacillo from the screen, or from' the hopper situated under the per-
forated bottom plate of the conveyor, through a galvanised iron duct, and delivers iI into
a cyclone separator placed aboye a mixer (Fig. 31.15) into which are fed the muds passing
to the filter. The quantity of bagacillo conveyed by the fan is controlled by a small slide or
butterny valve in the duct.
Fig. 31.15. Claririca¡ion (right); Oliver filler (Iefl)j cyclone (centre); and condenser (above¡ lefI).
"
Screens. The four principal sizes of gauze used for screens are given in Table 31.3.
T hc fincr screens will be used when the juice does not filler well, provided that the quantity
01' bagacillo obtained is sufficient. Gauzes coarser than No. 12 would not give such a good
filtration; an atlempL will be made, if possible, lo use only No. 14. It is considered in South
Africa J I thaL 90070 of Lhe bagacillo going to the filter should pass Ihrough a screen of 0.8 mm,
and at least 70% Lhrough a O.5-mm screen.
ACCESSORIES FOR CONTINUOUS ROTAR Y FILTERS 491
TABLE 31.3
OAUZES POR BAOACILLO SCREEN'S
English no. (meshes Meshes per Proporlion oJ bagacillo

per in eh) dm oblained, by weighl
8 mesh 32 100
10 - 40 90
12 - 48 60
14 - 56 25
TABLE 31.4
OLIVER SERIES OF SCREENS
mm m' in ches sq./fI.
510 X 1,220 0.62 20 X 48 = 6.67

1,015 X 2,130 = 2.16 40 X 84 = 23.33
1,015 X 3,050 = 3.10 40 X 120 = 33.33
1,520 X 3,050 = 4.65 60 X 120 = 50
Capacity of bagacillo screens. A screen of 32 mesh per dm (8-mesh) will furnish 60 ~ 75

kg of bagacillo/m'/h (12 ~ 15 Ib./sq. ft./h). In Queensland 27 a figure or 0.04 m'/t.c.h. (0.4
sq.fl./t.c.h.) is given for an 8-mesh screen. lt has been established 32 thal a screen of 16 mesh
per dm (4-mesh) could be suitable and would give a proportion of fine bagasse lower lhan
thal furnished by one of 32 (8-mesh). Such screens furnish 133 kg/m'/h (27 Ib./sq. ft./h) of
fine bagasse in the case of fixed horizontal screens wilhoul suction, and 820 (168) wilh
suction.
Sometimes lime is added to the mud, so as to raise the pH to 7.8 or 8.0. This facililates
flocculation and forms a more porous filter cake. Generally a screen of 0.06 m'/t.c.h. (0.6
sq.ft./t.c.h.) is installed. The Oliver company supplies 4 sizes of screen, as listed in Table
31.4.
Fan. lt is considered in Cuba]] that, for a delivery duct of 75 m (250 ft.) in length, with
three bends, 6.25 m] of air wiU be required per kg of bagacillo to be conveyed (100
cu. ft./lb.); air velocity 25 mis (82 ft/s).
:¡ ., ...
Total power required

The lO tal power required for the whole installation ~ filter and accessories ~ is approx-
imately 0.8 kW/m' (I h.p./l0 sq.ft.) of filtering surface. For a filter of 28 m' (300 sq.ft.),
for example, there will be required:,
492 FILTRATION '.' Ch. 31
Filter drive: 1.9 kW

Vacuum pump: . 9 kW
2 Centrifugal pumps for fillrates: 2.3 kW
Screw conveyor for filler cake: I.5kW
Bagacillo screen: 0.8 kW
Bagacillo fan: 3.8 kW
Mixer for muds and bagacillo: 0.4 kW
19.7 kW (26 h.p.)
Operation of 'a rotary filter

The temperature of the muds to be filtered plays an important par!. Care should be laken
thal Ihis does not fal! below 80°C (176°F), and it will be maintained preferably aboye 85°C
(185°F), and if possible, 90°C (l94°F). Provided this temperature is maintained, the screen
remains clean and spotless, after discharge of the filter cake.·At the end of the week, the
screen is cleaned by a steam jet from a nozzle provided for the purpose. If this precaution
were neglected, the perforations of Ihe screen would become blocked, or the seclions would
fiJl with dried mudo In South Africa, it is even recommended" thal ¡he screens should be
sleam-cleaned every 12 hours.
FILTRATION OF SYRUFS
Filtra¡ion of syrup is normally carried oul on speciallypes of filter. The principal types are
the following, al! made under licence from American manufacturers. We indicate for each
an order of magnitude of the filtering surface necessary:
(a) Herfilco, made in France, 3 - 4 m 2 / !.c.h. (33 - 44 sq. ft.lt.c.h.)
(b) Niagara, made in Hol!and, 2-3 m 2 / t.c.h. (22-33 sq.ft./Lc.h.).
REFERENCES
1 N. DEERR. Cane Sugar. Norman Rodger. London, 1921. p. 306.

2 L. A. TROMP, Machinery and Equipmen/ ol/he Sugar Cane Fac/ory, Norman Rodger, London, 1936. p. 392.
3 L. A. TROMP, op. ci/., p. 393.
4 J. D'EsPAIGNET, Rey. Agr. Sucriere l/e Maurice, 54 (1975) 187.
4a J. R. STEMBRIDGE, Sugar J., 31 (10) (1969) 28.
4b J. R. STEMBRIDGE, Sugar J., 31 (10) (1969) 31.
4c J. R. STEMBRIDGE, Sugar J., 31 (10) (1969) 27.
5 SMRI, S. Ajrica, Ann. Rep., 1977, p. 8.
6 J. O. SALINAS, Fac/s abour Sugar, 35 (4) (1940) 31.
7 E. T. WESTLY, Fac/s abou/ Sugar, 26 (1931) 269.
8 P. N. STEWART./ a/., Proc. 42nd Conf. QSSCT. /975, p 328.
9 O. N. ALLAN, Proc. 47/h Conf. SASTA, 1973, p. 91.
10 S. A. WI CK EY. Facrs abou/ Sugar, 31 (1936) 54.
11 C. LANG. Sugar J., 13 (5) (1950) 53.
12 C. C. SAVOIS. Sugar J .• 13 (2) (1950) 25.
13 A. L. WEBRE, Sugar J., 13 (11) (1951) 26.
REFERENCES 493
14 C. G. M. PERK, Proc. 341h Con!. SASTA, 1960, p. 11 .

15 G. H. lENKINS, Inl. Sugar J., 42 (1940) 386.
16 D. H. FOSTER, ?roc. 21s1 Con/. QSSCT, 1954, p. 143.
17 J. P. HOUAREAU, Rey. Agr. SlIcriere /le Maurice, 39 (1960) 254.
18 J. R . ALLEN, SlIgar Azucar, 16 , No . 9 (198 1) 58. "
19 SMRI, S. Ajrica, Ann. Rep., 1977, p. 80.
20 L. LlNCOLN, Rey. Agr. SlIcril!re Ile Maurice, 44 (1965) 39.
21 L. LINCOLN, Rey. Agr. Sucriere /le Maurice, 44 (1965) 38.
n A . E. RABE, ?roc. 38th Con/. SASTA, 1964, p. 111.
23 B. C. OLSON, ?roc. 32nd Con/. QSSCT, 1965, p. 43.
24 Bllr. SlIgar Exp. Slallons (Queensland), 651h Ann. Rep., p. 78.
25 SlIgar, 43 (1) (1948) 40.
26 C. ROMERO, Inl. SlIgar J., 45 (1943) 165.
27 J. D. DE R. DE STo ANTOCNE ANO J . P . LAMUSSE, MallrllillS Sugar Ind. Res. Insl., Ann. Rep., 1959, p. 80.
28 J. O. SALINAS, Inl. Sugar J ., 43 (1941) 183.
29 C. G. M. PEJUI., Frac. 34th Con/. SASTA, 1960, p. 11.
30 H. F. WIEHE, Mallril ius SlIgar Ind. Res. Insl., Ann. Rep ., 1962, p. 92 .
31 SMRI, S. Ajrica, ColI. No. 120, 1979, p. 40.
32 K. J. NIX, Frac. 371h. Con!. QSSCT, 1970, p. 255.
33 C. ROMERO, Inl. Sugar J., 45 (1943) 165.
34 Inl. Sugar J., 43 (1941) 182.
.':
'.'
32. Evaporation
". .. ' ••• J
". ~ ..
GENERAL ,.
Heat transmission in an evaporator

A sugar evaporalOr consists essentially of a tubular calandria serving as a heat exchanger:
the heating Sleam surrounds the outside of the tubes and the juíce to be evaporated círculales
inside lhe lubes,
When lWO fluids of lemperature f and f' are located on opposíte sídes of a solid surface,
lhe quanlily of heat Iransmilled from one 10 Ihe olher is gíven by ¡he expression:
Q=kS(t-I ' ) (32.1 )
Q quantíly of heal Iransmilted

k = coefficíenl of heal transfer
S heal -exchange surface
= lemperalure of Ihe hOI fluid
f ' = lemperalure of lhe cold fluid.
The coefficíenl k ís gíven by:
e
= - + + - (32.2)
k a b e
a coefficienl of heal Iransfer from Ihe hOI fluid 10 Ihe surface

b coefficienl of heal lransfer across Ihe solid surface
e = coefficienl of heal lransfer from Ihe surface lO the cold fluid
e = thickness of Ihe melal wall.
Whence:
k (32 .3)
e
- + - + -
a b e
This equalion shows thal Ihe value of the coefficient k is delermined by [he magnilude of
the smallesl of Ihe three coefficienls a, b, c. If c, for example, is much smaller Ihan a and
b, we may neglect Ihe lalter and take:
k == C
GENERAL 495
This is the common case for transmission: vapour - melal lUbe - juice, the heat tran sfe r
coefficients from vapour to metal, and across the metal surface, being very high compared
with the coefficient from metal to juice.
Deposits and incrustations form a layer on [he tubes, the resistance of which to heat
transmission is added to those given; ilOW, the corresponding heat-transfcr coefficient is
much in ferior to any of the three preceding ones. It follows that an evaporator wilh fouled
tubes will function much less effectively than one with clean tubes. It is csse ntial to maintain
TABLE 32.IA
RELATlON BETWEEN PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE OF DRY SATURATED WATER

VAPOUR AT PRESSURES BELOW ATMOSPHERIC (METRIC UNtTS)
Vacuum Hg abs. Abs. press. Temp. Vacuum Hg abs. Abs. press. Temp.
(cm) (cm) (kg/cm') (oC) (cm) (cm) (kg / em') (oC)
76 O O. 38 38 0.517 81.7
75 1 0.0136 11.2 37 39 0.530 82.3
74 2 0.0272 22.1 36 40 0.544 83.0
73 3 0.0408 29 .0 35 41 0.557 83.6
72 4 0.0544 34.0 34 42 0.571 84.2
71 5 0.0680 38.1 33 43 0.585 84.8
70 6 0 .0816 41.5 32 44 0.598 85 .4
69 7 0.0952 44.5 31 · 45 0.612 · 86.0
68 8 0.109 47.1 30 46 0.62.5 86.5
67 9 0.122 49.4 29 . 47 0.639 87.1
66 10 0.136 51.6 28 48 0.653 87.6
65 11 0.150 53.5 27 49 0.666 88.1
64 12 0.163 55.3 26 50 0.680 88.7
63 13 0.177 57.0 25 ' 51 0.693 89.2
62 14 0.190 58.6 24 52 0.707 89.7
61 15 0.204 60 . 1 23 53 0.721 90.2
60 16 0.218 61.5 22 54 0.734 90.7
59 17 0.231 62.8 21 55 0.748 91.2
58 18 0.245 64.1 20 56 0.761 91.7
57 19 0.258 65.3 19 57 0.775 92.1
56 20 0.272 66.4 18 58 0.789 92 .6
55 21 0.285 67.5 17 59 0.802 93 . 1
54 22 0.299 68.6 16 60 0.816 93.5
53 23 0.313 69.6 15 61 0.830 94.0
52 24 0 .326 70.6 14 62 0.843 94.4
51 . 25 0 .340 71.6 13 63 0.856 94.8
50 26 0.353 72.5 12 64 0.870 95.3
. 49 27 0.367 73.4 11 65 0.884 95.7
48 28 0.381 74.2 10 66 0.897 96.1
47 29 0.394 75.1 9 67 0 .9 11 96.5
46 30 0.408 75 .9 8 68 0.924 96.9
45 31 0.421 76.7 7 69 0.938 97.4
44 32 0.435 77.4 6 70 0.952 97.8
43 33 0.449 78.2 5 71 0.965 98.1
42 34 0.462 78.9 4 72 0.979 98.5
41 35 0.476 79.6 3 73 0.992 98.9
40 36 0.489 . 80.3 2 74 1.006 99.3
39 37 0.503 81.0 1 75 1.020 99.6
38 38 0.517 81.7 O 76 1.033 100.0
-
496 EVAPORATION Ch. 32
'.'
Ihe tubes in a clean cond ition, and it is cleaning of the tub es which pro vides the most im-
perative reason for a weekly shutdown of a sugar factory which does not have spare
evaporator vessels.
Superheated steam. Ir heat transmission from saturated steam to metal is excellent,

superheated steam gives, o n the contrary, a very poor heat-transfer coefficient.
TABLE nlB
RELATION BETWEEN PRESSURE ANO TEMPERA TU RE Of DRY SATURATED WATER

VAPOUR AT PRESSURES BELOW ATMOSPHERIC (BRITISH UNITS)
Vacuum Hg abs. Abs. press. Temp . Vacuum flg abs. Abs. press. Temp.
(in.) (in.) (p.s.i.) (0F) (in .) (in.) (p.s.i.) (0F)
29.92 O O 15 14.92 7.328 178 .9

29 0.92 0.452 76.5 14 t5 .92 7.819 181.8
28 1.92 0.943 99.8 13 16 .92 8.310 184.6
27 2.92 t .434 114.t 12 17.92 8.802 187.2
26 3.92 1. 925 124.7 11 18.92 9.293 189. 8
25 4.92 2.417 133.1 10 19.92 9.784 192 .2
24 5.92 2.908 140.3 9 20.92 10.275 194.5
23 6.92 3.399 146.4 8 21.92 10.766 196.7
22 7.92 3.890 151.8 7 22.92 11.257 198.9
21 8.92 4.381 156.7 6 23.92 11.749 200.9
20 9.92 4.872 161.1 5 24.92 12.240 202.9
19 10.92 5.363 165.2 4 25.92 12.731 204.8
18 11.92 5.855 169.0 3 26.92 13 .222 206.7
17 12.92 6.346 172.5 2 27.92 13 .713 208.5
16 13.92 6.837 175 .8 1 28.92 14 .204 210.3
15 14.92 7.328 178.9 O 29.92 14 .696 212.0
Claassen' artributes to Ihis laller coeffic ient 0.81ll0 only of Ihe value of the preced ing, thal
is 10 say, 'l25 times less.
However, a slight superhea[ would not present any disadvantage. In France', evaporalion
has been cond ucted with beet juices, healing Ihe firs[ vessel wilh steam at 1.65 kg/cm' (23.5
p.s.i.) and 150°C (302°F), Ihal is to say, with a super hea 1 of 21 °C (38°F). The juice was boil-
ing al 120°C (248°F), and Ihe condensa le lefl Ihe ca landria al 129 °C (264°F), Ihe saluralion
lemperature corres pon ding to Ihe vapour pressure. The heal transmission was normal.
Jaroschek' slates that superheat is permissible up to a temperarure of J 60°C .( 320°F). It
wouJd be onJy aboye th ar tem pera ture [hat ir wouJd be necessary to cool the vapour. Webre'
indicates as a result of his own experience, after careful investigalions , thal degrees of
sU[Jerheat not exceeding 55°C (100°F) would not have any effecl on hear transmission in
mullirle effects and vacuum pam.
Beale and Slewarl' repor! a leS I which indic31ed Ihal il was possible lO reach Wilhoul disad-
vanlage 45°C (80°F) 01' s U[Jerh eal and Ihal Ihe heal-Iransfer coefJ'icienl did nOI fal l by more
Ihan 7.5% when [he superhear rose [O 80°C (J80°F).
JI is Ihus s3tisfacLOry 10 use steam with 30-50°C (50-'-90°F) of sU[Jerheat.
OENERAL 497
Boiling point. (a) Pressure. The boiling point of water depends on the pressure. We give
('rabie 32.1) boiling points corresponding to various pressures.
(b) Brix. However, in a multiple ef(ect in the sugar factory, it is not water which is boiling
but juice. Now the boiling point of a solution of sugar in water, or of a juice, under a given
pressure, increases with Ihe concentration of this solution, or wilh Ihe brix of Ihi s juice.
Under almospheric pressure, mixed juice, for example, boils at 100.25°C (212.5°F) instead
of 100°C (212°F). Table 32.2 gives the value of Ihe boiling-point elevation of solutions of
pure sucrose (according to Claassen)
TABLE 32.2
BOILING~PorNT ELEVATION OF SUCAR SOLUTIONS AND CANEi JVlCES

(OC) AT 760 mm PRESSURE (AF'TER CLAASSEN ANO THIEME)
Purily
Brix
100 90 80 70 60 JO 40
10 0.1 .. 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2

15 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4
20 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6
25 0.4 0.5 0.5 06 0.7 0.8 0.9
30 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.2
35 0.8 0.9 LO 1.1 1:3 1.4 1.6
40 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1
45 1.4 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.7
50 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.5 2.8 3.1 3.4
55 2.3 2.5 2.8 3.1 3.5 3.9 4.3
60 3.0 3.2 3.6 4.0 4.4 4.9 5.4
65 3.8 4.1 4.5 4.9 5.5 6.0 6.5
70 5.1 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.1 7.7 8.3
75 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.6 9.4 10.1 10.8
80 9.4 10.0 10.5 11.3 12.3 13.1 14.1
85 13.0 13.7 14.4 15.3 16.4 17.4 19.1
90 19.6 20.5 21.2 22.4 23.7 25.3
94 30.5
and of cane juices (according to Thieme). The rigul'es for low brix values and for a purily
of 40 ha ve been oblained by inlerpolalion.
11 will be seen lhal, for high purities, lhe boiling-poinl elevation is of the order of
magnilude of:
2B
e = - -- - (32.4 )
IDO- 8
e = boiling-point elevalion, in oC (OF)

B = brix of lhe so lution.
The boiling-point elevation fora pure solution may be calculated by the equalion:
498 BY APORATION. Ch. 32
'.'
O'
40
2
38
4
36
6
34
8
32
L
"
~
10
30 ~ ~
~ 1;
'"
"'¡," l' .' 12
28 o"- 80
L
~
o '"~ 14·
26 "- ·0
o
> tIl
kg/Cm 2 16
:;
24 130'
1.5
22 18
120'
-00
0.5 100 -00 20
110'
.3 20 e
.2
~
c~
11
'" 18
~
O 100' 'l." 22a'5
10
~
"-
24- 5.
"
L
. ~ 16 20 90'
o 3 o
e
e
,Q 14- 40 26 ..3
~ 80' o
o >
>
" 28~"
- 50
<;
12 70' e
.~ ·0
o "-
"-
.5,0 60 60' 30'"
e
u ·0
o
ro o 3 ID
> 32
8 50'
E
u 1. ---- ~f/
6 /
/ 34
/
//
4 5 36
2 38
MethQd 01 use 40
Fig. 32. J. Nomograph of Othmer and Silvis.

GENERAL 499
0.025 B 30 + B (1 0.54 h )
e
103.6 - B 229 - h
0:045 B 30 + B
103.6 - B
1.37h h))
190.5 -
B brix
h vacuum, in cm (in.) of mercury.
(e) Combinedeffeelsofbrixandpressure. Table 32.2 has been established for atmospheric

pressure. Now the boiling-poinl elevation of sugar solutions varies wilh the pressure, bul bet-
ween fairly narrow limits.
The boiling-point elevalion of a solution of any brix and purity under any given pressure
may be obtained by the use of the nomograph of Othmer and Sil vis·, which we reproduce
in Fig. 32.1. The use of this nomograph gives, for atmospheric pressure, results differing
slightly from the figures indicated in Table 32.2. There is no need to seek any grealer preci-
sion.
Hydrostalie pressure. When a pressure Pis exerled on the surface of a liquid, the pressure
10 which the molecules of the liquid are subjecled at a certain derth in the liquid is equal
lO P increased by the pressure of liquid corresponding to the depth.
Since the boiling point increases with the pressure, if the temperature of the liquid cor-
responds lo that necessary to produce boiling at the surface, this boiling would ceas e in lhe
liquid layers situated at a cerlain depth.
However, in a vessel otO a mulliple efl"ecl evarorator, we shall assume lhal Ihe lransmission
of heal is sufficienlly rapid for the juice lO boil throughoul the full length of Ihe lubes. If
il were olherwise , in facl, lhe juice would not cJimb up the lubes. Moreover, since the juice
arrives in lhe vessel at a temperature higher than lhat ruling in that vessel (since it comes from
lhe preceding one), there is no need for any of the heating surface to be used to bring it up
lO boiting poinl; it boils immediately it makes contact with the healing surface (and in facl,
even before making this firsl contacl, owing to selr-evaporalion).
Under lhese condilions it may be assumed lhat the layer of juice which is silualccl al lhc
. level of lhe bottom tu be plate will be subjecl to a hyclrostatic pressure equal to the pressure
of juice which lies aboye it. If, for example, the hydrostatic level of the juice in the vessel
corresponds to one-third of the height of the tubes, this layer will boil at a temperature cor-
responding to the varour pressure in the vessel increased by the hydrostatic pressure to which
it is subjected.
In [lractice the matter is not quite as simrle as lhis, owing to lhe statc of agitation 01" thc
juice in the vessel; but it is reasonable to consider thal this hYPolhesis, aprliecl to the various
depths of juice covering. the tubular heating surface, ..viII give a correct idea of the mean
temperature of the juice.
This commenl is of importance for the calculation of multiple effects. If all the juice were
at ¡he temperature corresponding to the pressure obtaining in the vapour space of the vessel,
the temperature drop between heaiing vapour and juice would be obtained by simply deduc-
- -
'.'
TABLE 32,3
BOILlNO~P01NT ELEYATION e' AT TtlE BOTTQM OF A L1QUID COLUMN,

RELATNE TO B01LING POlNT AT THE SURFACE T (IN OC)
T
H Brix d P
(cm) (kg/cm') 120 llO 100 90 80 70 60 50
O 1.00 0.0100 0.2 0,2 0.3 0.4 0,5 0.7 1.0 1.5
10 1.04 0,0104 0.2 0,2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0,7 1.1 1.6
20 1.08 0.0108 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0,5 0,8 1.1 1.7
30 1. I 3 0.0113 0,2 0,2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.2 1.8
10 40 1. I 8 0.0118 0,2 0.2 0,3 0.4 0,6 0,8 1.2 1.9
50 1.23 0,0123 0,2 0.2 0,3 0.4 0.6 0.9 1.3 1.9
60 1.29 0,0129 0.2 0,3 0.3 0,5 0,7 0,9 1.3 2.0
70 1.35 0.0135 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.4 2. I
Me 1.47 0.0147 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.5 2.3
O 1,00 0.0200 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.4 2.0 3.0
10 1.04 0.0208 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.5 2.1 3. I
20 1.08 0.0216 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.1 1.5 2.2 3.2
30 1. I 3 0.0226 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.1 1.6 2.3 3.4
20 40 1. 18 0.0236 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.9 1.2 I.7 2.4 3.5
50 1.23 0.0246 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.2 1.7 2.5 3.7
60 1.29 0,0258 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.3 1.8 2.6 3.8
70 1.35 0.0270 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.3 1.9 2.7 4.0
Me 1.47 0.0294 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.1 1.5 2.1 3.0 4.3
O 1.00 0.0300 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.1 1.5 2.1 3.0 4.4
10 1.04 0.0312 0.5 0.6 0.9 1.1 1.6 2.2 3.1 4,6
20 1.08 0.0324 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.2 1.6 2.3 3.2 4.7
30 1. I 3 0.0339 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.2 1.7 2.4 3.4 4.9
30 40 1. 18 0.0354 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.3 1.8 2.5 3.5 5. I
50 1.23 0.0369 0.6 0.7 1.0 1.3 1.8 2.6 3.7 5.3
60 1.29 0.0387 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.4 1.9 2.7 3.8 5.5
70 1.35 0.0405 0.6 0.8 1.1 1.5 2.0 2.8 4.0 5.7
Me 1.47 0.0441 0.7 0.9 1.2 1.6 2.2 3.0 4.3 6.2
O 1.00 0.0400 0.6 0.8 1.1 1.4 2,0 2.8 3.9 5.7
10 1.04 0.0416 0.6 0.8 1.1 !.5 2. I 2.9 4.1 5.9
20 1.08 0.0432 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.6 2. I 3.0 4.2 6.1
30 1. I 3 0.0452 0.7 0.9 1.2 1.6 2.2 3. I 4.4 6.3
40 40 1. I 8 0.0472 0.7 0.9 !.3 1.7 2.3 3.2 4.6 6.6
50 1.23 0.0492 0.8 1.0 L3 1.8 2.4 3.4 4.8 6.8
60 1.29 0.0516 0.8 1.0 1.4 1.8 2.5 3.5 5.0 7.1
70 1.35 0.0540 0.8 1.1 1.4 1.9 2.6 3.7 5.2 7.4
Me 1.47 0.0588 0.9 1.2 1.6 2.1 2.9 4.0 5.6 8.0
O 1.00 0.0500 0.8 1.0 !.3 1.8 2.5 3.4 4.8 6.9
10 1.04 0.0520 '0.8 1.0 1.4 1.9 2.5 3.5 5.0 7.2
20 1.08 0.0540 0.8 LI 1.4 1.9 2.6 3.7 5.2 7.4
30 1.13 0.0565 0.9 1.1 1.5 2.0 2.8 3.8 5.4 7.7
50 40 1.18 0.0590 0.9 1.2 1.6 2.1 2.9 4.0 5.6 8.0
50 1.23 0.0615 0.9 1.2 1.6 2.2 3.0 4.1 5.8 8.3
60 1.29 0.0645 1.0 1.3 1.7 2.3 3. I 4,3 6.1 8.6
70 1.35 0.0675 1.0 1.3 1.8 2.4 3.3 4.5 6.3 8.9
Me 1.47 0.0735 1.1 1.5 1.9 2.6 3.5 4.9 6.8 9.6
GENERAL sol"
TABLE 32.3 (continued)
T
H Brix d p
(cm) (kg/cm 2) 120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50
o 1.00 0.0600 0.9 1.2 1.6 2. I 2.9 4.0 5.7 8.\

10 1.04 0.0624 1.0 1.2 1.6 2.2 3.0 4.2 5.9 8.4
20 1.08 0.0648 1. 0 1.3 1.7 2.3 3.\ 4.4 6.\ 8.6
0.0678 1.0 1.3 1.8 2.4 3.3 4.5 6.4 9.0
30 1.13
0.Q708 1.\ 1.4 1.9 2.5 3.4 4.7 6.6 9.3
60 40 1.18
0.0738 1.\ 1.5 1. 9 2.6 3.6 4.9 6.9 9.6
50 1.23
60 1.29 0.0774 1.2 1.5 2.0 2.7 3.7 5.1 7.2 10.0
0.0810 !.2 1.6 2.1 2.9 3.9 5.3 7A lOA
70 1.35
0.0882 1.4 1.7 2.3 3. I 4.2 5.8 8.0 \ 1.\
Me IA 7
1.8 2.5 3.4 4.7 6.5 9.2

o 1.00 0.0700 .1. \ 1.4
0.0728 1.\ 1.4 1.9 2.6 3.5 4 .8 6.8 9.5
\0 1.04
0.0756 1.2 \.5 2.0 2.7 3.6 5.0 7.0 9.8
20 1.08
0.0791 1.2 1.6 2. I 2.8 3.8 . 5.2 . 7.3 \0.2
30 1.\3
0.0826 1.3 1.6 2.2 2.9 3.9 5.4 7.6 10.6
70 40 1.18
0.0861 1.3 1.7 2.3 3.0 4.1 5.6 7.8 10.9
50 1.23
0.0903 lA 1.8 2.4 3.2 4.3 5.9 8.2 \\.4
60 1.29
70 1.35 0.0945 \A 1.9 2.5 3.3 4.5 6. I 8.5 1l.8
Me · 1.47 0.1029 1.6 2.0 2.7 3.6 4.8 6.6 9.1 12 .6
o 1.00 0.0800 1.2 1.6 2. I 2.8 3.8 5.3 7.4 10.3

10 1.04 0.0832 1.3 1.7 2.2 2.9 4.0 5.5' 7.6 10.6
20 1.08 0.0864 1.3 1.7 2.3 3.0' 4.\ 5.7 7.9 11.0
30 1.13 0.0904 \.4 1.8 2.4 3.2 4.3 5.9 . 8.2 11.4
40 1.18 0.0944 1.4 1.9 2.4 3.3 4.5 6.\ 8.5 11.7
80
50 1.23 0.0984 1.5 1.9 2.6 3.4 4.7 6.4 8.8 12.2
60 1.29 0.1032 1.6 2.0 2.7 . 3.6 4.9 6.6 9.2 12 .6
70 1.35 0.1080 1.6 2.\ 2.8 3.7 5.1 6.9 9 .5 13 . 1
Me IA7 0.1176 1.8 2.3 3.0 4.0 5.5 7.4 10.2 14.0
o . 1.00 0.0900 \.4 1.8 2.3 ' 3.1 4.3 5.9 8.2 11.3
. 10 1.04 0.0936 1.4 1.9 2.4 3.3 4.4 6.1 8.4 11.7
20 \.08 0.0972 1.5 \.9 2.5 3.4 4.6 6.3 8.7 12.0
30 1. I 3 0.1017 1.5 2.0 2.6 3.5 4.8 6.6 9.0 \2.5
40 1.18 0.\062 1.6 2.1 2.8 3.7 5.0 6.8 9.4 12.9
90
50 1.23 0.\107 1.7 2.2 2.9 3.8 5.2 7.1 9.7 13.3
60 1.29 0.1\6\ 1.8 2.3 3.0 4.0. 5.4 7.4 10.1 13.8
70 1.35 0.1215 1.8 2.4 3.1 4.2 5.7 7.7 10.5 14.3
Me 1.47 0.1323 2.0 2.6 3.4 4.5 6.1 8.3 11.2 15 .3
o 1.00 0.1000 1.5 2.0 2.6 3.5 4.7 6.5 8.9 12.3
10 1.04 0.1040 1.6 2.0 2.7 3.6 4.9 6.7 9.2 12.7
20 1.08 0.1080 1.6 2.\ 2.8 3.7 5.\ 6.9 9.5 13.1
30 1.\3 0.1\30 1.7 2.2 2.9 3.9 5.3 7.2 9.9 135
40 1.18 0.\\80 1.8 2.3 3.0 4.1 5.5 7.5 10.2 14.0
100
50 1.23 0.\230 1.9 2.4 3.2 4.2 5.7 7.7 10.6 14.5
60 1.29 0.1290 2.0 2.5 3.3 4:4 6.0 8.1 11.0 15.0
70 1.35 0.1350 2.0 - 2.6 3.5 '.4.6 6.2 8.4 11.4 15.5
Me 1.47 0.\470 2.2 2.9 3.8 5.0 6.7 9.1 12.2 16.5
Me 1.47 0.2940 4.3 5.5 7 .0 9.2 12.2 \5.9 20.7 26.6

200
502 EV APORA nON Ch. 32
ling from the apparent lemperature drop the boiling-point elevation corresponding to the
vapour pressure and to the brix of the juice. Bu! since the juice in contact with the heating
surface bo¡ls at different temperatures, according to the depth, ranging from that at the sur-
face to that corresponding to the level of the lowet tube plate, the temperature drop will
t herefore be oblain~d by deducting from the apparenl drop: (1) the boiling-point elevalion
e corresponding 10 the pressure in the vapour space and to the brix; (2) the supplementary
elevation e' corresponding to the mean hydrostatic pressure.
If, for example, the hydrostatic level of the juice is at one-third of the height of the tubes,
it may be assumed that Ihe mean hydroslalic pressure will be that corresponding 10 one-sixth
of the height of Ihe tubes. In modern evaporators with long tubes, this consequence of the
hydrostatic pressure is far from being negligible.
Tablc 32.3 gives Ihe boiling-point elevation e' of the lower layers of sugar solulions of
various concentrations, as a function of the bo¡ling point· T at the surface corresponding to
t he pressure obtaining aboye the liquid. In this Table, all figures are given in metric units:
H depth of the liquid layer under consideration, in cm
d density of the solution
P hydrostatic pressure which is added 10 the pressure obtaining aboye the liquid, and
is expressed in kg/cm 2 (for p.s.i., multiply by 14.22)
Me = heavy massecuite.
Properties of steam. In evaporator calculations, the properties of saturated steam are in-
volved at every step. We shall filld in Table 41.1 (p. 1034):
(1) The boiling point 1 of water corresponding to each pressure
(2) The sensible heat q contained in water which has attained that temperature
(3) The latent heat or heat of vaporisation r of water, for Ihis temperature, i.e. the quantily
of heat unils which musl be supplied lO lhe water lo change il inlo vapour al lhe pressure
and lemperalure given.
For lhe lemperalures which are met wilh in evaporalion work, Ihese lwo quantities of heal,
q and r, may be oblained with sufficienl precision by the formulae of Regnaull:
q = 1 (q = 1 - 32 (32.5)
r 607 - 0.71 (r = 1.093 0.7 (1 32)) (32.6)
q + r = 607 + 0.31 (A = 1.093 + 0.3 (1 32)) (32.7)
q sensible heal supplied lo unit weight of water lO raise il t'rom freezing poinl to 1 0, ex-
pressed in kcal/kg (B.T.U./lb.)
r latent heal of vaporisalion of waler at 1°, i.e. the quantíty of heat to change unit weighl
of water into steam at the same temperature, in kcal/kg (B.T.U./lb.)
A = total heat lo be supplied to uníl weight of water, starting at O°C (32°F), to change it
to steam at 1°, expressed in kcal/kg (B.T.U./lb.).
We would comment that these three equations aclopt for their dalum point the temperalure
of O°C (32°F).
Strictly speaking, the specífic heat 01' water increases slightly witll temperature. At IOO°C
GENERAL 503
(212°F), il is nol 1 but 1.013. It is not necessary, however, to complicate the preceding for-
mulae by taking Ihis into account.
Objecl of evaporation
The c1arification process has given a c1ear juice. This consists of sugar dissolved in water,
together with certain impurities. Now that we have removed the impurities as far as possible,
it remains to remove the water. This is the object of evaporation.
However, in proportion as we extract water from the juice, the súgar will become concen-
trated. It will then approach the point of saturation, that is, the point at which crystals will
begirl to appear in the liquid.
The concentration is pushed to its maximum until there is left for the mother liquor only
the space remaining free between the crystals. The name given to the mixture so obtained
of solid crystals and viscous mother liquor is "massecuite". Such a mass obviously cannot
be handled like a juice or a liquid syrup. Hence the concentration process is separated into
two phases:
(a) Evaporation so called, which proceeds from clear juice lo syrup, and during which we
are dealing only with a liquid material
(b) The sugar boiling, which commences just before the stage where crystals appear in the
syrup, and which proceeds up to the maximum concentration.
The impurities obviously remain in the mother liquor, as.also does part of the sucrose. It
remains then to separate the sugar crystals from the mother liquor and to strive to extract
from the lalter as much as possible of the sugar which it retains. We shall study these opera-
tions under sugar boiling and centrifuging.
Boundary belween evaporalion and sugar boiling. The point at which cane juice begins to
crystallise is in the neighbourhood of 78 - 80° brix (41 - 42° Baumé). Theoretically, there-
fore, the evaporation could be carried on up to 72 or 75° brix. In practice, the sugar boilers
require a syrup capable of dissolving furlher crystals, so that they may dissolve false grain
which may form at the beginning of a charge; this condition is indispensable for obtairlirlg
good results at the parl stage.
For this reason a brix figure of 72° is never exceeded. The evaporators are designed and
operated in such a way that the brix of the syrup lies:
For raw sugar manufacture: between 60 and 70° brix (32 - 3?D Bé)
For white sugar manufacture: between 50 and 60° brix (27 - 32° Bé).
Quantity of water lo be evaporated

Let:
E = weight of water to be evaporated % cane, in kg (lb.)
J weight of juice obtained % cane, in kg (lb.)
S = weight of syrup % cane, leaving the multiple effecls, in kg (lb.)
BJ = brix of juice
Bs = brix of syrup. .
Since lhe weight of dissolved material is the same before and after evaporation, we may
equate these quantitics as follows:
504 EVAPORATION '.' Ch. 32
J Bj = S B,
whence:
B.
S J--'!' (32.8)
B,
and:
E (32.9)
if J 1000/0 cane, Bj = 13, Bs = 65, we have:
E = lOO (1 -
.
.!2)
65
= 80% cane
We see a'lso here the importance of evaporation in Ihe sugar factory: it is the operation
which eliminates by far the greatest weight of material: 80% of the weight of cane. By reason
of the high latent heat of vaporisation of water, this will also obviously be the operation
which involves the greatest number of heat units.
Multiple-Effect Evaporation
PRINCIPLE OF MULTlPLE EFFECTS
The greatest and moS! striking advance in the history of sugar manufacture was no doubt
the development of l11ultiple-effect evaporation, conceived about 1830 by Norbert Rilliellx,
an American 01' French origin, and introduced by him in Louisiana in 1844.
Evaporation in open pots over a fire had already been abandoned, and evaporation of
juice by heating with steam had been commenced. Rillieux's idea was the following: since
steam is used for heating juice to evaporate the water which it contains, why not utilise in
lhe same way the vapour so furnished by lhe juice in order to heat a further portion of jllice,
or lo finish the evaporation already commenced by ordinary sleam?
One obstacle presents itself immediately: with steam at 110°C (230°F) (pressure of 0.4
kg/cm' (6 p.s.j.), jujce at atmospheric pressure may be heated and evaporated. The vapour
of juice so boiling at atmospheric pressure is at 100°C (212°F). But with vapour at lhal
temperature it is nOl possible 10 boil juice at the same temperature; a temperature difference
is necessary between the heating fluid and lhe fluid to be healed.
Rillieux resolved ¡his difficlllty by putting lhe vessels following ¡he first under vacuum,
water or jllice boiling at 90°C (194°F) under 23 cm (9 in.) ofvacullm, al 80 Q C (176°F) under
PRINCIPLE OF MULTlFLE EFFECTS 505
40 cm (16 in.) of vacuum, at 70°C (l58°F) under 52 cm (20 in.), ele.; it lhus became possible
to creale the necessary lemperature difference and to ulilise lhe vapour arising from lhe juice
in the firsl vessel LO heat lhe juice in lhe second vessel, lhe vapour produced by lhe second
to heat the third, and so on (Fig. 32.2).
Vapour from juice
Vocuum '
Fig. 32.2. Multiple-effect principie.
This solution has the disadvantage of requiring an installation to create the necessary
vacuum. But boiling under vacuum presents two great advantages:
(a) It increases the total difference in temperature belween steam and juice by a quantity
equal to the drop in boiling point of the juice between the pressure of the first and that of
t he lasl vessel.
(b) It permits evaporation to be carried out at temperatures proportionately less danger-
ous, from the point of view of inversion and of coloration of the juice, as the juice becomes
more concenlrated and more viscous.
Upper limit. There is a certain critical temperature aboye which the sugar in the juice tends
lO caramelise, causing at lhe same lime a loss of sucrose and a coloralion which will persisl
lo lhe final crystals of sugar.
In Czechoslovakia', and for beet juices, the critical temperature has been stated as I30°C
(266°F). Quillard 8 considers lhat the first experiments of Kestner in 1906 demonstrated thal
juices could be submilled for a short time to a temperalure of 129°C (264°F) wilhoul produc-
ing any decomposilion. For cane juices, Deerr 9 give5 a lemperalure of 127°C (260°F);
TromplO indicales 130°C (266 °F) as the maximum lemperalure for sleam for healing, or ap-
proximalely 125°C (257°F) for the juice.
Honig 11 recommends 118°C (244 °F), on condilion lhal lhe juice does nol remain more
lhan two minules allhis lemperature; bul he is lhinking lhen parlicularly of colour develop-
menl in lhe juice.
The limils acceplable for beet sugar juice cannol be used for cane, since beel juice is more
5lable lO lemperalure and .Iess liable to. deteriorale than cane juice.
For normal acidities of the juices circulating in a mulliple effect (pH = 6.5 -7.2), the 1055
of sucrose by invers ion scarcely exceeds 0.1 OJo per hour at 110°C (230°F). Above this, lhe
loss in creases rapidly. So that it may remain negligible in an ordinary multiple effecl where
the juice remains several minutes; o'r in a Keslner, where it spends 1- 2 minutes, it is ad-
506 EVAPORA nON Ch. 32
visable not to exceed, as the temperatllre of the juice in the firsl vessel, lhe figures gives in
Table 32.4.
In the case of falling-film evaporatíon, where the passage of the juiee is very rapid,
temperatures may be allowed up to l30°C (266°F) ..
TABLE 32.4··
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURES IN MULTlPLE EFFECTS
Ordinary mulliple effeel 120°C (1.0 kg/em ) = 248°F ([4.3 p.s.i.)

'
Kestner t25°C (1.3kg/em ' ) = 257"F ([9.3 p.s.i.)
This corresponds to steam temperatures in the calandria of lhe first vessel of approximately:
Ordinary multiple effect 125 - no°c (1.3 - 1.7 kg/em ' ) = 257 - 266°F (19.3 - 24.6 p.s.i.)
Keslner 130-135°C (1.7-2.2 kg/em 2 ) = 266-275°F (24.6-30.9 p.s.i.)
Lower limit. The lower limit of the lemperature range wíthing whieh a multiple effeet
operates is the boiling point corresponding to the vaeullm obtained in the last vessel of the
se!.
In lhe sugar faetory, a vaellum of 66 - 68 cm (26 - 27 in.) is readily obtained, whieh would
eorrespond to a boiling temperature of 47 - 52°C (J17 - 125°F). Bul for various reasons
whieh we shall see later (pp. 541,610 and 649), it is of advantage to maintain a vaeuum of
only 63-66 cm (25-26 inehes), or 56-52°C (133-125°F). We shall normally reekon on
55°C or 64 cm of vacuum, and it will be Ihis lemperature and this vaeullm which we shall
recommend should be sought at this poin!.
Overall temperature range. Adopting the latter value, we see that the extreme range of
temperatures within whieh evaporation is carried out is 70~c (= 125 - 55°C). This extreme
range is restrieted generally to 55 or 60°C (= 115 or 110 - 55°C).
Syrup temperature. The syrup enters the last vessel generally at about 40° brix and leaves
it at 60 or 65° brix. It has a mean brix value then of 50 - 55. The boiling-point elevation eor-
responding lO this brix and lhis vaeuum is approximately 2°C (4°F) (ef. Fig. 32.1).
To these 2°C, lhe boiling-poinl elevalion due to hydrostatic pressure should be added.
Hence a temperature of 55°C (J31 °F) in the vapour spaee of the last vessel eorresponds to
58 - 60°C (136 - 140°F) as the mean temperature of the syrup in Ihis vessel.
,
CONSTRUCTION OF MULTIPLE EFFECTS
Evaporation by heating with steam in a single vessel is called evaporation in single effec!.
If the juice from the vapour in this vessel is taken for heating a second vessel we have a
double effee!. In the same way, with three vessels, we have a triple effee!. And so on in turn:
a quadruple, a quintuple, a sextuple efreel. There are thus as many evaporator vessels as ef-
fects.
CONSTRUCTION OF MULTIPLE EFFECTS
507
Sove 011---
Non-conden~oble
gases
steom
Jujce inlet
Juice
outlet
¡ \condensote
Fig. 32 .J. E va pora lion vessel. .
The commones! evaporators encountered in practice are triple , quadruple and quintuple
effects.
The evaporator vessel

The slandard multiple-effect evaporalor consists of a vertical cylinder, buil! onto lhe tubular
calandria across which lhe heal exchange takes place (Fig. 32.3).
Thi s cylindrical body terminates al lhe IOp in a " save-all" , lhe object of which is lo
sepa rale lhe liquid dropl elS which may be entrained wilh lhe vapour from lhe juice.
Previou sly .lhe evaporator bod¡~s were always fabricated in casI iron. More recently,
508 EVAPORA TION ',' Ch,32
fabricalion in steel piare is becoming more and more common, This permils of evaporalor
bodies which are less brittle, lighter and less expensive.
Height of the vessel. On examining a seclional view of an evaporalor (Fig. 32.3), one is
immedialely slruck by lhe large space lost aboye lhe lubular calandria, This space represents
lhe grealer parl of lhe volume taken up by the equipmen1. However, it does not serve for
juice, the level of which should not go aboye the upper tube plate, Its object is lO diminish
risk of enlrainmenl of droplels of juice projected by lhe boiling, There is some reason for
lhe customary saying "lhe besl enlrainment separalor is a high vessel",
Tromp12 quoles an American view lhal lhe heighl of lhe cylindrical body, aboye lhe calan-
dria, should be 1.5 limes lO lwice the lenglh of lhe lubes. It is wise lO specify al leasl lwice;
moreover, Trompl J lalerrecommended 2~ limes, In Europe, a minimum of3.6 - 4,0 m (l2 - 13
f1.) is adopled,
Diameter. The diameler of the vessel also has an important effecI on enlrainment. Accor-
ding lO lhe experimenls of Loschgel 4 , lhe area for evaporalion, i.e, lhe horizonlal seclion
of the vessel, should provide I m 2 /400 mJ/h (l sq.f1./1,300 cu.fLlh) of sleam produced, if
dry vapour is lo be obtained, The velocilY of vapour leaving lhe liquid surface would lhen
be approximalely 10 cm/s (0.3 fLls).
This indicates lhal it would be necessary to provide a larger vessel as the specific volume
of lhe vapour produced is higher, lhal is, when lhe pressure is lower.
In presenl designs, lhis rule is nOI followed, as il would lead lO prohibilive figures for Ihe
diamelers, and lhus vapour velocilies in the vessels reach 3.6-4.6 mis (12-15 ft./s) in the
laller vessels, Hence the necessily of providing enlrainmenl separalors or save-alls al lhe
vapour outlels from lhe evaporator vessels, In any case, il is considered" that enlrainment
rapidly becomes excessive from lhe momenl when lhe vapour veJocilY in the vesseJ reaches
6 mis (20 fLls) ,
Sight glasses. In order lO observe the working of the evaporator, and to see whal is happen-
ing inside it, lhe evaporalor is furnished wilh windows or sighl glasses formed of lhick glass
enclosed between lhe wall of lhe evaporator and a brass frame, and bolled on wilh a soft
joinl between,
French manufaclurers sometimes provided reclangular sighl glasses superposed in a ver-
lical line siluated on the front face of lhe evaporalor body, They forgol lhat a man has lwo
eyes placed on lhe horizontal and not on lhe vertical line. Circular sighl glasses, which are
more convenient, are now general.
The sighl glasses should be placed on two opposile verticallines so that whal ishappening
in lhe vessel is seen against a window and nOI againsl a dar k background, The besl arrange-
D
menl is lO inslall a laleral window at 45 from the front of lhe vessel in addilion lO sighl
glasses al fronl and back; outside chis exlra window will be placed a powerful lighl wilh a
reflector which will light up lhe inlerior of the vessel, wilhoul dazzling the observer.
The calandria
The bore of the holes provided in lhe tube plates to take the tubes should be about 0.75 mm
CONSTRUCTlON OF MULTlPLE EFFECTS 509 •
(tJ in.) greater than the exterior diameter of the tubes.

Vertical baffles are often placed in the calandria, with the object of compelling the steam
to follow a certain path. Unfortunately it is impossible to remove or replace these metal baf-
fles, which are subject to corrosion. When they are destroyed or damaged, the steam does
not follow the path originally intended for it, and the position of the incondensable-gas
withdrawal pipes generally becomes unsuilable for the new steam path.
Centre well. The calandria is generally designed with a wide tube or centre well, the object
of which is to return to the bottom the juice which has been projected over the top tube plate.
This centre well is often utilised to collect the concentrated juice in order to remove it from
one vessel to the following vessel.
The diameter of the centre well varies from j to ¡ of the interior diameter of the vessel.
Certain manufacturers replace the centre well by a lateral well, on annular downtake, or
by a series of downtakes of small diameter distributed over the calandria.
Tubes. The tubes of the calandria were of steel or of brass. Tubes of brass or stainless steel
have a much longer life.
The best brass for the tubes of a multiple effect has the composition Cu = 70flJo, Zn =
30flJo, or preferably Cu = 70flJo, Zn = 29flJo, Sn = 1 flJo, or Cu = 64flJo, Zn = 36flJo, lhe laller
being known under lhe name of alloy U-Z 36.
lf the proportion of copper falls below 60flJo, the metal becomes subject to attack by the
incondensable gases.
Brass tubes must be annealed al their ends, otherwise they will become brittle after expan-
ding, and susceptible to split lengthwise. Tubes of stainless steel are the best, but are expen-
sive.
Slainless steel for tubes is generally 430 (17flJo Cr), or Al SI 304 (18flJo Cr + 8flJo Ni).
Length oltubes. The length of the tubes in standard multiple effects varied originalJy from
1.2 to 1.5 m (4 - 5 ft.). However, manufacturers have increased the length of the tubes as
far as 4.6 m (15 ft.). The evaporation rate does not gain anything from this, but for a given
evaporation duty one obtains in this way vessels which take up less space and are more
economical. The lengths most generally used today range from 2.25 to 4 m (7 - 13 ft.).
The length of the tubes should be about 7 mm (} in.) greater than the exterior distance bet-
ween the tube plates. They will then project a.boul 3 mm (i in.) outside the lube plates.
Choice ollengths 01 tubes. Previously, multiple effects often consisted of similar vessels
with identical tubes. However, for economy, vessels are sometimes adopted using tubes of
the same diameter. but of lengths decreasing from the first to the last vessel, with 15 - 20
cm (6- 8 in.) difference between one vessel and the next.
The lubes, in practice, wear or corrode moslly near lheir ends c10se to the lube plates. In
this way, when they reach the stage where they ha ve to be replaced they may then be removed
from all the vessels and a length of 75 -100 mm (3 - 4 in.) cut off each end of the tubes,
which may then be replaced in the following vessel in each case. The only new tubes to be
purchased then are those for the first¡,¡essel.
510 EVAPORATION' . Ch. 32
The longest tubes are kept for the first vessel because this is generally the one which re-
quires [he largest heating surfaee, and the one in whiehthe juice is most f1uid and in the best
eondition lO climb up the tubes.
Diameter o/ tubes. The tubes of multiple effecIs have an interior diameler varying from
27 to 50 mm (1- 2 in.). Their Ihickness varies from 1.5 to 2.5 mm (0.06 - 0.10 in.) for steel
tubes and from .1.5 to 2.0 mm (0.06 - 0.08 in.) for brass tubes. The commonest dimensions
are as follows:
Steel': 27 x 30 30 x 35 31 x 35 34 x 38 39.5 x 44.5 45 x 50 mm

Brass: 27 x 30 28 .8 x 32 32 x 35 34.8 x 38 41.8 x 45 46 x 50 mm
Stain/ess stee/: 32.6 x 35 35 x 38.t 47.5 x 50.8 mm
35 .6 x 38.1
wilh a lendency lo standardise stainless-steel tubes for eane sugar at 35.6 X 38.1 mm (lA
X 1.5 in.); or, in lerm s of outside diameter s for both steel and brass tubes, 32, 35, 45, 50
mm (IL Ij, U, 2 in.) o.d .
Tubes of the smallest diameter (30 mm o.d.) are seldom employed, however, except in Ihe
beet industry. Those of 32 X 35 mm (I~ in . o ~ d.) are often replaced by those of 33 X 36 mm
(In in . o.d.), whieh is a slandard dimension in Ameriea and also in cerlain European eoun-
tries .
In the beet industry mulliple effeets are oflen used wilh lubes of 27 X 30 mm (Ji in . o.d.)
in all vessels from the fir'sl lo Ihe las!. In the eane sugar induslry, small diameters for Ihe
last vesseJs are avoided. Cerlain practical men refuse lo go below 50 mm (2 in.) o .d . (whieh,
moreover, is the maximum size) for Ihe last two vessels. However, this dimension, previously
standard, no longer eorresponds lo actual practice, and we would reeommend the adoption
of brass tubes of 34.8 X 38 mm (11. in. o.d.).
With sleel tubes the tendency is to employ mainly 34 x 38 mm.
Narrower tubes give theorelically a better eoeffieienl of heat tran sfer, beeause Ihe mean
distance of particles of juice from the healing surfaee is sl11aller. They permit also of Ihe in-
slallation of a larger heating surface in a vessel of a given diameter. On Ihe other hand, Ihey
are more diffieul! 10 clean by hand or by meehanical eleaner, because it is necessary to pass
the cleaning 1001 through a greater number of tubes . When small lubes are employed, il i5
of advanlage 10 clean Ihe vessels by means of acid rather Ihan mechanieal desealers.
Ciaassen ' 6 eslimates that lubes of small diameter work better al low evaporalion rales,
wl1ereas la rger tubes; offering more spaee lO the mounling bubbles, work belter al high rales.
The choice of diameler of tubes for a multiple effeel, however, is nol of prime importanee.
Whal is imporlant, in our opinion, is lo adopt for Ihe whole faelory a slandard exlernal
diameler of lubes, 34.8 X 38 mm Oj in. o.d.), for example, and lo use Ihis for Ihe healers
as well as Ihe mulliple effee!.
lnterdependence o/ diameler and length o/Iubes. Moreover, diameter and lenglh of lubes
are nol independenl of eaeh olher. The lubes aelually permil of a beller climbing film of juice
as Ihey beeome narrower, sinee Ihe climbing-film effeel depends on the rel a lionship belween
heating surface of Ihe tubc and its inlerior cross-seclion.
CONSTRUCTION OF MULTIPLE EFFECTS 511
This consideration limits the length permissible for each diameter. Table 32.5 gives the
order of size of these dimensions.
TABLE 32.5
MAXIMUM LENGTH OF EYAPORATOR TUBES FOR DIFFERENT DIAMETERS
Diameler Maximum length

(mm) (m) (Jt.)
50 (2 in. o.d.) 2.5 8

38 3.5 IJ
35 (il in o.d.) 4.0 13
30 4.50 J5
In the cane sugar factory it would be wise lO keep definitely below these maxima.
However, il is desirable lo take into accounllhe evaporation rates and lhe brix of lhe juice,
in olher words, of lhe place of lhe vessel in the sel. From lhis poinl of vicw, il is desirable
10 supplement lhe preceding table by Table 32.6, considering only Ihe presenl slandard
dial11eler of 38 111111, and replacing lhe maximal Icngth of tube by Ihe assul11ed oplimal
lenglh, taking into account all factors, including cost.
TABLE 32.6
LENGTHS RECOM}.IENDED FOR TUBES OF THE MULTIPLE EFFECT
Tube length (optimal)
1st vessel 2nd vessel 3rd vessel 4th vessel . 5th vessel
4.0 m (13 n.) 3.5 m (11 n.) 3.0 m (10 rt.) 2.5 m (8 n.) 2.25 m (7.5 rl.)
By optimal length, we undersland the best compromise betwéen cost and noor space in-
volved for a vessel on one hand, and the evaporation rate which can be obtained in good
average regular operation, on the other hand. The evaporatioo' rate in fact tends to fall as
the length of tubes increases, for a given design of vessel ando a given tube diameter.
Actually this optimal length decreases with the .place of the vessel in the set, since the film
effec[ is more marked, as the juice is less viscous and the vapour at higher temperature; hence
the figures in Table 32.6.
Arrangement of the tubes. The layout of the tubes in the tu be plales generally follows a
staggered arrangement (Fig. 32.4).
This arrangement permits the greatest number of tubes to beaccommodated per unit area
of the plates, for a given distance between the tubes.
The tubes are thus arranged in straight lines in three differenl direclions al 120 0 to one
another (Fig. 32.5).
Since this arrangement is that which permits the maximum density of tu bes, what relation-
512 EV APORATlON Ch. 32
Fig. 32.4. Arrangemenl of tubes. Fig. 32.5. Layout for a staggered arrangemenl.
00
'0'("" , I
• I
i
i
~ _.f'_
Fig. 32.6. Tubes in slaggered arrangemenL
ship should be observed between the exterior diameter d, of the tubes and the dis[ance p
between the tubes, centre to centre?
This distancep between the centres of two adjacent tubes is called the "pitch" of [he tubes.
If we use s, for the exterior cross-section of a tube and a for the corresponding area of the
I ubed portion of the tu be plate, we see readily that we have (Fig. 32.6):
7fd',
s, 4 7f d',
= (32.10)
a .f3 2 --13, p'
_ 'p'
2
lf we designa te by k , the ratio of the area of the holes 10 the total area of the plane, we
shall then have:
p' 7f 0.907
= (32.1 1)
d', 2k, --13 k,
CONSTRUCTION OF MULTLPLE EFFECTS 513
hence:
p = 0.952 vT
d
e
(32.12)
The coefficient k e inc reases slightly with the diameter of the tubes. It varies from 0.45 to
0.55 in modern vessels. I f we adopt 0.5 we should have:
p = 1.35 de (32.13)
The-minimum width of the strip oT metal separating two neighbouring holes is lhen ap-
proximalely one -l hird of Ihe diamele r of lhe lubes. This widrh is lermed lhe "Iigamenl".
Area 01 juice passage. Th e coefficienl k, corresponds lO lhe exlernal area of lhe lubes ,
and co nseq uenlly lO lhe area of lhe holes in lhe plale. If we are inleresled in lhe area of lhe
passage offered lO Ihe juice circulaling lhrough lhe lubes, il is necessary lO consider lhe inler-
nal cross-seclio n of lhe lubes. We have then:
k., = (32.14)
k i = ralio of Ihe cross-seclion of jui ce passage in lhe lubes lO lh'e co rresponding area of lhe
pI ale, in lhe portions which are enlirely used for lubes
Si = inrerior cross-seclion' of one lube.
The ralio s./s, , has a value 0.878 for tubes of 35.6 x 38 mm.
However, lhese coefficienlS k , and k ,. apply only lO lhe porlions of lhe lube plale which
carry lhe lubes. If il is desired to compare lhe lolal cross-seclion of juice passages of alllhe
lubes, S,., lO lhe tOlal surface ¡:; of t.he lube plale, il is necessary lo modify lhis lalter figure
by a seco nd coefficienl el< which lakes inlo accounl Ihe space losl by lhe lie ro ds and the Sleam
lanes, and Ihe space 10.11 al'Ound the border of lhe calandria, al1d also by a third coeffic ienl
{3 which lakes inlo account the cenrre well. We have then:
(32,i5)
el< is of lhe order of 0.98

{3 depends entirely on the centre well: {3 = I - D' j t;,,'
D diameler of cenlre well
t;" inlerior diameler of lhe vessel.
The lolal coefficienl k = k ¡el<{3, which varies from 0.33 lO 0.38 (mean 0.36), measures Ihe
ratio between lhe cross-seclion of passages offered lo lhe"juice by lhe small lubes and lhe
lolal cross-seclion of lhe vesse l.
,.,
514 EY APORA nON Ch. 32
CIRCULATlON OF STEAM ANO VAPOUR
The steam or vapour is admitted to the calandria by one, two or more inlets. Generally, only
one vapour inlet is used in vessels of less lhari 3 m (JO' fl.) diameter; two are provided for
vessels of 3 m or more diameter, sometimes four for very large vessels, in such a way as to
supply effectively all the tubes; sorne would otherwise be too far away from a single entry.
In the case of a very high ca landria, each steam entry may be divided between two open-
ings, placed at ! and ~ of the height of the tubes.
At the point furthest from the inlet or the inlets, the pipes for withdrawaI of incondensable
gases are loca ted.
In order to facilitate access of vapour to the furthest portions of the calandria, steam lanes
are o flen provided between the tubes; these are obtained by simply leaving out rows of tubes
over part of their length (Fig. 32.7).
Vopour __
Fig.32. 7. Example of vapour lanes.
Ca1culation of vapour pipes

From considerations of economy on the one hand, and of pressure drops and risks of entrain-
ment on the other hand, the vapour pipes are calcu lated so as to give the approximate vapour
velocities shown in Table 32.7:
TABLE 32 .1'
VAPOUR VELOClTIES RECOMMENDED, IN mis (f1. /s)
Triple Quadruple Quinll/ple

(m / s) (fl./s) (m /s) (fl.ls) (m / s) (fl./s)
Exhaust steam (O 1st effect 25 -30 80 -100 25 - 30 80 - tOO 25 -30 80 - 100

Vapour from 1s1 effecl 30 - 35 100-115 30-35 tOO-115 30 - 35 tOO-It5
Yapour from 2nd effecI 40 -45 130-150 35 -40 115-130 30 -35 100-115
Yapour from 3rd effeCI 50-60 165 - 200 40 -45 130-150 35 -40 115 - 130
Yapour from 4lh effecI 50-60 165 - 200 40 -45 130 - 150
Yapour from 5lh effecI 50- 60 165 - 200
CIRCULATlON OF STEAM AND VAPOUR 515
.
Vapour velocities from the last e ffect going to the condenser may be higher than 60 mis
(200 ft./s) on condition Ihat Ihey do not exceed 75 mis (250 ft./s) and Ihal all precaulions
are laken againsl risk s of enlrainment.
Once Ihe se velocilies have been chosen, th e calculalion is canied oul as follows:
(a) T ake Ihe vapo ur OUlpUI by weighl 10 be allowed for, say P. ln crease lhi s by 10 OJo so
as 10 allow for possible variations: say P' .
(b) Take from the la ble for saluraled steam (Table 41.1, p. 1034) Ihe specific we ighl d cor-
responding 10 lhe vapou r lemperature. From Ihis calculale Ihe volume of vapour lO be passed
per hour, say Q. Hence lhe volume per second, say q.
(e) From Ihe velocilY Vwhich has been fi xed, lhe cross-seclion Sof Ihe pipe is calculated.
Hence il s minimum diameter D, which in roundin g off lO lhe nearest even size is nalurally
chosen on lhe large side.
Examp/e. To caiculale Ihe vapou r pi pe from Ihe bOdy of Ihe firsl vesseJ lO Ihe calandria
of lhe second. Given:
Wei ghl of vapo ur lO be supplied 10 lhe second vessel: P = 20,000 kg/h (44,150 Ib ./ h)
Tempe ra lure of Ihi s vapo ur: I = 103 °C (217'soF)
Vapour ve locil Y chosen : V = 25 mis (82 rl./s)
We have:
P' = 1.1 P = 22,000 kg/h (48,550 Ib ./h)
The specific volume al 103 °C is 1.515 mJ / kg (24.2 cu.fl./lb.). The volume of vapour to
be handled is Iherefore:
Q = 22,000 x 1.S15 33,330 mJ / h
or:
q = 33,330/3,600 = 9.258 mJ/s (327 cu.fUs)
To oblain a velocity of 25 m i s, Ihe cross-seclion required will be:
s = 7rD'/ 4 = 9258/250 = 37 dm' (3.98 sq.fl.)
Hence:
D' 37.x 4/7r 47.15 dm ' (5 sq.ft.)
and:
Dk )47. 15 6.87 dm (2.24 fl.)

'.'
We shall take:
D = 700 mm (27.5 in.)
CONDENSA TES
The heat transmitted from the vapo ur to the juice across the tubular calandria corresponds
10 lhe lalenl heal of vaporisalion of lhe steam. AH lhe sleam used for heating is therel'o re
lransformed inlo condensate in the calandria. Thus il is necessary 10 evacua le or remove a
weighl of such condensate equal lO lhe weight of steam used .
This removal of condensa te is effecled by drains placed at Ihe lower par! of the calandria
(Fig. 32.8). These drains should be distributed in the lower tube plate so as to provide one
drain for approximately eaeh 3 m' (30 sq.ft.) of cross-section of the vessel.
The internal cross-section of these drainage pipes should be designed so as to give a velocil y
of f10w of the condensate of approximalely 0.5 -0.6 mi s (2 fl. / s). In lhe pipe T which is
connected to the drains and the collecling pipe, lhis velocil y eould be increased 100.8 mi s
(2.5 fUs).
The drains should be eonnected to the calandria al a by a small cone the objecl of whieh
is to increase the diameter of lhe pipe al the point whieh determines the f10w lhrough the
drain.
Extraction 01' condensa tes

The extraetion of these condensa les from lhe calandria may be made in variou s ways . Accor-
ding to the pressure ruling in the calandria we shall distinguish:
Melhod 01 extraction
(a) Calandrias under pressure S¡eam trap

Sleam trap
Pump
(b) Calandrias under pressure or under vacuum
Siphon
Flash vessel
A. Steam trap. When lhe calandria is under a pressure aboye armospher ic, which is the
general case for lhe firsl vessel, lhe condensate may be allowed to flow out by gravity.
However, sinee it is necessary that lhe pipe should nOl beeom e empty and allow sleam to
escap e, it is necessary to insert a device for separation and control, known as a "steam Irap".
This is a small vessel through which the condensate passes, which is fitted with a f10at ac-
tualing an outlet valve which does not open until the water attains a certain level in the vessel.
When the water is f10wing continuously, the float progressivel y opens the va lve in proportion
as the water level rises, and reaches a posilion of equilibrium corresponding to the rate of
flow.
Thermal steam Iraps are now used, functioning by [he action of the very slight difference
CONDENSATES 517
in temperature betwee n the condensate entering and the vessel in whi ch it is recei ved (Figs.
32.9 and 32.10).
B. Condensate pump. With the aid of a pump, co ndensate ma y be extracted from a calan-
dria under any vacuum provided the three following conditions are fulfiIled:
(1) 1t is necessary that the pump should be capable of delivering 10 a height equal to the
geometric height of the delivery increased by the difference in pressure between atmosphere
and the calandria concerned.
(2) Since some leakage is bound 10 occÍlr at the pump, it is necessary to provide it with
a sma ll pressure-equalisation pipe putting the admission valve of the body of the pump in
communication with the top of the calandria. Otherwi se (a) air, entering through leak s in the
pump, would be entraim:d with the water in the suction pipe and would hinder the f10w of
water to the pump; (b) vapour formed in the pump from the hot water would accumulate
and form a vapour lock.
J L
Vopour
....,
L_
T
Fig. 32.8. Drainage of condensales.
Fig. 32.9. Vet'tica't sleam .lrap Wilh nOal (Gema Una TR 11).
518 EVAPORATlON Ch. 32
r+-------~ 361-------+1
o
o
:1
:1
Fig. 32.10. Horizontal thermal steam nap (Gestra TR 11).
(3) As for sleam traps, it is necessary to provide a pump three or four times greater in
ca pac ity Ihan would seem theoretically necessa ry.
Types oi pump.Cenlrifugal pumps are now the only type used. lt is of advantage to use
pumps specially designed for working with suction under vacuum, which have the glands in
communication wilh the delivery side of the pump. This avoids or reduces enlry of air, which
otherwise would inevilably occ ur al these points.
Condensa/e sue/ion pipes. The s uction pipes taking the condensales from the ca landria 10
the pump should fulfil Ihe following condilions:
(a) They should be as s hort as possible, to avoid retarding, by an unnecessary loss of heal,
a f10w which is already difficult.
(b) For the same reason they should have as few bends as possible. Bends whi ch cannot
be avaided should be as open as possible and of Ihe highest practicable radius.
(e) They should have as few joints as possible to reduce risks of air leakage.
(e!) They should have a cross-section co rresponding to the condition already indicaled (p.
516: Velocity of water at mast equal lO 0.8 mis ),
(e) The horizontal portions of the pipes should drain towards the pump.
The pressure-equalisation pipes should fulfil Ihe same conditions except for their area,
which s hould be aboul 0.04 of the crass-section of the suclion pipe. Thal is, their dia11leler
should be about one-fifth of ¡he diameter of the water pipe.
CONDENSATES 519
C. Siphon. Thc two methods of extraetion of condensates from calandrias under vacuum,
which we have just discussed, do not permil of circulalion of lhe condensales from one vessel
lO anolher. The two methods which we wiIl now discuss have on the contrary lhe object of
allowing lhe condensates to be circulated from vessel to vessel.
Rash. This circuLation offers a valuable advantage from the point of VleW of heat
economy.
If we eXlract condensate directly from each vessel it lakes with it all its sensible heat con-
lent. If on Ihe other hand we arrange thal the waler may be passed from one vessel to lhe
l'ollowUlg calandria, this waler, which in lhe preceding calanclria is al lhe maximum
temperature compatible with the ¡¡quid state. at the pressure in this calandria, wijJ lhen pass
suddenly lO a lower pressure. It thus produces a spontaneous evaporation or "flash", which
lakes place almost explosively by reason of the physical incompalibility of lhe condilions of
pressure and lemperalure. The quanlily oC water evaporaled will correspond exaclly lO lhe
quanlily of heal given up.
Thus a small quanlity of vapour has been recovered. which will then join wilh Ihe vapour
coming from Ihe juice in Ihe preceding vessel and so will increase the aváilable heat in Ihe
next calandria. Further, if Ihe condensate is thus circulated from one calandria to the next
throughoul Ihe set, the quantities will increase, so increasing lhe amount of steam available.
Gain due fo circu/afion o/ condensafes. The benefit resulting in this way from the flash
produced by circulation of condensates from calandria lo calandria is given by the calcula-
tion on p. 561, for a quadrupJe effeel wilhout vapour bleeding. The evaporation oblained
from unit weighl of sleam inlroduced to the calandria of the firsl effecI is given in Table 32.8.
TABLE 32.8
QUADRUPLE-EFFECT GAlN WITH CIRCULATION
Evaporation kg/kg steam
Without circutaNon With circulation Gain %
1st effecl 0.923 0.923 o

2nd effecl 0.958 0.972 2
3rd effect 1.002 1.047 4.5
4th effecl 1.040 1.162 11.2
3.923 4.104 4.6
Siphons. The difficulty encountered in passing condensa te from one calandria into the
following one was due 10 the difference in pressure belween these Iwo enclosures.
This difficulty has be en overcome byconnecting Ihe two calandrias by medium of a U-
lube, or "invert siphon" (Fig. 32.11). [n a way, the difference exisling belween the pressures
in the lwo calandrias is automatically balanced by the difference in level H which is establish-
ed between the two columns of liquid. in the legs of the U-tube.
520 EVAPORATION ' Ch. 32
'"
o o'
Fig, 32.11. Siphon.
Lenglh. Theorelically, ifthere is 0.3 kg/cm' (4 p.s.i.) difference in pressure belween lhe
two calandrias, a siphon will be required with a lenglh of about 3 m (9 f1.).
In practice it is necessary la allow a margin of safelY of al leasl 50070, and 100070 if possible:
(a) By reason of f1uctualions in lhe pressures: if lhe siphon were too short, even by a very
small amount, for the difference in pressure exisling at a given instanl, lhe upslream pressure
would push the liquid level pasl the bend of lhe U, and the siphon would fail immedialely.
(b) On accounl of flash: lhe water rising in the second branch of rhe U, as soon as il Iros
passed rhe level n' (Fig. 32. 11), is subject lO a pressure lower than rhal of lhe preceding
vessel. Since il has jusl condensed, il is practically at lhe lemperalure 01' ebullition corres pon-
ding 10 lhal pressure. It \ViII lherefore begin lO boil, and more and more vigorously as it
mounlS in lhe rube, owing 10 decreasing pressure. Consequenlly, il is nol a' colullln 01' waler
which balances lhe difference in pressure bul a column formed of a mixlure 01' waler and
vapour, of densily much lower lhan 1.
(This slalemenl 3ppears unscienlific and contrary 10 lhe hydroslalic law relalive la COIll-
municaling vessels. II is obvious, however, rhal lhis law is no! applicable whcn bubbles
precJominale. The bubbles will I'inally cJeslroy lhe liquid calullln. To convince onescll' ol'lhis
il is only necessary 'lO compare lhe levels of juice in lhe inlerior of an evaporaror and in ils
gauge glass (ef. p. 613), "climbing-film effecI").
Diameler. For rhe same reason, and la avoid a climbing-film effecr in rhe rising branch
of rhe siphon, ir is necessary la use a large diamelerfor lhis branch.
The dialllelerS 01' lhe cJescending ancJ ascending branches of lhe sipllOn \Viii be chosen so
lhar lhe velociry 01 flow of lhe waler, assumed 10 be free of vapour bubbles, willnOl exceed:
DescencJing branch: 1.2 mis (4 fUs)

Rising branch: 0.6 mis (2 rl./s)
CONDENSATES 521
If these maxima are observed. a margin of'500/0 in the lenglh of the siphon will be suffi-
cienL 1f it is installed, as is oflen found, of the same diameler for both branches, correspon-
ding to a velocity of I - 1.5 mis (3 - 5 fL/S), it will be necessary to increase the safety
margin to 100%, and Ihere will slill be numerous causes of trouble. Since il is lhe heighl of
lhe siphon which generally presents difficulty in inslallation and support of lhe siphon, il is
of greal advalllage to choose the former Solulion.
D. Flash pots. Siphons are economical and very simple, but they have lhe disadvantage
ofrequiring, generally, a greater heighllhan lhal available betweenlhe bOltolll of the calan-
drias and Ihe f100r leve!. Mulliple erfects are genera lly located on the firsl-f1oor level, thal
is, al a height of 4 - 4.5 m (13 - 15 fL) aboye ground level, and the botlom of the calandrias
is situated appreciably lower.
lt is preferable to install flash pots or expansion vessels (Fig. 32.12,32.13). These are cJos-
ed ves seIs placed below Ihe evaporators, in which flash or self-evaporation takes place. Each
of these is connected to :
(a) The previous flash pOI, whi c h delivel's to il condensa le which has already undergone
flash
(b) The calandria from which it receives condensales
(e) The top of the folJowing calandria, which fixes Ihe pressure in the flash pO! and to
which il supplies the flash vapour proceeding from these two sources of condensate
(d) The following flash pot, to whi ch it deli vers its condensates in turno
fig. 32. j 2. flash pots.

V>
IV
IV
r-- --------0)-------~
la I lIa I lila I lb I IIb IIIb rv

f• J~'
.. ... \,-0
.,,-*~
~ ~
(..;§;@ __
,'1:".. I
- ~
~) ~-~)\
-1 '"
;.. ,-!---,;
I I
1 I 1
L,
.
•
~
, ,
).
'1 I
,1.
•
~. '1' . '( "1
I I 1 1
11
I
'"
~O
CD ~
~
@ ~ M ~ @
BMA Conden •• te FI .." Tlnk
CD injection water fer desuperheater Q) emergency outlet @ condensate feed and flash v2.por lines
Q) bailer feed water o to hot water tank ® float lIallles
a condensale free 01 sugar ot b condensate of evaporalor stages IJI and IV as WE;I! as 01

evaporafor stages I and l' vapor-heated prehea!ers
Fig. 32.I3.Condensale Oash tank (B.M.A.).

(")
:;
w
IV
CONDENSATES 523
11 is of advanlage lO provide lhese flash pOlS wilh sighl glasses in lwo opposing sides of
lhe vessel, which permil an observer lO see whal is happening inside.
The siphon belween lhe calandria and lhe flash pOI may be omilled if a noal-operaled
regulaling device is inserled in lhe line lO regulale the flow.
When a general condensa te receiver is used, Webre '7 very wisely recommends that lhe
various condensale pipes should descend verlically near the vessel, and enler il al lhe bollom
by means of a T-piece and an elbow, provided wilh a valve. The lower end of Ihe T wiJl then
discharge into a pipe going lO the drain, also provided wilh a valve. Thus, al any momenl,
lhe condensa te from any vessel may be separated and sent lO the drain until lhe lea k detected
can be allended lO.
The waler level in lhe various compartmenls of these vessels is controlled by regulators:
aUlOmalic butlerfly valves of the Maisoneilan, Schumberger, or Camflex Iype. This waler is
evacualed by centrifugal pumps. Ir the vessels are just below the evaporators, lhey may be
of single-slage Iype. Ir lhere is a large difference in level, for example, evaporalors on a high
slage and condensale vessels al ground level, mullislage pumps will be used which handle a
grealer range of pressure; lhe suclion should always be posilive (net posilive suclion head),
bul can be smaller. These pumps are obviously more expensive. Generally, three pumps are
used, lhe respeclive roles of which wilJ be discussed laler (p. 524).
Control of condensates. It happens at limes thal a leak arises in a lube of a healer or of

lhe mulliple effecls, or al a joinl in a lube plale. Ir it is the juice which is under lhe lower
pressure (lhe commoneSl case):
(a) If lhe leak occurs in lhe upper parl of lhe calandria, lhe vapour wiIJ pass direclly from
lhe calandria inlo lhe vapour space of lhe evaporalor vessel. This will nol be very serious.
In cerlain cases Ihis lea k could even be considered as a supplemenlary oullel for inconden-
sable gases.
(b) Ir lhe leak occurs in lhe lower part of lhe calandria, condensale will pass in 10 lhe juice,
increasing lhe evaporation work required, or diluting lhe syrup.
In order lO avoid such leaks, which are difficult to detect, it is necessary lO test lhe calan-
drias frequently.
If il is lhe vapour which is al a lower pressure (this is generally the case with juice healers),
the juice will penetrale in 10 the Sleam space, and will become mixed wilh the condensate.
In the same way abnormal enlrainment will introduce juice in lO lhe condensates.
Tllese lWO latter cases are much more serious, because lhe water which is thus polJuled
serves as boiler feed.
When the quantity of juice inlroduced into lhe condensates in this way is appreciable, it
may be detecled by a characteristic odour. But by this time it may have already done some
damage. Il is also advisahle to lest lhe condensates frequently and promptly, by the reaclion
with a-naphlhol. As soon as a trace of the characteristic violet ring is detected, lhe apparatus
responsilJle should be identified and isolated and, if possible, should be shut down im-
mediate!y, or else the condensate from it should be sent to the drain untiJ the lea k can be
repaired.
Automatic control. A sample is takellconlinuously, receives the required quanlity of a-

524 EY APORA nON Ch. 32
naphthol, and pass es through a colorimeter which sets off an alarm as soon as a violet colour
is shown. This control should be carried out on the condensates as well as on the hot water
going to .the cooling tower, since entrainment is more likely Lo occur in the last vessel than
in the preceding ones.
Composition of condensa les

Contrary to what sorne people imagine, the condensates from evaporation of cane juices are
not pure distilled water. Evaporation indeed consitutes a type of distillation and, with the
water, there distil over various volatile components of the juice, the boiling points of which
are in the neighbourhood of that of water, or lower. Honig l8 indicates in particular: oxygen,
CO 2, S02, NH" organic acids, aldehydes, methyl and otlier alcohols. The pH, measured at
25°C, varies from 5.5 to 9.
Temperature oC condensates
It is generally assumed that the condensates leaving a calandria are at the temperature of lhe
vapour used in that calandria. Actually, the condensates cool down slightly in running along
the tubes, and their temperature may be given approximately by l 9:
Ie = I v - 0.4 (t v - t)
J
(32.16)
1, ' = temperature of the condensates leaving the calandria

1, temperature of the vapour used for heating the calandria
l.
J
= temperature of the juice in the vessel.
Utilisation oC the various condensates

When the condensa tes furnished by the different vessels are kept separate they are ~enerally
utilised as follows:
Condensate from the 1st vessel: Boiler feed

Condensate from the 2nd vessel: Make-up for boiler feed
Imbibition
Condensate from la ter vessels:
Washing filter-cake, dilution of molasses, etc.
Condensates from live or exhaust steam; that is, those coming from defecators, from pans,
and from juice heaters working on exhaust steam, are sent with the condensates from the
first effect to a feed-water tank supplying under a positive head the feed pump for the boilers.
The condensates from the second effect are sent to a neighbouring compartment of this
tan k which delivers into the main tank by a noat-operated val ve. In this way, one sends to
the boilers only the proportion of second-effect condensate which is strictly necessary. The
excess overnows into the tank containing condensate from the later vessels.
These precautions have the object of avoiding as far as possible all risk of introducing
sugar to the boilers by polluted condensates, and are based on the following considerations:
(a) The boiler water describes a closed cycle: feed-water lank - boilers - steam -
engines or turbines - exhausI main - calandrias - feed-water tank. JI should therefore
INCONDENSABLE GASES 525
have no need of make-up water. But there are losses in thi s circuit: steam to the derrick ,
steam used for cleaning. traps. leaks. etc. Il is these los ses which make it necessary to make
up with water taken from outside this circuito
(b) lt is for this reason that recourse is had lO condensates from the second vessel. formed
by condensation of vapour from the juice of the firsl vessel. and consequently originaling
in the cane itself. and not from the piping bringing fresh water supply lO the faclory.
(e) The second vessel is eh osen in preference lO lhe laler ones because it furnishes water
al higher temperatures. and especially because the risk of entrainment increases from the firSI
10 the last vessel.
(d)_ On lhe other hand. the second vessel should normally be ample to furnish all lhe make-
up necessary. I f a therl11o-compressor is fitted to the first dfecl. it will be sufficient lO pro-
duce Ihe make-up. and the condensa tes from lhe second effect may be used elsewhere.
Conclusion. In the general case the best disposition of condensates from the mulliple erfect
is the following:
(a) Profit from self-evaporalion by installing flash pots.
(b) Take lhe condensates from the firsl effecl to lhe firsl flash pot and so to Ihe feed-waler
lank. Their lemperature is then slighlly below lhat indicated by Ihe pressure gauge of the se-
cond etfect. Hence less escape of Sleam. This flash pot is not connected to the second.
(e) Take from the second flash poto if necessary. the make-up required for the boiler feed-
water tank.
(d) Circulate all the other condensa tes from one pot to the next.
(e) Extract the condensates from the last poto and send them to the hot-waler tank.
Thus all the condensates may be sent lO a single tank. with several compartments. com-
municating with the last effect. The piping is simpler. the saving in heat remains the same.
but the last vessel itself must be capable of absorbing an excess of vapour which is nol negligi-
ble.
INCONDENSABLE GASES
In setting a multiple effect in operation. it is necessary to raise the desired vacuum in the
various vessels.
On the other hand. in normal operation. the vapour which arrives in each calandria in-
troduces with it air and foreign gases. These originate from:
(a) The gases dissolved in the juice, which are released on boiling. With beet producls. am-
monia is given off. With cane it is mainly air.
(b) Air brought in by the exhaust steam. In general it contains very little. (This air is in-
troduced by the make-up water which carries air in solution).
(e) Air which enters by leaks at the joints of the calandrias and of the vessels at valves.
sight glasses, etc. This is by far the largest quantity.
Jt follows that:
(1) These foreign gases or "incondensables" consist almost entirely of airo
(2) The quantity of these incóndensable gases is very small for the vesseJs heated by ex-
526 EVAPORATlON C h. 32
hausl Sleam (air (b)), that is, in the multiple effecls foi'l he first vessel, bUI much more impor -
tant fo r the vessels heated by vapour from juice (air (o)) such as the second vessel, and par-
ti cularl y for t he vessels under vacuum (air (o) + a ir (e)).
1f I hey are not removed as quickl y a s they en ter, t hese gases would accumulate in rhe calan-
dria, and would quickly stop all evaporation; in a matter of minutes for a third o r a fourth
c ffec t, for example.
A small proportion of air is sufficienl to cause rhe vapour lemperature in the calandria
to fa ll belo w that of the juice which it is supposed to heaL The difference belween these two
temperalu res is ac tually only a few degrees. Now the pressure of a mi xture of air a nd steam
is equal 10 the sum of the parlial press ures of lhe air and th e s team; and the lem pe rat ure of
th e vapour or sleam is Ihat corresponding to its partial pressure.
The partial pressure of Ihe gases bei ng proportional to Ihe relalive vo lurne which I hey oc -
c upy, il is necessa ry in order to decrease Ihe partial pressure of Ihe air, to rernove the gases
as quickly and as completely as possible. Hence the necessit y of provision for removing s uch
gases from Ihe calandria. Hence the equal importan ce o f a good distribution of the gas-wilh -
drawal pipes.
Gas withdrawal
For calandrias heated by exhaust steam, such as that of th e firsl e ffect , and those of vacuum
pans, the Sleam pressure is higher Ihan atmospheric pressure, and Ihe quantity of inconden-
sab le gas is also very s mal!. It will suffice ro prov ide a very s ma ll pi pe lea ding from Ihe calan-
dria, at the point furthest from the steam entry and discharging 10 atmosphere.
Thi s will be regulated in such a way as 10 allow a s mall wisp of steam to escape co ntinuou s-
Iy (Fig . 32.14)
For calandrias hea ted by vapour from the juice, il will be necessary to in stell seve ral
withdrawal pipes, at a cerlain number of points jud ici ously chosen. These poi nt s s hould be
-
~
----'1
/ ~ .. /f
r '\
l'
r-- 1,
¡/ I
_ ._. ~
,! I
11;1;
I
--' '--
- ~
-
Fig. 32.14. ¡ncondensa ble-gas pipe ror rirSl vesse!. Fig. 32.15. Wilhdrawal or incondensables.
INCONDENSABLE GASES 527
located in the places which are most difficult for· lhe vapour lO reach, and where it is ascer-
lained or supposed lhat air pockets will formo
Webre and Robinson 20 indicate a simple method of detecting pockels of air in a calandria:
this is to watch through the siglll glasses of Ihe evaporalor vessel. Aclive zones will be marked
by a violent ebullilion, since the lubes silualed in air pockels will not projecl juice, or will
project it only slightly. They give also (ref. 20, pp. 134-139) lhe localion of the air pockels
according lO the melhod of circulation of the 'vapour in the calandria and lhe arrangement
of the lalter. ·
Since air is heavier lhan sleam, il may accumulale at lhe bOllom of lhe calandria, TesIs
llave in fael shown 21 that Ihe propon ion of incondensable gases was greater at the lower par!
of the calandria. To avoid lhis, some of lhe gas-withdrawal pipes, which are generally con-
necled 10 Ihe 10p lube plale, are prolonged inside (he calandria lo aboul 10 cm (4 in.) aboye
Ihe bottom lube plate, The margin of 10 cm has lhe objecl of prevenling condensale from
being sucked inlo the lube when, for any reason, lhe condensate does nOl drain away readily
(Fig. 32.15),
Since these lubes may corrode, and since inspeclion and replacemenl of Ihem is difficull,
the presenl lrend is (O replace lhem by cocks simply attached lO lhe exterior of lhe calandria,
at positions furlhest from the vapour enlry.
To. exlrac! lhe air, a pressure difference is necessary. In vessels which are under vacuurn,
lhe gas pipes musl lherefore di scharge into the vapour space of the vessel, and are passed
lo lhe exlerior of lhe vessel, SO lhal a regulaling valve can be placed on the line and localed
handy 10 lhe operalor (Fig . 32, 16).
J-
/ ~
"-~
"\
~2
T1
ir l'
-
t-
f-
Fig . 32.16. Incondensable-gas pipe for vesse) under vacuum.
Certain manufaClurerS take the gas pipes from all vessels directly lO the condenser. This
syslem has lhe disadvantages of:
(1) Rendering regulalion more delicale, by increasing lhe pressure drop actualing f10w of
the gases for the first vessels, which haVe leas! need of it
528 EVAPORA nON' Ch. 32
'.,
(2) Losing complctcly the small excess of vapou r which is necessarily allowed to escape
with the gases.
However, it avoids the disadvantage of acc umulat ing the inconden sab le gases all the way
from the second to the last effect.
Dimensions of gas pipes. It must not be forgotten that th e incondensable-gas pipes must
remove quantities of air which, in the general case, increase from vessel lO vessel.
For a quadruple of about 1,000 m' (10,800 sq.ft.) healing surface wilh lhe firsl vessel
evacuating to the almosphere, and lhe later ones from calandria to vapour space, Claassen"
recommends t he following diameters for incondensable-gas pipes:
1st vessel: 10 mm G in.) (to atmosphere)

2nd vessel: 13 - 20 mm e
1-;¡3 '10. )
3rd vessel: 20-25 mm a-I in .)

41h vessel: 28 mm (1 t in.)
These pipes obviously s hould be provided with valves which can be conveniently regulated.
Settings of valves. Air and conosive gases should never be allowed to accumulate in the
calandrias. Since there is little disadvantage in s hor t-circ uilin g a few pounds of vapour from
one vessel to the next, it is preferable to leave the gas valves a lillle too wide open rather than
not enoug h . As these are gerierally valves with hand w heels, their opening is gcncrally cxp ress-
ed in number of lurns of the handwheel. Overlooking lhe case of the firsl vessel which is
regulaled independently and easily seen, il is generalIy found lhal valve openings var)/ing
from aboul ha lf a lurn al the second vessel lO 2 or 3 lurns for lhe lasl are sa lisfactory .
Smilh", in Hawaii, gives an inleresling method of arriving al a good se lling for lhese
valves. Tw o lhermometers are placed, one (T,) on the calandria, lhe olher (T2 ) on lhe
incondensable-gas pipe which leads from il , between the calandria and lhe valve (Fig. 32.1 6).
1f necessary, T, co uld be replaced by lhe lhermometer in the vapour space of lhe preceding
vessel. By reason of whal we have sa id aboye (p. 526) on lhe parlial pressures and lhe
temperature of lhe mixlure of air and vapour, il will be seen lhal since alI lhe air passes lhe
lhermometer T 2 , this lhermometer wjJI indic ale a temperalure lower lhan thal given by T,.
If the valve is opened wide, a high er and higher proportion of va pour will pass, and lhe
temperature T, will ¡¡pproach closer and closer lO T,. However, experience shows that a good
regulation corresponds lO a difference of aboul 3 °C (5°F) belween T, and T,. Paturau" con-
siders lhal 1.5°C (3°F) s hould be sufficienl.
The same procedure may be employed wilh a vacuum pan, bUl Smilh indicates in lhis case
3 - 6°C (5 - 10 °F) as lhe oplimal difference.
Accordin g lO Claassen", good elimination of inc onde nsab les requires lhallhere should be
wilhdrawn with lhem a vo lume of vapour al leasl 30 limes grealer lh an lhal of lhe inconden-
sables lO be eliminaled . Honig'6 estimates thal a volume 50 times grealer mUSl be witlldrawn.
JUICE CIRCULATION 529
¡UICE CIRCULATlON
Juice feed
There are several melhods of feeding juice to the successive vessels:
(1) From the botlOm of one vessel to lhe lOp of the calandria of the following one
(2) From bottom lO bottom
(3) From top lO bottom with Chapman circulation
(4) By lateral or annular downtake
(5) From bollom to botlom with leve l regulator.
(1) From botlom of one vessel lO top of Ihe following. This system is now of historical
.interesl only, as il has been completely abandoned. Il had the disadvantages that:
(a) The juice was introduced aboye the tubes, whereas ebullition requires that it should
rise in the tubes.
(b) Part of the juice arriving could descend by the centre well and pass close to the jui ce
outlet leading to the following vessel, withoul traversi ng lhe tubes.
Now Ihe heat-tran sfer coefficienl depends on th e brix 01' lhe juice, and decreases as the
brix increases. lt is therefore desirable lhat lhe average brix of the juice in Ihe vessel should
be as low as possible. This is lhe case when the average brix is equal 10 lhe mean belween
the br'lx of the juice entering and the brix of lhe juice lea ving . Now, if the juice tends to short-
circuil the tubes and pass direclly through lhe vesse l, lhe portion of lhe juice in the vessel
which boils in the tubes will become co ncenlrated to a brix higher lhan that of Lhe juice leav-
ing, and this vessel will Lhen function und er unfavourable condiLibns.
(2) From bottom to bottom. In this system (Fig. 32.17) the juice pipe is stra ight and short
and enters the bottom of the evaporator vesse l; the juice is distributed by var ious methods,
for example, a conical flange, or a ring pipe with holes or slots, which direct the juice toward s
t he t u bes on t he peri phery.
The juice is thus forced by the pressure, and parlicularly by Ihe flash of the juice, lowards
L
'" / "-
-r
1111111111
- -
~ . ,.-
-'
--"'"
Fig. 32.17. Jui ce ~j,r culatjo n from bottom t6 boltom.
lhe tubes and in lhe direction Opposile lO lhal of lhe juice ourler. Normally ir should Ihen
rise al leasl once through the lubes, before descending again by lhe cenlre well.
Dimensions 01 juiee pipes. 11 is lhe difference in pressure which mainlains Ihe f'low of lhe
juice from one vessello lhe nexl. In order lo avoid inclusion of vapour bubbles wilh lhe juice
as fa r as possible, lhe juice oullel pipe is connected lo a small su mp in the middle of rhe bol-
10m plale of lhe vessel and lhus s itualed under lhe centre wel!. The cross-secrion of lhe con-
necling pipe will be chosen so thal the juice velocilY, assumed free of vapour bubbles, does
not exceed:
Triple effect: 1.5 mis (5 rUs)

Qu a druple effecl: J.2 mi s (4 rUs)
Quinluple effect: 0.9 mis (3 rUs)
Sexluple effect: 0.75 mis (2.5 rUs)
The connecting and regulalin g valve should be as close as possible 10 lhe following vessel.
The conneclion may be made by mean s of an inverled siphon, bul even in lhis case il is
slill necessary to provide a regulaling va lve al som e par! of lhe pipe. It may be sul'ficienl lO
lake Ihese siphons down only 4 m (13 rl.) below Ihe ca landri a (for a quadruple erfect), bul
it is safer lO make them longer, if possible , as muc h as 6 m (20 fl.) (ef. p. 519). In lhe case
of Chapman circulalion (seebelow), the heighl oflhe siph o n may be reckoned fr o m lhe up-
per lube plale.
~ f\
;
I I
, ,I
I
,
I I
I
1
"" / ~
•
..
Fig . 32.18. Chapman circulation.
JUICE CIRCULATION 531
(3) Chapman circulation. This syslem (Fig. 32.18) consists simply of closing off lhe lower
opening of the ce ntre well by a funnel which form s the oullet point for lhe juice passing to
lhe following vesseJ. Thus the only juice which lea ves lhis vessel is lhat which nows down
imo lhe cenlre welJ. Consequenlly, if il is arranged lhat the enlering juice is directed towards
the bottom of the tubes near the periphery of the calandria, there is a good chance that it
will pass several limes through the tubes before reaching the centre well.
This systelll has given excelleIlt result s. Webre" reports that it has given gains in capacilY
Fig. 32.19. Laleral oulle1. Circular oullel.
VO POUI'" inlel
Incondensable lncondensable gases
Juice
Fig. 1.2.;10. Calandria wilh lateral outlet.

532 EVAPORATION '.' Ch. 32
of the order of 25 - 50%, though these figures are much higher than those experienced by
the author. The system necessitates only very slight modifications, which are readily made.
(4) Lateral or annular downtake. Some manufacturers have adopted the same principie,
but place the downtake for the concentrated juice not in the centre but at [he periphery of
¡he calandria. The downtake may be circular (Fig. 32.19) or triangular (Fig. 32.20). In the
latter case it takes the form of a sector of the circle of the calandria, but with a width only
half or two·thirds of the radius of the calandria. This lateral downtake presents the advan-
tage that ¡he juice, if distributed at the bottom on the side opposite the downtake, has a large
number of tubes to traverse before reaching the downtake.
Other manufacturers, of which Fives Cail- Babcock is one, prefer an annular downtake
(Fig. 32.21). The vessel is then made in two parts: the calandria of diameter D, and the shell,
of diameter D + 2e (e being the width of the annular downtake). The downtake thus consists
of the annular space between calandria and shell. The steam is admitted from aboye in the
centre of the calandria; the juice has to pass through the tubes between the steam inlet and
the downtake before entering the latter. Control of the rate of flow is achieved by means of
('
_. __ .
'-,
Vapour inlet
Vapour outlet
'-~.'\ -
--=t~ \~
IR
, I
I I
i i
.::l water
4 juice inlets
Fig. 32.21. Vessel wilh annular oUlle!.

JUICE CIRCULATlON 533 •
a level regulalor, which mainlains Ihe juice level c10se lo Ihe mid-height of Ihe do\Vntake,
Ihe control aCling on Ihe amount red inlo the vessel. This system has Ihe advanlage of main-
laining a high f10w of juice ¡nto the annular downtake and assures a certain f1exibilily in Ihe
regulalion of the juice leve!. The control becomes to some extent automatic by adapting Ihe
gushing of juice from the tubes according to the juice f1ow. This is an advanlage common
to the Chapman syslem and Ihe downtake syslems. The regulalor is of lorsion-Iube and
integral-action type, functioning by reducing the flow 01' juice: for example, Maisoneilan,
Camflex or Minitork models.
(S) By juice-Ievel regulalor. Originally, the val ves on Ihe connecling juice pipes between
effecls were regulaled by an atienda ni who mainlained the desired levels in the various
vessels. He is now relieved of this duty by placing this valve under Ihe control of a juice-Ievel
regulator (Figs. 32.22 and 32.23).
It is indeed important to maintain Ihe juice level at its oplimal value, as Ihe efficiency of
Ihe evaporator falls rapidly below or aboye lhal value. Now Ihe operalor is nol capable 01'
keeping Ihe level wilhin such narrow limits as does the automatic regulator, which keeps Ihe
level praclically conslant; and Ihis control renders the presence of Ihe atlendant unnecessary.
If Ihe val ve on Ihe pipe leading from one vessel 10 the following one is of a type which
does not open fully, il should be placed al the lowesl point of the pipe, as il is lhe valve Ihat
-causes the major part of Ihe 1055 of head: it will thus act where the difference of pressure
is the maximum possible: generally 25 - 36070 for vessels with cenlral downtake.
Juice level
We have just been discussing the value of maintaining an optimum level for the juice in the
evaporalor vessels. What is this optimum level?
If the juice level is too low, the boiling juice cannol reach Ihe 10p of Ihe tubes. There will
Ihen be no circulalion of juice in lhe calandria. If Ihe level is too high, Ihe tubes will be
drowned or fully submerged: Ihere will Ihen be no climbing film.
Experiments by Kerr have given a graph (Fig. 32.24) giving Ihe change in evaporalion rale
or in coefficient of heal transfer as a function of Ihe hydroslatic level of Ihe juice in Ihe calan-
dria. This graph gives a very definite maximum al Ihe point where the juice level reaches 35%
of the length of the lube, measured from the boltom. Ir. may be considered Ihal heat
Iransmission is al a maximum for juice levels between 30 and 40% of lhe heighl of Ihe lube.
II is often stated simply thal the optimum level 10 be mainlained corresponds lO one-third
of tile height of the tubes; in general, 25 - 36% for vessels with central downlake.
Influence of Ienglh of lubes. However, this graph applies only for the old types of
evaporator, for which it was established. With modern vessels with long tubes, approaching
Ihe Kestner type of evaporator, this optimum tends 10 decrease, and drops to 15 - 20% in
the Kestner with very long tubes (7 m).
Influence of lube diameler. Hausbrand and Hirsch" have observed Ihat the oplimum level
depends on the diameter of the calandria tubes. For tubes of small diameter, il will be lower
(for example, 25%) than for tubes' of larger diameter (for example, 30%), on account of Ihe
grealer chance of formalion ofslugs of vapour in the small tubes.
534 EVAPORA nON Ch_ 32
·Strainer
valve
/
¡so!ating
Qutlet
manomet
Outl et----Io.~1
circuit
¡gUlatin g valve
Feed valve
By-pass val ve
Fig. 32.22. Juice-Ievel conlrol in multiple effeclS.
Butterfly volve olter

105t bleG vopour bronch
- Ju Ice or syrup
~Vopour or steom
-Condenso tes
- Air
Boilers
Foctor/
Fig. 32.23. luice-Ievel con "01 (Fives Cail- Babcock).

JUICE CIRCULA nON 535
"lo
10O
-........ !
:(1
9o
o -- -- ,
o~--
i
1•
,_o -
,
- -- -
!
,
"---
- -- _.
"
- - - - -- -- - i ~ ~
b..._
--1-I -
o !! /~~l-----
••
,
.--t '
--
:~ I· . ~"-·!
---'"
r--' r--- I
1·:-t
' ,
I
, I I ,
2o -.-.
o .. - .
I
I
O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 %
Juice level "l. height o( tube
Fig. 32.24. Variation of heat-transfer coefficient as a funCiion of juice level in Ihe calandria .
Influence of position in the set. In Formosa 29 it has been ascertained that the optimum
level is as fOllows:
40070 for lhe 1st veSsel

25070 for the 2nd vessel
20070 for 3rd and 4th vessels
Influence of scale. The optimal level is lower in a vessel with c1ean tubes. As the tubes ac-
cumulate scale, it is advisable to raise the level, for example, from 15 to 25070 or from 20
10 30070 of Ihe tube length, during. the course of the week.
Thus the oplimum level varies ' between 15 and 40070 of the height of the tubes. The lrue
criterion which should guide the operator is the ebulJition of the juice in the interior of the
vessel. The operator will know that he is in the neighbourhood of the optimum level when
he sees the juice spouting from the tubes, over the whole surface of the tube plate, and wet-
ting it without submerging it. It should fal! around each tube and immediately descend in
SOl11e of the neighbouring tubes, which throw it up afresh.
Control of brix of syrup

For proper operation of the pans and good exhaustion of the molasses, il is importanl 10
have a sy rup of uniform and constant brix. Ot herwise, the sugar boilers will become confused
and Ihe settings of automatic pan controllers will have to be altered very frequently.
There are sorne excellent types of control equipment available (Fig. 32.25) for ensuring a
uniform brix of syrup. The co ntrol is obtained by recycling, or on the other hand shorl-
circuiting of syrup belween the last"two effects. lt presupposes an evaporator set of capacily
536 EVAPORATION' Ch. 32
somewhat grealer lhan slriclly necessary, olherwise the crushing rale of the factory would
be somewhat decreased, or the brix of syrup would fall below the sel value.
Such a controller is generally an indicator - controller of brix, acluated by the differenlial
pressure regislered belween lhe boltom and lOp of a column of syrup about 3 m (10 fL) in
height, and converling the variation in pressure into the movement of a butterfly valve
regulating the flow of juice or syrup.
Removal of the syrup. The syrup is extracted from the last vessel by a pump .
In the case of a centrifugal pump, the narrow passages of the rotors are liable lO beco me
blocked by depos it s. If this trouble is encounlered, a use ful method consists of inslalling lhe
syrup pump and lhe condensa le pump in sllch a way that lhey can be inlerchanged by I he
simp le operation 01' valves. By allernaling Ihe pumps, the deposit rormed while pumping
Fig. 32.25. eab inet ror br;" and evaporator control (Babcock Atlantique) .
JVICE CIRCVLATION 537
syru ps is removed. This system ob viou sly cannot be used when these condensates are being
used as bOller feed-water.
ír-------,
' '\
,,
,
I
\
H
fig. J2.26 . Slandard enlrainmenl sepa ralor. fig. 32.27. Umbrella-I ype sepa ralor.
_.
Vapour
í
-"'- ...
' - -' \ -
\ .... '" .
I
--
ouUet ~-
I I"
I I I
~
I I
'----l- -------
Tube plate
..
vapour.
Outlet
/
/
/
~ n~
I . WOOo'
•
Fig. 32.28. CentrirugaJ-type separator, :" l', Fig. 32.29. S.C.C. enlrainment separator.
538 EVAPORATION: ,. Ch. 32
ENTRAINMENT
During evaporation, the ebullition projects into the vapour space of the vessel fine droplets
of juice, some of which are actually minute bubbles of vapour enclosed in a film of juice,
like soap bubbles. These droplets thus are very light, and the current of vapour will easily
enlrain them and carry lhem towards the following vessel or towards the condenser.
The danger of entrainment is greater as the vacuum becomes greater. It is Iherefore mainly
in the last vessel that entrainment is mosl to be feared.
The risk similarly increases very rapidly as lhe size of the droplets decreases. When they
are relatively large, a slight increase in the height of the vessel is sufficient lO stop them. If
they occur in the form of a mist or fog, it is much more difficult. Thus it is important to
avoid as far as possible the formatlon of this misto
To avoid losses by entrainment, it is indispensable to furnish the evaporator vessels with
a device for separating the drops of juice. It is generally placed at the top of the vessel, and
is termed a "save-all", or "entrainment separator". lt is based on the same principies as
analogous apparatus designed for removing solid or liquid particles from gases: abrupt
changes of velocity or of direction, centrifugal force, impact on a wall or some obstacle, etc.
We show in Figs. 32.26 - 29 four different types of separators.
In the umbrella type of "save-all", also known as the Heckmann, the proportions recom-
mended in Queensland by Halpin 30 are as follows:
D'= I R 0.036
d = 0.29 E = 0.06
M = 0.36 H = 0.43
In lhe S.C.e. enlrainment separator of Fives Cail- Babcock (Fig. 32.29), the diagram COI"-
responds to medium-sized evaporator vessels, for which I vapour outlet passage is sufficient.
It is important, for efficient separation, that the passage should be narrow. Also, for
evaporator bodies of more than 2,500 m 2 (27,000 sq.ft.), 2 concentric vapour passages are
provided, side by side, each receiving half the total vapour. The two passages join at the
out let. Thejuice or syrup recovered by such separators is returned to the vessel by small pipes
which deliver the liquid close to the wall of the vessel, or preferably into the main body of
liquid. It is advisable to provide two or three sllch pipes.
Enlrainmenl separalors
On account of the vacuum, the most serious entrainments are those produced in the last
vessel. In order to catch these before they reach the condenser, an entrainment separator is
inserted in the vapour pipe going to the condenser. This is generally (Fig. 32.30) a cylindrical
vessel forming a simple enlargement of the vapour pipe, and containing grilles formed from
tubes of copper or steel, split longitudinally in two, placed side by side (Fig. 32.31) and ar-
ranged vertically, with the hollow side facing the vapour stream. These tubes are about
25 - 40 mm (J - li in,) in diameter, and are separated by an interval equal to about haIr their
width. Hence it is necessary that the cross-section of the "save-all" should be at least three
times and preferably four times that of the vapour pipe in which it is inserted. The entrained
ENTRAlNMENT
Baffles
)
~)
.. ~
)
Elev.ation Sectior,
Fig. 32.30. En<rainment separator. Fig. 32.31. Split tubes for grilles.
Fig. 32.32. Arrangement of successive grilles. Fig. 32.33". "Ace or diamonds" separator.
droplels strike againsl lhe hollo"; side of lhe lubes, adhere lo lhem, and descend lhe lenglh
of the lube. The syrup recovered is collecled al lhe bottom of lhe vessel and drains lo a
recuperalor bottle.
Since one such grille has an efficiency much lower lhan 100"70', several grilles are placed
Orle after lhe olher, giving lhe lubes a slighl inclinalion of sevéral degrees from lhe verlical,
allernaling lo lhe left and lo lhe righl wilh successive grilles (Fig. 32.32), so lhal lhey slope
in opposite direclions. Al leasl four grilles are necessary, preferably five.
To supplemenl lhe aclion of lhese large and ralher cumbersome entrainment separators,
an additional unit is often added, on the individual vacuum pipes of the vacuum pans and,
if necessary, of the multiple effects. This separator is based on the same principie, but is
relatively flat in the direction of the pipe length; it is set up diagonally or as an "Ace of
diamonds" (Fig. 32.33) and is of square section, with tubes inclined to the right and left at
45°.
Several other types of entrainment separator are also used ..
Mesh eliminators. It is possible to assist lhe entrainment separators and to reduce their task
by interposing at the top of the evaporator vessel a "maltress", 10-15 cm (4-6 in.) thick,
formed of fine threads of stainless steel knitted or felted together, somewhat after the style
of a Liebermann cloth (p. 759), so as to obtain a layer of the desired thickness. This mattress
is compresscd and hcld betwccn two supporting grilles formed of hoop iron and fixed at the
edges. It catches the entrained droplets, which accuIllulate, join together, increase in size and
fall back into the evaporator in the form of drops of sufficient size to prevent being re-
entrained.
These mesh separators would have an efficiency31 of approx. 85"70. They involve an addi-
tional pressure drop of approx. 7 - JO mm G- i in.) of water, say 0.5 - 0.8 mm (0.02 - 0.03
in.) of mercury, which is thus very slight. It is estimated that they would pay for themselves
in three years, bul they foul up dreaufully in a single seaso n: lhey are fragile allu very dirficuil
to clean effectively. lt is essentiaJ to install soda and acid sprays aboye them in order to assure
chemical cleaning w hi c h will be frequent and as effective as possible. Otherwise, lhey quickly
become blocked and ineffective, and can even obstruct the operation of the multiple e ffecls.
Th e .> uppliers of such mesh separalor s are, in France, Knil and Tissmetal, and Koc h , in lhe
U.s.A.
Recovery bottle. The syrup recovered in lhe entrainment sepa ralor is passed to a small
c hamber fitted with sight glasses, so thal one can see the liquid nowing into its interior. This
is ca lled the recuperator bottle or recover y bottle (Fig. 32 .3 4).
s
Fig. 32.34. Recover y bOllte.
Thi s bottle is connected to the last vesseJ. Jn operating, it is allowed to fill; when it is fulJ ,
the syr up inlet valve v, is closed, the valve v¡ connecting to the vessel is opened, also the vent
cock v, communicating with the atmosp here. The syrup is thendrawn inlo the vessel. Im-
mediately valves v, and vJ are closed , v, is reopened, and lhe bOltle is allowed to fill again.
Thi s melhod has the serious disad va nlage th at the operators frequentJy forgel 10 emply
lhe bOltle. Thu s lhe syrup re covered is lost, as if the separator were nOl there.
Jt is preferabJe 10 interpose a small sy phon S between the bottJe and the lasl vessel, and
to leave v, and VJ always open; or the valves may be omitted. The syrup will then now con-
tinuously into the vessel by gravity.
Since the pressure drop between the last evaporator vesseJ and lhe entrainmenl separa tor
is very small, a very shor t syp hon will be sufficient, of about 90-120 cm (3 -4 ft.).
Magnitude of entrainmenl
Deerr J ' estimates that losses by entrainmenl may attain 3OJo of the juice in a multiple effeet
without any entrainment separalors, and lhal lhey can be reduced to less than 0.1 OJo if t hese
devices are properly installed.
Prinsen Geerligs JJ cites a number of fa ctories w here undetermined Josses had been high,
and where severa J improvemenls in the entrainment separators allowed these losses to be
reduced in % of s ugar in cane:
From: 3.59% 4.55% 2.45% 3.39% 3.12%

To : 2.65% 2.65% 1.57% 1.17% 0.78%
respecl ively.
INVERSION LOSSES 541 '
Pig. 32.35. Quadruple effecl, H.I.W. designo
Precaulions lo be taken. against entrainmenl

The bes! methods of reducing entrainment are:
(o) Avoid increasing the vacuum to an Linnecessarily high figure. Be conten! with 60 - 65
cm (24 - 26 in.), values, which moreover offer certain advantages from other poinls of view
(ef. pp . 506, 610, 649).
(b) Arrange the juice entry at the bottom of the vessel and not aboye the upper tube plate,
where it would provoke splashing, and might even break up the juice to a fine mist.
(e) Avoid forcing the multiple effects aboye their normal capacity (ef. p. 508).
(ti) Avoid allowing the juice level LO rise appreciably aboye the optimum leve!.
(e) Provide the vessels with "save-alls" and the vapour pipe with an efficient entrainment
separator.
(f) But it must ·nol be forgollen that the best save-a ll is a high vessel; the body of the vessel
should have aboye the upper tube plate, at least twice and preferably lwo and a half limes
the height of the laller.
INVERSION LOSSES
When the juice is carried to a high temperature, its sugar content undergoes decomposition
by inversion, which is more marked at high temperatures and higher acidity. As far as
temperature is concerned, it is aboye loooe (212°F) that inversion increases rapidly; it
beco mes prohibitive a boye 125:" IJO oe (260- 265°F). Taking the rate of inversion at loooe
as 100, Honig 34 gives the figiir~s" of Table 32.9.
542 . EVAPORATION Ch. 32
TABLE 32.9
TEMPERATURE AND INVERSION RATE
Temperature Temperature
(OC) (0F) Rale 01 inversion . (oC) (0F) Rafe 01 inversion
120 248 523 80 176 15.7

110 230 257 75 167 8.5
107 225 200 70 158 4.9
105 221 167 65 149 2.9
100 212 100 60 140 1.7
98 208 85 55 131 1.0
96 205 72 50 122 0.47
94 201 60.5 45 115 0.25
92 198 50.6 40 .104 0.13
90 194 41;5 25 77 0.02
85 185 24.5
As far as acidity is concerned, inversion increases mainly below pH = 6.5.

In Table 32.10 we quote lhe lable of Sladler which gives lhe quanlilies of sucrose inverled
al common temperatures and pH values.
Values may readily be extrapolated from lhis lable by remembering lhal columns of lhe
same decimal of pH may be deduced one from lhe other by a simple displacement of lhe
decimal poinl by one digit. Por example, al JOO°C, lhe percenlage of sucrose invened per
hour wilI be:
al pH = 5.0, 2.12070 al pH 4.8, 3.37%

,.
al pH 6.0, 0.21% al pH 5.8, 0.34%
al pH 7.0, 0.021 % al pH 6.8, 0.034%
TABLE 32.10
PERCENTAOE OF SUCROSE INYERTED PER HOUR (STADLER)
pH
Temperature
(oC) (0F) 6.0 6.2 6.4 6.6 6.8 7.0
50 122 0.0010 0.00063 0.0004 0.00025 0.00016 0.00010

60 140 0.0035 0.0022 0.0014 0.00088 0.00056 0.00035
70 158 0.011 0.007 0.0044 0.0026 0.0018 0.0011
80 176 0.033 0.021 0.013 0.0083 0.0052 0.0033
85 185 0.053 0.034 0.022 0.013 0.0084 0.0053
90 194 0.089 0.056 0.035 0.022 0.014 0.0089
95 203 0.14 0.088 0.055 0.035 0.022 0.014
100 212 0.21 0.13 0.084 0.053 0.034 0.021
105 221 0.35 0.22 0.14 0.088 0.056 0.035
110 230 0.54 0.34 0.22 0.14 0.086 0.054
120 249 1.1 0.70 0.44 0.28 0.18 0.11
In lhe same way, for a pH of 7.2, lhe figure will be 0.013, since for pH of 6.2, ir is 0.13.
HEAT LOSSES 543
-
For a standard quadruple effecl, wilh lhe first vessel heated by steam al 112°C (234°F),
Claa\sen l l evaluates losses of sucrose by inversion at:
IsI vessel: 0.020070 of sucrose in juice

2nd vessel: 0.015% of sucrose in juice
3rd vessel: 0.010% of sucrose in juice
4th vessel: 0.005% of sucrose in juice
0.050% of sucrose in juice
or approximalely 0.007% on cane.
Control of inversion losses

The general melhod employed in lhe sugar factory lo delecl inversion losses in the course
of evaporation consists of following Ihe glucose ralio of Ihe juice. Thi, lerm mean, Ihe ralio
of reducing sugars 10 sucrose (or lO poi) in Ihe juice. The ralio should decrease slighlly bel-
ween c1arified juice and syrup. Honig J6 eslimales Ihe normaldifference at about 4% (3.12
compared wilh 3, for example). If this quolienl increases, or remains slalionary, ir is pro-
bable thal an inversion lossis occurring during the evaporation. This must then be attributed
eilher 10 100 high a temperature in the first vessel, or to lOO long a time in lhe vessel (generally
due to short-circuit of parl of the juice from entry to exil), or to too low a pH value.
The normal pH drop between clear juice and syrup, accord¡ng 10 Honig, is 0.3, and should
not exceed 0.5. For example, the clariried juice may be at 6.9 and lhe syrup al 6.5.
Normal inversidn losses in the course of Ihe evaporation, again according 10 Honig, should
not exceed 0.2% of sucrose as a maximum.
lt is, moreover, of value 10 follow the glucose ratio throughoul Ihe manufaclure. 11 musl
be remembered, indeed, Ihal every loss of glucose shows up as a loss of sucrose, since, in
Ihe molasses, one replaces the other more or less completely. Roughly, we may reckon Ihat
four parts of reducing sugars releas e one part of sucrose. Now, while sucrose is destroyed
al high temperature and low pH, glucose is destroyed at high temperalure and high pH. A
compromise must accordingly be adopted for the pH value, and it is equally desirable 10
avoid remaining loo long aboye a pH,af 8.5 as to avoid going below pH 6.5, particularly
at high temperatures.
HEAT LOSSES
As in juice heaters, utilisation of the heat supplied in the steam lo a vessel of the multiple
effects would Ilot be 100%. Parl of Ihe heal always escapes, by radialion and conveclion,
to the ambient atmosphere.
Tro mp J7 estima tes the heat loss in .the several vessels of a multiple effect of which lhe
vessels lhemselves are lagged, bul nol lhe interconnecling pipes, al 3 - 10% of lhe heal sup-
plied lO lhe vessel.
Deerr J8 eSlimales lhe loss by. r¡¡dialion and conveclion in lhe case of a quadruple, al ap-
proximately 40 kg (90 lb.) of steam per tonne of cane. Since the actualloss corresponds only
lO the steam supplied to the first vessel, this means:
(1) 10 kg (22 lb.) steam/tonne cane if the quadruple is of ample capacity, and concentrates
all the syrup to the desired degree
(2) 40 kg (90 lb.) steam/tonne cane if the quadruple is of insufficient capacity, beca use
then this loss will decrease with the concentration of the syrllp, and mllst be compensaled
fully by a corresponding consumption of steam in single effect in the vacuum pans.
Generally, multiple effects are lagged with wooden slats enclosing the cylindrical parls of
the vessels, of the "save-all" and of the pipes. The bottom, Ihe 10p dome, Ihe 10p 01" Ihe
"save-all" and the bends of the pipes are left bare. In this case, one mayestimate the losses
at 5070 of the heat exchanged in each vessel.
If the vessel is completely 13gged with an insulation in the form of a powder or a pasle,
the loss may be estimated at about 2%.
Sandera J7 has found a loss of 83 kcal/m'/h (30 B.T.U./sq.ft./h) of exposed surface of
an evaporator, covered with an insulating layer of 60 mm (2~ in.) thickness, for a temperalure
drop of 52°C (94°F) belween the vapour from Ihe juice and Ihe ambient airo This represents
a loss of close to 1.6 kcal/m'¡OC/h (0.33 B.T.U./sq.ft./°F/h).
It is recommended J9 that al1 surfaces should be painted with aluminium paint; this is suffi-
cient to decrease the losses by 10 - 20%, whether the equipment and pipes are lagged or not.
Anti-rust aluminium paint is available.
TABLE 32.11
HEAT LOSSES FROM A MULTLPLE EFFECT IN PER CENT OF STEAM SUPPLIED TO 1ST EFFECT
Bare vessels Partial/y lagged Completely lagged
Double effeCI 1.06 0.46 0.26

Triple effecl 4.20 2.07 1.05
Quadruple effecl 9.80 5.00 2.70
However, what is interesting is to estimate the loss of heat in relation to the steam supplied
to the first vessel. Following Webre 40 , Kerr gives the .estimates shown in Table 32.11 for lhe
loss of heal suffered by a multiple effecl, expressed in per cenl of lhe sleam supplied lo the
firsl vessel.
We shall retain Ihe value of 5% for a quadruple effect partially lagged, or 2.7% il· fully
lagged.
Influence of place of (he vessel in (he set

We may assume as a firsl approximalion thal lhe loss of heal from a vessel is proportional
10 the difference in temperature between the vessel and the ambient airo In a multiple elTecI,
Ihe loss of heat will therefore be greater for the first vessel than for lhe second, for lhe seCond
lhan for lhe third, and so on.
On the other hand, a loss of heat in lhe first vessel decreases lhe evaporation in rhe second
(since il is Ihe vapour which comes from Ihe firsl which heats lhe second), lhen in Ihe Ihird,
lNCRUSTATIONS 545
and so on. In other words, the heat losses suffered by the firs! vessel, between Ihe vapour
space and lhe following calandria, affecl lhe second vessel and have lheir repercussion s on
lhe following vessels. They are lhen mulliplied by (n - 1), n being lhe number of effecIS.
The losses of lhe second vessel are mulliplied by (n - 2), and so on. The losses from lhe
lasl vessel are of no consequence, since ilS vapour goes 10 the condenser. We shall take for
example a quadruple with lemperalures as follows:
Difference in tempera/l/re
aboye ambienl air 0130'C
(86'F)
ExhauSl Sleam _ t 12'C (234'F)

Vapour from 1st vessel = 104'C (219'F) 74'C (133'F)
Vapour from 2nd vessel = 94'C (201 'F) 64'C (1 15'F)
Vapour from 3rd vessel = 80'C (176'F) 50'C ( 90'F)
Vapour from 4th vessel = 55'C (13I'F) 25'C ( 45'F)
The heal losses from the firsl vessel will lherefore be 1.5 limes as much as for lh e lhird
if Ihey are of equal surface and of comparable insulalion.
On the olher hand, the loss from the rirsl vessel has its effect finally three times, the loss
from the second twice, the loss from the third once only.
The losses by radiation and convection in each vessel will ha ve approximately lhe following
relalive jmportance:
1st vessel: 74 x 3 = 222, or close to 9

2nd vessel: 64 x 2 = 128, or close to 5
3rd vessel: 50 x 1 50, or close lO 2
4th vessel: 25 x O O, or c10se to O
This shows immediately to what extent it is important to insulate the first vessel, and lO
lake particular ca re with lhis insulation.
ConverseJy, one cou ld well disp ense with lagging for the last vessel. However, for aesthetic
reaso ns, it is given the same exterior cove ring as the preceding vessels, but oí minimal
t hickness.
INCRUSTATlONS
In operation, the tubes of a multiple effect become fouled in two ways:

(1) On the outside, a deposit of oil carried by the steam is formed
(2) Inside, incrustations or scale derived from the juice are deposited.
(1) Exterior deposit of oíl

This deposit, originating in the oilef!trained with the exhaust steam, obviously occurs only
in the first vessel. It hardly exists except in the case of factories which still use reciprocating
546 EVAPORATlON: Ch. 32
, .~
steam engines, particularly if these are lubricated by atomisation of oil at the steam entry.
To avoid this brownish or blackish deposit of dirty oil, or to reduce it 10 a very great extent,
it is of greal advantage to interpose an oil separalor in Ihe path of the steam between the
exhaust main and the first effecL
This deposit is detrimental to heat transmission in the vessel. lt may be removed during
the slack season by introducing into the calandria:
(a) A very dilute acid, for example HCI of 0.25 OJo
(b) Molasses diluted to 20 0 brix 41 which is left lo ferment slowly, and which is emptied
out drop by drop, regulating the rate so that emptying the calandria takes about one mont h
(e) Water covered with a layer about 7 mm O in.) thick of kerosene, which again will be
run out drop by drop so that the petrol will slowly c1ean the full height of the tubes
(d) Turpentirie: lhe calandria is half filled wilh water 42 , and oil of turpentine is introduced
so as to obtain a layer of 10 cm (4 in .) (or in the ratio of 2.0 kg per 1,000 dm' (40 lb. per
1,000 sq.fL) of heating surface); the liquid level is then made lO rise alld descend lOor 15
times so that the turpentine scours the full length of the tubes
(e) Caustic soda, which may be boiled in place of juice: this procedure has given excellent
results in India.
(2) Seale
The most troublesome deposit is formed by incrustations inside the tube.
Origino These óriginate from: .

(a) Material in suspension in the juice, poorly separated by a defective defecation or filtra-
tion; these materials deposit mainly in the first vessel
(b) Non-sugars in solution, which become insoluble as the juice becomes concentrated.
These deposits form mostly in the later vessels.
Quantities. We may reckon on an average of 200 - 800 g of scale on a dry basis per m
'
of heating surface, say approximately 500 g/ m', or 10-50 g/LC. (0.1 Ib/ sq.fL, or 2-10
Ib ./ IOO Lc.).
Distribution_ The distribution of these deposits in the tubes depends mainly on the speed
of circulation or the stale of agitation of the liquid; the deposits form where the liquid is stag-
nanl and where the speed of circulation is low.
Composition. Scales consist principally of:

(a) Calcium salts: phosphate, sulphale, oxalate, and carbonate of calcium; the phosphates
decrease while the sulphates increase from the first to the final vessel 4J
(b) Metallic oxides: oxides of magnesium, aluminium and iron
(e) Silica; Ihis forms the greater part of the deposit in the last vessel.
In addition, sulphites are found in factories using sulphitation. They may amount LO 30%
of the scale when the acidit y of the juice reduces the pH below 6.7. They are reduced by car-
rying out the defecation in a slightly alkaline medium (pH = 7.2), and by preventing the
temperature from dropping between sulphitation and evaporation.
INCRUSTATlONS 547
In defecal ion faclories, lhe proportion of calcium phosphate may in lurn exceed one-lhird.
In carbonalation faclories, il is calcium oxalate which predominates. However, it is always
present, allhough oxalic acid is nol found in the juices; Prinsen Geerligs" has shown that
il was due lo oxidalion of glycollic acid in the juice al high lemperature.
Sulphale scales are lhe hardesl. Silicious scales are sometimes porous: lhese are softer, bul
may occur as hard and dense scale.
Thermal eonduetivity. Tests made in Queensland 45 have given as mean lhermal conduclivi-
ly for scales from evaporalor vessels a value of 0.45 kcal/m'¡OC/ h/ m (0.3 B.T.U./sq.ft./
°F/ h/ fL).
Distribution of seale. Scales are much thicker allhe lower parl of lhe tubes, where the juice
is relalively slagnant, than at lhe 10p, where il is in aclive movement. FUr!her, in checking
Ihe cleaning of a vessel, one musl nol be conlentlo inspecllhe 10p of lhe lubes; il is necessary
lO place a lamp al lhe botlom of lhe lube and lo inspecl lhe lube from aboye. This will give
a betler indicalion of the condilion of lhe botlom parl of lhe lube.
FUrlher, one should nOl lrusl lo lhe appearance of lhe lube. We ha ve known a case of one
faclory wllich c1eaned lhe multiple effecls wilh a mechanical cleaner. The lubes were polished
and brilliant, bUI lhe evaporalor gave very poor performance. On c10ser invesligalion il was
found lhal lhe lubes conlained an inner ring of very hard scale, which had become polished
like agale. When lubes are replaced, it is advisable, lherefore; occasionally to cul a .lube in
IWO longitudigally, and to inspect closely this seclion of lhe lube.
Relative proportions in the vessels. Quillard 46 , for be el faclories, eslimates that scale
reduces the heat transmission in lhe differenl vessels in proportions which increase wilh Iheir
place in Ihe seL To lake Ihis inlo accounl, he proposes Ihe following coefficienls of increase,
for a quadruple, lO be applied to the respective heating surfaces of the vessels:
Pre-evaporator: 10070 1.l0

1st vessel: 25% = 1.25
2nd vessel : 30% 1.30
3rd vesseL 35% 1.35
4th vessel: 40% 1.40
These proporlions would represent equally well Ihe relative importance of scale in the
various effecIs for the cane sugar faclory.
In Cuba it has been found on an average lhal in a quadruple effect, the amount of scale
is respectively 32, 14, 13, and 41 % of the lotal weight of scale on a dry basis.
Influence of evaporation rateo Apart from avoiding use of excess lime in the c1arification,
or using magnesia 10 replace lime (ef. p. 429), there is lillle that can be done lO avoid scale
formalion. II is well known, however, that scale is deposiled all the more rapidly and abun-
dantly when lhe evaporalion rate is sluggish. II is imporlant Iherefore lo make every effor!
lO mainlain conlinuous operationaHd a high evaporalion rale; hence the advantage
548 EY APORA TION ' Ch. 32
sometimes obtained by Kestner-type evaporators (cf. p'. '(13). For the same reason, it is ad-
visabJe to keep to the minimum the volume of juice in transil in the evaporator (cf. p. 533).
C1eaning of evaporators
Incrustations form rapidly and il is these which force a weekly SIOp, more or less prolonged,
for cleaning the evaporators.
Cerlain factories, where the c1arification is very good and the mulliple effecl generously
designed, have to clean only once in fourteen days. We know a case of one faclory possessing
a Kestner of 450 m' (4,850 sq. fL), as lhe first vessel withoul vapour bleeding, followed by
a secand vessel of 350 m' (3,775 sq.ft.), which is c1eaned only in lhe slack season. This is
a considerable simplification and economy, which unfortunately one would nOl be able to
guarantee a priori.
Cleaning is effected in two ways:
(a) Mechanically , by scrapers or rotary c1eaners
(b) By chemical means, by pumping soda and/or acid.
(a) Mechanical c1eaning. Mechanical cleaning is effected wilh the aid of electric desca lers.
These consis t of a s mall frame (Fig. 32.36) carrying an electric motor which may be plugged
in lO a power point provided close to the evaporators. This motor has a flexible shaft sorne
6 m (20 fL) in length, enclosed ina protective sheath, and terminating in a tool with serraled
rollers (Fig. 32.37), which it drives at high speed. These rollers a re loose on their ax"es so thal
centrifugal force presses them against lhe wall of lhe tube , which permils a given 1001 lO clean
lubes of slighlly differing diameters.
Generally lwo passages of lhe 1001 are sufficienl, from IOp lO bottom and from botlom
to top, for each lube. If lhe lube is nearly c1ean, such lrealment is not desirable, as il would
remove some of lhe melal itself. JI is desirable to carry oul lhe cleaning after filling lhe vessel
wilh water up to lhe 10p of the lubes.
"- ' . . ........

, ~.... . ;) . .......
..; ~~ L ..u..~~~. _ .
Fig. 32 .36. Mechanieal deseal" (motor and flexible shafl) (Nordon).

INCRUSTATIONS 549
Fig. 32 .37. Descaling lools .
1t is possible for one man to clean about 50 - 100 tu bes, of the usual length of 1.5 - 2 m
(5 - 7 ft.), per hour. However, in the case of hard and adherent incrustations, it is recom-
mended that the tool be passed up and down the tubes at a speed of the order of 75 cm/min
(30 in.lmin), which reduces the rate to about 12 - 15 tubes/man/ h.
The optimum speed of rotation of the tool is of the order of 3,500 - 4,500 r. p.m . for nor-
mal tube diameters.
Disadvanlages. Mechanical cleaning is a disagreeable job, and expensive in manpower. It

wears the tubes, small particJes of metal being detached froin them.
Va/lage. French regulations forbid the use of power at more than 24 V in a closed metal
vessel where men are working. It is therefore necessary to provide, in the neighbourhood of
the multiple effects, a small transformer or rotar y converter, and equipment operating at low
voltage.
Descalers operated by compressed air may also be used; these require a relatively powerful
compressor, but function very welJ.
(b) Chemical c1eaning. This process consists of boiling a solution or NaOH or of Hel in
the vesseJ. The methods vary greatly: practicalIy always soda is employed, sometimes soda
and acid in turno
Soda dissolves mainly the oxalates, sulphates and the silicates. Hydrochloric acid dissolves
especially the carbonates, sulphites and the phosphates.
In so me cases soda at 30 or 32° Baumé isemployed. In India'?, the strength is taken up
to 40 0 Bé. Others'8 use it at 27° Bé (= 50 0 brix). Others go as low as 8 or 9° Bé, and even 50.
For Hel, a strength of 2070 is never exceeded. A solution of 1%,0.5% or' O.25% is used.
In Java" the practice was to boil first with a solution of 2 - 5% of caustic soda, rollowed
by one of 0.25% of Hel, and it was stated that more concentrated solutions did not give any
better results. However, in Australia 10 , it has been found that the time necessary to obtain
a satisfactory result depended on the concentration: one hour at 2%, la hours at 1.5%,3
hours at 1 %;. below 1 % the action beca me ver y weak.
In the U.S.A. (Delden), soda of~% concentration (6 0 Bé) is generally employed.
rurthermore, the acid streogth drops' I very rapidly wheo boiliog with Hel, 00 account
550 EVAPORATION . . Ch. 32
,,' ."
of the soda remaining in the scale, and the consequenl reactions (dropping from 2.7 to 1.6070,
for example, in lhe firsl 10 min); and it is recommended lo commence with 2.5%. For the
same reason it is necessary lO boil carefully with water afler the treatment with soda and also
afler treatment with acid. If th e tubes are of brass, action on the metal is slight; il' of steel,
it will be considerable and in both cases it is recommended to add 10 the Solulion 5% of
molasses, which forms an excellent inhibitor. It mu st not be forgotten that the co mmercial
acid contains only 30% of HCI; it is thu s sufficient 10 dilute il for example in the ratio of
250 1 to 3,000 I (50 gal. to 600 gal.) wilh waler. After the treatment, the sca le fall s of it s
own accord, though sometimes it is necessar y to ass ist this by means of a jet of waler.
The HCI could be replaced by "Verscne", diluted to 3.5%; the reslllts would be quile
good, but the cost of the material and of it s regenera l ion are prohibitive.
Fi ves Lille - Cail recommend treatment with soda , a t 30 - 32 ° Bé, for three hours, and
with HCI for I hour.
Spengler S2 recommends Ihe opposite order:
(1) Passage of hydrochloric acid (1 % solution)
(2) Washing with water
(3) Passing caustic soda (8% sol ution).
Sometimes other products are added. In Trinidad SJ NaCl is added in the ratio of 10 gi l
(1 Ib./IO gal.) to a so luti on of soda of 50° brix (27" Bé). In Louis iana 14 , it is estimated that
the best c1eaning is obtained by a mixture of 60 - 75% of NaOH and 40 - 25% of Na,CO,.
The consumption per 10 tonnes of cane is 0.5-1.0 kg (1.2-2.2 lb.) of this mixture, and
t.O - 1.5 kg (2.2 - 3.3 lb.) of HC!.
Honig SS recommends replacing the HCI by sulphamic acid, which is easier lO handle, less
co rrosive , and equally effective.
In Réunion, where scales are not genera/ly too tenacious, ir is often sarisfaclory to use one
Ireatment with soda, and lhe annual consumption is based on only 1.2 - 5 kg (2.5 - 10 lb.) per
100L C.
In Cuba, it is estimaled that cleaning with soda alone is muc h superior to cJeaning with
acid followed by soda. The soda should then be of 30 - 40%, al a lemperalure of 120°C
(248 ° F) for 3 hou rs' boiling. They advise 0.5 I/min of ci rcu lati o n of the Solulion per m' (1
gal./IOO sq.ft.) of hea ling surface, and a total volume 10 be circlllated of21/m' (4 gal.!IOO
sq.ft.). In certain faclories, the distinction is made a ccording tO the place of the vessel: 5%
soda in lhe fir st vesse l, increa sed progressively lO 20% in lhe final vessel.
It is difficult lo recommen d one method rather than another, si nce the nalure of the scale
varies greatly from one co untry to another. JI is advisable to try differenl melhods and 10
proceed cautiou sly. In the cas e where sili ca tes in the last vessel are found pa rticularly
te nac ious, the Louisiana mixlure may be used, lhat is, the soda is repl aced by a mixture of
70% soda and 30% sodium carbonate.
A s regards the time of treatm ent, \Ve may reckon on 3 - 4 hours for Ihe Irealment with
soda S6 and about J hour for the acid trea lment. With the rinsings and dead tim e, it may be
necessary to be satisfied with a total of 5 hou rs .
It is preferable to carry out Ihi s was hing by mea ns of a spray, and not a s a balh, in arder
lO econ omi se on Solulion. It is then dislribuled by a pe rfo raled pipe (Fig. 32.3 8) .
Heating is efte cted generally by Ihe calandria, by opening Ihe steam valve slightly.
INCRUSTATIONS 55J
Coustic lonk
Sll"'oiner" Pump
Fig. 32.38. Washing by sprays.
Tromp" prefers healing by a special coil, and recommends c10sing lhe vacuum valve and lhe
val ves for incondensable gases, and releasing through lhe 10p of lhe vessellhe gases formed,
in order ID avoid any corrosion of lhe following calandria. He also advises never lo enler
wilh a naked lamp a vessel where acid has been boiling, since it may form explosive gases".
Afler rinsing with waler, Sleam will always be opened inlo lhe calandria: lhe sofler scales
are lhen dried, cracked, and fall off in lhe last vessel. They are readily removed in lhe olher
three vessels by brushing.
Finally, the bOltom of lhe vesseJ will be c1eaned, removing lhe loose scale which has fallen
lo the bottom.
The soJutions are kept in tanks (of cast iron for the hydrochloric acid). The soda solution
is regenerated by adding further soda to bring it up to the desired concentration. It lhus can
serve about a dozen times. The acid, on the other hand, rapidly loses its efficacy and general-
Iy serves for one treatment only. Honig l8 recommends that its pH be controlled, to a value '
beJow 3 before use, and tha! it should not rise aboye 5.5 in the course of the cJeaning. He
also advises, for handling this solution, that piping 'of polyvinyl chloride should be used.
InhibÍ/oTs. The addition of 5 % of molasses to the acid solution used reduces the loss of
metal by acid attack in the proportion of 20 or 40 to 1 in the case of steel tubes 59 . With brass
tubes, the loss by corrosion is much lower. Some factories use formaJin, in the ratio of
611100 kg (0.6 gal.llOO lb.) of He!.
Prevenfion oC scaling
There are IWO processes which have lhe objecl of avoiding or more accuralely decrea sing lhe
formal ion of scale. These are:
(A) "lonisation" apparatus
(B) Addition products.
(A) lonisation apparatus. These are two in number: one of Belgian fabrication, the
"C.E.P.!. "; lhe other of English manufacture, the "Superstat".
552 EVAPOj(ATION Ch. 32
Both of these eonsi sl of a lube, placed in Ihe limed-juice pipe passing [O [he hea[ers, and
. surrounded for example by a solenoid carrying an elee[rie eurrenl. The molecules of mineral
salrs dissolved in the jui ce [bu s become "ionised", and would [end [O remain in suspens ion
rather rhan depositing on rhe hear-exchange sur faces. One of these rwo deviees produces an
elecrrie field, rhe other a magnerie field.
These Iypes of appararus do no! seem to bave given very definire results, and are nOI widely
used. It was reeommended 60 ro mounl Ihem in a vertical position and [O clean [hem every
year wirh a 5070 solution of HCI 10 remove Ihe parrieles ol' iron adhering [O rhe magner, rhe
presenee of whieh would reduce rhe effieieney of rhe apparatus.
(8) Addition products. There are used:

(a) Tetraphosphoglucosate of lime. This would avoid a large proponion of rhe deposils
in rhe mulriple effeets. [1 is inlrodueed at lhe oullet from the e larifier, dissolved in water in
the ratio of 60 gi l (6 Ib .! IO gal.) and introdueed in Ihe ratio 01' 0 .5 -1 kg (1- 2.2 lb.) per
100 l.e. 6'. Orher dosages reeommended are: in Cuba 6', 100 kg (234 lb.) of retraphosphoglu-
eosate of lime is dissolved in 180 I (40 gal.) (0.58 kgll) of hot water from the condenser, and
of this (1) 80 cm 3/ l. c. is plaeed in the juice passing to rhe pre-evaporalOr; (2) the same quanti-
tyis passed into rhe juiee entering the 4th vessel. This faetor y reporl s excellent resulls from
this method.
At Laupahoehoe 63 , 20 g (0.04 lb.) of terraphosphoglueosare of lime is used per r.e. A solu-
tion is made up of 10.8 kg (24 lb.) in 455 1(100 gal.) of waler (24 g/I), and afrer sranding
for 8 hours , Ihe solurion is added ro rhe c1arified juice by means of a small eopper rube 3
mm (0.12 in.) in diamerer, wirh a eoek for regulating rhe ra[e of flow. Results have been ex-
e el/en 1.
. (b) The Wrighr Chemieal Corp. supplies a similar produer under [he name of Wrikorg C.
Knox 64 reeommends rhe fol/owing proportion s:
J sr vessel: 115 g/ lOO Le. (~ Ib. / lOO Le .)

2nd vessel: 225 g/ lOO Le. (! Ib .! 100 I.e .)
3rd vessel: 225 g/lOO Le. Ü Ib .! IOO Le.)
4rh vessel: 340 g/lOO Le. (j Ib. / IOO Le.)
0.9 kg/lOO I.e. (2 Ib .! IOO Le .)
Ofren, however 6' , this has nor allowed ehemieal c1eaning or meehanieal desealing ro be
dispensed wirh.
(e) E. F. Drew and CO. manufacture a polyphosphate of soda, known a s "APA-M" , for
the same purpose. We have heard of this only in beet faetories 66 , where a dosage of 8 p.p.m .
is reeommended.
(el) The most speetaeular results are obtained wi[h finely powdered magnes ia: "Magox".
"Cosmag", ele. (ef. p. 429).
OPERATlON IN PARALLEL 553
OPERATION ' IN PARALLEL
When a faclory is modified lo increase its capacity, it is orten convenienl lO place 2 or 3

evaporalOr vessels in parallel. For example, 2 small vessels may be connecled so as lO make
one effecl of Ihe desired healing surface (Fig. 32.39).
Vop_ 2nd vessel

, 4th vessel
••• _ _ 0 . . _ ._ -
3rd vessel/
Fig. 32.39. ParaJlel arrangemenl or two vessels lO make a rOUrlh erreel.
The preceding effect will then supply its vapOur simultaneously to the 2 calandrias. The
2 vapour outlets will be recombined to pass to the following effect.
It is preferable in this case to adopt the following precautions:
(1) Vapour. Generally, the vapour is simply 'led into the 2 vessels from the preceding vessel
by a Y-piece. However, Claassen t recommends that the vapour should preferably be passed
across all the first calandria before entering Ihe second. This permits of a betler withdrawal
of gases, a belter distribution around Ihe tubes, and a greater velocilY of vapour. Hence an
improvement in the heat-transfer coefficient.
J't goes without saying Ihat such a solution is possible only on condition that the vapour
entry 10 the vessel can be made of the desired cross-section, and that the incondensable-gas
withdrawal points can be IOcated at Ihe new dead-pointswhich will now obtain.
(2) Juice. It is of greal advantage, in the operation of 2 or 3 vessels in parallel, to pass

the juice in series through the vessels, with circulalion on the Chapman system, for example.
In this way, a methodical concentration is obtained, and Ihe optimum condition is approach-
ed which we have already indicated (p. 529), that is, to ensure that the brix of (he juice in
a vessel should be the mean between the brix of the juice entering and the brix of the juice
leaving. This avoids the too rapid traverse of a vessel in short-circuit by part of the juice,
while other parts of the vessel concentrate a juice which does not circulate.
Since there is no difference in pressure to make the juice pass from one vessel to the follow-
ing one, it may be left lO flow simply by gravity. It is necessary to allow for this by giving
10 the interconnecting juice pipe between the vessels a cross-section corresponding lO a juice
velocity of 50 cm / s (20 in./s) as a maximum.
1f the 2 vesseIs placed in parallel ha ve tubes of different lengths, the vessel with the longer
tubes should preferably be placed ahead of the other. Jt is desirable then that the point on
the tubes corresponding to the mean hydrostatic level of the juice (generally al .; the length
of Ihe tubes from Ihe bottom) should be al the same level in Ihe 2 vessels, or prererably slighl-
554 EVAPORA TION '.' Ch. 32
..Iy higher in the first vessel. If this is not the case naturally, one of these vessels will be slightly
raised,
One should not lose sight of the fact thal nash takes place entirely in the former vessel.
Since on the other hand the brix is lower in this vessel, it will furnish more vapour than Ihe
following vessel or vessels.
(3) Condensates. Since the calandrias of vessels in parallel are under the same pressure,
their condensa tes may be recombined in the same vessel. However, it is preferable tO evacua te
them separately: in Ihal way a beller accounl can be kepl of Ihe respeclive evaporalion of
each vessel.
When Ihese various precaulions are observed, a multiple effect having its effecls or some
of its effects formed of2 or more vessels in parallel, will certainly operate as well as one wilh
single vessels.
Placing vessels in parallel is thus an excellent solUlion, which may be adopted whenever
practicable.
V APOUR BLEEDING
Originally, for greater simplicity, all. vessels of a multiple effect were made of equal size, and
each one supplied vapour simply to the following vessel.
However, even when the vessels are of equal size, il is possible 10 lake a ce rtain quanlily
of vapour from each of them, for use at the heaters. We shall see laler how 10 determine
Ihe quantities of vapour which can thus be used (ef. p. 579).
This operation is most advantageous, from .lhe poinl of view of heal economy . lf in a
healer or a vacuum pan, Ihe exhausl sleam used for healing is replaced by vapour from juice
laken from one of Ihe vessels of Ihe mulliple effecI, an economy will be realised which is all
Ihe more important when Ihe vapour is taken from a vessel further on in Ihe se!. If the vapour
is taken from Ihe laSI vessel, Ihe saving is complele, since Ihe vapour used would olherwise
be 10SI, and moreover Ihe load on Ihe condenser is al Ihe same lime reduced (ef. p. 565).
Since Ihe bled vapour is al a lower lemperalure Ihan Ihe exhaust sleam, a larger heal-
exchange surface will obviously be required and, further, il will nOI be able to raise Ihe
malerial 10 be healed lO a lemperature aboye ils own. On Ihe conlrary, it is advisable to allow
a certain margin belween lhe temperature or the vapour used and the lemperalure of the juice
leaving the heater. We have already indicated (Table 30.1, p. 457) the value to be given to
Ihis margin in practice.
The multiple effect thus offers a complele range of vapour lemperatures, by means of
which there may be arranged a scheme of heating cold juices which will permil them 10 be
heated progressively 10 the boiling temperature necessary for defecation, while ulilising at
each slage the maximum amount of low-temperature vapours, and in consequence achieving
the maximum economy.
We shall see later (p. 566) how this economy may be calculated.
VAPOUR RECOMPRESSION 555
VAPOUR RECOMPRESSION
Turbo"compressor
The turbo-compressor, sometimes described by the picturesque term "heat pump", is a cen-
trifugal compressor which allows of increasing to a cerlain extent the pressure of a vapour
and consequently its temperature.
In the sugar factory, this device permits an evaporator vessel to be ileated by lhe vapour
from ils own juice. It is in fact sufficienl to pass the laller vapour lhrough lhe compressor
in order to give it the excess heat necessary lO be able lO heal lhe juice from which the vapour
is obtained.
Imagine, for example, an evaporator the vapour space of which is at 1000e (212°F) (Fig.
32.40). The juice will boil at about 100- 100.5°e (212-213°F). Take this vapour from the
juice al 100oe, which in consequence is at atmospheric pressure (1 kg/cm'; 14.7 p.s.i.a.),
and pass il through a compressor which will raise il lO I 3 kg/cm' (IS.I p.s.i.a.). The
temperature corresponding to this new pressure is 106°e (223°F), and the vapour lhus com-
pressed and recirculated to the calandria will now be able to evaporate afresh the juice in
the vessel at 100 -100.5°C.
212"F
Turbine ;or 223"F

motor
Turbo-compressor
Fig. 32.40. Turbo·compressor.
The turbo-compressor is driven by a Sleam turbine or an electric motor (motor-compres-

sor). The apparatus is obviously not of interest unless under the condition that the steam con-
sumption of this turbine, or the extra consumption of the turbo-alternator supplying the cur-
rent to the motor, is lower than the quantity of vapour produced by the evaporator. This
applies for a vessel operating in single effect, such as a vacuum pan. However, il is even
necessary, for comparison with a multiple effect, that lhe ratio belween these [wo quantities
should be approximately of the same orderas the ratio between the heating steam and the
total vapour produced from the juice in a triple or quadruple effect, th.at is to say, I : 3 or
1 : 4.
The turbo-compressor can attain an entrainment ratio (ratio of weight of vapour COI1l-
pressed lO weighl of sleam consumedfof 5, whereas lhe allernative device, the thermo-
556 . EVAPORA TIOl'{ Ch. 32
'.'
compressor, which we are aboul to study, hardly ever exceeds 2.5. It can funclion, for exam-
pie, with actuating steam al 30 or 40 kg/ cm' (425 - 570 p.s.i.), and take from the evaporator
vessel vapour at 0.7 kg/cm' (10. p.s.i .) for re-injection into the calandria at l. I kg/ cm' (15
p.s.i.). Its efficiency, moreover, is higher, as the difference between the initial pressure of
vapour and the pressure of lhe compressed vapour is lower.
Il has lhe advantage of operating without consumption of heat, but obviously requires
consumption of energy. 11 may become of interest when there is high-pressure s[eam [O spare,
and it then bears comparison wilh a quintuple effec!. However, it costs about five times as
much as a thermo-compressor, and is not widely used. 1t may become a future solution.
Advantages and disadvantages. While il offers the advantage of taking up less space lhan
an ordinary multiple effect, the turbo-compressor presents on the other hand the serious
disadvantage of being a piece of machinery, in other words, of having moving parts, which
are expensive, which wear, require lubrication, mainlenance, replacement and renewal, and
are subject to breakdowns and stoppages. [n the beet sugar factory, it is stated that such in-
cidents are rareo
Although the turbo-compressor is fascinating to study from the lechnical poi nI of view,
and probably has a great future, we shallleave it to one side forthe moment, since it will
probably not pass for sorne lime inlo Ihe doma in of practicé, at least in the cane sugar fac-
tory; and we shall study an apparatus the object of which is entirely analogous, which does
not present the same disadvantages, and which has greater prospects of wider application.
Thermo-compressor
The thermo-compressor has exactly the same object as the turbo-compressor, that is, to raise
the value of the vapour coming from the juice and to give it the increment of pressure and
temperature necessary to permit it to raise to boiling point the juice from which it has been
obtai ned.
We shall consider the same vessel as just now (Fig. 32.41), and substitute for the turbo-
compressor a special nozzle T. If we supply this nozzle with Sleam at high pressure (lO, 14,
18 or 25 kg/ cm'; 150,200,250 or 350 p.s.i.), this steam will aspirate the vapour from the
vessel and return il to the calandria while giving up to it part of its own heat energy. The
mixture thus acquires a pressure and a temperature sufficient for boiling the juice in lhe
vessel.
The main difference compared with the turbo -compressor is that the actuating steam is
necessarily mixed in ¡lhe calandria with the aspiraled vapour, whereas with the turbo-
compressor it is possible lO separate the actuating sleam and to use it olhe rwise:
It follows that in addition to lhe oullel f<ir the recirculaled vapour, il is necessary to pro-
vide for lhe vesseJ another oullel for the vapour from lhe juice, since lhe quantilY of H.P.
steam introduced, like the recirculaled vapour, evaporates in ils turn an equivalent quantit y
of waler.
If, for example, J kg of H.P. sleam al 25 kg/ cm' can aspirale 3 kg of vapour at 100°C
(p = 1 kg/ cm') and provide 3 + 1 = 4 kg of steam at 106°C (p = 1.3 kg/ cm'), these 4
kg of steam will evaporate about 4 kg of vapour from lhe juice, 3 kg of which will conlinue
to recycle through the thermo-compressor, and I kg must be senl elsewhere, for example,
v APOUR RECOMPRESSION 557 •
1 H .P. Steom
\
Nozzle T
\ r' •
\\ (r)
/ ~
212'r
(14.7 lb.)
V }23 'r
- 08.11 b.)
V
Fig. 32.41 . Thermo-compressor.
to the 2nd vessel of a multiple effect of which ·the vessel considered would serve as thelst
effect. Jt will be noted in passing that a multiple effect installed in this way with a thermo-
compressor attached to the 1st vessel would have a Isl vessel much larger than Ihe following
ones, since it would be capable of evaporating 4 limes ¡he quanlity of vapour.
Actually, the proponíon is never as high as this, since, for reasons which we shall see laler
(p. 603), it is desirable 10 introduce into the 1st vessel exhaust steam in excess of the quantities
furnished by the Ihermo-compressor. A quantity of vapour .from the juice equivalenl 10 the
quantity of exhaust steam introduced wilJ obviously be passed entirely to vapour bleeding
from the 1st vessel or to the 2nd vessel, together with the quaiHity of vapour corresponding
10 Ihe high-pressure steam utilised .
The incondensable gases from a vessel províded with a thermo-compressor can ¡hus be senl
into the vapour space of the same vessel. (With the lurbo-compressor of Fig. 32.40, this
would not have be en possible, sínce Ihe vessel operates in closed circuil, and the gases would
accumulate in the circujt.)
,: ]1 is obviously preferable to evaCU31e the gases lo the atmosphere, if ¡he pressure existing
in the calandria permits. Otherwise they would be sent, not into the vapour space, but direct-
Iy into the vapour pipe going to the following vessel, to avoid risk of being left 10 recirculare
in the closed circuit.
Entrainment ratio. The term "entrainment ralio" 'o f a thermo-compressor signifies the
ratio between the weight of vapour aspirated and the weight oC actuating steam. This ratio
is designated by the letter p.:
we'i'ght of vapour aspiraled

p. = (32. 17)
wéight of actuating steam
558 EVAPORAT~DN eh.32
The enlrainment ratio is the most important figure in the performance of a thermo-
compressor. It may be calculated by the formula of Truffault:
80
(~o + 1)' - - - [(log P - log P ) 0.01 (lo - 100)]
tm. t o "'
(32.18)
144
( (¡Lo + 1)' .. = 1m - lo [(Iog P log P m ) - 0.0056 (lo - 212)])
~o = entrainment ratio with a new nozzle

1m = temperature corresponding lo the absolute pressure P m of (he mixture, i.e. of the
vapour in the calandria, in oC (OF)
lo temperature corresponding to the absolute pressure po of the vapour from the juice in
the vessel, in oC (OF)
P = absolute pressure of the actuating steam, In kg /c m' (p.s.i .a.).
In order to take into account wear of the nozzles, we ,shall take:
~=0.95~0 (32.19)
According to the efficiency of the nozzle under consideration, the coefficient 80 (144) in
formula (32.18) could be modified.
These equations do not take into account the superheat of the actuating steam . They are
d.erived from the analytical relationships which exist between the graphs which can be drawn
on the entropy diagram to represenl the changes of state of the nuids passing through the
nozzle . Now these graphs are practically identical for the pressures given, and change very
I¡ttle w¡th superheat of the steam. In other words, superheat has only a negligible influence,
on account of the parallelism of the lines of equal pressure.
Practical values of entrainment ratio. Table 32.12 gives values of the entrainmenl ratio,
derived from eqn. (32.18), for several common values of P, p and Po.
"'
Sensitivity of the therrno-compressor. On the other hand, the degree of superheal has a
very marked influence on the output of this apparatus, on accoun( of its effecl on lhe specific
volume of the vapour.
Moreover, lhe variations in volume are very marked in the zone of recompression
(lOO-110°C; 212-230°F), and all ¡he more so as the aspirated vapour approaches 100 °C.
/( follows that the tejnperature of the vapour to be compressed should be delermined very
accurately before the purchase of the thermo-compressor. If the pressure proves to be dif-
ferent from that for which the equipmenl has been designed, eddies will be created in lhe
aspiralion chamber, which will absorb uselessly a great proportion of lhe kinelic energy
available for recompression.
The lhermo-compressor is thus a delicale piece of apparatus, the efficiency of which
depends on c10se adherence lo the conditions of operation for which it has been designed.
¡'
TABLE 32.12
V ALUES OF ENTRAlNMENT RATIO
Calandria pressure Vapour-space pressure Entrainment ratio Jor H.P. steam at P (kg/cm')
<:
Fm abs. P m gauge --'o 1m po abs. po gauge to ~
(kg/cm') (kg/cm') (oC) (kg/cm') (kg/cm') (oC) 18 20 25 30 45 O
c:
i>'
2.53 I.S 127 1.88 0.85 117 1.31 1.39 1.54 1.66 1.91 i>'
2.03
1.83
1.0
0.8
120
117
~. 1.50
1.37
0.47
0.34
111
108
1.60
1.79
1.67
1.86
1.81
2.00
1.92
2.11
2.15
2.34
'"O
()
¡::
1.53 0.5 111 1.16 ' 0.12 103 2.07 2.14 2.27 2.38 2.60 'tl
~
(British units) '"'"
(p.s.i.a.) O
(p.s.i.a.) (p.s.i.g.) (0F) (p.s.i.a.) (p.s.i.g<) (OF) 250 300 350 400 640 Z
34.7 20 259 26.8 12.1 244 I.S 1 1.64 1.74 1.83 2.12
29.7 15 ' 250 22.4 !• 7.7 234 1.64 1.76 1.86 1.93 2.20
24.7 10 239 . 18.2 3.5 223 1.80 1.90 1.99 2.06 2.31
19.7 S 226 15.3 0.6 214 2.56 2.67 2.77 2.85 3.13
"- "'-
,
v.
v.
\D
Variation of entrainment ratio with dif{erence in temperature. When the pressure Pm re-
mains constant, and the pressure Po varies, the efficiency of the nozzle, which is a maximum
for a given pressure po, wilJ fal/. 1
Approximately, it may be stated that, when the drop in temperature varies by ± x 070, rhe
value of (/lO + 1)' wiJl fall by xl2% in relation to what it would have been if the nozzle had
been designed forthe temperature drop actually obtaining.
For example, if a nozzle has been designed for a temperature drop of 8°C, and if the cor-
responding entrainment· ratio was 2.4: if this temperature drop increases to 9°C, /l will fall
to 2.10 (instead of 2.20); if the temperature drop decreases 10 7°C, /l will increase to 2.53 (in-
stead of 2.64).
Limits of use. Theory shows, and practice still more, that in turbo-compression and in
thermo-compression, a good efficiency is obtainable only under the following conditions:
(a) A small drop in temperature (t m - lo) between the compressed vapour and the
vapour to be compressed, that is, this temperature drop should be not more than 10°C
(18°F).
(b) Small elevation of boiling point (since this elevation' increases the temperature difc
ference); hence these operations are suitable only for low brix.
In other words, thermo-compression can be employed only in the first effect, or in a pre-
evaporatoL
Importance of efficiency. In an ordinary factory, the requirements of low-pressure steam .

for the boiling house are much greater than the quantities of exhaust steam available. Such
a factory must reduce a large quantity of ¡ive steam to the exhaust pressure to complete
lhe requirements of low-pressure steam. The expansion of lhis make-up sream is generally
effected in a simple reducing valve, wilhout oblaining any benefit from il.
The advantage of the thermo-compressor is that the compressor itself carries out this ex-
pansion. Instead of being done uselessly in a reducing valve, the expansion takes place in the
thermo-compressor, and each kg of live steam so expanded produces, withoul cosr, evapora-
tion of /l kg of water from the juice. This gain is all the more valuable since it costs absolurely
nothing.
The efficiency of the nozzle is then of secondary importance only; however bad it be, there
remains still a definite gain.
Installation. In the general case, the thermo-compressor opera tes in conjunction with the
1st effect, with:
Pressure of the actuating steam P, the pressure of the high-pressure steam in the factory
Pressure of compressed vapour p m , the pressure of the exhaust steam
Pressure of vapour before compression po, the pressure of the 1st effecl.
With a pre-evaporator:
The pressure P remains that of the high-pressure steam
The pressure p= becomes a pressure intermedia te between that of the exhaust steam and P,
and generally 0.4 - 0.5 kg/cm' (6 -7 p.s.i.) higher than the exhaust-steam pressure
The pressure po becomes the exhaust-steam pressure.
OPERATION OF MULTIPLE EFFECTS 561
t)
Sleam economy due lo Ihermo-compression. The economy realised by the installation of
a thermo·compressor corresponds, as we have just discussed, to the additional quantity of
water evaporated due to it in the 1st vessel or the pre-evaporator.
However, this quamity is limited by the maximum quantity of live steam which can be in-
troduced into the calandria of the 1st effect or into, the exhaust-steam system without having
an excess of exhaust steam, which would then be discharged aboye the roof by the safety
valve.
In other words, a thermo-compressor can only be used to the extent of lhe make-up steam
necessary for manufacture. lf a faclory is producing from its engines as much exhaust Sleam
as.it consumes in the boiling house, lhermo-compression would offer no interest for it.
We shall see laler (p. 603) the possibilities of lhermo-compression as a function of the
quantities of exhaust steam produced and consumed.
OPERATION OF MULTIPLE EFFECTS
Relative evaporations in Ihe various effecls

We shall consider a quadruple effect without vapour bleeding, functioning between 112°C
(234°F), as the temperature of the exhaust steam, and 55°C (131°F), as the temperature cor-
responding to the vacuum obtainable, and receiving juice at 98°C (208°F). What would be
the quamity of vapour supplied by each effect, per unit weight of exhaust steam supplied
to the calandria of the 1st effect?
We shall calculate for two extreme cases:
(a) With separate extraction of condensa tes from each vessel
(b) With circulation of the condensa tes from the 1st to the last effect.
. We shall assume that the juice entering the 1st effect is 5 times the weight of steam emer-
ing, and that the temperatures are those indicated in the diagram given (Fig. 32.42).
The calculalions are given in metric units, for purposes of illustralion, in lhe belief thal
the method of calculation can still be readily followed by engineers more conversant with the
British system of units.
(a) Separale exlraclion of condensales from each vesseJ. The quantity of vapour furnished
5 kO juice
Brix=12
.at 98·C 14.o:7kg ..1: 103-C IJ.l1~ Kg ..
Bnx=15 Brlx=19
t 94·C
BrLx=2B
-
12.11': k.g .. t 79' el" 0:7 kg:llt 60·C
8rlX=~5
lk g at11Z'C. O.92~k.9~103'C, O.Sl5Bk 9 .t94'C. l002k g at60'C.
Fig. 32.42. Separare extraction 0r condensates [rom c¡:ach vesseI.

'.'
by each effect is obtained by writinga heat balance for each effect; that ¡s, the quanllty ot
heat entering the vessel is equal to the quantity of heat leaving il.
We shall assume that the quantities of heat lost by radiation and convection in each vessel
are respectively 1.25, 1, 0.75, 0.500/0 of the heat exchanged in that vessel.
We shall assume further that lhe juice entering is at 12° brix, and note lhal its speeifie heat
is ealculated by eqn. (30.1).
For the 1st effeet, for example, we have:
(1) Heat entering: . , -,\
1 kg of Sleam at 112° : total heat (Table 41.1) 643 keal

5 kg of juice al 98 ° : 5 x 98 x 0.93 456 keal
,.
1,099 keal
,. "
"¡ o"" • • : . .. .. ' ••••!
(2) Heat leaving: . , .
Loss of heat: 1,099 x 0.0125 = 14 kcal

Condensa le: 1 kg at 112° = 112 keal
Vapour: x kg at 105° = 640 x kcal
Juice: (5 - x) kg at 103° . = .(5 -
.',.
x) 103 x 0.91
.
We ha ve then:
14 + 112 + 640x + (5 - x) 103 x 0.91 1,099
whence:
.. x . = 0.923 kg
Proeeeding in the same way from one vessel to the next, for the 2nd effecl and the follow-
ing ones, we obtain the figures given in Table 32.13.
The heat is supplied lo lhe 1st effeel. Heal exchange takes place from one vessel to the
next but deereases from the 1st to the last, eaeh vessellosing compared with the preceding
one not only the heat given up to the surroundings but also that taken away by the eonden-
sate.
(b) Circulation of condensates from vessel to vessel. (See Fig. 32.43). By calc ulating exact-
Iyas in the foregoing, we oblain the figures of Table 32.14.
Here each vesselloses compared with the preceding one only the heat given up by jt toothe
surroundjngs: the last vessel therefore transfers a quaQtily of heat only slightly inferior to
that exchanged by the firsl. '1
lf we summarise the evaporation done by the ql,ladruple in the two extreme cases examin -
ed, we obtajn Table 32.15 .
We see then lhal:
-
, kg v~p.at 11Z·C _ 0.696 at GS-C
5kO at9a
BriK.:t2
4.077 kg
011. 103 e e
2.056kSl
at 79-C
t4J 3.942 kg .lit lEPe
1 kg iI! ,,2-C 1.923 k9 at 10l a C 2.895 kg .. t 94 ~
.'
Fig. 32.43'. CirculaÜo~ of condensa tes from vessel to vessel.
(1) The complete circulation or condensa tes permits or a gain or about 5070 in evaporation.
relative to that wilh separate exlraclion or condensales
TABLE 32.13
Heul enlering HeuI !eaving
2nd e//eel
Vapour: 0.923 kg x 640 kcal = 591 kcal Loss: 973 x 0.01 = ' lO kcal
Juice: 4.077 x 103' x 0.91 = 382 Water: 0.923 x 103' = 95
Vapour: 0,958 x 637 kcal = 610
Juice:, 3.119 x 94" x 0.88 = 258
973 973
3rd e//eel
Vapour: 0.958 kg x 637 kcal = 610 kcal Loss: 868 x 0.0075 7 kcal
Juice: 3.119 x 94' x ' O.88 = 258 Water: 0.958 x 94' 90
Vapour: 1.002-- x 631 = 632
Juice: 2.117 1< 79 x 0.83 = 139
•. ,868 ' " 868 '
4th e//eel
VapOllr: 1.002 kg x 631 \cal = 632 kcal Loss: 771 x 0.0050 4 kcal
Juice: 2.117 x 79' x 0.83 = 139 Water: 1,002 x 7S' 78
Vapour: 1.040 x 621 = 646
Syrup: 1.077 x 60 x 0.67 = 43
771
(2) With or without circulation of condensa tes. a quadruple effect evaporates very close
to 4 units of water per unit weight or sleam supplied 10 the calandria or lhe l sI effecl.
A similar relalionship, c10se to 1 unit of water per effect, would apply for a triple or a
quintuple. We may therefore enunciate the rollowing approximate relationship:
Uni! weighl of healing sleam inlroduced lO !he calandria of Ihe firsl vessel of a mulliple
effect withoul vapour bleeding willproducean evaporalion of unil weighl of waler from Ihe
juice in each body of Ihe multip'le effect.
564 EVAPORATION . > Ch. 32
'.>
Hence lhis corollary immedialely follows:

A .multiple ellect 01 n ellects without vapour bleeding evaporates n units 01 water Irom
the juice per unit weight 01 heating steam supplied to the seto
TABLE 32.14
Heat entering Heal leaving
Isl eJJeel
Sleam: 1.000 kg al 112° 643 kcal Loss: 1.099 x 0.0125 = 14 kcal
Juice: ' 5.000 x 98 x 0.93 456 Water: 1.000 x 112' 112
Vapour: 0.923 x 640 kcal 591
Juice: 4.077 x 103 x '0.91 382
"-' ",'
1,099 1,099
2nd eJJeel
Vapour: 0.923 kg x 640 kcal 591 kcal Loss: 1.085 x 0.01 II kcal
Juice: 4.077 x 103 x 0..91 382 Water: 1.97) x 103 ° 198
Water: 1.000 x 112' 112 Vapour: 0 .972 x 637 kcal 619
Juice: 3. 105 x 94 x 0.88 257
1,085 1,085
3rd eJJeel
Vapour: 0 .972 kg x 637 kcal 619 kcal Loss: 1.074 x 0.0075 8 kcal
Juice: 3.105 x 94 x 0.88 257 Waler: 2.895 x 94' 272
Waler: 1.923 x 103° 198 Vapour: 1.047 x 631 661
Juice: 2.058 x 79 x 0.82 133
1,074 1,074
4/h eJJee/
Vap o ur: 1.047 x 631 kcal 661 kcal Loss: 1.066 x 0.0050 5 kcal
Juice: 2.058 x 79 x 0.82 133 Water: 3.942 x 78° 307
Waler: 2.895 x 94' 272 Vapour: 1.162 x 621 722
Syrup: 0.896 x 60 x 0.6 32
1,066 1,066
TABLE 32 . 15
EVAPORATJON IN EACH EFFECT PER UNIT OF STEAM SUPPLIEO ro fIRST VESSEL
Wírhoul circula/ion Wi/h 0/0 gain

o/ condensa/es circulation by órculal;on
. . 0 / ")
Sleam supplied 1 1
Water evaporated by 1st effecI 0.923 0.923 o
Water evaporated by 2nd effecI 0.958 0.972 1.5
Water evaporaled by 3rd effecI 1.002 1.047 4.5
Water evaporated by 41h effecI 1.040 1.162 11.2
Total evaporation 3.923 4.104 4.6

Influence of the temperature of the juice entering. In the preceding calculation it has been
ascertained that each vessel actually supplies slightly more vapour than the preceding one.
This excess is due to three main causes:
(1) Juice. Liberation of a quantity of sensible heat of the juice corresponding to the dif-
ference in temperaturebetween vessels.Hence flash in the following vessel.
(2) Vapour. A progressive decrease of the tolal heat of the vapour with pressure in the
vessel, the increase in latent heat of vaporisation being less rapid than the decrease in sensible
heat.
(3) Water. In the case oh::irculation of condensa tes, the drop in pressure similarly causes
a flash of the water, which increases the quantity of heating fluid on the vapour side of the
calandria.
The effect of differences in specific heal is nOI all in the one direction and, moreover, it
is small. The heat lost, which is of minor importance, is always largely compensated by the
three causes aboye.
The 1st vessel only gives out less vapour than it receives: 0.923 kg in our example, in place
of I kg. This is due to the low temperature (98°C) of the juice entering: it is necessary first
lo heat this juice before evaporating it, Ir' the juice were to enter at the same teinperature
as the vapour, as in the other vessels, we should find that the 1st vessel would evaporate 1,042
kg in place of 0.923 kg, and all the following vessels would react favourably to this.
We see here the importance of the initial temperature of juice entering a multiple effect,
from the point of view of the evaporation to be obtained.
Evaporation with vapour bleeding

We shall pass on to the general case of a multiple effect with vapour bleeding from one or
more vessels. The vapour bleeding obviously does not modify at all the equilibrium which
we have just indicated between the quantity of vapour admitted into each calandria and the
quantily of water which it ev'aporates in that vessel. We shaJl assume then that, in each vessel,
each unit of vapour arriving in the calandria evaporates an equal weight of water.
We shall take then a quadruple effeet (Fig. 32.44) from the vessels of whieh vapour is bled
in the following quantities per Le.:
PI from the 1st vessel
P, from' the 2nd vessel
P, from the 3rd vessel
P, from the 4th vessel
<' , ... ' .: . ."
X+P-4
Pl~- _><
Fig, 32,44, Quauruple effeel with vapour bleeding,

566 EV APORATI0t:l. Ch. 32
'.'
Now let:
E . = total quantity of water evaporated per Lc. In the quadruple effect
x = the quantity of vapour passing from the last effect to the condenser.
Since the last vessel evapora tes a weight of (x + P,), it should receive from the third an
equal quantity. The third, evaporating (x + P,) + p" should receive from the second the
same quantity (x + p, + P,). The first should in the same way supply to the second x +
p, + P, + P, and it will be necessary to supply to it, as exhaust steam:
Q = x + p, + P, + P, + PI
The total evaporation E achieved by the quadruple effect will therefore be:
4th effect: x + P,
3rd effect: x + p, + P,
2nd effect: x+ P, + P, + P,
. .Ist effect: x+ P, + P, + P, + PI
Multiple effect: E= 4x + 4P, + 3P, + 2P, + PI (32.20)
We see then that the quantity of water evaporated by the quadruple effect is equal 10:
4 times the quantity evaporated by the 4th vessel

+ 3 times the quantily withdrawn from the 3rd vessel
+ 2 times the quantity withdrawn from the 2nd vessel
+ I times the quantity withdrawn from the 1st vessel
Econorny obtained by vapour bleeding

Vapour bleeding is carried out for use in juice heaters or vacuum pans. If there is no vapour
bleeding from the multiple effect, the heaters and the pans have to be heated with either
direct or exhaust steam. Let:
R = the quantity of steam (direct or exhaust) consumed by the heaters and pans
Q = the quantity of steam (direct or exhaust) consumed by the evaporators.
In the case of a quadruple without vapour bleeding, the steam used will be:
D=R+Q
If we bleed vapour from the quadruple to supply the heaters or to boil the pans, each unit
01' such vapour will save close to I unit 01' exhaust steain, since the latent heat is approximate-
Iy the same, and since we assume, obviously, that the bled vapour has a temperalure suffi-
cient to effect the heating or the stage of heating which is expected of iL
If the heaters or pans which previously required a weight R of direct or exhaust steam are
now heated by vapour from the juice, we shall have:
R (32.21 )
OPERATION OF MULTIPLE EFFECTS 567 •
and the new steam consumption, D', wil/ be reduced to the quantity supplied to the 1st vessel
of the evaporators, say Q'. Henc,e:
D' = Q'
Now:
Q' x + P, + p, + P l + P. (32.22)
ETiminating x, which does not interest us, from eqns. (32.20) and (32.22), and expressing
the steam consumption D' = Q' as a function of the total evaporation E, which is fixed
and readily determined if we fix the brix of the syrup, we have:
E 3 2 1
(32.23)
Q' 4 + 4 P, + 4 p, + 4 P l
Without vapour bleeding, the steam consumption was:
E
D=Q+R= + P, + p, + P l + P. (32.24)
4
The economy realised e is therefbre:
e D - D' (Q + R) - Q' (32.25)
'Ifwe had made the calculatiohs for the general case of a multiple effect with n effects,
we should have found:
e ~ P, + ~ p, + ~ P l + ... + I?. P + ... + n 1 Pn _ I + Pn (32.26)

n n n n P n
In other words: when a mulliple effecl of n effecls is available and when, for some healing
duly in Ihe faclory, Ihere is subsliluled for exhausl sleam vapour bled from effecl No. p,
a saving in sleam is realised equal lo Ihe fraclion p/n of Ihe quantity of steam consumed by
Ihis heating duty. The saving increases then with the place of the vessel in the multiple effect,
and becomes a complete saving when the bleeding is made from the last vessel.
Unfortunately, the temperature of the vapour from the last vessel (of the order of 55°C
(l30°F)) scarcely offers any possibilities for heating. Hence the advantage of multiple effects
under pressure, where the vapour from the last vessel is ill the Ileighbourhood of 100°C, and
in which il is possible in consequence to ,uf,ilise practically the whole of lhe vapour from the
juice,
. In an ordinary mulliple effec!, one mus! generally be content with bleeding vapour from
the 1st and 2nd vessels. 11 is also possible lO effect a slighl heating of cold juices by passing
them through a heater-condenser interposed in Ihe vapour pipe from the lasl vessel (and also
perhaps from Ihe pans) lo (he condenser.
Heating surface. We may comment in passing that it is not possible, in a heater, lo obtain
. wilh bled vapour lhe same oullel juice lemperalure as with exhaust steam for example. To
oblain this temperalure (i F the temperature of the vapour used will permit), a heater of
greater heating surface is necessary.
Economy obtained by thermo-compression

We shall now compare, from (he point of view of steam consumption, a multiple effect Fur-
nished with a thermo-compressor with one not so equipped.
Since vapour bleeding does not come into this question, we shall suppose, to simplify the
problem, that there is no ··vapour bleeding (Fig. 32.45). ,
f---':'''
Fig. 32.45. Quadruple effeel wilh .hermo·eompressor.
Without the thermo-compressor the steam consumption is:
'(
••..J E
D
4
With the thermo-compressor, this becomes (Fig. 32.45):
D' = q + q'
q = consumption of actuating steam by the thermo-compressor

q' = quantity of exhaust steam introduced directly into the calandria.
Equating Ihe quantily of Sleam for healing the ISI vessel to the quantity of water
evaporated, we have:
q + q' + M M + x hence: q + q' x
bul the evaporation is:
E = 4x + M
OPERATION OF MUL TIPLE EFFECTS 569
hence:
E ¡u¡
D' = q + q' =x (32.27)
4 4
Hence the saving:

. . ...
e = D - D' = J1.q
4
or in general:
(~(32.28)
e = saving due (he thermo-compressor

lO
J1. entrainment ratio of the thermo-compressor
q = quantity of direct steani consumed by the thermo-~ompressor
n = number of effects.
This saving is added to that from vapour bleeding (eqh. (32.26» iir the case where we have
at the same time vapour bleeding and thermo-compression.
Equivalent number of effects wilh Ihermo-compression. Let us assume that all the vapour
'introduced to the multiple efféct is the actuating steam of the thermo-comp ress or: q ' = O
(Fig. 32.46),
. '. :, .... .. . ", o;;. '", :/: :,'" :1 1, , : 1 :.
~ x x
Fig. 32.46. Equivilientnumberof effects. .

0', , -'
e '
. The IsI vessel Ihen gives:
or: ' .• ! .
',' ; :, . '
',"
,',
x=Q
570 . ,: ': . EVAPORJ\TION ' , Ch,32
'.'
The evaporalion is given by lhe expression :
E = 4x + JlQ = 4 Q + JlQ
In lhe general case:
E = nQ + JlQ = (n + Jl) Q (32,29)
The aClual number of effecls of a mulliple set being represented by the ralio E / Q, we see
lhat a multiple wilh n effecls, furnished wilh a thermo-compressor of enlrainmenl ratio Jl,
is aclually equivalent lO an ordinary multiple effect wilh a number n' of effects:
E
n' = = n + Jl (32,30)
Q
since 1 kg of sleam admitted to lhe calandria produces an evaporalion of (n + Jl) kg of waler

from the juice, . .. , ,
In praclice, il is not possible lo reduce lhe admission of steam 10 the 1st vessel to the value
of (he actuating steam of the thermo-compressor (el p , 603), It is not possible, therefore,
to reduce q' to O, We should say then that the porlion of lhe steam q', represented by ex-
haust steam, admilted to the calandria of the multiple effect, works at n effect, and the por-
tion q, representing lhe actuating steam of the thermo-compressor, at (n + Jl) effecL
HEATING SURFACE
As for heaters (el p, 461), the heating surface of an evaporator vessel should logically be
calculaled from lhe interior surface of the tubes, It would be appropriate in calculating lhis
surface to use the length of the tubes which is aClually heated, i,e. lhe height included bet-
ween the inside faces of the tube plates, and to add to this lhe healed surface of the tube
plates lhemselves, i.e. the area of lhe plates, deducling the area of the holes drilled for the
passage of the tubes.
This calculation would be somewhal lenglhy, so the general praclice is to calculate the sur-
face for the inside of the lubes, reckoned on lheir length oUlside lhe lube plales, Ihe excess
length thus included compensating very c10sely for the remaining area of lhe tube plates
which is neglected.
We may recal! that English a(1d American engineers calculale lhe heating surface according
to the area of tubes in contact with the heating fluid, lhat is, they use the exterior surface
area of the tubes, It follows that the heating surface of a given healer or evaporator vessel
is not given by a simple conversion to square melres of lhe area in square feet quoted by
Engli s h or American manufaclurers, Although 1,000 sq, fl. is equal 1092,90 m', an American
vessel of 10,000 sq. fl., for example, would be equivalenl 10 a French vessel of 852 m' and
not of 929 m 2 , or approximately S070 less.
HEATINO SURFACE 571
Heal-Iransfer and eVllporlllion coefficients

There are several figures for comparing the work of the evaporators. We shall dislinguish:
(a) The evaporalion eoefficienl. This is the weight of vapour furnished by the vessel per
hour per unit heating surface (kg/m'/h; Ib.lsq. ft.lh).
(b) The speeífle evaporalion eoeffieienl. This is the weight of vapour supplied by the
evaporator per hour, per unit heating surface and per degree drop of temperature between
steam and juice (kg/m'¡OC/h; Ib.lsq.ft.;oF/h). We sometimes distinguish between the ap-
parent specific evaporation coefficient, in which the juice temperature is taken as equal to
that of the vapour produced from it, and the real coefficient, which takes into account the
actual temperature of the juice in [he rube, obtained by adding to the vapour temperature
(1) the boiling-point elevation due to the brix, and (2) the elevation due to hydrostatic
pressure.
\
.. 0
(e) T7Ie uncorreeled heal-lransfer eoefficienl. This is the number of heat unitstransmitted
per hour per unit heating surface and per degree drop in temperature (kcal/m';oC/h;
B.T.U.lsq.ft.l°F/h). Here also we distinguish between apparent and real coefficients, accor-
ding as we use the apparent temperature drop, or the real temperature drop, as for the
speci fic evaporation coefficien t.
(d) The correeled heal-lransfer eoeffieienl. The heat transmission is more rapidaccording
as (1) the steam is al a higher pressure, (2) the juice is at a lower brix in the vessel.. I f it is
desired to compare evaporator vessels with each other, and to know if there is one whose
heat transmission is abnormally bad, it is necessary to take into account these last two fac-
torso Unfortunately, different people are not in agreement on the exact mode of allowing for
this. Nevertheless, the corrected coefficient of heat transmission is the uncorrected coeffi-
cient reduced, by means of formulae taking into account these tWQ factors, lo a value which
should be common to all idenlical vessels, working in the same state of c1eanness, whatever
be the steam pressure and the brix of the juice.
In the same way the evaporation coefficient may be modified to give a correcled specific
evaporation coefficient.
Heal-transfer coefficients for the various vessels. In calculations, it is not necessary to start
from corrected coefficients. Certain manufacturing firms design their projects by assuming
a priori a certain heat-transfer coefficient for each vessel of a multiple effect. The values vary
greatly according to the various business firms and their respective ideas. Table 32.16 gives
the commonest mean values, taking scaling into account, and based on apparenl temperature
drops.
The values given are mean and conservative figures, to be adopted for design purposes,
and are often exceeded in practice. Webre 67 gives coefficients ranging from 6800
kcal/h/m'/oC (1,400 BTU/h/sq.ft./oF) for first vessels heated by steam at 115°C (240°F),
to 2200 (450) for last vessels heated by vapour at 65°C (l500F).
We do not recommend the use of these··uncorrected.heat-transfer coefficients, which take
'.'
into account neither the actual brix of juice in Ihe vessel, no r the actual value of the
t.emperature. They are "omnibus" coefficients eSlablished for mean values of these two fac-
torso Their only advantage is that they avoid the calculation of brix figures and are based
on apparent temperature drops, which simplifies the calculalion.
TABLE 32.16
APPARENT HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFlCIENTS
(1) Pre-evapora/or he.ted by direet ste.m at 2.5 - 3.0 kg/em' (35 -43 p.s.i.g.), the pressure in Ihe vessel being
approx. 0.5-0.7 kg/em ' (7-9 p.s.i.g.): 3,000 keal/m'fOClh) (600 B.T.U .lsq. ft ./° F/h).
(2) Multiple e//eel.
(keal/m' / °C/h) (E. T. U./sqJt./°F/ h)

Triple Quadruple Quin/uple Triple Quadruple Quin/uple
151 vessel 2,000 - 2,500 2,000 - 2,400 2,000 - 2,400 400-500 400-500 400-500
2nd vessel 1,500 - 1,800 1,400 - 1,800 1,400 - 1,800 300-375 275-375 275-375
3rd vessel 800-1,000 1,000-1,400 1,300-1,500 150 - 200 200 - 275 250-300
41h vessel 600- 800 800-1,000 125-150 150-200
5th vessel 500- 600 100-125
Dessin formula. Conscious of these disadvantages, the French engineer Dessin pro po sed
a formula permitting the evaporation coefficient to be calculated for any vessel of a multiple
effect:
e = 0.001 (100 - B) (T - 54)

e = (100 - B) (T - 130))
(32.31)
( 16,000
e specific evapor a:tion coefficient for the evaporator, In kg of vapour/m 2 jOC/ h

(Ib.lsq.ft. /o F / h). "<real temperature drop)
B = brix of the juice leaving the vessel (see remark below)
T = temperature of the heating steam in the calandria, in oC (OF).
Coutanceau, in Mauritius, has commented that it is more logical to lake lhe average brix
of the juice in the vessel ralher than the brix of the juice leaving, and that results obtained
in thi s way would be closer to the truth. We ha ve adopted this point of view as correct, and
it is from the mean brix that we shall calcula te the evaporation coefficients.
This formula also takes into account the effect of scale, and so there is no need to use
another coefficient to take such effects into account. On the other hand, it is appropriate
to draw attention to the fact that the formula assumes a Ileat transmission appreciably better
than that corresponding to the uncorrected coefficients of Table 32.16. If it is desired to re-
tain the same margin of safety, it is necessary to replace the coefficienl of 0.001 by 0.0008
or 0.0007 (or the divisor 16,000 by 20,000 or 23,000 in the fo rmula in British units) .
The value of 0.001 (divisor 16,000) corresponds lo good normal conditions and to an ap-
paratus remaining relatively clean.
A value of 0.0008 (20,000 for the divisor) is lo be used in design work, in order to allow
HEATING SURFACE 573
a margin of safety and to take into account the eventual formation of rather heavy scale.
The value 0.0007 (divisor 23,000) corresponds to a multiple effect functioning in mediocre
conditions or subject to rapid scaling.
Pre-evaporator. A formula is used in Puerto Rico·' applicable to pre-evaporators:
7 = 3.5 Al (7 = 0.4 Al) (32.32)
7 = evaporation coefficient of the pre-evaporator, in kg/ m'/ h (Ib ./sq.ft./h)

Al = apparent temperature drop, in oC (OF), between the heating steam and vapour space.
This formula is very conservative, and certainly takes into account the average scale form-
ed durfng the week. One could now generally use:
7 = 4.5 Al (7 = 0.5 Al) (32.33)
Evaporalion coefficient and number of effecls

Suppose we have a triple effect with 3 vessels of equal area, and that we change it into a
quadruple by the addition of a founh vessel identical wilh the p~eceding ones, wilhout alter-
ing the initial steam pressure or the vacuum. Knowing Ihe work of the vessels as a triple, what
should this become when it forms a quadruple?
The overall temperature drop To - 1, between the exhaust steam and condenser, remain-
ing the same, will distribule itself over 4 vessels inslead of 3. Tlle general formula (32.1) for
heat transmission also shows that,ifthe mean heat-transfer coefficient of Ihe vessels remains
the same, which is generally Ihe case very c1osely, each vessel will then give only three-
quarters as much evaporalion as it gave as a triple, since Ihe lemperature drop under which
il works will have been reduced in the proponion of 4 : 3. 1f each vessel previously gave as
a triple 4,000 kg of vapour per hour, it will not give more lhan 3,000 as a quadruple, bul
lh,e total evaporalion of lhe multiple effect will remain lhe same, since it IS:
As a lriple: 3 x 4,000 12,000 kg/ h

As a quadruple: 4 x 3,000 12,000 kg/ h
In olher words, lhe evaporation coefficienl of a multiple effecI, in kg of waler/h/m' of

'healing surface, for a given lotal temperalure drop, and for lhe same individual heating sur- '
face per vessel, is inversely proponionallo lhe number of effecls: lhe evaporalion coefficient
of a quadruple of 4 vessels each of 1,000 m' will be three-quarlers of lhat of a lriple of 3
vessels each of lhe same healing surface.
Consequenlly, lhe lolal evaporation of a mulliple effecI depends, nOI on ilS IOlal healing
surface, bUI on Ihe individual healing surface of each vessel.
As an average and for a normal degree of scaling, we may eSlimale lhal Ihe lolal quanlily
01 water, in kg (lb.), evaporaled per hour by a mulliple ellecl wilh vessels 01 equal healing
surlace is equallo {he producl 01 its individual healing surlace per vessel, expressed in m'
(sq./I.), mulliplied by 100 (20).
If il is desired 10 relate lhe performance to lhe tOlal healing surface of a mulliple effecI,
eslimales may be based on lhe evaporalil'ln coefficienls given in Table 32.17.
574 EVAPORATION . Ch. 32
'.<
TABLE 32.17
EVAPORATION COEFFICIENT PER UNIT TOTAL HEATING SURFACE

, ' .1 .
(kg/m'/h) (Ib.lsq.ft./h)
Single 100 20
Double errecI 50 10
Triple erreCI JJ 7
Quadruple erreCI 25 5
Quintuple erreCl 20 4
These coefficients represent good va lues for design and estirnating purposes. In practice
they are often exceeded, sornetirnes by rnore than 50070.
Vapour bleeding. Jf the evapornlors are arrallged fOI" well-designed vapour bleeding from
Ihe earlier vessels, Ihese will nOI be limited so closely by Ihe following effects, and, since their
heal-transfer coefficient is superior to the average, will be able to work at a higher rate and
so improve lhe mean evaporation coefficient for the seto Tilis is why a well-designed rnultiple
effect, with healing surfaces decreasing and very unequal for the different vessels, and conse-
quently with hea vy vapour bleeding from the earlier vesse ls, can more easily al tain very
satisfaclory average evaporation coefficienls.
Varialion of evaporation coefficient . with temperalurelimits. For a very similar reason, Ihe
increase in evaporatiori is by no means 'lhe same for an increase in the overall lemperature
drop To - t,, under which the multiple effect is operating, according as Ihis increase is
made al Ihe lower lirnit or atlhe upper limit.
Let us consider a normal temperature drop of 65°C (1 J7°F) oblained wilh:
To 120°C
(A) T o - t, = 65°C (117°F)
t, = 55°C
Jf we increase this ternperature drop by ¡ ° at the lower limit, say:
To = 120°C
(B) T o - t, 66°C (1 ¡ 9°F)
t, = 54°C
the increasewill show its effects almost entirely on the temperatures in Ihe last vessel, a liltle
less on those of the preceding one, a nd hardJy at all on the first.
Conversely, if we increase the temperature drop by ¡ ° at the upper limit, so Ihal we ha ve:
To 121°C
(e)
t, = 55°C
T o - t, = 66°C (119°F)
it is the ternperature of lhe 1st vessel that will increase by l Oo r near il, and the last which
will be scarcely affected.
HEATlNG SURFACE 575
Taking numerical values for example, let ·us assume the case of a quadruple, and that the
temperatures reach equilibrium at the following figures for the 3 cases concerned:
Tempera/ures ( OC)
A B C
Exhau st steam 120 120 121

Vapour from 1st vessel 1I I 110.9 1 I 1.9
Vapour from 2nd vessel 100 99.8 100.8
Vapour from 3 rd vessel 85 84.6 85.6
Vapour from 4th vessel 55 54 55
Lel us assume finally thal the brix figures and Ihe temperature drops in each vessel are as
TABLE 32.18
Brix of juice Tempera/ure drop, Ó / ( oC)
Apparenr True
Entering Leaving Mean B.P.E.
A ( ' B&C A B&C
,)
1st vessel 12 18 15 9 I 9.1 , 0.8 8.2 8.3
2nd vessel 18 26 22 II IU 1.3 9.7 9.8
3rd vessel 26 32 29 15 15.2 2 13 13 .2
4th vessel 32 64 48 30 30.6 6.3 23.7 24.3
,
. The Dessin formula gives:
151 Znd 3rd 41h Average

vessel vessel vessel vessel (kg/m'/h)
Case (A) Evaporation coefficient e 5.61 4.45 3.27 1.61

Evapo ralion per m 2 / h 46 43.2 42 .5 38.2 42.7
Case (B) Evaporation coefficient e 5.61 4.44 3.25 1.59

Evaporanon per m'/ h 46.6 43.5 42.9 38.6 43. I
Case (C) Evapora!ion coefricien! e 5.69 4.52 3.32 1.64

Evapofallon per ml/ h 47 .2 44.3 43.8 39.9 44
\\'(, see ,ha! an im:rease of 1 a = 1.5~. a¡ ¡he high end of rhe remperarure sca/e produces
an increase in evaporation of:
44 -:, (1,2.7
3070
42.7
576 EVAPORA TION Ch. 32
'.'
whereas an equal gain on ¡he vacuum end produces a gain of only:
43.1 - 42.7
0.9070
42.7
or } as mucho
It is easily seen that this difference is due to the fact that, when Ihe vacuum is increased,
Ihe pressure in Ihe éalandrias is decreased and consequenlly Ihe heal-Iransfer coefficienl in
each vessel is decreased, and this partly offsets the gain due to the increased lemperalure
drop; whereas when the pressure al the steam end is increased, the coefficienls are increased .
and Ihis effecI is added to Ihe gain in lhe overall temperature drop.
Choice of number of effects

From the poinl of view of steam economy, il is obviously of inleresl Ihal Ihe number of ef-
fects should be as high as possible. Why then is Ihe number of effecls generally limiled 10
3, 4 or 5?
This is due lo four principal causes:
(1) The capacily of a multiple effect being delermined by lhe individual surface 01' ils
vessels, its cosl will be approximately proportional to the number of effecls.
(2) Jn changing from a ser of the order of n - 1 to a multiple sel of Ihe order 01' n, Ihe
saving in sleam consumplion effeclesJ has Ihe value:
~)
E E E
Q' - Q (32.34)
n n n (n - 1)
As a ratio of Ihe previous Sleam consumplion, Ihis saving represenls:
E
Q' - Q n (n - 1) 100 %
= = or:
Q E n n
---
n - 1
This ¡herefore decreases rapidly wilh the number of effecls.

(3) Jt is relatively simpler and less expensive lo increase Ihe number of effecls by the in-
stallalion of a thermo-compressor, which al Ihe same lime lakes up less space.
(4) Losses by radialion and conveclion are approximately proportional 10 the number of
vess els, Ihat is, to the number 01' effecls. Further, lhe 1055 in lemperalure drop due 10 boiling-
poinl elevalion increases wilh Ihe number of effecls. Jt is already almosl equal in lhe lasl
vessel 01' a mulliple effecl 10 thal which would occur with single effecl. The analogous loss
due 10 hydroslalic pressure similarly increases with the number 01' effecls. Finally, Ihese Ihree
losses conlribule 10 reduce rapidly the Iheoretical gain 10 be oblained by lhe addition of a
furrher effecl.
Table 32.19 gives an example 01' Ihe losses in lemperalure drop which can be experienced
wilh a moder¡¡ evap ora [or se[ (b = due [O brix; h = due [O hydrosl3[ic pressure; I = lo[al).
REATJNO SURFACE 577 '
TABLE 32.19
10SS OF TEMPERATURE DROP IN MUL TIPLE EFFECT (b + h = 1)
Triple elleel Quadruple elleel Quintuple elleel
1SI erreCI 0.2 + 0.8 = 1 oc 0.2 + 0.6 = 0.8°e 0.2 + 0.6 = 0.8°e
(0.4 + 1.4 = 1.8°F) (0.4 + 1.1 = 1.5°F) (0.4 + 1.1 1.5°F)
2nd erreCI 0.5 + 1.3 1.8°e 0.4 + 0.9 = 1.3 oC 0.3 + 0.8 1.loe
(0.9 + 2.3 3.2°F) (0.7 + 1.6 = 2YF) (0.5 + 1.4 1.9°F)
. 3rd erreC! 1.9 + 4.1 6 oC 0.7 + 1.4 2.8°e 0.6 + 1.6°e

(3.4 + 7.4 = 1O.8°F) (1.3 + 2.5 3.8°F) (1.1 + 2.8 2.9°F)
41h erreCI 1.91- 4.2 - 6.l oe 1.0 + 1.7 2.7°e

(3.4 + 7.6 = 1I.0°F) (1.8 + 3.1 = 4.9°F)
51h erreCI 2.5 + 4.2 = 6.7°e

(4.5 + 7.6 = 12.I O F)
This small table has been compiled on the assumptions: T o = 115 - l200e (240 - 250°F),
t, = 55°e (l31 0 F), height of calandria = 1.8-2.1 m (6-7 fl.), with typical vapour
bleeding and heat balance.
The total lemperature drop is therefore reduced in the proportions shown in Table 32.20.
'-'00 TABLE 32.20'
LOSS IN TOTAL TEMPERATURE DRQP
TOlal Loss Nel Loss % 01 drop

drop drop Total Previous net
(oC) (0F) (oC) (OF) (oC) (OF)
Triple erreC! 63 114 8.8 15.8 54.2 98.2 13.9

Quadruple erreC! 63 114 10.3 18.6 52.7 95.4 16.3 2.8
Quinluple erreC! 63 114 12.9 23.2 50.1 90.8 20.4 4.9
In order to increase from a quintuple to a sextuple effect, it would thus be necessary to

tolerate in the same way a further loss of more than 70/0 in the capacity of the equipment,
allhough it is increased by one vessel. To this loss in capacity must be added the losses of
heat by radiation and convection, which themselves increase with the num ber of effects: e.g.
2%,5% and 9% for triple, quadruple and quintuple respectively. It is seen that the expense
of a supplementary effect becomes very difficult to pay off.
In practice, a substantial gain is made by increasing from a triple to a quadruple and a
further attractive gain from a quadruple to a quintuple, for large factories. Very approx-
imately, we would install:
A triple in factories of less than 50 I.c.h.
A quadruple in factories of 50 - 200 I.c.h.
A quintuple in factories of more than 200 I.c.h.
578 BY APORA TION Ch. 32
Sextuple effects are quite exceptional and would' not be definitely payable, even in a very
large faclory, under normal conditions.
Cornrnents. (1) Height of tubes. We would comment that the loss suffered by the
temperalure drop is due mainly to lhe hydrostalic pressure, and increases wilh lhe lenglh of
the tubes. In other words, there is proportionately less advanlage in increasing lhe number
of effecls if the tubes are longer.
(2) Evaporation co.efficient. The consideralion of lhe losses aboye leads 10 a modifica lion
of lhe theoretical Table 32.17. Taking this inlo accounl, and increasing by 20% to obtain'
analogous evaporation coefficients, corresponding 10 currenl values, we would have the
figures given in Tabl e 32.21.
These figures, however, represent only mean and conservalive values to be adopled for
preliminary design figures, bul frequently exceeded in pracli ce.
TABLE 32.21
.. ,
EVAPORATlON COEFFICIENT, IN kg/ m'/ h (Ib.lsq.ft.lh)
Lenglh oj lubes
2.4 m (8 JI.) 1.5 m (5jl.)
Single efree! 120 (24 ) i25 (25 )

Double errecl 58 (11.6) 60 (12 )
Triple errec! 37 ( 7.4) 39 ( 7.8)
Quadruple errec! 27 ( 5.4) 28 ( 5.6)
Quinluple errec! 20 (.4 ) 22 ( 4.4)
'.
TABLE 32.22
PRACTlCAL EVAPORATION COEFFICIENTS (WEBRE)
To I Evap. coejj. To I Evap. coejf.

(oC) (kg/m' / h) (0F) (Ib.lsq.fl./h)
Ordinary Iriple erfecl 108 52 51 227 125 10.5

Ordinary quadruple effec l 108 52 39 227 125 8
Ordinary quinluple efrecl 10R 52 29 225 125 6
Pressure double erreel 123 102 32 253 216 6.5
Pressure triple erfect 123 102 22 253 216 4.5
Pauly or pre-evaporaLOr 29- 39 6-8
Webre 69 has indicated evaporarion coefficienrs which he considered normal, and Table
32.22 s hows figures he has given more recenrly7o.
These values are about 30070 higher lhan Ihose of Table 32.21.
Birkett'O', in Louisiana, gives va lues very c10se to those of Wcbre:
C_ALéULATIONS ANO OESIGN OF A MULTIPLE EFFECT 579
Triple errect: 54 kg/ m,/o C/h (11 Ib. / sq.rUoF/ h)

Quadruple effecl: 39 kg/ m, /oC/ h ( 8Ib ./sq.ftPF/h)
Quintuple effect: 29 kg/m, /oC/ h ( 6Ib ./sq.ftPF/h)
CALCULATIONS ANO OESIGN OF A MULTIPLE EFFECT
Dislribution of pressure drop

When a design is made of an enlirely new multiple-effect installalion, and when all the condi-
tion;; of operation are therefore under control, the heating surfaces and the respective
temperature drops for the vessels would be determined after a calculation of the maxim um
. economy; this calculation will be discu ssed laler.
However, lhe results of such a calculation are not always acceptable, and must sometimes
be modified in order to allow for certain secondary considerations which necessitate a de par-
ture fro m the conditions calculated ror maximum economy.
One of these considerations is the following: it is important lO distribute the total pressure
drop of a multiple effect between the vessels in such a way that the individual pressure drops
under which the different vessels are working are approximately equal, but decrease slightly
from the first tO the last vesse!.
The objects of this equalisation of pressure drops are to give uniform heights of siphon
between vessels, tO avoid withdrawals of juice, water or incondensable gases too great in cer -
tain vessels and too small in others, and above all to avoid risks of entrainment which would
be caused by giving the earlier vessels too high a pressure drop. Such risks are reduced by
equalising the pressure drop s as much as possible. And it is beca use risk s of entrainment in-
crease from thefirst to the last vessel that a scale of pressure drops is adopted decreasing
slightly rath er than drops which are rigorously equa!.
TABLE 32.23
DISTRIBUTION OF PRESSURE DROP BETWEEN VESSELS
11 10 9
Triple effeel -+-+
30 30 30
11 10.3 9.7 9
Quadruple effeel - + - + - +-
40 40 40 40
11 10.5 10 9.5 Ij
Quinluple effeel -+-+-+ -+
50 50 50 50 ':;(l
y ".
Values lo be adopled. lf the above principie could be followed entirely, the tolal pressure
drop could be distributed as s hown in Table 32.23. In Ihe case where the overall temperature
drop is 120° - 55° = 65°C (l17°F), this would give the absoJute pressures and the cor-
responding temperatures shown in Table 32.24.
Vapour available al each effecl

This sca le of pressures leads us to a ve{jI interest ing conception, that of the weight of vapour
'.'
available in ¡he various vessels of a given mulliple effecl. This idea is very useful for gi ving
a rapid immediale idea of Ihe possibililies of vapour bleeding from an exisling se!.
The oplimum pressure drops being fixed according 10 Ihe foregoing principie, Ihe inlervals
of lemperature are deduced from Ihese. The temperalure drops under which Ihe differenl
vessels operate do nOI vary greatl y when Ihe upper and lower limils of lemperalure To and
1, alter, provided of course that it is a case of a slandard multiple effecI, working between
a back-pressure ofO.5 - 1.5 kg/ cm' (i-' 20 p.s.i.) and a vacuum of 61 cm (24 in.) of mercury.
Assuming a normal bri x for each vessel, and bas ing our calclllalions on Ihe exa cI
lemperatures corresponding 10 lile aboye pressures, Ihe applicalion of Ihe Dessin formula
(coefficient 0.0008) gi ves lile figures for evaporalion capa cily sllown in Table 32.25.
TABLE 32.24
PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE DROPS. IN oC ANO kg / cm 2 (OF, p.s. i .a,)

(T, = 120'C (248 ' F); 1, = 55'C (131 ' F); preSSlIre dislribllli o n as Table 32.23)
Sleam 1s1 ejjeel 2nd ejjeel 3rd ejjeel 41h ejjeel 51h ejjeel
Triple effeel
Press ure 2.0 (28. 8) I.J (19) 0.7 (10.2) 0.16 (2.3)
Temperal~re 120' (248') 107' (225 ' ) 90' (194') 55 ' (131 ')
Quadruple Pressure 2.0 (28.8) 1.5 (21.5) 1.0 (14 .5) 0 .58 (8.2) 0.1 6 (2 .3)
effeet T emperal ure 120' (248') 1I l' (232 ' ) 100' (212 ' ) 85' (185') 55'(131 ' )
Quintuple Pressure 2.0 (28.8) 1.6 (23) !.2 (17.4) 0.85 (12.1) 0 .5 (7) 0 . 16 (2 .3)
e rfeel Temperalure 120' (248') 113' (235 ' ) 105 ' (221°) 95' (203') 80' (175') 55° (131 °)
TABLE 32.25
EYAPORATION CAPACITY OF THE SEVERAl VESSELS OF A MULTIPLE EFFECT WORKING UNDER THE CONDITlONS OF
TABlE 32 .24 , tN kg/ m ' / h (Ib.lsq.ft./h) (deereasing press ure dro ps)
¡SI vessel 2nd vessel 3rd vessel 41h vessel 51h vessel
Triple errect 53 (11 ) 48 (9 .8) 43 (8.8)

Quadruple erreet 37 ( 7.6) 35 (7.2) 32 (6.6) 28 (5 . 7)
Quintuple effeet 28 ( 5.7) 26 (5 . 3) 25(5.1) 25 (5. 1) 17 (3.5)
If a multiple effecI were available working belween Ihe lemperalure limils of 112 0 and
55 °C (234 ° and 131 ° F) (ir.;:;tead of 120° C and 55 °C), wilh a sliglllly lower bri x, il would be
possible 10 oblain sl ighlly differenl values. These are shown as follows , calcul a led from a
coefficienl of 0.001 so as lO render Ihem more comparable wilh Ihe preceding figures; units
are kg/m'/h (in brackels, Ib ./sq. ft./h):
Triple: 50 (10 ) 47 (9.5) 38 (7.8)

Quaclruple: 35 ( 7.2) 33 (6.8) 29 (6 ) 23 (4.7)
Quinluple: 26 ( 5.3) 25 (5.1) 23 (4.7) 21 (4.3) 16(3.3)
Frequently, with quadruple and quinluple effecIs, Ih e possibililies of Ihe second lasl ve ssel
_CALCULATlONS AND DESIGN OF A MULTlPLE EFFECT 581
are nOI ulilised, as it is considered tllat il is nOI worth lhe lrouble. In Ihis case, lhe two latter
vessels will adjust themselves automatically, and Table 32.25, for example, becomes (units
as aboye):
Quadruple : 37 (7.6) 35 (7 .2) 30 (6.2) 30 (6.2)

Quinluple: 28 (5.7) ·26 (5.3) 25 (5.l) 21 (4.3) 21 (4.3)
Thus the vapour available from the antepenultimate vessel is considerably increased.
Example. Two quadruple effects each with four equal vessels, one of 500 m 2 , the other
of 5,000 sq.ft. each, working between 120 and 55°C (248 and 131 ° F), would be able to fu r-
nish Ihe quantities for bleeding as shown in Table 32.26.
TABLE 32.26
, DlSTRmUTIQN OF VAPOUR IN A QUADRUPl.E
Vessels oJ 500 m' Vessels oJ 5,000 sqJI.

E vap. Tolal Available Evap . TOlol Avai/able
rafe evap. rafe evap.
(kg / m' / h) (kg / h) (kg / ñ) (lb ./sqJl.ih) . (Ib ./h) (Ib ./h/
1st efFeet 37 18,500 1,000 7.6 38,000 2,000

2nd efFeet 35 J7.500 1.500 . 7.2 36,000 3,000
3rd eFFeet 32 16,000 2,000 6.6 33,000 4,500
4th eFFeet 28 14,000 14 ,000 5.7 28,500 28,500
Comment, Evaporation qoefflcients and number of effects. 'we have already passed from
lhe tlleoretical Ta ble 32.17 10 Table 32.21 by the consideration of losses. If we accept the
Dess in formula (which is approximate, but gives an acceptableapproximalion), Ihe figures ·
of Table 32.25, for example, show lhal the advantage of the triple effect over lhe quadruple,
and of the quadruple over Ihe quinluple, is still more marked than Table 32.21 indicated.
ACluall y, addilion of the capacities of Table 32 .25 (for example, adjusled lO a coefficienl of
0.000812 (denominator of 19,700), and rela led to lhe tOlal surface of the multiple effecl
(assumed of equal vessels)) gives:
. b.ooosi 2 .. . . 53+ 48 +43

Triple effecl: x
0.001 .. 3
144
= 0.812 x 3
= 39 kg/ m 2 / h (8 Ib .lsq. ft./h)
0,000812 37 + 35 + 32 + 28
Quadruple effecl: 0,001 x 4
132
= ,0"SI2 x 4 26.8 kg/ m2 / h (5.5 Ib./sq. ft./h)
582 '.'
; r.1 1 1 !,'r " ).' EV~J>0RA..rIPti ,"!l\ ::;;1 0 1"1, 1" :-'-, ',', " ' Ch. 32
• 0.0008J 2 28 + 26 + 25 + 25 + 17
Quinluple effecl: x =
0.001 5
0.812 x 121 = 19.7 kg/m'/h (4Ib./sq.rUh)

';1 .1,' ....: .i'¡Y !: ;., 5 .. .• ,
This Jimils lhe number of .efrecls even sooner lhan lhe remarks made afler Table 32.20
would kad o~e lO suppose.
Delermination of healíng surface of Ihe vessels

[1 is possible lo oblain from each vesseJ of a muIliple effecl praclically any rale of evapora-
lion, provided il is given lhe necessary heating surface, corresponding 10 the pressure of Ihe .
vapour which heals il, lO Ihe brix of Ihe juice in il, 10 lhe lemperalure drop under which il
.is operaling, elc.
Bul il is apparenl lhal Ihe healing sur faces of lhe differelll vessels should be proporliolled
in a IogicaI manner, and lhe mOSI logical is lo llave a 10lal healing surface for Ihe mulliple
effecl which is a minimum.
Proportioning lo oblaín a mínimum total surface

We shall seek Ihen lo find how lhe vessels should be proporlioned in order to arrive at a
minimum total healing surface.
We shall assume Ihe general case of a mulliple effecl of n vessels, wilh vapour bleedillg.
Lel:
S" S" S" ... , Sn be Ihe respective heating surfaces of Ihe n vessels
6,,6,,6,, · ... , 6 n be Ihe nel lemperature drops in the n vessels
d" d" d" ... , d n be the boiling-poillt elevalions
6,', 6¡, 6J', .. . , 6'n be Ihe correspondillg apparent lemperalure drops: 6' = 6 + d
e" e" eJ, ... , en be Ihe real specific evaporation coefficienls for Ihe n vessels
q" q2, qJ, ... , qn be Ihe quanlilies of waler evaporated by Ihe n ves seis
b" b" b" ... , bn be lhe mean brix values of Ihe juice in these vessels.
These quanlilies could be expressed in eilher metric or British unils, since lhe only quanlily
affecled by lhe syslem of unils is lhe numerical basic lemperature in Ihe Dessin formula, and
even Ihis is eliminaled from Ihe calculalion; hence lhe calculalions are enlirely independelll
of Ihe syslem of unilS employed.
The qualltities of water evaporaled by the differenl vessels are respeclively:
q, = e, S, Ll., q, = e2 S, Ll., qn = en Sn 6 n
and:
q, + ~ + q, + ... + ~ = Q
Q, being lhe total quanlity of water to be evaporaled, is par! of lhe essenlial dala ror lhe
problem; and:
. CALCULATlONS AND DESIGN OF A MULTIPLE EFFECT 583
+t.'=t.'
n
+ t.n = t.
t.' being the total apparent lemperature drop and t. the net drop between exhaust steam and
co ndenser . Once Ihe lenglh of the lubes is chosen, t. may be considered as pan of the fun-
damental dala as well as t.', since (1) Ihe brix values depend on the respecli ve q values, which
are assumed given, and (2) the various d values depend entirely on the brix values and the
lengths or the tubes.
We shall first study the proportioning of the first vessel in relation to the remainder,
assuming tentatively that the other vessels are already properly proportioned between
themselves, and that the condition al which we shall arrive will be such that these proporlions
do not vary when the surface of the first vessel varies. We shall return later to Ihis hypothesis.
To simplify the calculations, we shall assume that the boiling-point elevations d are pro-
portionallo the temperature drops t., which is approximately true, particularly if the last ef-
fecl is not considered, the figure for which (d) n
is not required
.
for our illustration. We may
t hus assume:
t., = mt. t. ¡' = md '
then:
t., k, (l m)t. M k, (1 m) t. '

t. 3 = k3 (l m) t. t.i = k3 (1 m) t.'
..
t.n = kn (1 - m)t. t.'n = kn (J - m) t. '
k~, k 3 , k" ... , kn being the coefdcients of proportionality for the

. temperature
. drops of the
other vessels among themselves, the relalive values of which do nOI ·vary when m varíes.
Finally, we shall postulate Ihat Ihe basic temperature of Ihe Dessin formula (54°C; 130 °F)
ma y be substiluted for the lemperalure corresponding 10 Ihe vacuum (which is always only
slighlly difrerent from the Iruth, and whích will enable us lO avoid using a figure for Ihe dír-
ference f belween these two temperatures).
The surface of t he 1sI vessel has a value:
ql ql
s, = =
C¡ dI CI mt.
and from the Dessin · formula:
el = 0.001 (100 - b.J (To - 54)
By subsliluting:
584 EVAPORAT/ON.• • Ch. 32
then:
q,
S, = a, m¡j,¡j, ,
Similarly: .. '
q2
S2 =
e2 ¡j,2
and:
e2 = 0.001 (100 - b 2 ) (¡j,' - ¡j,;)
or:
q2
a 2k 2 (1 - m)2 ¡j,¡j,'
. In the same way:
q,
e, ¡j"
and:
e, =a, (t.' - ¡j,; -¡j,,) = a, [¡j,' - m¡j,' - k 2 (l - m) ¡j,' 1 = a,¡j,' (1 - k 2) (1 - m)
or :
a,k, (1 - k 2) (1 - m)2 ¡j,¡j, '
In general:
qo
So =
ao k o (1 - k2 - k, - ko _ ,) (1 - m)2 ¡j,¡j,'
Finally, the lolal healing surface S of Ihe mulliple effeCI will have Ihe value:
S = S, + S2 + S, + ... + So
If we seek its minimum value, when m varies, we should wrile:
dS dS, dS2 dS, dSo =

dm + dm + dm + ... + dm O
dm
CM-CULATIONS AND DESIGN OF A MULTIPLE EFFECT 585
or: '
2q, 2qJ
+ + -----------------------
a,k,t.t. '(1 - m)l aJ k J (J - k,) t.t.' (1 - m)l
2qn
+ ... + o
an k n (1 - k, - k J -
or:
S, 2S, 2SJ 2Sn

+ + ... + - ------
m - m I - m 1 m
2m SI
- m S, + SJ + ... + Sn
Thus, wil h nel drops:
SI 2t. 1
. (32.35)
r,;-,- S, + SJ + ... + Sn t., + t. J + . .. + t. n
Or, wilh apparent drops:
SI 2t.¡'
= (32.36)
S, + SJ + ... + S, t.; + t.; + ... +.. t.'n
In olher words: To obtain a minima/ heating surfaee for the mu/tip/e effeet, the ratio of
the heating surfaee of a vesse/ to the sum of the heating surfaees of the fo/lowing vesse/s is
twiee the ratio of the temperature drop for that vesse/ to the sum of the temperature drops
of the fo//owing vesse/s.
Jf we subslilule: ......(
ql q, qn
ti t, = tn
el e, en
we have:
(1 .. (, (
n (32.37)
SI = S, = Sn =
t. 1 t., t. n
and Ihese equations show lhal, in eqn. (32.35), we may subslitule tlt. for S in each case.
Having Ihus fixed Ihe oplimum vaJues of SI and t." it remains lo find Ihe oplimum value
of Ihe ilealing surfaces and Ihelemperá'lure drops, for Ihe olher vessels. Bul il is easy 10 see
586 EVAPORATIQN Ch. 32
'.'
Ihal once Ihe ISI vessel is fixed. Ihe 2nd vessel beco mes. in relalion 10 Ihe followin'g ones.
virtuallya 1sI vessel. in Ihe sense Ihal ils coefficienl e becomes fixed in ils lurn. 1I is jusI as
if we were dealing wilh a multiple effecI of Ihe order n - 1 and a 10lal lemperalUre drop
of ~ - ~" The calculalion would follow an identical patlern. and we should find in Ihe same
way:
s, (32.38)
SJ + S4 + ... + Sn
and so in turno for Ihe double effecl formed by Ihe lasl 11'.'0 vessels :
(32.39)
\'
Case 01 a quadTuple. In Ihe case of a quadruple. for example. we have:
1,
S, 2~, ~, 2~,
or (32.40)
S, + SJ + S4 ~, + ~J + ~4 1, IJ 14 ~, + ~J + ~4
+ +
~, ~, ~4
1,
S, 2~, ~2 2~2
or = (32.41)
S, + S4 ~J + ~4 IJ 14 ~J + ~4
+
~J ~4
IJ
S3 2~, ~3 2~3
or = (32.42)
S4 ~4 14 ~4
~4
~, + ~, + ~J + ~4 = ~ (32 .43)
Now lel:
T, =
From (32.42) we have:
,. (32.44)
CALCULATIONS AND DESIGN OF A MULTIPLE EFFECT 587
Substituting for A. in (32.41):
Substituting in (32.40):
rJ =
A,
Al Jr 2 (/J + t.r.)
~
r.
/,
(32.45)
( 1 + -I + -1)
- t,
A, r) T3 r4
r, = -A, = 2 (t, + tJrJ + t.r.rJ)
(32.46)
Finally, (32.43) gives:
A
rl = A,
= I + + + (32.47)
r2 T2 T ) Tl TJ T4,
These last four equations permit the tour A values 10 be calculated by a reduction formula.
The application ot this is very rapid: we shall give an example of it later (p. 591).
Case 01 a triple. The value of the corresponding expressions is oblained very readily, by
a change of lile indices, in ¡he case of a triple or a quinluple effec!. For the Iriple,for exam-
pie, we have:
, , .... , - ; ". ," "
r, (32.48)
r, . (32.49)
(32.50)
Comment. We may now establish that the hypo¡hesis on which our reasoning was based
(el p. 583) was correCl: the condition of optimum proportion between the vessels following
the 1st, at which we have arrived, is such that their temperature drops remain proportional
bet,veen themselves when the temperature drop of the 1st varies. Actually, if our reasoning
had been made for the case of a quintuple, for example, and if, in conditions such as (32.40)
to (32.43), assumed to apply to the last 4 vessels of Ihis quintuple, the temperature drop A
became AA, all the conditions would remain unchanged when A, was replaced by AA" A, by
A.L>" etc., since ¡he coefficients A could rhen be placed as a factor in ¡he numera¡or and
denominator in the second term of expressions (32.40) to (32.42) and in both si des of eqn.
(32.43).
MULTIPLE-EFFECT CALCULATIONS
There are several methods of calculating for the design of a multiple effect. We shall study
the simplest case, .and then give the more importan! variations of this.
To give definite values and to simplify the exposition we shall treat a concrete case.
Calculations are given in the metric system, with the main results given in brackets in the
British system. Full calculations for the same example are given in British units in the second
edition, pp. 578 ff.
(A) Normal scale of pressures

Dala. We wish to calculate a complete quadruple effect for a sugar factory, operating under
the following conditions:
Crushing rate: 100 I.c.h.

Weight of mixed juice 070 cane: 100
Brix of clarified juice: 13
Brix required for syrup: 65
Temperature of juice before heating: 30°C (86°F)
Back-pressure: 1 kg/cm' (14 p.s.i.)
Vacuum at condenser: 64 cm (25 in.)
Procedure lo be followed. (a) Calculalion 01 lolal evaporalion. The total quantity of water
to be evaporated is (eqn. (32.9»:
E = 100 x 1,000 (1 - W= 80,000 kg/h (179,200 lb.lh)
(b) Choice ollemperalures. We adopt for this multiple effect the pressure scale of Table
32.23. At the same time we choose a figure for the length of tubes of the various vessels,
which permits us to determine approximately the boiling-point elevations d in the vessels (pp.
499 - 502), hence the temperatures given in Table 32.27.
TABLE 32.27
SEQUENCE OF TEMPERATURES, IN oc eF)
Vapour d Juice True lemp.

drop
Exhaust steam 120 (248)

1st vessel 111 (232) 0.8 ( 1.4) 111.8 (233.4) 8.2 (14.6)
2nd vessel 100 (212) 1.3 ( 2.3) 101.3 (214.3) 9.7 (17.7)
3 rd vessel 85 (185) 2.1 ( 3.8) 87.1 (188.8) 12.9 (23.2)
4th vessel 55 (131) 6.1 (11.0) 61.1 (142 ) 23.9 (43 )
54.7 (98.5)
MULTIPLE-EFFECT CALCULATIONS 589
(e) Choice of vapour bleeding. By means of thcsc tempcraturcs, we now choose the pro-
cedure for juice heating. In order to select economic conditions, we shall observe the margins
of temperature recommended in Table 30.1 (p. 456).
We shall carry out the heating thus:
By 3rd vessel: from 30 to 65 oC ( 85 to 150° F)

By 2nd vessel: from 65 to 85°C (150 to 185°F)
By 1st vessel: from 85 to 103 oC (185 to 217°F)
We shall take furfuer from the first vessel the vapour necessary for 1of the vacuum pans,
the consumption of which is estimated to total 120 kg/t.c. (270 Ib./t.c.).
The latent heats of the vapour are (Table 41.1):
1st vessel, 111°C (232°F): 532 kcal/kg (957 B.T.U./lb.)

2nd vessel, 100°C (212°F): 539 kcallkg (970 B.T.U./lb.)
3rd vessel, 85°C (185°F): 548 kcallkg (987 B.T.U./lb.)
Thus we arrive at the following figures for the bled vapour:

From 3rd vessel:
P = 1,000 x 100 x 0.9 (65 - 30) 6,050 kg/h (13,760 Ib./h) vapour
3
548 x 0.95
From 2nd vessel:
p, = 1,000 x 100 x 0.9 (85 - 65)

3,515 kg/h (7,657 Ib./h) vapour
537 x 0.95
F:rom 1st vessel:
(a) Heaters: P,
1,000 x 100 x 0.9 (103 - 85)
532 x 0.95
3,204 l 11,204 kg/h
~
(25,095 Ib./h) vapour
(b) Pans:
Pi = 100 x 120 x 2 = 8,000
3
Fig. 32.47. Calculations forvapour bleeding.

590 EV APORATlO-tl Ch. 32
"
(d) Calculation 01 the individual evaporation ol/he vesse/s. Let x be the quantity of vapour
supplied by the 4th vessel and passing to the condenser. Since each vessel must supply the
vapour necessary for the following one, plu s the vapour for juice heating (Fig. 32.47), the
several vessels will have to evapora te:
4th vessel: x
3rd vessel: x + 6,050
2nd vessel: x + 6,050 + 3,515
1st vessel: x + 6,050 + 3,515 + 11 ,204
4x + 3 X 6,050 + 2 x 3,515 + 11,204

Equating these totals 10 the lotal evaporalion required, we have:
4x + 18,150 + 7,030 + 11,204 = 80,000
hence:
x = 10,904 kg / h (24,378 Ib .lh)
The evaporations in the several vessels will therefore be:
4th vessel: q4 10,904 = 10,904

3rd vessél: q, = 10,904 + 6,050 = 16,954
2nd vessel: q, 16,954 + 3,515 20,469
1st vessel: q, 20,469 + 11,204 31,673
Total evaporation E: 80,000 kg/h
(e) Calcula/ion 01 the brix figures. We may nOw calcula te the brix of the juice in each
vessel as shOWn in Table 32.28.
TABLE 32.28
CALCULATION OF BRIX VALUES
Average b,ix
Entering I sI vesseJ: Bo
")
= ."
16 = b,
100,000
Leaving 151 vesseJ: BI 13 x = 19
100,000 - 31,673 23.1 = b,
100,000
Leaving 2nd vesse l: H, '= 13 x
68,327 - 20,469 34.6 = b,
100,000
Leaving 3rd vessel: H, = 13 x 42.1
Leaving 4th vessel: H,

47,858 - 16,954
100,000
13 x - -"-'----
30,904 - 10 ,904
65 ) 53.5 = b,
(f) Calculation of the specific evaporation coefficients. The Dessin formula (32.31) ap-
plied with the coefficient of 0.001 (or denominator 16,000) gives the coefficients of Table
32.29:
TABLE 32.29
CALCULATlON OF SPECIFIC EVAPORATlON RATES, IN kg/m'¡OC/h (Ib./sq.fl./'F/h)
ISI vessel: e, = 0.001 (lOO - 16 ) (120 - 54) = 5.54 (0.620)

2ndvessel: el = 0.001 (100 - 23.1) (1 I I - 54) = 4.38 (0.490)
3rd vessel: e, = 0.001 (100 - 34.6) (lOO - 54) = 3.01 (0.335)
4th vessel: c. = 0.001 (lOO - 53.5) ( 85 - 54) = 1.44 (0.160)
(g) Calculalion of healing surfaces. For each vessel we have:
Hence:
31,673
s, 697 m' Say: 700 m' ( 7,850 sq.ft.)
5.54 x 8.2
20,469
s, 482 m' Say: 500 m' ( 5,300 sq.ft.)
4.38 x 9.7
16,954
437 m' Say: 450 m' ( 5,000 sq.ft.)
3.01 x 12.9
10,904
s. 1.44 x 23.9
317 m' Say: 350 m' ( 3,600 sq. fL)
Total 1,933 m' Say: 2,000 m' (21,750 sq.fL)
When the multiple effect is intended for a factory for which the properties of the juice are
known, and where the existing evaporators do not suffer bad scaling,the value 0.001 may
be used, as aboye, in the Dessin forniula. Otherwise it is wise to replace it by 0.0009 or 0.0008
(or adopt a denominator of 18,000 or 20,000 in place of 16,000, for British units).
Whenever possible, the value should be one obtained from the performance of the existing
multiple effecL A higher coefficient (Iower denominator) for the Dessin formula should not
be taken unless the forecasts of the performance or technical improvements in the new equip-
ment justify iL
(O) Minimum total heating surface .',

The scale of pressures given in Table 32.23 is not an essential condition for the operation
592 EVAPORATION' Ch. 32
of a multiple effect; instead of starting from this condition, we may set out to realise the con-
ditions already found for a mínimum total heatíng surface, in which case the scale of
pressures obtained will be determined by these ínítial conditions. The calculation is somewhat
lengthy. Theoretically it is made by successive approximations, starting precisely from the
normal scale of pressures. Actually, it almost always suffices to recalculate once the
temperatures so utilised .
The procedure to be followed remains the same. Calculations (a), (b), (e), (d), (e), (j) are
carried out in turno Keeping the same data as for the calculation (A), we shall proceed to con-
tinue the calculation of our quadruple effect with the object of obtaining the minimum total
heating surface.
(h) Calcula/ion ol/he evapora/ion eapaci/ies l. We shall call / = q/e the evaporation
"capacity" of a vessel. Actually, what is of value in a multiple effect is lhe healing surface
and the temperature drop. Now, the quantity / is a measure of the expendilure in heating
surface and tempera tu re drop which must be made for an evaporator vessel, according to
its place in the set:
q
= S·A
e
We have:
q, 31,673
/, = = = 5,717 (114,340)
e, 5.54
q, 20,469
/, - - = = 4,673 (93,460)
e, 4.38
q, 16,954
1, = = 5,632 (113,845)
e3 3.01
q4 10,904
/4 = 7,572 (152,362)
e4 1.44
(i) Calcula/ion 01 /he reeurrenee quotienls r. This gives:
<1- + 1.6398) x 4,673

) 0.7758
2(5,632 + 4,617)
A,
j (1 + 1.2891 + 2.1138) x 5,717
2 (4,673 + 4,369 + 3,582)
0.9985 . .
1
r, + = 1 + 1.0015 + 1.2910 + 2.1171 5.4096
r2
(}) Calcula/ion al/he new /heore/ical temperature drops Ll. We have :
Ll 54 .7
Ll, = = 10.1°C (l8.1°F)
r, 5.4096
Ll, 10 . 112
Ll 2 = = = 10.1°C (l8.2°F)
r2 0.9985
Lll 10.127
Ll, = = 13.1 °C (23.6°F)
r, 0.7758
Ll, 13.054
Ll. 21.4°C (38.6 ° F)
r. 0.6098
Ll 54YC (98YF)
(k) Correction of the temperature drops found. The hypothesis of p. 583. which aimed to
allow us to substitute the net temperature drops by the apparen! drops. in the calculation of
minimal heating surface. is only approximate. The boiling-point elevations d are not exactly
proportional to the net temperature drops. They increase in fact more rapidly than the
lemperalure drops from Ihe 151 lo the lasl vesseJ. 11 follows thal the real specific evaporation
coefficients which we found for the 2nd. 3rd and especially for the 4th vessels. in ulilising
these drops, and the calculated d values of Table 32.27, would be too high, since the
temperature T of vapour entering inlo the Dessin formula (T ~ 54) would be some~: hat
higher than our calculation had indicaled.
On Ihe olher hand, if we were lo correcl fully Ihe nel temperalure drops found aboye for
the di fference belween Ihe proportional d and Ihe true d. ano ' if we incorporaled Ihese correc-
lions in the temperalure drop so as lo give I he exaCI values for T. this would give net
lemperature drops which would no longer correspond to Ihe proporlions required by Ihe
calculation: they would be too high in the 1st vessel and 100 low for Ihe last.
A detailed calculation shows thal Ihe correction to be applied consists of adding the follow-
ing amounts, as a'very close approximation in most cases, to Ihe nel témperature drops ob-
tained in (¡):
For a Quadruple For a Quintuple
For the 151 vessel: + 0.8070 + 0.9070 of the total nel drop
For Ihe 2nd vessel + 0.60/0 + 0.7070
For the 3rd vessel: + 0.3070 + 0.4070
For Ihe 4th vessel: - L 7.0/0 -0.3%
For the 5th vesseJ: -J .7%
594 . EYAPORAT~ON Ch. 32
which gives us the following correct temperature drops:
f. 1 10.1 + (54.7 X 0.008) 10.5°C (I8.9 ° F)

f., 10.1 + (54.7 X 0.006) 10.4°C (18.8°F)
f. 3 _. 13.1 + (54.7 X 0.003) I3YC (23.9°F)
f., = 21.4 (54.7 x 0.017) = 20YC (36.9°F)
50°C (98.5°F)
TABLE 32.30
SEQUENCE OF COIlRECTED TEMPERATURES (OC)
Vapour d Juice True lempo

drop
Exhaus't steam 120

1st vessel 108.7 0.8 109.5 10.5 (18.9°F)
2nd ve55el 97 1.3 98.3 lOA (18.8°F)
)rd ve55el 81.6 2.1 83.7 1) .) (23.9°F)
41h ve55el 55 6.1 61.1 20.5 (36.9°F)
TOlal nel.drop 54.7 (98.5°F)
(1) Corrected scale 01 temperatures. It follows that the new temperature figures are those
(m) Calculation 01 heating surlaces. Taking the new values for real specific evaporation
coefficient corresponding lO the foregoing lemperatures, Ihe heating surfaces of the differenl
vessels become:
31,673
SI = 544 m' Say: 550 m' ( 6,050 sq.ft.)
5.54 X 10.5
20,469
S, = 467 m' Say: 475 m' ( 5,150 sq.ft.)
4.21 X 10.4
16,954
53 454 m' Say: 450 m' ( 5,150 sq.fL)
2.81 X 13.3
10,904
S, 414 m' Say: 425 m' ( 4,650 sq.ft.)
1.28 x 20.5
1,879 m' 1,900 m' (21,000 sq.ft.)
Striclly speaking, we should now relurn to step (h) in Ihe calculation wilh the new values
for the evaporation coefficient, and deduce successively the values for t, r, uncorrected and
MULTlPLE-EFFECT CALCULA TIONS 595
corrected 6., and only then calculate lhe heating surfaces. In practice, when the corrected
temperatures are as close to the original tem peralures as those of Table 32.30 are to those
of Table 32.27, this step is super fluou s, and we may adopt the heating surfaces found.
Heating of the juice in the first vessel. In the preceding calculations, we have not taken
into accounl lile temperalure of lile juice as il enters Ihe 1st vessel, which is the same as saying
that we ha ve assumed that the juice enters al a temperature equal to that of the juice in the
vessel.
This, however, is generalIy not the case. The juice most often enters the 1st vessel at a
temperature lo 5-15°e (lO-25°F) lower t·han that of the boiling juice in the vessel. ·lt is
Ihe 1st vessel which must supply the heat necessary to bring it to this boiling poin!. This re-
quires sOl11e addilional heating surface.
In practice, il is sufficient to take this into account by adding 10 the heating surface S,
ca\culaled for the 1st vessel a supplementar y surface s,:
s, = 0.1 Q(t, - lo) (s, =0.6 Q (t, - lo)) (32.51)
s, = additional healing surface to be provided for the 1st vesse l,in m' (sq.ft.).
Change in total heating surface. lf we compare the total heating surface which we have
obtained by method (8) with that obtained by the simple calculation (A), we are immediatel y
struck with the smalI difference between the two results: not even 31170. This is due to two
causes:
(a) The scale of pressures obtained by starting from conditions for minimum total sui-face
is generally very c10se to the standard scale of pressures. In calculating a multiple effect con-
forming to the standard scale of pressures, we gene rally find, therefore, conditions very close
to the optimum.
(b) lf we take as a variable any one of the individualtemperature drops for the vessels,
and cons ider the total heating surrace of the set as a function or this variable, the variation
in heating surface in the neighbourhood of its minimum value is ve ry small and very sIow.
We undergo only a small error then in departing, even quite appreciably, from the cond itions
of minimum total surface.
It follows that the heating surfaces obtained by either of the two preceding methods should
be considered only as an indication . There is no great disadvantage in modifying them to an
extent which if necessary can be substantial, if other considerations make this desirable.
In parti cu lar, if thermo-compressio n is used, it is necessary to limit the uncorrected
temperature drop of the 1st vessel to a maximum of 5 - JOoe (lO - 20°F). The 1st vessel will
sometimes be increased in heating surface as a consequence, and the following vessels may
be decreased, but by a quantity which should obviously on the total be slightly less than the
quantity by which the 1st has been increased (since we have departed from the conditions
of minimum total heating surface).
In the case of a proposition fOI" a multiple effect with thermo-compressor, the scheme will'
then be as follows: the apparent temperature drop for the 1st vessel wiLI be fixed, for example
at 115 - I 100e (240 - 230°F), then the other 3 vessels (in the case of a quadruple) will be
treated as a triple effect operating between'l 10° and 55°e (230° and 131°F).
596 0 ,_ ' •
EY APORA T10f:! - Ch. 32
Mulliple effecl wllh equal vessels. Multiple effects were frequently found of which the dif-
fereilt vessels are identical. The British firms in particular often supplied these, probably
with the object of standardisation.
We may readily ascertain whether such an evaporator will operate under the conditions
of minimum heating surface. In effect, if such were the case, the application of formulae
such as (32.40) to (32.43) shows immediately that if:
s, = S, = SJ = S.
and if we take Ll.. as unity, we have
Ll.. = I
2 Ll.J SJ Ll..
= = Ll.J = -
Ll.. S. 2 2
2 Ll., S, I + ~ 3
= - Ll., = =
Ll. J + Ll.. S, + S. 2 2 x 2 8
2 Ll., S,
Ll.,
+ ,+
j
5
= = - =
Ll., + Ll. J + Ll. 4 S, + SJ + S. 3 2 x 3 16
The temperature drops Ll." Ll." Ll.J , Ll. 4 should then be respectively in the proportions:
5 3
- 1, or: 5:6:8:16
16 8 2
With a triple effect, we should evidently have found 6 : 8 : 16. For a quintuple, we should
have had 35 : 40 : 48 : 64 : 128 . .
Influence of inequality in the vessels. While multiple effects of equal vessels are still
encountered, cases are often found also where one of the ves seis is considerably smaller or
larger than the others.
To avoid complicating our exposition of the problem, we shall disregard the case of vapour
bleeding and base our calculations on a quadruple effect of 4 equal vessels. Starting with this
quadruple, it is of interest to study what would be the innuence on the total evaporation of
a decrease or an increase of a certain amount in one of the vessels.
Take for example a standard quadruple effect with 4 equal vessels (a) each of 500 m', the
total heating surface S being 2,000 m'. We wish to resolve the following two problems:
1st problem. By how much would t he evaporation obtained from this standard quadruple
be decreased if one of the vessels, the 3rd for example, is replaced by a vessel of 400 m' ¡.e.
if the surface SJ is decreased by 20 070, and in consequence the total surface S by 5070?
In other words, we should compare the evaporation obtained in the quadruple:
(b) S, = 500 m' S, = 500 m' S{ = 400 m' S. = 500 m' S' = 1,900 m'
with that obtained in the quadruple with 4 equal vessels (a) aboye .
•
MULT/PLE-EFFECT CALCULATIONS 597
In the same way, by how much would the evaporatian he increased if the 3rd vessel were
replaced by a much larger vesseI, of 1,000 m' for example? That is, if the surface S3 is in-
creased by 100070 and consequentl y the total surface S by 25%:
(e) S, = 500 m' S, = 500 m' Sí' = 1,000 m' S, = 500 m' S" = 2,500 m'
2nd problem. Would the increase or décrease of evaporation be the same whalever the
place in the set of lhe vessel which differs from the others? In other words, if we had lhe
choice between the quadruples (b) and (e) aboye, would it be better to place the vessel of 400
m' (or that of 1,000 m') as the fir st body or as the fourth bod y?
Th; case of "doubling", that is, of one vessel much larger and of a quadruple of the type
(e), arises·rather frequently, in particular when an evaporator set is enlarged while seeking
for reasons of economy to keep the purchases of new equipment to a minimum. In deciding
to use old material, there is oflen the possibility of doubling one of the vessels by putting
two of the old vessels in parallel.
Now many people hold erroneous ideas on these questions. lt is sometimes thought that
the capacity of a multiple effect is determined almost en tirely by the smallest vessel; and con-
versely, that "doubling " scarcely modifies the capacit y of the evaporator sel.
We shall solve the two problems at the same time. We shall assume that:
(1) The upper and lower limits of temperature remain the same in all cases, for example,
112° and 55 °C (234 ° and 131 °F). lt follows that the specific evaporation coefficient of lhe
1st vessel remains constant, since it depends only on the upper' limit of temperature (l12 ° C,
ef. eqn. (32 .31)).
(2) The scale of brix values does not change. This is the same as saying that the quadruple
effect receives the juice at the same brix Bo and concentrates it to the same bri x B" the in-
termediate brix values obviously remaining unchanged (ef. p. 562). This assumes that the rate
of working of the factory is adjusted so that in each case it correspond s to the capacity of
the multiple effect.
TABLE 32.31
EVAPORATlON OBTAlNED IN A QUADRUPLE EFFECT HAVTh'G 3 VESSELS OF EQUAL HIiATlNG SURFACE AND ONE OF A
DlFFERENT HEATINO SURFACE : RELATlVE TQ THAT OF A QUADRUPlE W ITH 4 VESSELS EACH IDENTICAl WTTH ONE OF
THE 3 EQUAL VESSElS
H.S.ol H.S. 01 quad. Evaporalion oblained' when odd

vessel is:
odd vessel 0/0 H.S. 01
0/0 H.S. 01 quad. 014 lsl 2nd 3rd 41h
each ololhers equal vessels
600/0 90 % 87.8 87.2 85.9 83.7

80% 95 % 95 94.7 94 .1 93
100% 100 % 100 100 100 100
150% 112.5% 107.8 · 108.3 109.5 111.6
200% 125 % IJ2.3 113. 2 115 .3 IJ9
'.
/
.;:t /
/.
..
e
110f----f--
.Q
7i
L
O
~ 100f-- - · , - + - - -
>
w
901----7';
90 . 100 , 110 120

Surt.ot Q. E. "lo surtace 01 O.E. with equal ves seIs
Fig.32.48. Evaporalion oblained in a quadruple effecl having Ihree vessels of equal area and one vessel of differenl
area.
" .'- :.- j
The eaJculation, earried out by Dessin'~ .formula, leads lO the result .w hieh we have jl-
lustrated by lhe graph in Fig. 32.48 and have summarised in Table 32.31. These graphs have
been eSlablished by plolting as ordinate lhe evaporation obtained in lhe quadruple effeel
sludied, which has I vessel of differenl surfaee from the olhers, this evaporalion being ex-
pressed as a pereenlage of that of lhe slandard quadruple effeel wilh 4 equal vessels whieh
would be formed if lhe different vessel were modified to the same healing surfaee as lhe olher
3. We have plotled as abscissa lhe lotal heating surfaee of the quadruple effeet studied,
similarly expressed as a percenlage of lhe heating surface of lhe standard quadruple.
Example. Suppose we have the quadruple effeel (e) aboye. Its total healing surfaee S"
is equal lo 125070 of lhe surfaee S of the slandard quadruple effeel wilh 4 equal vesseJs (a).
The evaporalion which il should give will be found from Fig. 32.48 al lhe 125 poinl on lhe
abscissa on the curve marked "3rd vessel", since il is lhe 3rd vessel which is non-uniformo
We find then on the ordinate 115.3; lhat is, although lhe surface of lhe quadruple under con-
sideralion is 125070 of lhe surface of the slandard quadruple wilh equal vessels, lhe evapora-
lion which il gives is only 115.3070 of lhe evaporalion of lhal slandard quadruple.
Comments. (1) We see lhal, if we have 1 vesseJ smaller lhan lhe olhers, it is of advanlage
thal it shou ld be No . 1 in the set (it must nol be forgotteo that we are discussing a quadruple
effect without vapour bleeding).
Conversely, if we have 1 vessellarger lhan the others, il is of advantage lhal lhi s should
be the la st one in lhe se!.
MULTIPLE-EFFECT CALCULAT10NS 599
(2) "Doubling" is not as much of a disadvantage as is sometimes imagincd (especially if

the vessel added costs nothing), since in doubling the last vessel, for exámple, we obtain a
gaín in evaporatíon of 19070, which represents more than ~ of the excess surface provided
(25%).
(3) We see from the graph that there is hardly any advantage in making the vessels of dif-
ferent size, for a quadruple effect wíthout vapour bleeding. In fact, if thescale of the graph
were greater, it would be seen that there is advantage in having a 1st vessel slightly smaller
and a 4th vessel slightly larger than the others. For a quadruple without vapour bleedíng the
most advantageous range of sizes would be 90, 100, 100, 110. This advantage, however, is
practically negligible: it is shown by the extent (imperceptible on the graph) by which the two
curves cross over, to the left and aboye the dotted straight line, in the neighbourhood of the
poínts of abscissa 97.5 (1st vessel) or 102.5 (4th vessel).
We see also that any differences on the low side for the 4th vessel, and on the high side
for the 3 previous vessels, beco me rapidly detrimental to the rate of evaporation.
(4) What we have just ascertained for a quadruple without vapour bleeding is applicable
to all quadruples, on condition that the standard quadruple with equal vessels is replaced by
a quadrupJe of the mínimum heating surface which will cope with the duty required. The dif-
ferences in heating surface aboye or below in relation to this optimum would ha ve an
anaJogous effect on the evaporation rate of the quadruple concerned.
In the same way, the concIusions just reached for the quadruple effect would also appJy
in the case of a triple or quíntuple effect, since the fan shape of four curves would be replaced
by another fan shape of 3 or of·5· curves dísposed in a fuJlyanaJogous manner.
Fig. 32.49. Quadrupte effect (Fives Cai! - Babcock).

(5) Equivalent surface. These graphs allow us to introduce the concept of "equivalent sur-
face" of a badly balanced multiple effect. We have just seen that a quadruple effect such
as (e) does not have a capacity equal to 1250/0 of that of (a). In fact, it is only:
115 .3 = 92.2%
125
of that of a weIJ-balanced quadruple effect of 2,500 m'. We may say that this badly balanced
quadrupleof 2,500 m' has a surface equivalent only 10:
2,500 x 0.922 = 2,305 m'
of that of a weIJ-balanced quadruple.

(6) If the quadruple effect has 2 non-uniform vessels, we may stilJ multipl y by each other
the 2 coefficients (.Iuch as 92.2% aboye) which each of these vessels 1V0uld give if it were the
only one not uniform with the others.
Checking performance of a muUiple effect

The performance of amultiple effect may be checked by noting the brix of the juice and of
the syrup and the vapour temperatures, and calculating from these the real specific evapora-
tion coefficients.
Example. A quadruple effect is to be checked. At the time the check is made, the folJowing
observations are made:
C ru shi ng rate of the factory 98 t.e.h.

Weight of clarified juiee per I.e. 960 kg/t.e. (2,150 Ib ./I.e.)
Temperal ure of clarified juice ente ring (he 1st vessel 96°C (205°F)
Brix of clarified juice 14
arix of syr up 56
Vapour bled from 1st vessel 10,000 kg/h (22,400 Ib./h)
Vapour bled from 2nd vessel 5,000 kg/h (11,200 Ib./h)
Healing sur/ace Temperalures nOled

(m') (sqJI.) (oC) (0F) \.
----------------------------------------------------------- ,
Sleam 1/5 240
1st vessel 1,000 10,750 1st vessel /05 221
2nd vessel 700 7,525 2nd vessel 94 201
3rd vessel 600 6,450 3rd vesse l 81 178
4th vesset 550 5,925 4th vessel 54 129
Performance check, (a) Calel/lalion 01 evaporalion. The work of the quadrupl e is given
by:
Weight of juice = 98 x 960 = 94,080 kg/h (210,700 Ib ./h)
E = 94,080 (1 - !:) = 70,560 kg/h (158,000 Ib .lh)

MULTIPLE-EFFECT CALCULATIONS
(b) Allowaneefor juiee hea/ing in 1st vessel. The 1st vessel has to hea t the juice by about
looe (106° - 96°). This heating corresponds to the immobilisation of a portio n s , of the
heating surface (eqn. (32.51»:
S, = 0.1 x 94.08 (106 - 96)= 94 m' (1,016 sq.fL)
We shall therefore consider the 1st vessel exactly as if it were a vessel o f heating surface
1,000-94 = 906 m' (9,734 sq.fL) receiving juice at its boiling poinL
(e) Calcula/ion Óf the individual evaporations. We have (ef. p. 589):
\ 4x + 2 (5,000) + 10 ,000 = 70,560
hence:
x = 70,560 - 10,000 -
----------~---------
4
10,000
12,640 kg/ h (28,300 Ib. / h)
thus:
Evaporatíon from the 4th vessel 12,640 = 12,600 kg/ h

. Evaporatíon from the 3rd vessel = 12,640 12,600kg/h .
Evaporation froro the 2nd vessel = 12,640 + 5,000 17,640 kg/h
Evaporation froro the 1st vessel = 17,640 + 10,000 27,640 kg/ h
70,560 kg/ h (158,000 Ib. / h)
(d) Calcula/ion of brix figureS. The brix of the juice leaving and ·the average brix values
of the juice in the various vessels are:
Average brix
Entering 1st vessel: Bo 14 14
b , = 16.9
94,080
Leaving 1st vessel: B, 14 X :....: 19.8
94,080 - 27,640
b, = 23.4
94,080
Leaving 2nd vessel: B, = 14 x = 27
66,440 - 17,640
b) = 31.7
94,080
Leaving 3rd vessel: B) = 14 X 36.4
48 ,800 - 12,640
b. = 46.2
94,080
Leaving 4th vesse1: B. 14 X 56
36,160 - 12,640
602 EVAPORAT~O~ Ch. 32
(e) Ca/cufa/ion 01 ne/ /empera/ure drops. We calculate the boiling-point elevation in the
vessels as indicated on pp. 497 - 501, a nd thu s deduce the net temperature drops as shown
below:
Healing d Vapour Nel lemp . drop

vapour from juice
(OC) (0F) (OC) (0F) (OC) (0F) (OC) (0F)
1st vessel . 115 240 1.0 1.8 105 221 9 17.2

2nd vesse l 105 221 l.5 2.7 94 201 9.5 17.3
3id vessel 94 201 2 4.5 81 178 10.5 18.5
4th vesse l 81 178 5.7 10 .3 54 129 21.3 38.7
(f) Checking (he work 01 /he severaf ellec/s. In each vessel we have:
(100 - b) (T - 130) SI::.) ,

q = csl::. = 1(l00~ b) (T - 54) SI::.
( q = es 1::. =, 1---.,-::-7-=-::--- -
16,000
where lis a factor lo be applied in the Dessin formula (32.31).

From this we deduce:
q, 16,OOOq)
1= (100 -b)(T - 54) SI::. . (I = (100 - b) (T - 130) SI::.
We then have:
27,640
151 vessel: 1, ( 100:c--
- -,1C6":' :9'¡- (-11-5 - -- 54) -90-6 ;(-9-
0.00067 (0.65)
17,640
2nd vesseI: ¡, ~o:----=-=~--=-=c-c----:c...,,--::-:-:--~ = 0.00068 (O. 7O)
(100 - 23.4) (105 - 54) 700 x 9.5
'.
12 ,640
3rd vessel: 13 = O 00073 (0.78)
(lOO - 31.7) ( 94 - 54) 600 x 10.5
12,640
41h vessel: 14 = -;-;-;:;:__--;-:;-;:c:---;:;-:--~-;-::c;:__--=-;_::_ = 0,00074 (O. 75)
(100 - 46.2) ( 8 1 - 54) 550 x 21.3
and we can lhu s deduce lhat ou r quadruple is ope rating at aboul 70"10 of the rate for good
normal co nditions, as expressed by the coefficie nt 0.001 (divisor 16,000); but all vessels s ho\\'
similar figures, no one vessel presents an anomaly. !l is probable tilat scale alone is 10 blame,
and that ilS severilY decreases sl ightly from the first to lhe laSI lwo vessels.
Frequenlly il is found lhal one of the vessels is operating less effectively than th e olhers,
and ¡he cause will then be soughl: scale incompletel y removed, defective cleaning, leaks,
blockage of a vapour pipe, juice pipe, water or incondensable-gas pipe, elC.
Jnslallalion oC a Ihermo-compressor
There are certain conditions to be realised when a thermo-compressor is installed. The more
importan! are the following:
(1) The weight y of vapour aspirated is limited to a certain maximum
(2) The weight x of vapour passing from the last vessel to the condenser, on the contrary,
cannot be decreased below a certain minimum.
First condition. Maximum weight oi vapour aspirated. Thermo·compression in vol ves a

saving in steam. This saving is of value insofar as it decreases the make-up steam to be sup-
plied by the boilers ro manufacture. However, as soon as one has been successful in reducing
this make-up to zero, there is no further advantage in increasing the thermo-compression;
the consumption of steam would fall below (he quantity of exhaust steam produced, and ir
would be necessary,LQallow steam to escape through the roof by the safety valve. Thus the
heat saved in the exhaust steam would be lost in the live steam together with loss of actual
steam and intermediate heat losses.
There is therefore a maximum economy to be realised by thermo-compression; a means
of regulating the thermo-compression should be installed such that the consumption of ex-
haust steam should always be equal to or slightly greater than the production.
Now the production of exhaust steam corresponds to the quantity furnished by the turbo
set or the engines, decreased by losses due to condensation, leaks, etc. Say: M.
The consumption of exhaust steam, Q, is represented by the 3 quantities: steam supplied
to the 1st vessel of the evaporators, to the pans, and to the juice heaters. Let:
Q = q' + e + R (32.52)
.Q total weight of exhaust steam

, q' weight of exhaust stearn supplied to the 1st vessel of the mulliple effect
e = weight of exhaust steam used at the pans
R = weight of exhaust steam used at the heaters.
It is necessary that:
q' + e + R ;;. M . (32.53)
T.e. P1 x
q
q' ----tllililll~lllJ
.",,'
Fig. 32.50. Maximum thermo-compression.

604 EV APO.RI¡ TiON Ch. 32
or:
q' ;;;. M - e- R (32.54)
Thi s quantity M - e - R is known or is readily calculated.

On the other hand, eqn. (32.20) (p. 566) applied 10 the case of a multiple effect with
thermo-compressiol1 (Fig. 32.50) shows that the total evaporation E has a value:
E = nx + P, + 2 P, + 3 P l + p.q (32.55)
and eq uating the weight of heating steam 10 the weight of vapour produced, in the 1st vessel,
we hu ye:
q + ¡¡.q + q' = ¡¡.q + P, + P, + P 1 + X
or:
q + q' = x + P, + P, + P l (32.56)
Elimi nat ing x by taking its value from eqn. (32.55) and substituting in (32.56), we have:
. E + (n - 1) P, + (n - 2) P, + (n - 3) Pl ~ .
q' = - q (32.57)
. n n
Substituting this va lue in eqn. (32.54), and solving for q. we find:
1
q ,¡¡:; - - [E
n + ¡¡.
+ (n - 1) P, + (n - 2) P, + (n - 3) P 1 - n (M -
___ -
e- R)] (32.58)
which may also be written:
y ,¡¡:; - " - [E + (n - 1) P, + (n - 2) P, + (n - 3) Pl - n (M -
n + ¡¡. .
e- R)] (32.59)
y = ¡¡.q = weight of vapour entrai ned by the thermo-compressor.
Effecl on heal balance. lt is interesting to study the inequality (32.58). It gives the quantity
of s team which can be used for thermo-compression in a typical faclOry, but it also indicates
under what conditions there is a risk of having an excess of exhaust steam. There is an excess
of exhaust from the moment when the second member of the expression vanishes or becomes
negative. At that moment, the·thermo-compression ceases to be of any value:
E + (n - 1) PI + (n - 2) P 2 + (n - 3) PJ = n (M - e - R) (32.60)
It must be kept in mind that, if there is vapour bleeding to the vacuum pans, it is necessary
lO add lO the quantities PI, P 2 , PJ used for juice heating, the vapour bled to the pans, Pi
and Pi. In a new factory, or one where the evaporators have been modernised, it is possible
to arrange for al! juice heating by vapour bleeding: lhus R = O. Jt would also be possible
ro boil al! lhe pans on vapour from lhe firsl or even Ihe second vessel, and Ihus e
= O. The
exhausl sleam available wil! be reduced in Ihis case 10 lhe lerm M. Lel us see what happens
then lo these three terms.
R. As far as juice hcating is concerned, it may be commcnted that for a given faclOry, heat
requirements are practically fixed. Neglecting Ihe few degrees of cooling of the juice before
heating, these requirements are limited to a total, per tonne of juice and thus approximately
per Lc., of:
1000 X 0.9 (105 - 30) = 132 kg/h (295 lb./h) of steam (32.61)
540 X 0.95
PI is generally of the order of 20 - 35, P 2 30 - 40, and PJ 60 kg/h. If PJ = O, P 2 approaches

c10se to 100 kg/h. The 3 terms (n - 1) PI + (n - 2) P 2 + (n - 3) PJ make a total of the
order of:
(a) 180 kg/h (400 Ib./h) for quadruple effect with bleeding from 2. effects
(b) 214 kg/h (480 Ib./h) for quadruple effect with bleeding from 3 effects
(e) 337 kg/h (755 lb./h) for quintuple effect with bleeding from 3 effects
C. As for the pans, their vap0l!r consumption is close to:
(a) 120 kg/h (270 lb./h) for continuous pans on A, B and e massecuite
(b) 136 kg/h (305 Ib./h) for continuous pans on B and e, and tJatch pans for A massecuite
(e) 148 kg/h (332 lb./h) for batch pans on all massecuites
With bleeding for example from the first vessel of a quadruple, the 136 kg/h would give:
(n - 1) Pi = 3 X 136 = 403 kg/h (915 lb./h)
. M. Machines driven by steamturbine wil! consume:
(a) Shredder: lf it is of typical power: 2.25 kW /Lc.h. X 15 kg/kWh = 34 kg/h (75 Ib./h).
lf it is a high-power machine: 5 kW/Lc.h. X 15 kg/kWh = 75 kg/h (165 lb./h) of steam.
(b) Milis: For 5 milIs each taking 1.75 kW/LC.h.: 8.75 X 15 kg/kWh = 130 kg/h (290
lb./h). For 6 mil!s each at 2 kW/LC.h.: 12 X 15 = 180 kg/h (400 Ib./h) of steam.
The turbo-alternators at the powerhouse, supplying al! the electric motors of the boiling
house and rhe knives, consume approximately 18 kW /Lc.h. (24 h.p./Lc.h.) at II kg steam
606 EYAPORATION Ch. 32
per kWh, or 200 kg/ h (450 lb./h) of steam.

Hence we should ha ve, if all requirements are supplied by vapour bleeding, for example:
(a) Sleam consumplion: 800 + 214 + 408 1,422 kg/ h (3,140 Ib./h) (quadruple)
800 + 337 + 408 = 1,545 kg/ h (3,400 Ib. / h) (quintuple)
(b) Sleam produclion: 34 + 130 + 200 = 364 kg/h, leaving 350 kg/h (784 lb./h) of ex-
haust steam (M.P.)
75 + 180 + 200 = 455 kg/ h, leaving 440 kg/ h (985 Ib./h) of ex-
haust steam (H.P.)
Now: 4 x 350 = 1,400 kg/ h (3,136 Ib/ h) and 5 x 440 = 2,200 ·kg / h. lt will be seen that
in the latler case we arrive at a very high excess of 'exhaust steam. In other words, factories
so well advanced in steam eco nomy have no interest in pushing the vapour bleeding for pans
to the full extent possible, as this would only serve to cap the factory with a plume of escaping
steam - a useless and expensive procedure. Thus thermo-compress ion is of no further in-,
terest to them.
Second condition. Minimum work ollhe lasl vessel. The condition (32.59) fixes a max-
imum duty for the thermo-compressor and for the 1st vesseJ. However, this involves a condi-
tion of minimum duty for the latter vessels.
In practice, E, P" P, and P, are generally known and in any case eqn. (32.55) shows that,
for the maximum imposed on q by (32.58), there corresponds a minimum for x.
To ascertain this value, we take the value of q from eqn. (32.55) and substitute it in (32.58).
We then have:
x;¡' _ 1_ [E - P, .:. 2P, - 3P, - 11 (P, + P, + P,) + 11 (M - e - R)] (32.62)

n + 11
Variation in steam consumplion with thermo-compression. Equation (32.57) may be writ-

ten:
(n + 11) q + nq' = E + (n - 1) P, + (n - 2) P2 + (n - 3) P,
or:
(n + 11) q + nq' = constant (32.63)
When the regulator of ¡he thermo-compressor comes into action and opens or closes t he
admission of actuating steam, the res pective weights of high-pressure actuating steam (q) and
of exhaust steam entering Ihe I SI vessel (q ' ) shou ld vary relatively according to eqn. (32.63).
Example. If: n = 4 (quadruple effect) and 11 = 2, we shall llave:
3q + 2q' = constant
MULTIPLE-EFFECT CALCULATlONS
.
607
In ot her words : when the thermo-compressor absorbs an addi tional 2 kg of high-pressure

actuating s team , the 1st vessel or the evaporators consumes 3 kg less of exhaust steam.
1\ is mainl y the variations in steam consumplion of the pans U.e. of the term e in the ex-
pression M - e - R) which cause the most important and the most abrupt changes in the
regulalor of the thermo-compressor, and in its outpu!.
Regulator. Regulation of the output of the thermo-compressor according lo the available

exhaust stealll is oblained by separa ling the thcrmo-compressor inlO seve ral separate nozzles
which are opened in turn by .a regulat or actuated by the exhaust-steam pressure.
For example; 3 nozzles would be chosen with respective outputs J, 2 and 4, and the
regulator would then open in succession:
Nozz/e Re/alive OUlpUl
I
2 2
I and 2 together 3
4 4
I and 4 together 5
2 and 4 together 6
1, 2 and 4 together 7
Vopour frorn
- - evoporolor
Electricol Signal
controller board
~steam
--------------~I
-
Vapaur delivery
Fig. 32 .51. Regufator with three nozz les.

608 EYAPORATION. ; ,. Ch. 32
In this way the quantity of actuating steam (or of aspirated vapour) may be divided into
7 steps, permitting the regulator to foIlow f1exibly the conditions determined by the
availability of exhaust steam (Fig. 32.51).
StiIl greater flexibility may be obtained by instaIling 4 nozzles of outputs 1, 2, 4 and 8,
respectively, giving aIl combinations from I to 15.
This method maintains the idea of having each nozzle work al its fui! rale, since Ihe effi-
ciency of a nozzle falls very quickly when it works at arate differing from that for which
it has been designed.
Combination 7 (1st case) or 15 (2nd case) is opened when the exhaust-steam pressure tends
to faIl very low. In proportion as it rises, the regulator closes in succession combinations 7,
6,5, ... , and finally closes nozzle No. 1. If the exhausl-steam pressure continues lo rise, the
safety valve on the exhausl main will then discharge through lhe roof.
The designers have succeeded in giving Ihese regulalors such a sensitivity Ihal all the steps
of oulpul from lhe opening of combinalion 7 lo lhe closing of nozzle l may be obtained
wilhin a pressure difference of ± 0.025 kg/cm' (± 0.35 p.s.i.) from Ihe value chosen.
EY APORA TOR OPERA nON
Capacity of evaporators
Table 32.32 gives figures for ¡he practical capacily of mulliple effects, taken from summaries
embodying all factories of a given country. They are given in m' (sq. fL) IOtal heating surface
per l.c.h.
TABLE 32.32
INSTALLED CAPACITY OF MULTIPLE EFFECTS IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES
Average
Counlry n Min. Max. (m'/I.c.h.) (sqJI.II.c.h.)
South Arriea Triple 17.3 28 25.5 275

Quadruple 25.7 54 31.4 338
Quintuple 30.9 41.9 36 388
Puerto Rico Triple 13.7 17. l 15.7 169
Quadruple t3.9 33 23.8 256
Quintuple 15.8 37 26.5 285
Cuba Triple 20 215
Quadruple 25 269
Quintuple 30 323
Louisiana Triple 18 t94
Quadruple 23 248
Quintuple 33 355
We give the lowest value slated, the highest 71 , and the general average or the standard value
accepted in the country72, 7).
•
EVAPORA TOR OPERATION 609
The capacity of a multiple effect depends very largely on the back-pressure. Estimated
values for a normal vacuum of 64 cm (25 in.) of mercury, with various values on back-
pressure, are given in Table 32.33.
TABLE 32.33
MEAN HEATING SURFACE ro BE PROVIDED IN MUlTIPLE EFFECTS, IN m2 /t.c.h. (sq.fl .lt.c.h.)
Baek pressure, in kg l em (p.s.i .) 0.5 ( 7) 1.0(14) 1.5 ( 21)

'
Sream remperalure To• in "C ("F) 111 (232) 120 (248) 127 (260)
Triple effee. 20 (215) 17 (180) t6 (170)

Quadruple effec. 28 (300) 24 (260) 22 (235)
Quinluplc encet 36 (390) 31 (335) 28 (300)
Distribution of healing surface between vessels

Basing our considerations on a typical quadruple effect, with extreme pressure of I kg/cm'
(120·e), we indicate below the normal vapour bleeding which could be envisaged, also the
corresponding evaporation rates for each vessel:
TABLE 32.34
Elleel Vapour lrom juiee o True e Evap. H.S. Vapour bleeding

no. Pre.{j.{j, Temp. ("C) (H (kg/l.c.) (m'
Il.c.h.) Pans Healers
(kglh)
(kgl h) T - I H.S. (m')
, l . 500 g III 1.5· . 7.5" 5.5 370 10 140 28 105 - 90 1.8

2 O 100 2" 9· 4.4 200 6 36 90-70 J.5
3 -33 cm 85 3.5 0 11.5" 3 160 5 70 70-30 2
4 -61 cm 55 7" 23" 1.4 90 4
820 25 . 140 134
We may reckon approximately on the following dislribulion of total heating surface between
Ihe vessels (per Lc. h.):
Quadruple Quinlup1e
Bleeding Irom: . 151, 2nd elleels 151, 2nd, 3rd elleels 151, 2nd, 3rd elleels
(mI) (sqJI') (mI) (sq.fl.) (m') (sq.fl.)
ISI effect 10 110 10 110 10 110

2nd effec. 6 66 6. 66 7 77
3rd effect 4 44 5 55 6 66
4th effect 5 5~ ., 4 44 4 44
. 5lh effeel 5 55
25 275 25 275 32 352
FIQW Qf juice Qr syrup fQr each lube. When Ihe calculation of a mulliple effecl has been
compleled with the dimensions of ves seis and their tubes, and lhe number of tubes, it is ad-
visable to verify lhe f10w of juice or syrup for each tube. GeneraHy, for regular operalion,
it is necessary to mainlain 40 kg/ h (90 Ib./h) of juice or syrup per tube, calculated on Ihe
quantity entering the vessel. This rate is easily altained for Ihe firsl vessel, bUI nOI for Ihe
laler ones. Where il is nOI reached, il is necessary 10 provide for recycling juice belween lhe
oUllet and the inlet of Ihe vessel, in order to assure complele welling of Ihe lubes and
avoiding periods of operation wilh partly dry lubes at times 01' low juice f1ow. The rale of
40 kg/h/tube is considúed as oplimal, and lhe recycling pump is calculated on this quanlilY.
CQntrol Qf the mulliple effects

During lhe period when the multiple effecls required a special operalor (generall y known ~s
lhe effect boiler) responsible for Ihe conlrol of lhe stalion, Ihe lhree principal poinl s 10 which
he had 10 pay allenlion were:
(a) The juice level in lhe vessels (ef. p. 533)
(b) The incondensable gases (ef. p. 528)
(e) Brix of lhe syrup (ef. p. 535)
Today, levels and brix are controHed by automalic regulalors and there remain only the
incondensable-gas valves to be opened 10 a sufficienl and nOI excessive exlent.
Where lhe evapOralors are of ample capacilY, lhe brix of syrup may be regulaled eilher
by means of Ihe Sleam admission valve 10 Ihe fir sl effecl, or by regulaling lhe vacuum at Ihe
last effecl. The laller process is preferable as il aHows lhe vapour temperatures of the various
effecls 10 be increased in lurn, each one influencing lhe preceding, and Ihus enables a beller
efficiency to be obtained from lhe vapour bleeding and Ihus from juice heaters, pans and
from lhe mulliple effects lhemselves.
Where a special healer-condenser is inslalled for Ihe mulliple effecls, il is similarly of ad-
vanlage 10 place Ihe vacuum conlrol 01' Ihe mulliple effecls <tfler Ihe healer-condenser, so Ihal
Ihe lalter muy benefit by Ihe arrangelllent.
Maximum vacuum. We have already seen (p. 541) lhat il is advantageous not to exceed
a cerlain vacuum, in order 10 avoid enlrainment. Furlhermore, when Ihe vacuum is high, Ihe
syrup lemperalure faHs in consequence. JI was considered in Java Ihal Ihe minimum
lemperalure acceptable for Ihe syrup al enlry 10 lhe pans was 60°C (140°F). BelolV Ihis, false
grain is liable 10 form al each charge of syrllp, ami in order 10 avoid Ihi s disadvanlage, il
would be necessary 10 re-heal Ihe syrup; Ihis would be Iroublesome.
Now 60°C (140°F) in Ihe syrup corrcsponds 10 approximalely 55°C (131°F) for ils vapour,
say 64 cm (25 in.) vacuum, and we should also take inlo accounl Ihe cooling of. lhe syrup
in Ihe slorage tanks. 11 would be of advantage to lag Ihese carefully.
When Ihe equipmenl perlllils Ihe evaporators and Ihe pans 10 be operaled al dillerenl
vacua, Ihe same consideralion shoulcJ lead lo operaling Ihe evaporalors al a lowcr vaCIlUnl
Ihan Ihe pans. This allows Ihe syrup 10 leave Ihe mulliple effecls at ahigher lemperalure Ihan
Ihat ruling in the vacuum pans, and consequently, allowing for a certain unavoidable cooling
and for lhe boiling-poinl elevalion of Ihe massecuite, greater Ihan lhal of the syrup, allows
Ihe syrup to en ter lhe pans at a temperalure subslanlially equal to Ihat of the boiling
massecuiles.
EVAPORATOR OPERA TI ON 611
Leaks. 1t happen s sometimes lh a l lhe vacuum does not hold, allhough all visible leaks have
been stopped. It is possible then (hal lhe casI iron of lh e vessels or lhe vacu un¡ piping may
be porous.
In this case lhe best procedure is to run the vacuum pum[J lo eSlablish a certain vacuum,
a nd then to pailH the whoJe inSlallalion with a thick paint. Thepainl will penetrate into the
pores of the melal, and \ViII seal them as it dries.
LOCOlillg /eoks. When the vacuum does not hold, a search will be made for leakages. For
Ihis purpose, c10se aIl Ihe cocks, valves, etc. , of juice, condensa te, incondensable gases,
vacuum, ele. and eSlablish a vacuum.
If lhis does not reach 68.5 cm (27 in.), lhe leak is located in the vacuum piping.
1f the vacuum atlains 68.5 cm, lhe vacuum valve lO the lasl vessel will lhen be opened. If
the vacuum here is almost as high, then the incondensable-gas valve from the last vessel will
be opened, \Vhich \ViII put the third vessel under vacuum. This is con tinu ed with al! vessels
in turn, unlil a more or less rapid fall in vacuum discloses lhe vessel al faull.
Aljs considered that a vessel is su fficienll y free from leaks when, after raising vacuum for
Ihe lesl to 63.5 cm (25 in.), it does not fall more (han 13 mm (j- in.) in a quarter of an hour.
Puriry ri5e during evaporarion. Nearly always a rise in purity of juice is detecled in the
course of evaporalion. In Java l11i5 purity rise has been found approximately equal lO lhe
following values:
Defecation factories: 0.8

Sulphilalion faclories: 0.9
Carbonatation faclories: 0.4
According lO Marches", lhe causes of this rise are lhe following :
(1) True purity rise. A certain elimination of non-sugars occurs during Ihe evaporation ow-
ing to:
(a) Gases, CO" NH 3 and glyoxal, which escape wilh Ihe vapour. This corresponds to a
purity rise of approximately 0.03.
(b) Materials in solution which deposit on the tu bes. This corresponds lO a rise of aboul
0.04, or 0.1 at most.
(2) Apporenl purily rise. On the olher hand:

(a) A transl"ormalion of reducing sugars occurs, which shows up as a decrease in their
rotalory power. Hen ce an apparent purily rise s lightl y greater lhan Ihe Iwo preceding ones.
Ihis increase is greater when Ihe temperature is higher. 1t is grealer with a pre-evaporator
or evaporation under pressure than in an ordinary evaporalor.
(b) In Ihe laboralo ry, Ihe syrup is diluted for analysis, while Ihe juice is not. Ihis causes
an error in Ih" brix and the polarisation, due to Ihe concentratioli, and leads 10 an apparent
purity rise which is difficult to evaluate.·'
~ .. ~
Possible causes of unsatisfactory operalion of a multiple effect

When a multiple effect is not giving the results which could be expected of it, it is necessary
to seek the cause or causes of this poor operalion.
This cause could be common to all vessels, or peculiar to one vessel. In the laller case it
is sometimes difficult to ¡ocate il. There would be no queslion of allempling to do this by
a measure or an estimation of the quantity of vapour given off (or of the corresponding con-
densate), since bad work at one vessel influences the others and since, in a quadruple without
vapour bleeding, for 'example, the quantities of water evaporated in each of the 4 vessels
would in all cases be approximately equal.
On the contrary, the object will be to find out what temperature drop each vessel requires
in order to furnish, with the available heating surface, the evaporation which it is giving. For
this the method of checking already described (p. 600) wiJl be employed. But it is stiJl possible
to reach a negative result , according to the real cause of the trouble. For example, if it is
a case of a leak in the bottom of a calandria, the calculation will not give any condusion:
it would be necessary, in this case, to be able to determine the brix of the juice leaving each
vessel, and to compare it with thar which normal operation should give. Unfortunately there
is generally no means of obtaining a sample of the juice leaving the various vessels, except
the last one.
The following are several possible causes of faulty operation:
(a) Excessive deposits of scale in one or several vessels. Insufficient cleaning, leaving a
hard layer sometimes difficult to detect (ef. the case mentioned in the second paragraph
under Distribution 01 seale on p. 547).
(b) Layer of grease 011 the exterior of the tubes of the 1st vessel. 111 addirion to the melhods
which we have discussed for removing this during the slack season (ef. p. 546), Selman and
Plomley" give a method applicable during the operation of the equipment: ¡nject into the
steam reachi"ng the first calandria about 150 I (30 gal.) of kerosene, in the ratio of 2.5 -5
I/min (0.5 - 1 gal./min), by means of a hand pump. Care must be taken during this opera-
tion, to discard the condensate from this calandria.
(e) A lea k at the top or particularly at the base of a tube or of a calandria. To locate this,
try the several vessels under water pressure, taking advantage of the weekend shutdown.
(d) Blockage or poor location, or ins ufficient opening, of the incondensable-gas with-
drawal pipes.
(e) Entrance of air into a vapour pipe, a vessel or a calandria.
(/) Blockage of a connecting juice pipe by a foreign body.
(g) J uice level too far from the optimum (ef. p. 533). This fault is particularly serious in
the last two vessels.-
SPECJAL MULTlPLE EFFECTS
In addition to the standard type, which provides by far the great majority of multiple effects,
there exist s a multitude of types of evaporator body, but generally they are of restricted in-
terest only. The only special type which is fairly interesting and widespread is the Kestner.
SPECIAL MULTIPLE EFFECTS 613
Keslner evaporalor-
This mode! was designed at the beginning of the 20th century by the French engineer Paul
Kestner. JI is based on the principie of lhe "climbing film": when a liquid is heated in a very
long vertical tube, the vapour bubbles which form at lhe base of lhe tube increase in size as
they rise, and their diameter rapidly allains that of the lube. From then on, the upper part
of the tube is traversed only by, first, a chain of bubbles, then a film of juice, against the
tube, entrained by the friction of the upward current of vapour. The transmission of heat
is thus favoured by:
(1) The decrease in the mean distance between the particJes of liquid and the heating sur-
face
(2) The very high velocity of the liquid.
Length of lubes. Kestner evaporators generally have tubes 7 m (23 fl.) in lenglh. However,
Claassen" has shown lhal the coefficient of heat transfer of a Kestner passed through a max-
imum with a lube length of 4.9 m (16 ft.) (The diameter of the tubes concerned is nOI stated.)
Diameter of lubes. The tubes ha ve diameters varying from 27 to 38 mm (l - 1j in.). In

general, a certain relationship is maintained between the diameter and length of the tubes,
lhe tube length being greater as the diameter increases (this is ¡he opposite of what is done
in ordinary evaporators, cf. p. 51l), so as to obtain the c1imbing-fiJm effect which here is
indispensable. _~
Juice level. The Kestner principie, by realisation of the climbing film, permits of a decrease
of the hydrostatic pressure which would be caused by the greater length of the tubes. ln ef-
feét, the bubbles, when they occupy the full diameter of the tube, break the continuity of
the liquid column, in such a way tha l the ordinary hydrostatic law is not applicable. The
pressure which this column exerts at the bottom corresponds to a column partly liquid, partly
gas', and much lighter than a continuous liquid colurnr. in which smallbubbles do not affect
the pressure. Further, the climbing film produces, frum thefriction of the vapour with the
film of juice, a negative dynamic effect, just as a liquid which is flowing in the opposite direc-
tion towards Ihe bottom would produce on the liquid al Ihe bottom a posilive dynamic effecl
which would be added lO the sta tic pressure.
Jt follows that Ihe oplimum /evel of juice in a Kestner corresponds to a liquid column of
height equal 10 about 20070 of the /ength of the tubes, instead of 30 or 35% in ordinary
evaporators.
Vapour separator. A Kestner evaporalor may be arranged in two different ways, from the
poinl ofview circulation of vapour andjuice. There is Ihe ordinary arrangement (Fig. 32.52),
most frequent in the beet industry, and the arrangement with an independent tangential
separator (Fig. 32.53), which is recommended in the cane sugar factory.
The separator, in the /atter case, is located between IWO successive vessels, and s/ightly
lowards the rear. -It is sometimes rather difficult to find space for il.
Conditions for good performance. The theoretical advantage of the climbing film is not
generally realised in practice with the Kesrner. When a Kestner instal/ation is designed, the
614 EVAPORATIO~ • Ch. 32
1;
.,.v~+-
Vopour
Vapour
Vopour
.. :
Juice
Juice
Fig. 32.52. Keslner evaporalor . Fig. 32.53. Kestner with independent langential separator.
.lame heat-transfer coefficients are used as for ordinary vessels. The difference, if Ihere is
one, is very slight.
On the other hand, Ihe Kestner is very exacting from certain points 01' view. The climbing
film aClually exists only on condition Ihal the juice is boiling. lf it arrives in Ihe vessel al a
temperature appreciably lower than its boiling temperature, it muSI be heated up 10 rhar
temperature. It is necessary then that a certain portion 01' the heating surface should serve
as a heater. Now in Ihe Kestner the juice traverses the tubes only once, as il rises; and lhe
heat lransfer is much worse in the fraclion 01' lhe lube which works under submerged condi-
lions and performs the juice healing, Ihan in Ihe portion which works as an evaporalor,
where lhe liquid is c1imbing. The fraction functioning as a healer Ihus corresponds 10 lhe
submerged portion of the tubes, since a c1imbing film cannOI exist lhere. It is obviously
desirable thal lhis fraction be as short as possible.
It follows that a KeSlner wi// no/ june/ion sa/isjae/ori/y un/ess i/ reeeives JI/ice very close
/0 i/s boi/ing poin/. Thi.'\ is Ihe poinl in which Ihe Kcslner is inferior 10 ordinary evaporalOrs
which, Ihemselves, are very well suiled for healing Iheellleringjuice as well as evaporaling il.
EVAPORATlON UNDER PRESSURE 615
Since it is especi ally as a fir st vessel that Kestner evaporators are installed, Ihis point is im-
pOrlant. A Kestner will only be insta lled as a first effect on condilion that il is fed with juice
at a temperalure within 3°C (9°F) of the boiling point of lhe juice in thal vessel. Preferably
lhe juice would be passed lhrough a healer using exhaust steam before lhe Keslner, so as 10
raise lhe juice 10 a temperalure equal 10 or higher than that of lhe juice in the vessel.
Application of Kestner. The juice forms a c1imbing film only when ir. is light; a thick and
viscous syrup c1imbs badly. In the same way, steam at high temperature causes a more violent
ebullition than vapour under vacuum. It is for these two reasons that the tendenc y is to
employ the Kestner rather as a I sI vessel than as a complete multiple effect. However, triple-
and even quadruple-effect Kestners are sometimes found.
Advantages and disadvantages. (a) Advanlages. The Keslner takes up less f100r space. The
juice passes through it very rapid ly, in about 30 s, and this reduces ri sks of inversion and
colorat ion when working al high pressure and temperature. 1f it is functioning well, scale for-
malion is much slower, and we know of one factory possessing a Kestner first effect, very
generously designed, which is never c1eaned either with mechanical c1eaners or wilh aciddur-
ing lhe whole crushing season. Cleaning is carried out only in the slack season. This is a great
advantage, which unfonunately is impossible to guaranlee beforehand.
(b) Disadvantages. On the other hand, the Kestner requires high head room, and it is.rarely
that it can be installed in a building served by a travelling crane without obs lructing the
passage of the crane. lf it is provided with an independent separator, il takes up more space
in the horizonta l plane. It requires hot juice or a supplementary heater.
011 accounl of the very brief transit time of lhe juice, a Kestner multiple effect cannot be
employed lo s tore lhe juice, as is often done with ordinary multiple effects, in order to
sinooth out f1uctuations between c1arification and lhe pan slage; on the contrary, it requires
a slOrage tank capable of holding a subslantial quantity of c!arified juice.
Summary. In short, the Kestrier will be employed for preference, either as a 1st effect, or
in a triple effect under pressure, on a very c1ean juice which has been well heated.
EVA.l'ORATlON UNDER PRESSURE .
We have seen (p. 567) that the steam economy of an evaporator set depended on the possibili-
ty of bleeding vapour from the vessels further on in the se!. But at the same time, we conclud-
ed that the lalter, in ordinary multiple effects, offered only slight possibilities of vapour
bleeding, s ince the vapour which they furnish was at low temperature, and had little value
and littJe appli catio n.
Consideration has be en given to raising the lower limit of the temperature range of a multi-
pie effecl in such a way that the vapour from the last vessel would be at a temperature suffi-
cient to play its full part in the principal heating applications in the factory.
At the same time it has been necessary t'o raise the upper limit of the range of temperatures,
616 .. EVAPORATION' •. : •. ' Ch. 32
otherwise the overall temperature drop available would not be sufficient to permit ¡he in-
stallatiOn of a multiple effect.
On the olher hand, the total temperature drop becomes seriously reduced, and il is general-
Iy necessary lo limit the installation to a triple effect.
FiiJally, the mosl frequent solution of a multiple effect under pressure i; a triple effect
functioning between 135 - 140° and 100 - 105°C (275 - 285° and 212 - 220°F).
Table 32.35 gives several values for temperatures and heat-transfer coefficients obtained
with a triple effect functioning under these conditions:
Ll. = net temperature drop in the vessel, in oC (OF) (total drop = 28.5°C)
r = lalent heat of vaporisation, in kcal/kg (B.T.U./lb.)
K = heat-transfer coefficient in the vessel, in kcal/m 2¡OC/h (B.T.U./sq.ft.¡OF/h)
e = true specific evaporation coefficient for the vessel, in kg/m 2 ¡OC/h (lb./sq.ft./oF/h)
net temperature drop.
On account of the high temperature reached by the juice in the 1st vessel, it is of advantage
to make this triple effect in the form of a Kestner, so as to reduce the time of exposure of
the juice to these high temperatures.
TABLE 32.35
TRIPLE EFFECT UNDER PRESSURE: TYPICAL EXAMPLE - BEET FACTORY
Temp. oJ Temp.oJ . Temp. oJ A r. K e

heoting . vapour juice
sleam Jrom
juice
(oC) (0F) (oC) (OF) (oC) (0F) (OC) (0F)
1SI effeel t38 280 128 262 128 262.5 10 17.5 520 (936) 2,587 (530) 5.04 (0.574)
2nd effeel 128 262 116 241 117 243 11 19 528 (950) 1,611 (330) 3.05 (0.347)
3rd effeel 116 241 104 219 108 226 8 15 536 (965) 879 (180) 1.69 (0.192)
With the temperatures of juice indicated, most of the heating can be effected with vapour
from the last vessel. The latter is therefore calculated with the object of supplying vapour
for as much heating as possible; vapour bleeding is not carried out from the 2nd and 1st
vessels beyond lhe minimum necessafy for the healing at the highesl lempefatUfes. Thus the
maximum economy is obtained.
In order 10 cope with variations in rate and temperature in the factory, the praclice is never
to use all the vapour theoretically available from the last vessel, and a certain quantity is left
to pass 10 the condenser. A solution sometimes adopted consists of following the 3rd vessel
by a "concentrator", which is simply a small 4th vessel under vacuum, designed to absorb
Ihe excess vapour left as a safelY measure, and preceding the condenser.
Campbell Macdonald 77 cites a triple effect under pressure, in which the vapour from Ihe
3rd vessel is at 106°C (223°F) and which is followed by a concentrator functioning between
106° and 84°C (223° and 183°F). The heating surfaces suggested in this case are:
FALLING-FILM EVAPORATORS 617
Healing surface Heal-Iransfer coeff., K Evap. coeff., r

(m') (sq.fl.) (kcal/m'l (B. T. U.I (kglm'l (lb./sq.fI.1
°Clh) sq.fI.¡OFlh) °Clh) °Flh)
I SI effeel 1,000 10,760 2,616 535 5.01 0.57

2nd effeel 1,500 16;140
(2 vessels of 750 m') 1,680 344 3.16 0.36
3rd effeel 2,803 30,128
(4 vessels O f 700 m') 852 175 1.58 0.18
The author proposes that the lengths of tube should decrease and their diameters increase
from Ihe 1st to the last vessel, in keeping with Ihe increase in brix.
Application, The multiple effect under pressure functioning, for example, between 135 and
105°C (275 and 221°F) would obviously require a greater heating surface than that of a tri-
ple, or of a quadruple, or even of a quintuple, funclioning between 135 and 55°C (275 and
131°F). However, Ihe difference would be in the Opposile direction if Ihe pressure Iriple ef-
fecI were compared with a normal quadruple working belween 115 and 55°C (239 and
131 ° n, and Ihe steam economy would be far superior in the case of the multiple effect under
pressure.
This is therefore an excellent solution. But it is possible only in ¡he case where a new factory
is being buill, or indeed where a concomitant alleration to the plant permits the back-pressure
lO be raised lO the required value. In an exisling faclory, such a scheme would be limited
generally by the impossibility of operating the steam engines or turbines with a back-pressure
of 1.5 - 2 kg/cm' (20 - 30 p.s.i.),. much higher than Ihal for which they were designed.
However, if the back-pressure can be raised to a moderate extent, an intermediate solution
could be adopted, for example, a quadruple parlly under pressure, partly under vacuum,
which would then permit a gain' of one stage in the use of vapour for heating.
In practice, evaporation fully under pressure is never used for cane sugar. The syslem is
generally arranged so as to draw the maximum from the last vessel under pressure; this is
followed by an evaporator vessel the vapour of which IS at 100°C and which, in addition to
I he vapour bleeding for which it is provided, is arranged to leave an excess of vapour which
goes lO a concentrator working under vacuum. Thus we ha ve an ev<:poration which copes
more readily with variations in juice supply to the boiling hvuse.
With regard to steam consumption, a German report 7B estimaks that evaporation under
pressure permits of reducing the steam consumption lO 321 kg/t.c. (709 Ib./t.c.), with an
economy of bagasse amounting to 46"70. 11 is considered that the first vessel must be of
falling-film type, where the juice pass es through very quickly; otherwise there would be
marked decomposition of sucrose, due to the temperature of 125°C (255°F) required. In the
beet sugar industry there is no such problem, since beet juice is thermo-stable even at
125 - 130°C (255 - 265°F).
FALLING-FILM EVAPORATORS
Falling-film evaporators, already in use for some years in the beet sugar factories, are the
618 EVAPORATION '.: Ch. 32
object. of some interest in the cane sugar factory. They are a c1ass of evaporator vessels in
which the juice travel s fr om top 10 bottom (Fig. 32.54, 32.55), as dislinct from the general
evaporators where the juice moves upwards, sometimes known as climbing-film evaporators.
When lhe juice is fed al lhe top of lhe tubes, ir descends in the tubes enrraining with ir the
vapour produced, and colIecrs in a lower chamber where the vapour separares and fr.om
which it is evacuated to rhe following vessel or the condenser.
'-_Uf f
,I
I
.i
• f
Fig. 32 .54. Falling film evaporator (B.M.A.).
Such evaporators show several advantages. They have a good heat transfer, since there is
no boiling-point elevation due to hydrostatic pressure, as the juice is not subjected to such
pressure. There is no expenditure of energy to produce upward movement of the juice; this
is indeed very smalI, but is produced at the expense of heat exchange. The evaporators are
designed so that the juiceis in contact with the heating surface in a thin layer over the length
of the heating surface, hence in intimate contact, and the vapour, being unable 10 leave from
the upper portion, is entrained with the juice and fills the interior of the tube; hence there are
no vapour bubbles to obstruct the upward Ilow of juice, as in the climbing-film eva porator.
FALLlNG-FILM BY APORATORS 619
Fig. 32.55. Falling film evaporator (B.M.A.).
We describe here the Fives Cail- Babcock falling-film evaporator vessel, patented in ¡ 979
by André Longuet (Fig. 32.56). It is built with very long tu bes (7 - 8 m (23 - 26 fL) at least,
and normally 10 m (32 fL)). lt follows that for a given heating surfacé, the evaporator vessel
is of smal! diameter (e.g. 3 m for 2,440 m 2). While the lower vessel receiving the juice is ob-
viously larger (e.g. 3.8 ml, this reduces the area required in the horizontal plane, naturally
at the expense of height required.
The main problem, with a descending-film evaporator, is the distribution of juice on the
upper tube plate. lt is necessary that al! tubes from this plate, or from one section. of
the tube plate, should receive the required volume of juice so that the juice is distributed
only in a thin layer around the tu be, and.that no section of tube remains dry at any moment.
With this object, the total area of the tube plate is divided intoenough sections to assure
..,
-', ' .
e
L
Fig. 32.56. Falling film evaporalor license Longuel (Fives Cail - Babcock).
lhe oplimum welling of the tubes: 1,2 or 3 seclions, according lo the size of Ihe vessel. The
figure m, expressing the distribution or wetting of the tubes by the juice, is calculated as
Q/ mrd, where Q is the weight of juice in kg/ h (Ib '/ h), n Ihe number of tu bes, and d their
diameler. The optimum figure sought varies from 500 to 600 kg/ h/ m) (335 -400 Ib.l ft. / h)
of circum fe rence of tubes, to a maximum of ¡ ,200 - 1,500 (800 - 1,000).
The tubes are in stainless steel, 45.1 x 48.3 mm, thus 1.6 mm (n
in.) in thickness. The
juice arrives at each section by a pipe which divides into several distributors (Fig. 32.57).
Each of these delivers onto a set of conical deflectors of decreasing diameter, with a hole
in the centre, also of decreasing diameter. The tubes are arranged in staggered spacing, and
the juice is delivered in succession onto three rows of ba rs (split tubes, or angle-pieces with
the angle upwards) set paralJel in 3 rows one aboye the other at angles of 120 0 , each being
situated aboye a row of tubes (Fig. 32.58, 32.59). The final row of these bars is just aboye
FALLlNG-FILM EVAPORATORS 621
Fig. 32.57 . Dislribulor for falling film: e vaporal o r (Fives C ail- Babcock).
Fig . .32.58 . Th ree-seclor dislribulor for falling film evaporalor. Firsl la yer of bars.
Fig. 32.59. Falling film vessel showing the three·seclO r distribulOr (Fives Cail- Babcock).
the tube plate, and the juice falls onto the tube plate in the inter-tube spaces. The juice is
preven ted from falling directly into the tu be by conical or convex caps located aboye each
tube as an umbrella. Hence the juice can enter the tube only by its periphery, thus forming
a film on the tube surface. The cap is supported by a plastic piece in the shape of a 3-point
star filling the interior tube diameter and notched to support it on the plate; it s three vertical
wings, a few centimetres in length, have a bevelled edge at the lower end, shaped so that the
juice f10ws towards the wall of the tube. These "valve-caps" are held in place by [he third
row of bars aboye them. . .
At the outlet from the tube, the juice falls to the bottom of the vessel, and the vapour
lea ves by an opening below the calandria, after traversing an entrainment separator similar
to that of Fig. 32 .29, which it traverses in series.
The tubes are in slainless steel SF. 17 (Inox 430), which has [he same coefficiem of expan-
sion as the ordinary steel of the vessel surrounding the calandria; an indispensable condition,
on account of the length of the tubes. For this same reason, these falling-film evaporators
are loca ted out in the open, as removal of .the lO-m tubes is effected from the topo
The heating steam enters in the upper one-third of the calandria; at this position, the bun-
dle of tubes is surrounded by a sleeve which protects it from the impact of the steam, and
permits a better distribution of steam (Figs. 32.56 and 32.60). Incondensable gases are
evacuated at the top and bottom of the calandria.
This model makes no provision for recycling juice, which would increase the time of the
juice in the vessel and is not required where the juice adequa[ely wets the tube surface. For
recycling, (he calandria must be divided into two or three sections, panicularly in the later
FALLING-FILM EVAPORATORS 623
3 juice inlets~
I
~~_.:
~
-¡ff
J VODour outlets
I
8--c-
1 vapour inlet
I
I
í
I
I
-" I ~~
I
¿i- -
Monhole
I ~-
I vopour outlet
I
-\
I
4 water ouUets
re"
I
g 4~-
~ I
~
r . ..
~
Window /
m,JIOt!._
tvlanhole
3 juice outJelS
I ~
--y I
Fig. 32.60. Falling film evaporator with enlarged base (Fives Cail- Babcock).
vessels. Sorne equipment manufacturers pro vide for recycling by enJarging the Jower portion
of the evaporator shell below the calandria (Figs. 32.60 and 32.61), thus providing more
space for disengagement of the vapour. In this case, a mesh eJiminator can be provided in
the path of the vapour. It is then necessary to cJean the eliminator at Jeast once per shift,
by a suitable device actuated by an automatic timer (Fig. 32.61). This portion of the vessel
is ilIuminated by a lamp at a lateral sight glass, ro permit of inspecrion.
The coefficienl of heat transfer is superior lO that of c1imbing-film evaporalors; hence ihe
falling-film evaporator can work under an appreciabJy Jower temperature drop. lt is thus in-
dicaled for use in conjunction with a t,ur.bo-compressor (Fig. 32.61).
Feed ,
Flow control .,,"
F'eed distributor
. Steom chest
Heot €xchange
Recompressed vopour
tube bundle
DrIver
"v
~ Entra;nm e nt
• seporator MVR
a:
Condensate
" I
I 1111 1, Vopour champer

o I ".;
Prod uct
G~------------~
Recycte
pump
fig . 32 .61. falling film vessel Wilh mattress separator and turbo·compressor (By courtesy of the leL Sugar Jour·
nal) .
Use of falling·film evaporation has not expanded rapidly; the first installalions, in Ilaly,
gave sorne trouble due to uneven distribution of juice. However, lhey are now operaling effi·
cienlly, wilh due observance of the precautions described, and are adopled particularl y where
a high degree of steam economy is required. They are installed in single evaporators or mulli·
pie sets (quintuple effects, for example), and give every satisfaction. In the beel sugar in-
dustry they have been installed heated by vapour from vacuum pans. A complete multiple-
effect evaporator of this type is unslable in Ihe case of abrupl variations in f10w of juice,
wilh frequent drying of Ihe tubes, on accounl of the low reserve of volume. Thcy musl be
arranged lO operate at a sleady rale of juice f1ow.
On account of the very brief period of juice contact, these evaporalors may be operated
with steam at 135°C (275°F), or 2. 1 kg/ cm' (30 p.s.i.) pressure. This is Iheir principal advan-
tage.
REFERENCES
l H. CLAASSEN, ¡nI. Sugar J., 41 (1939) 219.

2 E. SA1LLARD, FaCls abour Sugar, 26 (1931) 31.
3 K. JAROSCHEK, Cenr. Zuckerind., 42 (1934) 359.
REFERENCES 625
4 A. L. WEBRE, Inl. Sugar J., 49 (1947) 178.

5 R. F. BEAlE AND P. N. STEWART, Proe. 30th Con! QSSCT, 1963, p. 228.
6 D. F. OTHMER AND S. J. SI1.VIS, Sugar, 43 (7) (1948) 29.
7 O. REISS, Inl. Sugar J., 36 (1934) 79.
8 CH. QUILLARD, La Sucrerie de Sefleraves, Baillihe, Paris, 1932, p. 364.
9 N. DEERR, Cane Sugar, Norman Rodger, Londan, 1921, p. 329.
10 L. A. TROMP, Machinery and Equipmenl oflhe Sugar Cane Faelory, Norman Rodger, Landa n, 1936, p. 408 .
11 P. HaNIG , Principies of Sugar Techllology, Vol. ///, Elsevier. Amslerdam, 1963, p. 147.
12 L. A. TROMP, op. cil ., p. 416.
13 L. A. TRaMP, Inl. Sugar J. , 67 (1965) 210.
14 E. HAUSBRAND AND M. HIRSCH, Evaporalion, Condensalion el Refroidissemenl, 71h edn., Lib. Polyl. Ch.
Beranger , Paris, 1932 (lranSlalion), p. 203.
15 R. F. BEALE AND P. N. STEWART, Proc. 291h Con! QSSCT, 1962, p. 102.
16 H. CLAASSEN, /nl. Sugar J., 41 (1939) 217.
17 A. L. WEBRE, Sugar Azucar, 59 (11) (1%4) 77 .
18 P HONIO, op . cit., p. 105.
19 J . CAMPBELL MAcDoNALD AND T. RODOERS, Inl. Sugar J. , 49 (1947) 207.
20 A. L. WEBRE AND C. S. ROBINSON, Evaporalion, The Chemical Calalog Co., New York, 1026. p. 201.
21 P. HONIO, op. cil., p. 169.
22 H. ClAASSEN, in N. DHRR, op. cil., p. 346.
23 w. E. SMlTH, Inl. Sugar J. , 37 (1935) 22.
24 J. M. PATURAU, in P. HONlo, op. cil., p. 62.
25 H. CLAASSEN, in P. HONIO, op. Cil., p. 166.
26 P. HONIO, op. cil., p. 168.
27 A. L. WEBRE, in O. P. MEADE , Cane Sugar Handbook, 91h edn ., Wiley, New York, 1963, p. 139.
28 E. HAUSBRAND AND M. HIRSCH, op. Cil., p. 152.
29 P. Y. WANO AND C. K. Tu , 1111 . Sugar J. , 58 (1956) 72.
30 J , HAlPIN, Inl. Sugar J. , 37 (193 5) 489.
31 J. E. COOLEY, Sugar Azucar, 53 (9):<1958) 40.
32 N. DEERR, op. cit., p. 372.
33 H. C. PRINSEN OHRLlOS, Cane Sugar and ils Manufaclure, Norman Rodger, London, 1934, p . .190.
34 P. HONIO, Proc. 91h Congr. ISSCT, /956, p. 586.
35 H. CLAASSEN, in H . C. PRINSEN OHRLIOS, op. cil., p. 187.
36 P. HONIO, op. cil ., p. 106.
37 L. A. TRaMP, op. cil., p. 427.
38 N. DEERR, op. cil ., p. 338.
39 O. P. MEADE, Cane Sugar Handbook, 91h edn., Wiley, New York, 1963 , p: '167.
40 A. L. WEBRE AND C. S. ROBI NSON , op. Cil., p. 235.
41 R. N. SELMAN AND E. M. PLOMLEY, Inl. Sugar J., 53 (1951) 157.
42 L. 1. SHAPIRa, Inl. Sugar J., 61 (1959) 85.
43 E. T. RELF AND D. H. FOSTER, Proe. 261h Con! QSSCT, 1959, p. 51.
44 H . C. PRINSEN OEERUOS, Inl. Sugar J., 42 (1940) 419.
45 Sugar Res. Insl., Inl. Sugar J., 57 ( 1955) 381.
46 CH. QUILLARD, op. cil., p. 362.
47 S. P. YERMA, Sugar, 40 (9) (1945) 45 .
48 Inl. Sugar J., 48 (1946) 251.
49 J: F. BOOTSTRA, Facrs aboul Sugar, 27 (1932) 403.
50 E. T. RELF ANJ) D . H. FOSTER, Proe. 261h Con! QSSCT, 1959, p. 52.
51 Sugar Res. [nsl., Mackay, Queensland, Tech. Rep. No. 51, 1959.
52 O. SPENOLER, Sugar, 37 (8) (1942) 34.
53 Inl. Sugar J., 48 (1946) 251.
54 A. F. KELLER, [nI . Sugar J., 43 (1941) 288.
55 P. HONIO, op. Cil., p. 185.
56 A. O. KELLER, Sugar J., 26 (6) (1963) 16.
57 L. A. TROMP, op. dI., p. 420.
58 P . HONIO, op. ei/., p. 197.
59 E. T. RELF ANJ) D. H. FOSTER, Proc. 161h Con! QSSCT, 1959, p. 53.
60 J. C. OONZALEZ MAIZ, Sugar Azucar, 52 (12) (1957) 36.
626 EYAPORATION Cho 32
61 C. W. STEWART, In/ . Sugor J ., 50 ( 194R) .100.

62 G. L. P/CHARDO AND J. Jo L. ROMERO, Sugar, 45 (3) (1950) 60.
63 L. A o HOPPER, Sugar, 45 (9) (1950) 46 .
64 P. J . KNOX o e/ al ., In/. Sugor J., 5 1 (1949) 340.
65 No 00 SCHMIDT AND J. H. C. THORNE, In/ . Sugar J., 53 (1951 ) 1060
66 Ro Co GADDlE, In/o Sugar J., 54 (1952) 193. ,,",
67 A. L. WESRE, in G. P. MEADE, op. ci/., po 1440
68 R. F. GOODW/N, In/. Sugar Jo, 55 (1953) 180.
69 A. L. WEBRE AND C. S. ROS/NSON , op. ci/., p. 344.
70 Ao L. WEBRE, in G. P. MEADE, op . ci/., p. 162.
70. BIRKETT, T. S. J., (Mar 1978) 25.
7 1 Ao R. COCHR AN, In/ . Sugar Jo, 37 (1935) 199.
72 A. C. WATSON, In/ . Sugar J., 35 (1933) 243.
73 J . G . SAL/NAS, In/ o Sugor Jo, 42 (1940) 330.
74 J o MARCHES, In/o Sugar Jo, 43 (1941) 158.
75 R. N. S.LMAN ANU Eo M. PLOMLH, Inl. Su~ur J ., 53 (1951) 157.
76 Ao L. WESRE, In/ o Sugar J., 41 (1 939) 2 18.
77 J o CAMPSELL MAc Do NA LD, In/ . Sugor J., 45 (1943) 296.
78 T o WARDHANA, Inlo Sugar Jo, 81 ( 1979) 3 10.
.' !
....
33. Sugar Boiling
When juice is concentrated, its viscosilY rises rapidly with brix and, when lhe ¡alter reaches
78 - 80°, crystals begin to appear and the nature of the material changes: it pass es pro-
gres¡ively from lhe liquid state to a pan-solid, pan-liquid condition. lt loses its f1uidity more
and more, and completely different methods are required for handling il. lt is then called
"massecuite" ,
Its consistency no longer permits of boiling it in narrow tubes or of circulating it easily
from one vessel to another.
For this reason, a change is made to:
(1) Evaporation in single effect
(2) A type of equipment similar in principIe but better adapted in detail to the viscous pro-
duct which it is to concentrate.
Brix of syrup
We have already seen (p. 503) that the optimum concentration of syrup at which to make
the change from multiple effect to vacuum pans is approximately 60 _70° brix. If the concen-
tration is taken beyond this figure, steam economy is improved because a little more is
evaporated in multiple and a little less in single effect; but it becomes more difficult for the
sugar boiler to obtain a regular grain.
In the manufacture of white sugar, the syrup is treated between the evaporators and the
pans, either by decantation or by filtration. In this case, one must be content with a syrup
of 50-55° brix; aboye this value, the rate of settling of the muds decreases rapidly, as does
theJate of filtration.
Brix of massecuite
The brix of the massecuite depends on the substances dissolved in the mother liquor, plus
the sugar present in the form of crystals.
Analysis of ¡he massecuite is made by dissolving a certain weight of the massecuite in a
known volume of water. The sugar percentage, the purity and the brix are determined on
the dilute liquid so obtained. The'sugar in crystal form is therefore included, as well as the
sugar in solution in the mother liquor.
Limit of concentration obtainable

The concentration of the massecuite is pushed as far as possible. With modern pans and in
a wel!-control!ed factory a refractometric brix of 98° (perhaps approximately 94070 of actual
dry substance) may be obtained and even slightly exceeded. In factories not so well equipped,
96° brix can hardly be exceeded in the heaviest massecuites.
Starting with 1,000 kg of juice at qO·,brix and concentrating by multiple effect to 65° brix,
628 SUGAR BOJLING Ch. 33
lhe quanlity 01' water origina lly present in the juice and evaporaled by multiple effect
beco mes (eqn. (32.9)):
E 1,000 (1 - H) 800 kg
Th e quantity 01' syrup is lher efore:
s = 1,000 - 800 = 200 kg
a nd lhe fraction 01' lhe water originally presenr in the juice and evaporal ed in Ihe vacuum
pan thu s becomes, if the boiling is ca rried lo 96° brix:
E = 200 (1 - ~~) = 65 kg
. Conlraction
ACluall ya so luli on 01' sugaroccupies a sma ller vo lum e rhan rhe combined vo lumes 01' ¡he
waler and sugar. Th is con lradion ha s a maximum va lu e at a conce nlralion given by Tro mp'
as 56070 a nd by Parr' as 57.3%, and is of lhe order of 1% a l that concenlralion . II is,
I herefore, very slighl and we shall neglecr il in o ur calc ulat io ns.
Specifi c hea l of Ihe massecuile

Eqllali on (30. 1) gives Ih e specific heal of syrllps a no Illolnsses wil h nn apprO\imal ion suffi-
cienl ror prac li ca l purposes. BUI Ihe massecuile ca rries wilh it also crys tals of sugar wh ich
modify the lOtal spec ifi c heat. Roughly we can reckon for the massecuite:
e = I - 0.007 B (33.1) .
e = specific heal 0 1' massecuile

B = brix 01' massecuite.
This formula gives a suil able value on ly when the massecuile is heavy. Olherwise, il in
necessary 10 take a va lue int ermed iale between Ihose gi ven by the IWO formulae (30.1) and
(33.1), or 10 adopl;
e = 1- 0.001 (6 + 6~) B (33.2)
)' = crys lal % massecuile by weig hl.

,
..
Saluration
The solubi lity 01' pure sucrose in wa ter varies wilh temperalure and increases rapidly wilh in-
crease 01' temperalure. Al 40 °C, 1'01" example, I kg 01' \Valer is capab le 01' di sso lving 2.334
kg 0 1' sucrose; al 80°C, 3.703 kg.
SATVRATiON 629
When a solution contains lhe lotal quanlily of sucrose which il can dissolve, il is said 10
be saluraled.
Juice. However, in practice we always have to deal wilh impure materials, i.e. with solu-
liol1s conlaining in Solulion, nol only sucrose bul other materials accompanying it; glucose,
organic subslances, mineral salls, elc.
These subslances modify the solubility of sucrose. In beet juice, impurities increase lhe
solubility; a given quantily of waler dissolves more sucrose in the'presence of impurilies Ihan
it does when such substances are absent. The opposite hold s with cane producls; here the
solubility of sucrose decreases with decreasing purity.
The effect varies with the particular impurities in each case. With cane, it is mainly the
reducing sugars which cause the decrease in lhe solubility of sucrose.
TABLE )3.1
SATURATED CANE SYRUP. DISSOLVEO SOLlDS % SOL UTlQN BY WEIGHT FOR VARIOUS TEMPERATURES ANO PURITlES
Tf!mperorure
Pllriry
6rC 64°C 66°C 68°C 70°C 7rC 74°C 76°C 78°C 80°C
(/44°F) (/4rF) (/5/°F) (154°F) (158°F) (/6rF) (/65°F) (/69°F) (f72"F) (/76°F)
92 75.6 76 76.4 76.8 77.2 77.6 . 78 78.4 78.9 79 .3

90 75.9 76.3 76.6 77.1 77.5 77.9 ' 78.3 78. 7 79.1 79.5
88 76 .2 76 .5 77 77.3 77. 7 78.1 78 .5 78.9 79. 3· 79.7
86 76.5 76.8 77.2 77.6 78 78.4 78 .8 79 .2 79.6 80
84 76.7 77.1 77.5 77.9 78.3 78.7 79.1 79 .5 79.9 80.3
82 77 77.4 77.8 78.2 78.6 79 79.4 79.7 80.1 80.5
80 77.3 77.7 78.1 78.5 78.9 79.2 79'.6 80 80.4 80.8
78 77.6 78 78.4 78.8 79.2 79.5 79.9 80 .3 80.7 81.1
76 78 78.4 78.7 79.1 79.5 79.8 80.2 806 81 81.4
74 78.3 78.7 79 : 1 79.4 79.8 80.2 80.5 80.9 81.3 81.7
72 78.7 79 79.4 79.8 80.1 80.5 80.9 81.2 81.6 82
70 79 79.4 79.7 80.1 80.5 80.8 81.2 81.6 81.9 82.3
68 79.3 79.7 80.1 80.4 80.8 81.1 81.5 81.9 82.2 82.6
66 79.7 80.1 80.4 80.8 811 81.5 81.8 82.2 82.6 82.9
64 80.1 80.4 80.8 81.1 81.4 81.8 82.2 82.5 82.9 83.2
62 80.4 80.8 81.1 81.5 81.7 82. 1 82.5 82.8 83.2 83.5
60 80.8 81.1 81.4 81.8 82.1 82.4 82.8 83.1 83.5 83.8
58 81.1 81.4 81.7 82.1 82.4 82.7 83.1 83.4 83.8 84.1
56 81.4 81.7 82 82.4 82.7 83 83.4 83.7 84.1 84.4
54 81.7 82.1 82.4 82.8 83 83.3 83.7 84 84.4 84.7
52 82.1 82.4 82.7 83 83.3 83.7 84 84.3 84.7 85
50 82.4 82 . 7 83 83.4 83 . 7 84 84.3 846 85 85.3
48 82.8 83.1 83 .4 83.7 84.1 84.3 84.6 85 85 .3 85 .6
46 83.2 83.5 83.8 84.1 84.4 84.7 85 85.3 85.6 85.9
44 83.5 83.8 84.1 84.4 84.7 85 85.3 85.6 85.9 86.2
42 83.9 84.2 84.5 84.8 85.1 85.4 85.6 85.9 86.2 86.5
Tabl,e arranged acco rding 10 Thieme.

In practice, (he brix is substituted for Uie (rue dissolved so lids abov e, th ough Ihe dirrerencc is not negligibfe.
630 SUGAR BOILLNG, • Ch. 33
The solubility coe//icient* (s) 15 the ratio of the qllantit y of slIcrose soluble in a given
weighl 01' water in an impure solution, at a certain temperal ure, lo Ihe quantity soluble in
pure water at the same temperature:
Solubilily 01' sucrose % water in impure solution

s = Solubility 01' sucrose % water in pure solution
(33.3)
The 50lubilit y coefficient 01' cane products increases with temperalure, bue this effect is
relatively smal!. A graph showing the varialion 01" so lub ility coefficienl wilh puril·y, in cane
produces, is given in Fig. 33.1. This plot is taken from che work 01' Thieme in Java, who
directs aUention tO lhe very approximate nalure 01' the graph given; its object is only to give
an idea of lhe relation sh ip, .Ihe solubilily coefficienl beillg variable and, moreover, difficull
tO delermine with precision.
Table 33.1 gives lhe weight 01' malerial dissolved in a saturaled sollltion 01' jui ce, syrllp or
molasses oblained from ca ne, as a funclion 01' [he lelllperalllre and purity 01' lhe So luli on .
This table is also lak en from lhe work of Thieme in Java.
It will be nOled Ihalthe so lubilily líes in Ihe neighbollrhood of 80%, ror typical
temperatures and purilies.
3o
/
V
4O /
.i:'
.~
"
a. 50
Y
60 '-. -
70
-
~
80
/
90 /
100
1/ s
1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5
Fig. 33.1. Graph or solubili¡y coerr;cient.
,. This ralio was previously termed ¡he saturalion coefficienl; bUI "solubililY coerricienl" is preferred as being more
accurale as well as iess liable lo confusian with "superS3lUration coerricien ¡",
SUPERSATURATlON 631
Supersaturation
Saturation is a state of stable equilibrium which for .lugar solutions is reached neither rapidly
nor easily. If a Solulion is cOl1centraled by evaporalion, or ir it is cooled beyond Ihe salura-
lion point, Ihe crystals do not appear immediately (or necessarily) in the material. The .lugar
still remains in solution and the solution is termed supersaturated.
The supersaluralion coefficienl (S) is the ratio of the weight of sucrose per cent water con-
tained in a supersaturated solution to the weight of sucrose per cent water which would be
presenl in a saturaled Solulion having the .lame temperalure and the .lame purity:
Sucrose "70 water in supersaturated solution

S (33.4)
Sucrose % water in saturated solution
By the use of Table 33.1, the weight of material dissolved in a supersaturated solution is
readily calculated. Let:
B' = weight of malerial dissolved per cent of supersaturated solution
B = weight of material dissolved in saturated solution of the .lame purity and at Ihe .lame
temperat u re
S = supersaturation coefficient.
We have then (.lince the purities are the .lame):
B'
100 - B'
S
B
100 - B
wh~nce:
100 BS
B' (33.5)
100 + B (S - 1)
Crystallisation
In commercial operation it is essential, in order that crystals should form in a .lugar liquor,
that there should be a considerable supersaturation. In proportion as the crystals form and
gro\\', the supersaluration of (he mother liquor drops. To maintain· (he surersaluration,
Iherefore, it is necessary to maintain evaporation of water anu supply or· furlher sugar-
bearing material.
Webre distinguishes ¡hree zones in ¡he supersaturated phase:
(1) The melaslab/e zone, being that nearest saturation; existing crystals increase in size but
nel\' crvstals cannot form
(2) rhe illlermedlale zone; nel\' crystals can form in this zone, but only in (he presence of
e\isting cr\stals
(3) rile labile zone; in this zone existing ~rystaIs grow, and new crystals can form even in
Ihe absence of existing crystals.
632 SUGAR BOILlNG eh, 33
Davies and Yearwood' in Trinidad huye shown lhal:

(a) The intermediate zone is very narrow, if indeed it exists at all, and has little practical
imporiance, ZieglerJa also queries the existence of the intermediate zone, and considers lhe
limit between metastable and labile zones as 1.65.
(b) The boundary between the two principal zones varies markedly with Ihe purilY, lI
passes c10se to lhe following points of supersaturation (see al so Fig, 33,2):
PÍlrily Supersalurarion al boundary between

melaSlable and labile zones
60 1.55
70 130
80 1,25
In the course of a strike it is desirable to maintain the mother liquor as near as possible
to the upper limit of the metastable zone. At a purity of 60, approximately 23,5"70 more sugar
is deposited in one hour al a supersaluration of 1.55 than at a figure of 1.45'.
(e) The boundary between the two zones is mueh less dependenl on lemperalure, The
supersaturation eoefficient marking Ihis boundary falls slightly as the lemperalure inereases,
bUI the effect appears negligible.
These considerations, however, are of lheoretieal importanee only, ln praclice, il has been
eslablished lhat the supersaturation al which sugar eommences to crystallise varies between
1,10 and 1,50; 1,20 is regarded as a normal figure bu! cases have been reporled where
cryslallisalion had eommenced al 1.07 (Thieme'), Al olher limes in pure solulions, crys lals
did nOI formbefore a supersaturation of 1,50 was reaehed.
The reasons for this varialion are nol well known, bUI Thieme considers Ihal il is due 10
cerlain charaeleristies <if each juice: viscosilY (whieh retards cryslallisalion), presence of in-
soluble maller in suspension (which facililales cryslallisalion); another probable cause is
leakage of air into lhe pans, by which particles of sugar dUSI are introduced which stimulate
the formalion of erystals , ele.
1.40
1.30
Metostoble
zone
1.2~--~70::--------=-"80
Purity
Fig. 33.2. Mela~;¡able anc1 labile zones of cryslalJis3li on .

CRYSTALLISATION 633
Generally, the supersaturation is maintained between 1.25 and 1.40'.
Rate of crystallisation. The rate of crystallisation of a massecuite depends on:

l' (a) The viscosity
(b) The temperature (which influences the viscosilY)
(e) The supersaturation
(d) The purity of the mother liquor.
Temperalure. When the temperature falls, in order lo maintain the same rate ofcrystallisa-
tion, il would be necessary 10 increase the supersaturalion; e.g. Saint' gives in Table 33.2
temperatures and supersaturation coefficients corresponding to the same rates of crystallisa-
tion for e massecuite:
TABLE 33.2
EXAMPLE OF YARIATlON OF SUPERSATURATlON WITH TEMPERATURE TO

MAINTAIN THE SAME RATE OF CRYSTALLISATlON
Temperalure Supersaf Llra{ ion

(OC) (OF)
70 158 1.25
60 140 1.30
50 122 1.35.
40 104 1.40
Supersaluralion. lt has been established tha! the rate of absorption of sucrose by the
cryslals is proportional to the square of the supersaturation 8 ; but in practice the supersatura-
tion must not exceed the critical value (stated as 1.44) aboye which the crystallisation wouJd
become out of control, giving abundant false grain.
100
8o
o \
tl
'" 4 o
b
'O
\\
¡;.
'ü 2
o
\.
~
o 90
"'"
BO
~
70 60 50 40
Purity of mother':'liquor
fig. 33.3. Variation 01' speed of crystallisation with purily of morher liquor.
634 SUGAR BOIUNO Ch. 33
Purily. The rale of c rys lallisalion falls very rapidly as Ihe purity of Ih e mOliler liquor
decreases. Thi s is why a low-grade slrike requires more lime Ihan a firsl massecuile.
Webre 9 gives n graph relaling rale of cryslallisalion and purily (Fig. 33.3).
Elevation of boiling poi"t

This queslion has already be en discussed with reference 10 evaporalion (p. 496): Table 32.2
is of course also valid for sugar boiling.
Hydrostatic pressure
Table 32.3 is again applicable here, and for lhis pllrpose is of inleresl mainly in lhe region
of lhe lines Me corresponding 10 lhe densily (approximalely 1.47) of hOI massecuile al
80 - 90° brix.
In sllgar boiling, hydroslatic press ure ássumes great imponance, and its effecls will be
discllssed later.
- -- - - - ----1- - - --. - _.
Fig. 33.4. Coi! vacuum pan.

VACUUM PANS 635
VACUUM PANS
The conception of Ihe vacuum pan is entirely analogous lo that of an evaporalor body.
l':lowever, Iwo modes of heating are employed:
(a) Coils (Fig. 33.4)
(b) Calandria (Fig. 33.5)
Fig. 33.5. Calandria pan for low-grade massecuile, H.1.W. Iype.

636 SUGAR BOILING Ch. 33
lhe lalter being broadly similar to that used in mulliple-errecr evaporators. In so me cases,
both calandria and coils are used in the one pan.
The removal of condensates and incondensable gases is effected as in evaporators.
(A) Coil pans

A pan mal' have one, two or more coils. These are held in place by clips and brackets.
Coils of circular seclion. In the older standard type of pan, the coil consisted of a copper
tube commencing at the outer waH of the pan, bent in the form of a spiral around a truncated
cone, and terminating near the centre of lhe pan in a drain for the condensate.
In Queensland, it has been emphasised lO that the angle of dish, or the angle formed with
rhe horizonral by the generatrices 01' rhis trullcated cone, should be approximately 45°.
French manufacturers are content with a much smaller angle; in this case it is necessary to
ensure Ihat the slope of the coil, from beginning to end, is sufficient to ensure effeclive
drainage of Ihe condensa te. For this purpose the angle of dish is made no less Ihan 15°.
(Half-angle of cone 75°.) .
The vertical pitch or spacing between two successive coils should be of the order of 25 - 30
cm (10-12 in.) between centres. It will be arranged so that the turns of the coils are approx-
imately vertically one aboye the olher, or only slightly displaced from Ihe vertical, so Ihat
they do not provide any obstruction 10 the circularion of rhe massecuite; this should be in
Ihe upward direction in the region of Ihe coils.
The coils are always of copper. Their diameter is about JO - J 5 cm (4 - 6 in.), bur
sometimes varies, decreasing from beginning to end of the coil.
The ratio of length to internal diameter varies generally from 75 to 250. This rar io depends
principally on the steam used for healing. Short coils are mOSI advantageous, panicularly
ror low-pressure vapours.
Tromp" recommends that ratios of 200 - 250 be reserved for high-pressure steam (\Virh
low-pressure steam, the later part of the coil would not transmit any heat and so would be
useless).
For exhaust steam il is preferable to keep below 100.
For bled vapour, aralia of 75 is suilable.
11 is of advantage 10 construct Ihe coil" of heavy coprer, as Ihey \Vear fairl)' rapidly. The
thickness should be between 2.5 and 3.2 mm (1, in. and k in.).
Coils with flattened section. An improved design introduced by Halpin 12 in Queensland

in 1950 permitted the éoil pan to hold its own in that country with the calandria pan for a:
long time.
The heating surface is formed from copper tubes of 12.5 cm (5 in.) diameler flarrened in
the vertical direction so as to presenl in exlernal dimensions a width of 7.5 cm (3 in.) aqd
a height of 15.5 cm (61 in.), or alternalively a width of 10 cm (4 in.) and a height 01' 14 cm
(Sr. in.) (Fig. 33.4) .
. Instead of being formed of a single coil wound in a spiral, each coil consists of a series
of flat lubes, semicircular and concentric, passing from a steam manifold which follows a
generatrix 01' the Irul1cared cone to a condensate manifold placed on the opposire generalri.\.
VACUUM PANS 637
With this arrangement, theangle of dish of the coil is not of any great importance. lt may,
for example, be made 15°, in arder to facilitate f10w of condensate in its manifold, and it
is arranged simply rhat rhe latter is slightly lower than the steam manifold.
The centre well formed by Ihe superposition of the inner cirele of these several eoils should
,have a diameter equal [O 38 or 40070 of the interior diameter of the pan.
The vertical pitch or spacing between tWD successive coils should be at leas[ 30 cm (12 in.)
from centre to centre of corresponding tubes, and should preferably be 33 cm (13 in.).
The clearance or free space between suceessive turns of the one coil should be 7.5 - 10 cm
(3 - 4 in.), preferably 8.5 - 9 cm (3i - 3j in.). The top coil is located in such a position that
the upper tube is not less than 40 cm (16 in.) below the maximum level proposed for the
massecuite.
Ir is desirable that the cylindrical body of the pan which carries rhe coils should have a
height equal to 50 - 60% of its interior diameter.
When these precautions are followed, a pan may be obtained with a heating surface of
4.5 - 5.25 m'/m 3 (1.4 - 1.6 sq. ft./cu. ft.) of working volume, or say approximately 5 m'/m 3
(1.5 sq.ft./cu.ft.), definirely higher than that of the older type of coil pan.
Coil pans are no longer made, even in Australia.
(B) Calandria pans

In calandria pans, the tubes are shorter and of larger diameter than in evaporators.
Whether the pan is of eoil or calandria type, (he masseeui(e rises past (he heating surfaee,
be[ween the turns of (he eoils or through the tubes of the calandria. There musl obviously
be an equal deseending mass correspollding lO Ihis ascending massecuile. With rhe liquid and
mobile material in the multiple effeets, this poses no problem. Wilh rhick and viscous
massecuite, the manner in which this circulation is planned and successfully effeeted form
. :~ ~ .
Fig. 33.6. Fives Cait-Babcock pan, type C.T.

the most important characterislic or a vacu um pan. The manner or solving this problem has
led lO lhe exislence or several types or pan:
(a) The nal rixed calandria, with cenlral downtake (Fig. 33.5)
(b) The inclined-plale calandria (Fig. 33.6)
(e) The suspended ("Ooating" or "baske l") calandria (Fig. 33.8)
(d) The horizontal pan (Fig. 33.14).
(a) Flal l'ixed calandria. Thi s is lh.e recognised typ e. The circulation rollows the sc heme
indicated (Fig. 33.9). We shall sludy la ter tlle very importanl conditions required ro r good
realisation or lhis circulalion.
The Fives Cail- Babcock se ries or pans (Fig. 33.6) covers a range or 120 - 200 hl (425 - 700
cu. rt.) in s teps or 20 hl, and 200- 600 hl (700 - 2 t 20 cu . rt.) in steps or 50 hl. AII are equipped
with nat ca landrias, wilh tubes 860, 1,000 or 1,140 mm (34, 39 or 45 in.) in lenglll. Tubes
are or slainless steel, S430, 94.4 x 97.4 mm diameter. The ratio or heatin g surrace 10 volume
inallmodels is 6,7 o r 8 m'/ m J (1.8, 2.1 o r 2.4 sq.rt./c u.rt.) respectively ror lh e tube leng ths
or".860, 1,000 and 1,140 mm. , o. o
' 0
Fig. 33.7. Fixed -ca land ria pan wi lh inclined (ube -plales.
VACUUM PANS 639
(b) Inclined-plate calandria. This may be fixed or suspended, and rhe piares may bOlh. be
inclined ar lhe same angle, or the lower plate may be placed at a steeper angle than lhe upper.
French engineers generally adopr 25 o in rhe former case and 10 - 25 o in lhe latler (Fig. 33.7).
The objecl of this arrangement for the upper plate is lO facilitare the washing and removal
'of lhe massecuite remaining 011 lhe plates after eacl1 cllarge; for lhe lower pi ale ir aims lO
compellsate for lhe loss il1 heating surface and calandria volume due lO l he dish of lhe upper
surface, wirhoul increasing the volume required for graining. Al rhe same time ir enables lhe
calandria botrom la follow rhe form of rhe borrom of rhe pan.
This arrangement is frequenrly adopred in beer sugar facrories. We consider, however, rhar
rhe negarive cone of rhe upper piare is nOl jusrified, as rhe calandria wirh flat piares offers
litlle lX no disadvantage from rhe poinr of view of washing (acrually a secondary considera-
rion). Moreover, this cone causes a loss of heating surface and necessirares an undesirable
increase in rhe graining volume.
The posirive cone of rhe lower pIares, on rhe other hand, permirs of a useful gain in the
hearing surface and a useful decrease in rhe graining volume.
(e) Floating-ealandria pan (Fig. 33.8). This design has long been in exisrence, bur rhe
rroublesome habir was followed of providing ar the cenrre of lhe f10ating calandria, a centre
4000
JI .'
Fig. 33.8. Fltlaling-calandria pan (Fives - Hugol).

640 SUOAR BO/L1NO Ch. 33
well analogolls to th at of evaporator vessels; this, with the annular space, provided two
passages for the descent of the massecuire. This division of the massecuite current into t\Vo
portions liad mosr unforlunate e ffects: while inlermediate dOllbtful zones exist \Vhere the
direction of f10w is uncertain, two restricted passages are provided, neither of which offers
a free circulation.
The author considered that it would on rhe contrary be advantageous to accentuate the
natural advantages of the floating calandria and to avoid these disadvantages. He according-
Iy designed, with rhe aid of Fives Lille - Cail, the Fives - Hugot pan (Fig. 33.8), in which the
heating surface at the centre of ihe pan was increased by adopting a calandria with a conical
bottom plate and a flat upper plate. The descent of rhe massecuire is tbus provided wilh an
annular space of ample cross-secrion designed and calculated marhemarically. The mass e-
cuile thus receives at the centre the maximum heat input and consequent lifting force , and
descends on all sides along the cool outer waH of the pan (Figs. 33.9 a nd 33.10).
This arrangement lends itself particularly wel! to the enlargemenl of Ihe pan body aboye
Ihe calandria (Fig. 33.11); Ihe massecuit e descends nalu ra lly in Ihe annular space, \Vhereas
with a fi xed calandria it tends 10 form eddies and vorlices near th e wal! of rhe pan. The des-
cenr along rhe outer wall is a fav ou rable factor.
To avoid restricting the circulation, entry of steam to Ihe pan is made by a pipe entering
through the save-aH and descending vertically to rhe centre of the calandria. This arrange-
ment moreover greatly facilitates (he distribution of steam in the calandria, and the locarion
of incondensa ble-gas outlets.
For rhe sa me rea so n, artachment of the calandria to the pan wall is effecled by three very
narrow brackets.
Fig. 33.9. Circulalion of massecuile in a fixed-calandria pan.
Fig. 33.10. Circulation o f massecui le in a noating-calandria pan.

VACUUM PANS 641
Fig. 33.11. Circulalion or massecuile in pan with enlarged body; comparison or rJoating and rixed calandrias.
Fig. 33.11,. 'Pan with lenticular calandria (S.M.A.).

Fives Cail- Babcock no longer make the ordinary floaling calandria pan. They now supply
one in which ihe calandria is, nOl cylindro-conical, but lenticular in shape (Fig. 33.12). The up-
per and lower tube p lates o f this ca landri a have the object of facilitating the circulation of the
massecuite which, at lhe upper portion, f10ws more freely towards the outer downtake and is
better directed towards the wall of the pan; below the calandria, lhe massecuite space follows
more c10sely the bottom of the pan, reduces the fooling volume, and gives more positive flow
back to the calandria tubes. The longer tubes at the centre encourage a more active circulalion in
thal zone, and facilitate the outward f10w of the massecuite.
(d) Horizontal pan. Fives Lille - Cail J3 has placed on the mark et in 1963 a pan of di fferent
conception (Figs. 33.13 and 33.14). This pan has 110 longer an axis of sy mmelry but aplane
of symmelry. Ils shape allows of a low graining volume , of lhe order of 26070, a massecuite
height aboye the calandria of about 1.5 m (5 fL) and a very favourable ci rculation due not
only to il s shape bul also lO Ihe a rrangement of the ca la ndria (Fig. 33.14) . The ratio of
descending sec tion lo ascending, al Ihe to p of the caland ria, is 0.8. Discharge of massecu ite
i s effecled by three openings silUated in Ihe plane of sy mm etry, which is thus panicularly
rapid : approx. 10 mino The healing surface gives a ralio of S/ V of 6 - 8 111'/ m' (1.8 - 2.4
sq.fl./cu.ft.).
Thi s design of pan should be locat ed with it s a xis at right-angles to Ihe alignment of Ihe
other pa ns, as il would lake up lOO much space in the other direction, on account of the space
Fig. 33 . 13 . Horizontal pan (Fives Cail- Babcock).

..
YACUUM PANS 643
.'
• • o", .:'
Fig. 33. ¡ 4. Horizonla( pan. Transverse seclion.
required for removing Ihe calandria. This necessitates provision of chutes from the end
discharge openings, 10 conducl the massecuile 10 the longitudinal receiver.
This pan offers Ihe advanlage of ready conversion to a conlinuous pan of Fives
Cail- Babcock designo However, it is no longer made.
Tubes
Returning to the consideration of ordinary calandrias with tubes: the tubes are of steel, brass,
or stainless steel.
The length of tubes and consequently the height of the calandria vary generally from 75
10 125 cm (30 - 50 in.). In calandrias with inclined lower plales, Ihey may reach 140 cm (55
in.) at the centre.
Certain authors estimate that by reason of the yiscosity of the massecuite, and the conse-
quent laminar flow along the wall of the tubes, the portion of the tube length beyond 75 cm
(30 in.) according to sorne, or 100 cm (40 in.) according 10 others, will be of little use; they
argue Illat metal and volume are wasted, as Ihe length indicated is sufficient to raise to the
644 SUGAR BOJLING Ch. 33
required temperalure Ihe film of massecuile touehing the tube. Th ere is some Iruth in this
argument, 'since the heating of the massecuite follows the exponential law shown in eqn.
(30.4), in which the variable would be surface area S o f tube eorresponding 10 ils lenglh;
however, the conditions are still ralher remole from the asymplolie relationship, and il would
be more accurale lo say that, as the material rises in the tube, each cm of lenglh plays a less
and less imporlanl par!. Aeeording lo one experimenl by Webre 14 , the difference in
lemperature belween healing vapour and massecuite, close ,lo Ihe tube al Ihe upper end of
120-cm (48-in.) lubes , is still 30 - 40°C (55 -70 ° F) in Ihe mOSI unfavourable periodo There
is lhus nothing illogical about installing lubes of 120, 125 or even 140 cm (48, 50 or 55 in.)
in length. It is, howe ver , advisable 10 keep wirhin 125 cm or less and nol to exceed lhis lenglh
excepl at the apex of conical calandrias.
The interior diameter of tubes varies from 89 lo 127 mm (3¡-5 in.) in general. Webr e"
considers that the diameter should nol be below 89 mm and Ihal a good dimension is
101.6 -114.3 mm (4 - 4~ in.). Claassen" considers that lubes should be of 89 -101.6 mm
(3j- 4 in.) in diameler, bul he is presumably thinking only of beet s ugar pans. French
- manufacturers have adopted a s tandard dimension of IOl.6 mm (4 in .) o .d . for brass or steel
lubes. There is a Irend towards the use of lubes of 101.6 mm (4 in .) in eXlernal diameler,
1.5 mm thickness, if in slainless s leel, 2 - 3.2 mm in ordina ry steel, or 2 mm in brass.
We see later (p. 657) that the interior di a meter of the tubes influences the circulation of
rhe massecuite, olher lhing being equal. To have a minimal loss of head in Ihe circulation
of the massecuite, it is necessary 10 proportion the diameter of lhe downtake 10 Ihal of the
l ubes. For example, for a 'downtake of diameter of 40"70 of thal of the pan, the l ube d iameter
s hould be l/10th of lh e downtake diameler; for a downlake of 33 OJo of the pan diameler,
the lube diameter s hould be 1/ j 7th of that of the downtake (p = 0.06M ' , ef. p. 658).
However, s uch a rul e would lead lO eomplelely insufficienl healing surfaees in large pans,
or to prohibitively large vessels, and the gain in circulation would far from compensate for
these disadvantages . Henee, with the objecl of simplification and homogeneilY, Ihe praclice
is adopled of using a reasonable tube diameter for all sizes of pan, for example, 97 .4 or lOI .6
mm (JI or 4 in.) , and proportioning the centre well accordingly. We may comm ent that wilh
these tube diameters, a downtake of 33 OJo will give a circulalion close to the oprimal (M ' =
0.33; p = 0.020 - 0.035).
The pitch p of the tubes is the distance between centres of IWO adjacent tubes (ef. p. 512).
The term "Iigament" is used to designate lhe rhickness of metal remaining on rhe rube piare
between two adjacenl lubes, in their common ax'ial plane. lt is often made 20,25 or 25.4 mm
(1 in.). Wirh tubes of 101.6 mm, and ligamenl of 25.4 mm , ¡he pilch will be: p = 101.6 +
25.4 = 127 mm (5 in.).
Wilh stain less-steel tubes of 101.6 mm, Ihe Irue ligamenl will be :
pitch - hole = 127 - 101.6 - 1.5 = 23.9 mm (0.94 in.)
In the case cited, the coefficienl k¡ already defined (p. 513) relalive to evaporator bodies
will be:
7f d' 9.722
_..!.... = 0.907 x 0.55
2..f3 p' 16.129
VACUUM PANS 645
Takihg into account, by a coefficient k" the space lost on the surface of the calandria by
stay-rods, incondensable-gas pipes, steam pipes and on the edges, we have:
k, = 0.70-0.80 and: k = k, k, = 0.40 - 0.45 (33.6)
Estimation of coefficient k. The coefficient k which we have defined (eqn. (33.6» va ries
between fairly wide limits, and il may be found difficult to fix ilS value. lt is lherefore of
value to specify il particularly for the construclor of equipmenl for evaporat ors for vacuum
pans. The coelTicient ma y be splil inlo Ihe two sub-coefficienls: k = k, X k" k being lhe
ratio?f area for passage 01' liquid in the lube lO lhe area occupied by a tube on Ihe tube plate.
We have defined il (egn. (32.14» as:
.' k, d',
(33 7)
a 2.J3 p'
d; =interi or diameter of the tubes

p = pilCh 01' tubes as defined above
b = ligament.
The coefficient k, depends 011 lhe diameler d and pitch p (p = d + b). k, is Ihe ralio of
10lal cross-seclion of the IlIbes 10 Ihe tolal area 01' lhe tube pi ate, lhickness 01' side walls ex-
c1uded: il depends on lhe areas losl in lhe neighbourhood 01' the side walls and various pipe
conneclions. Tllere is also more area 10Sl when d; is' large compared wilh F (for floaling
calandria) or relative to Ll. - D (pan with centre well); in other words, k, depends on the
number of tubes whi ch ca n be placed in the calandria.
For annular calandrias (Wilh centre well), we may take according lo the number of tubes:
77 . 3.4
k, 0.97 - - or 0.97
n v'ñ
We ha ve Ihu s for Ihis case:
If n;;' 500: k (33.9)
If lOO ~ n ~ 500: k e ~.p;)

d' (
0.97 -
,
~.;) (33.10)
Obviously:
k (33.11)
s
The actual ligament is smaller than the theoretical thickness, on account of the tolerances
646 SUGAR BOILlNG Ch. 33
in manul"aclure 01" lhe lubes, which oblíge Ihe equipmenl manul"aclllrer 10 drill in Ihe plales
·holes which will admil Ihe largesl lubes. For sleel tubes, ror example, rhe lolerance is
+ 1.5%; for brass, + 1"70.
Heigh( of (he pan

Conslruclion firms generally furnish pans of a capacity calculated ror a level of masseclIite
half"-way up Ihe highest window (or sight glass), i.e. a liltlebelow the 10p of the cylindrical
portion of Ihe pan.
In practice, rhe sugar boilers frequenlly exceed this mark and even the upper limit of Ihe
top sighl glass, though this should be strictly forbidden by the foreman responsible for the
supervision of the pan stalion.
Even if we consider only Ihe limil fixed by Ihe maker, this oflen gives a height of
massecuite of 2.1 m (7 fl.) or more aboye Ihe upper tube plale. Such heighls, as we shall see
shorlly (p. 647), offer serious disadvanlages owing 10 the effects of hydroslatic pressure.
Hence the heighl of massecuile aboye Ihe 10p lube plate is now limited, and ca re is laken
.nol to exceed 1.5 m (5 fl.) for nalural-circulation pans. With mechanical circulation, a heighl
of 1.8 - 2 m (6 - 6.5 fl.) may be used withoul disadvantage.
To restrict enlrainment, it is necessary 10 allow a certain height belween the maximum
massecuile level and the top of Ihe pan. Tromp" recommends a space equal lO 85% of the
maximal heighl 01" the massecuite above lhe top lube plate.
Bottom angle. The bottom of the pan generally lakes the rorm or a Iruncated cone, but
a segmenl of a sphere, or a "baskel-handle" curve, or even a IOrus may be followed.
Wilh the conical form, the angle of Ihe cone wilh the horizontal is generally 17 - 25°. Ir
the pan is of floaling-calandria type, this angle should be 2-3° smaller than that of the bot-
10m of the calandria. It is advanlageous for graining volume Ihat these angles should be small
bUI, for rapid flow 01" Ihe massecuite at Ihe momenl of discharge, an angle of less Ihan 17°
will nOl generally be used. According lo Ihe diameler of the pan, angles are adopled for pan
bOllom and calandria botlom 01" 25°/ 22°,22°/19°,20°/17°, Ihe laHer values applying 10
larger sizes of pan.
Graining volume
This term is used to denote Ihe minimum volume of massecuite which must be inrroduced
into the pan before turning on steam . Ir is obvi ously necessary to cover entirely Ihe firsl coil
or, in a calandria pan, the whole calandria, before Sle:l111 is turned 011. Otherwise, the ebulli-
lion would throw syrup on the exposed porlions 01" healed melal; Ihis would cause losses by
caramelisation and would increase Ihe colour of the sugar.
In practice, the massecuile should even be taken above Ihe coil or lhe calandria by 50 - 75
mm (2 - 3 in.), so lhat the syrup can circulate aboye it and descend by the centre wel!. The \
graining volume, however, is calculaled from lhe horizonlal plane passing through the
highesl poinl of the coil or corresponding lo the upper surl"ace of the tube plate.
Tbi s volume is also termed the "fooling volume" (pied-de-cuile).
Jt is generally expressed in per cenl of Ihe working capacily of lhe pan, and varies from
241040%. II is obviously of advanlage lhal il should be as low as possible, since lhe footing
EFFECTS OF HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE 647
is generall)' introduced iñ the f!)rm 01' virgin syrup or 01' high-purity magma; and il is on[y
onlhe remainder 01' Ihe slrike thallhe purilY can be reduced by Ihe addilion 01' first or second
mo[asses. The graining vo[ume, lilereforc, determines lhe possibi[ilies 01' rapid exhauslion in
lhe pan, a grealer puril)' drop being oblained when a [arger quanlil)' 01' [ower-grade molasses
is used.
From lhis poinl 01' view, it is preferab[e nOl to go aboye 30"70 for Ihe graining volume, or
35"70 as an eXlreme value.
For a coil pan, it is possible to remain mueh be[ow Ihese [imils. For calandria pans, lilcse
va[ues wil[ gcnera[[y nOl allow lile slrikes, particu[arly 01' [ow grade, 10 be cOIllJllcled in lile
one balch, in Ihe one pan. In order 10 oblain lhe grain size ,lnd lile crYSla[ conlenl requil'ed,
il is neccssary 10 "run up" lhe slrike unli[ lhe pan is I'u[[, lhcI110 "CUl" by .lending Iwo-Ihirds
01' lhe chal'ge inlo anolher pan 01' inlo a slol'agc vessel, conlinuing Ihe sll'ike wilh lhe one-
lhird remaining. The lWO-lhirds thus eul over wi[[ be relurned in lwo balches laler in order
10 finish Ihese strikes, or indeed they may be finished off in anolher pan.
EFFECTS 01' HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
When lile syrup has jusI been inlroduced inlo Ihe vacuum pan, lhe boi[ing is sli[[ somewhal
similar 10 lhal which occurs in lhe lasl vessel 01' lhe mulliple effecl. BUl when lhe grain has
been formed (or a pre-formed "fooling" has been "cut in") and lhe cltarge is being buill
up, lhe malerial becomes incrcHsingly viscous. Fina[ly, al Ihe momenl 01' dropping, Ihe
massecuile is a glulinous, semi-solid mass, and circulalion beco mes a real prob[em.
The boiling masseeuile, al a lemperalure 01' 80-90 o e (175 - 195°F), has a specific gravilY
01' aboul 1.47, (densilY 01' approximalely 92 [b./cu.ft.). The pressure in Ihe massecuite \Vil[
lherefore innease by about 0.15 kg/cm 2 per m (0.64 p.s.i. per 1'001) 01' depth.
Now, at each poinl, the temperalure 01' the boiling massecuite is obviously equal 10 Ihe
boiling point 01' water under the pressure obtaining al that poinl, plus lhe boiling-point eleva-
tion corresponding lO Ihe brix 01' lhe massecuite al Ihal pressure.
lf Ihere were no circu[alion, successive layers 01' lllaSSeCUile would llave lemperalurcs in-
creasing wilh Ihe deplh.
On Ihe olher hand, Ihe degree 01' saluralion 01' a sugar so[ulion changes rapid[y accorcling
lo ils lel1lperature. lf the uppermosl layer is supersaturaled, the folJowing layers are increas-
ingly less SO, and there is a depth al which saturalion lemperalure is reached. From lhere on,
the lower layers are undersalur8led, and a certain amounl 01' re-so[ution 01' lhe cryslals oe-
curso
It is obvious Ihal, in pruclice, mallers are nOI as sil1lple as Ihis: Ihe ll1assecuile is circul<tling
élnd ils l'UITcnts distorl Ihe isolllermal planes which eould ollrerwise llave been recognised in
lhe pan, clrange them lO irregular surfaces, mix the whole malerial, and lend lo bring il lO
a uniform lemperalure. lt follows Ilral some zones will consist 01' supersaturaled l1lassecuile
al deplhs grealer lhan Ihe crilical deplh we have referred lo, while inverse[y Ihere will be
under-saluraled massecuile al shallower deplhs; and our lheorelica[ view wi[l, afler a[l, É'.Ive
a fair average piclure 01' the Sl".e 01' lhe mal erial in lhe pan.
Webre" has given an inleresting sludy 01' this queslion. Assuming that lhe lemperalure oi'
.,.
a,
00
TABlE 33.3
_--- -
... .
EFFECTS OF HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
._ -- -
Deprh Hydro srolic Local 8.p. o/ water 8.P.E. Theor. lemp. SalUro/ion CrYSJals
pres.'\ urc vacuum al lacal vaco ar mass.
(m) ( rt.) (cm Hg) (in . Hg) (cm Hg) (in Hg) (OC) (OF) (OC) (OF) (OC) (OF)
- -- - - --_.- - - - - -- -- "_. - "--- - -
(A) Vacuum 58.5 cm - brix 81.5
O O 0.0 0.0 58.4 23.0 63.7 146.8 9.3 16.7 73.1 163.5 1.33 Grow '"c:el
0.6 2 6.6 2.6 51.8 20.4 70.8 159.5 9.4 17 .0 80.3 176.5 1.25 Grow
>
1.2 4 12 .9 5. 1 45 .5 17.9
1.8 6 19 .6 7.7 38 .9 15.3
76.4
81.2
169.6
178.2
9.6
9.8
17.3
17.6
86.1
41.0
187.0
195.8
1.18
1.14
Grow
Grow "'"
O
2.4 8 25.9 10.2 32.5 12.8 85.3 185.5 9.9 17.8 45.2 203.3 1.10 Grow
3.0 10 32.5 12.8 25.9 10.2 88., 191.8 9.9 17.9 98.7 209.7 1.08 Grow
eZ
3.6 12 el
39.1 15.4 19.3 7.6 92.0 197.6 10.1 18.1 102.1 215.7 1.05 Gro\\'
(8) Vacuum 68.5 cm - brix 77.7

O O 0.0 0.0 68.6 27.0 46.1 115.0 6.7 12.1 52.9 127.2 1.33 Gro\\'
0.6 2 1\ .6 2.6 62.0 24.4 58.9 138.0 7.1 12.8 66.0 150.8 1. 13 Grow
.1.2 4 12 .9 5.1 55.6 21.9 67.2 153.0 7.3 13.2 74.6 166.2 1.04 Grow
1.8 6 19.1\ 7.7 49.0 19.3 73.4 164.2 7.5 13.5 80.9 177.7 0.98 Dissolve
2.4 8 25 .9 10.2 42 .7 16.8 78.6 In.4 7.6 13.7 86.2 187.1 0.94 Dis!'iolve
3.0 10 32.5 12.8 36.1 14.2 83.1 IRI.6 7.8 14.0 90.9 195.6 0.91 Di sso ]ve
3.6 12 39.1 15.4 29.5 11.6 86.8 18R.2 7.9 14.2 94.7 102.4 0.88 Dissolve
. - - - -._''' - _._--- - ._ _._"- - -- -_._-~,.-
n::r
w
w
MASSECUITE CIRCULATION IN ,y ACU,UM .PANS 649 '
Ihe massecuile in each layer corresponded exaclly 10 the Ihe!Jretical; boiling poinl which il
should have in accordance .,with thehydroslatic pressure .lo !which .il,jssubjeCled, he has con-
sidered lWO massecuiles of similar brix and purity, in lwo similar pans, but at two differenl
vacua, chosen al the extremilies of the usual scale of operations: (1) 5.8.5 cm (23 in.), (2) 68.5
cm (27 in.). (See ,TabIe33.J.)
lt should be,recalled that, al lower vacuum, temperilluoes, are, higher and consequenlly:
(1) The massecUit'i!,·viscosilY is lower ' " ,.; '.
(2) Cryslal growl h is more rapid. ..
Table 33.3 gives~ilO,lher reason·for boiling at a low' vacuum, ~Í1dexplains why "SOfl" or
rounded cryslalsare óbla'ined by working al a high vacuum, and "hard" sharp-edged crystals
al a reduced vacuu·j-¡,. What happens is thal, in the first 'case, lhe cryslals are parlly dissolved
wh'en lhey reach the boltom orthe pan; lhis, lO some ,e xtenl,undoes the work which has been
performed in lhe upper pan.
To avoid this, it is preferable lO:
(a) Use a reasonable vacuum: 61- 66 cm (24 - 26 in.). Claasen 19 slipulates lhat 66 cm
should not be exceeded, and even recommends 58.5 cm (23 in,). for calandria pans. Consider-
ing risks of inversion, the author recommends 63 .5 - 66 cm (25 - 26 in.).
(b) Use a pan in which the height of the massecuite is restricled to a reasonable value.
(e) Use a design of pan which favours the niovement of lhe massecuile as much as possible,
or, if necessary, actually provjdes .a positivecirculalion." "
l ...
•• 1 MASSECUITE. CIRCULATION · IN, V,ACUUM ,'PANS ', ; ",
Thís ís a much more importanl subject than is generally realised. In most faclories where effi-
ciency is nOl high, molasses exhauslion is lhe aspecl in which Ihere is most 10 be gained. Now,
this exhaustion depends very much on Ihe design of Ihe vacuum pans and panicularly on the
eXlent lO which tité-Y fa¿¡lilale and speed up Ihe circulationof lhemassecuiíe at lhe end of
thestrike. ,,' , , .
. . ' '. ",' ~ ,," ',,~ ..
Hence we inlerid 10 devote 10 lhis question a largé':séct.'on o'tthis Chapter.
We proceed i'o,,~:xarrij'ne lhe circúlatipn.iri.!he lwoprincipallypes of pan: the pan with cen-
tral downtake and lhat wilh floati~g ~alalidria.
What is it that promotes circulation? PUlting aside pans with mechanical circulation,
which we shall study separately, circulalíon in vacuum pans is promoted by Ihe bubbles of
vapour due to heating in the tubes: these bubbles lend lO rise, growing as they do SO, and
agilale the mass and lift il lowards the surface. The circulalion is thus due lO the healing,
and for a given pan, a givenmassecuile level and the same lype of massecuile, is approx-
imalely proponioned lo the degree of healing. If heating is stopped, circulalion also ceases.
The circulalion is assisled, bul lO a slighl eXlend only, by lhe difference in specific gravily
of lhe hOl massecuite rising in the tubes and lhe cooler massecuite descending in lhe centre
or annular downlake after releasing its heat by evaporation al the surface. The vapour bub·
bies, however, 'are the main promoter' of circulalion.
While lhe circulation is caused and accelerated by this motive force, il is, on lhe olher
hand, slowed down by the resislance due to lhe shape and disposition of the calandria lubes,
and Ihe resultant pressure drop.
650 SUGAR BOlLING Ch. 33
Descending passage. The return of massecuile from lOp to bottom of the pan takes place
by lhe cenlral downlake, or lhe annular space, depending on lhe type of pan.
ülder pans had a very small centre well, for example, 20070 of the inside diameter of the
pan, hence a very poor circulation. About 1935, the disadvantage of this narrow restriction
began to be realised. Webre'o recommended a downtake of diameter 50% of the inside
diameter of the pan; Tromp" recommended 40070; in Hawaii" a great improvement was ob-
lained by installing pans with a centre well diameter of 45 - 50%. We discuss later the
calculalion of the optimal diameter of the downtake (p. 656).
The analogous problem for the f1oating-calandria pan is to determine the optimal interval
between calandria and wall .of·the pán(p .. 658).YVhile modern pans with central downtake
generally have calandria with f1atupper and lower tube plates, and consequently tubes of
equal lengths, the f1oating-calandria pan has a lower tube piare of truncated cone form and
consequently tubes of unequal lengths. We shall c;onsider two principal lengths:
(a) The height at the outer edge of the calandria, L. ,
(b) The mean lengthof the tubes, L. This mean length is equal to the height of a cylinder
of the same diameter as the calandria and of equal volume. Generally:
L
( = L = 0.7-0.8 (33.12) .
Relation between number and diameter of tubes. The definition of lhe coefficient k (p.
645) gives us, for a pan with central downtake:
-rrd',
n -
4
k
Hence:
t.' - D i l - m'
n=k =k--- (33.13)
d ,P
,
I '
k ratio of the total interior cross-section of the tubes to the total plane surface of the up-
per tube plate
n number of tubes
d interior diameter bf tubes
t. interior diámeter' of the pan at the level of the calandria, in ¡he saine unit
D ==' inside diámeterof the dowritake,in the same unit
m = Dlt.
P = di t..
In the same way, for the f1oating-calandria pan:
7fd'
n--
4
k---
-rrF'
4
MASSECUITE CIRCULATION IN VACUUM PAN S 651
Hence:
F' /'
n k- k- (33.14)
d' p'
F
/=
t:.
I Relation between diameter and useful capacily of the pan. In lTIodern pans, with a normal
lube lenglh and a maximal massecuile level of Ihe arder of 1.5111 (5 fl.) aboye Ihe upper lUbe
plale, lhe useful massecuile capacily may be laken as proporlional lO lhe square of the
diameler:
v = 1.9 (33.15)
v = ralio of useful capacity to Ihe square of the pan diameter

V = useful capacity o f the pan, in m) (cu.n.)
t:. = inside diameter of the pan, in m (ft.).
We have thus:
V t:. V t:.
(m 3) (m) (cu.fl.) (JI.)
20 3.25 500 9
30 4 1,000 12.7
40 4.6 1,500 15.5
50 5.1 2,000 18
60 5.6 2,500 20
80 6.5 3,000 22
. : ",
Losses of head
The whole problem of massecuite circulati on is governed by the losses of head suffered by
Ihe massecuite in the circuit which il describes in the pan. Its movemenl is relatively free in
the upper par! of the pan and even near Ihe bOllom; Ihe principal resistances which il en-
COUnlers are: (1) passing through the tubes, which causes a loss of head J; (2) its return by
the downlake or annular space, which produces a loss of head J'. Other causes of head loss
may be neglected relative to these two main factors.
We shall consider the circulation only in a pan filled with tight and heavy massecuite, near
Ihe end of the strike. This is in fact the only interesting case; since in any pan, even if badly
designed, circulation is easy while the massecuite is light and mobile. It is only at theend
of the strike Ihat well-designed pans c1early exhibit their superiorilY and their fast boiling.
No\\', as pointed out by Jenkins 13 , the movement of the massecuite, in the final phase of
the charge which we are considering, iS 'in viscous or laminar f10w in the lubes and the centre
well or Ihe annular space. Turbulenl now OCCllrs only in Ihe early slages of Ihe charge, befare
graining or when lhe grain is still small and insigniricant in quanlily. We may Iherdore apply
Poiseuille's law which applies for laminar flow:
qL 1~8J:'. . (33.16)
n 7fd" JO g
and:
J'p (33.17)
Jp loss of head for Ihe upward currenl passing Ihrough Ihe calandria tu bes, in kg/m 2
J; pressure drop for the descending current passing lhrough Ihe cenlre \Vell, in kg/m'
Q volume flow of each of these slreams, in mJ/s
n number of lubes in the calandria
L height of the calandria (assuming horizontal tube plates), in m
- ¡;. viscosity of the massecuite, in poise
d = inside diameter of the tubes, in m
D inside diameter of the centre well, in m
g 9.81 mis/s = acceleralion due 10 gravily.
This equation also applies if all dimensions are in feet, viscosity in f.p.s. units, head losses
in Ib.lsq.ft., volume flow in cu.ft./s, and g in ft./s/s.
We now require to know Ihe corresponding values J F and J; for Ihe noating-calandria
pan. Jr has a similar form to J p , it being understood that L now represents Ihe mean lenglh
of the calandria tubes (p. 650). It is now required to calculale J;.
We shall firsl derive an expression for the head loss as a l·unCI ion of lhe dimensions 01· I he
annular space, in other words, the equivalent of Poiseuille's law for an annlllar space. We
shall retain Ihe same nOlations as aboye, adding:
F = calandria diameter, in m (ft.)
2E = width of the annular space = (,1 - F)/2.
We shall consider an annulus of massecuite, on each side of Ihe median cylinder of average
radius R situated in the middle of the annular space, equidistant from the calandria and rhe
wall of Ihe pan (Fig. 33.15).
The median annulus of massecuite, of Ihickness 2e (e on each side of Ihe median cylinder),
is in equilibrium under the efrects of: (1) the viscosity ¡;. of the medillm; (2) [he pressure dif-
ference or loss of head J; .. We have
du
27fL, (R + e + R - e) ¡¡. - Ji 7f [(R + e)' - (R - e)']
de
whence:
du J' J'
- . -Fe u F
-- e 2 + constant
de ¡;.L, 2¡;.L, .
MASSECUITE CIRCULATION IN VACUUM PANS 653
F
L,
. R
Fig. 33.15. Floating calandria. Calculation of head IOS5.
We shall determine the constan! from the fact that, for e = ± E, u = O:
O
J;
. _.- E' + constan! constant
E']'r
2p.L, 2p.L,
whence:
J'
U _F_ (E' - e')
2p.L,
Considering a very thin cylinder of massecuile of thickness de, the corresponding flow of
massecuite has the value:
d Q = 2?r (R + e) de ' u + 2?r (R - e) de ' u 4?rRde'u
or:
27rRJ;
dQ - - (E' - e') de
p.L,
Hence:
Finally, we have the value for the loss of head corresponding to the passage of massecuite
along the annular space:
3p.QL,
J'F =
In f.p.s. units:
J'F QL 3¡;. (33.IS)

'87rRE' g
or, in m.k.s. units:
J' = QL 3¡;.
F 'S7rREJ 10g
Since:
.6.+F E = _.6._ _
F
R = and:
4 4
we may also write (m.k.s. units):
J' = L 128¡;. x 0.75

(33.19)
. F Q, 7r (.6. + F) (.6. - F)' 10 g
or again, since (eqn. (33.12» Le = IL:
J' = QL 128¡;. X 0.751 (33.20)

F 7r (.6.' - F') (.6.- F)' 10 g
Order of magnitude. To assist the explanation, we shall ascertain the magnitude of J p ,

J;, and of JF and J;. Eliminating with this object the common and very variable factors, we
may write:
>- 128 ¡;.QL (m.k.s. units)

10 g7r .6.'
Thus we have:
J=>-_I-
p >------ J = >--
I >- _1_
np' k (I - m') p' F np' kf'p'
0.75 1
J' = >- _1_ J'F = >- (33.21) ,
P m' (I - 1') (1 -fJ'
Taking values of:
p 0.03 m = 0.4 f ;= 0.85 1 = 0.S3 (k = 0.5)
we have:
2,646 >- JF = 3,076 >-

39 >- J'F = 100),
T
.f + T' I 1/ _ .., 1"~ ,
MASSECUITE ClRCULATlON IN VACUUM FANS 655
Thi s shows Ihal, for typical values, the n oa ling-calandria pan would theoretically giv.e a
101(1lloss of head gre(1ler Ihan Ihal for a slandard Iype of pan of Ihe same diameler. In order
10 make Ihese equal, il would be necessary, again Iheorelicall y, tha t Ihe f1oating-calandria
pan should have a diameler 1;.' such thal:
\
3,176
or: 1;.' 1.043 1;.
2,685
In facl il is found Ihat for equal diamelers, Ihe floaling-calandria pan gives a circulalion
al leasl as good as rhal of rhe pan with cenlral downtake. This is probably due to the difficul -
ty encountered by Ihe massecuile descending from Ihe surface in a downtake closely s ur-
rounded by a hot rising massecuite which endoses it and quickly encroaches upon il.
Equivalent diameter. In hydraulics, from Ihe point of view of head losses, a non-circular
cross-seclion may be Irealed as a circular one having Ihe same ratio :
Cross-section of passage
Wetted perimeter
For a circular section, this ratio has a value: .
'lrD2
4 D
'lrD 4
For an annulus between two cireles of respective diamelers 1;. and F, lhe equivalent
diameler D will lhus be given by:
'Ir (1;.' - F2)

D 4 F
= --:-:-~=- = - ;--
4 'Ir (1;. + F) 4
Hence:
D=I;.-F or: (33.22)
For a narrow passage e belween two plane walls of infinite or very greal lenglh z, we would
have in the same way:
D Ze e
= - = -
4 22 2
D
e
2
656 SUGAR BOILlNG Ch.33
This gives a useful comparison between tubes and plate elements.
Dimensioning for minima! head !osses

11 is inleresling to seek lhe relalionship belween lhe diameler d of lhe lubes and lhe diameler
D of lhe centre welJ, or lhe widlh (él. - F)/2 of lhe annulus, when lhe tolal head losses are
minima!:
(1) Pan wilh centre welJ. We ha ve (eqns. (33.13), (33.16) and (33.17»:
J + J' =
128 p.QL (1- + -
1) with:
él. l D'
n = k -- - -
P P 10 g'lr nd' D'
For a given pan and a given rate Q of massecuile in lhe circuil, we require to find lhe
minimum value of:
1.
z =
nd'
+
D'
------+
k (~' - D') d' D' él.'
[ k (1 - m') p' + -1
m'
]
or of:
y - - - - +
k (1 - ml) p' m'
Differenlialing this expression wilh respect 10 m: '"
dy 2 kp'm 4
=
dm k' (1 - m')' p' m'
This is equal 10 O for:
2 kp'm 6 4 k'p' (J - m')'
or:
m6 = 2 kp' (1 - m')' (33·:P)
Let r = p .J 2k. Expression (33.23) beco mes:
m' + rm' - r = O (33.24)
Let m = x - r13; (33.24) lhen becomes:
O (33.25)
which has lhe form Xl + ax + b O.

We can thus write:
l
b' + -
- r ' (2r
a' = - -
4 27 4 27
The equation thus has a unique root: x = A + B. Writing:
I
b +
A = , _ "2 J~.
4 + 27 = j, ("2 -
l r I r' )
27 +
Since ~ "" 1- E, and since r is very small and r ' negligible relative lO t, we may wrile:
{n the same way:
The rool is thus:

r
n - -
4.
rl
-
27
=
x A+B
Hence:
m x - -
r
3
vr -:.-3
or:
.f2k
m p-- (33.26)
3
. We see that, for a pan of a given diameter Ll, the head loss in the circulation of massecuite
wilJ be minimal for a certain value of m, that is, of the diamete¡- of the centre welJ, which
depends on the relative diameter p of the tubes.
This conclusion is important and has never been stated before the present author drew at-
tention to it l4 . Most manufacturers do nol take il into account, and adopt a fixed ratio m
of lhe downtake, while using a standard tu be diameter (hence a variable value of p) in all
their pans from the smallest to ¡he largest. Failure to recognise this is moreover more surpris-
ing since, without any calculation, the interdependence of the relative diameters mand p,
from the point of view of head loss, is evident from first considerations.
Equation (33.26) gives ¡he following table of values ofm corresponding to various values
of p:
658 SUGAR BOIL1ND Ch. 33
TABLE 33.4
OPTIMAl THEORETlCAL VALUES OF RELATIVE DIAMETERS m OF TUBES ANO CENTRE WELL
k P
0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035 0.040
0.40 0.2556 0.2743 0 .2904 0.3047 0.3176

0.45 0.2604 0.2794 0 .295 8 0.3103 0.3234
0.50 0.2648 0.2841 0 .3007 0.3154 0.3287
0.55 0.2688 0.2883 0.3052 0.3201 0.3335
It is realised that the theoretical yalues of 117 are at faull, on accOllnt of the zone of pertur-
bation arollnd and aboye the cylinder which forms the centre well. To obtain practical op-
timal values, which we designate by M', we apply to them the correction giyen by the follow-
ing formula:
- m
M' 117 + (33.27)
10
M' = practical optimal vallle of the relative diameter of [he downtake = DI b.

m = theoretical optimal value of this diameter, given by eqn. (33.26) or Table 33.4
D = diameter of centre well
b. = diameter of the pan at the calandria level .
Thus M' = 0.37 for m = 0.30. This giyes us Table 33.5 of practical values or M'.
I! will be noted that, ror normal conditions, the re is no adyantage in exceeding 40"10 ror
the centre well, ir the correction suggested by our formula (33.27) is surricient.
TABLE 33 .5
OPTlMAL PRACT¡CAL VALUES OF RELATIVE DlAMETER M' OF CENTRE WELL
k P
0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035 0.040
0 .40 0 .330 0.347 0.36t 0 .374 0 .386

0.45 0 .334 0.35 t 0.366 0.3 79 0.391
0.50 0 .338 0.356 0.371 0.384 0 .396
0. 55 0. 342 0.359 0.375 0.3 88 0.400
(2) Floating-calandria pan. Following the same calclllation as for the pan with centre well,
the total head loss is (eqns. (33.16) and (33 .20):
128 ¡;.QL 1 0.75 I ]

[ - +
10 g 'Ir nd' (b. '2 F2) (b.' -. F)2
and we require the minimum value of (ef. eqn. 33.14):
0.75 I 1 0.75 I ]
z = + [
kF'd' (Li" - F') (Li' - F)' Li" kf'p' + (I - f') (I - 1)'
that is, of:
1 0.75 I
y --+
k/,p' (1 - /') {I - 1)2
Differenliating this express ion wilh relation 101 we have:
dy 2 (1 + 21)
= + 1.5 I
d1 kp'f' . (I - /')' (1 - 1)'
We require the value of 1 for which
dy =O or: (1 - 1')' (1 - 1)2 = 0.75 kl p'

d1 (1 + 21) l'
We shall solve this equation bya graphical method, by drawing the graph representing the
value of the 1st member as a function off. We then give to the 2nd member the various values
which we will take for various values of p. Taking Ihe values of 1 on the graph corresponding
to these diverse values of the 2nd term, we may eo nstru ct Ihe graphs of Fig. 33.16 which ex-
press between themselves the optimal values of 1 and of p, as a funetion of the eommonest
values of the product kl. These optimaJ values of 1 are all incIuded between 0.86 and 0.92,
most often between 0.87 and 0.91. As for the central downtake, we find that the relative in-
terval (1 - 1)/2 depends on the relative diameter of the tu bes, p.
For a reason anaJogous 10 that quoted with reJation to a centre well, it is realised that th~se
optimal theoretical vaJues of 1are in error, being too high. Accordingly we shall take as the
optimal dimension that furnished by lhe value 1':
1'=1-~ (33.28)
5
Hence we obtain:
TABLE 33.6
OPTIMAL PRACTICAL VALUES OF RELATIVE DIAMETER J' OF A FLOATING CALANDRIA
kl P
0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035 0.040
0 .30 0.898 0 .886 0.877 0 .867 0.859

0.40 0 .890 . 0.878 0.867 0.858 0.849
0 .50 0.885 0.872 0.860 0.850 0.842
0.92.-'--r-T-.--.-.-.-~~~r-.-.--r-'-1~-r~~r-~.-~
I-"k;:--t--t-+ - -j--- -1-- -1- - 1--- - - +--+--+-}- . f- -- +- -1---1

. . . . . r----.
r-
F ,,-calandria di"",eter
0 .88 1-- d '" tube diameter
~ = pan di a me te r
tubescross_ section I -_
r----.r::.2: r-. . . .
-
0.87 '-- k totat afea 01 calandria l-~I~ -+-I---I--J.-+'-+---+--I-+-Ir:::..-k_'-/
- L_lalé ral height 01 calandri
- mean length 01 tubes
0.8 6 f--.!¡~~~
1~11~1~=1--~-+--I-- ~--+-+--+--l-+-I--I--+--J
0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035 0.040
Fig. 33 . 16. Floaling-calandria pans. ReJation belweenfandp for minimal tOlal head 1055.
It is obvious that the use of different tube diameters would presenl disadvantages.
However, it is necessary to remember the influence of the ratio of diameters of the tubes and
the centre well, for example, if only 10 fix the area of Ihe descending currenl of massecuile
in lerms of the slandard diameler which should be adopled for Ihe lubes.
Choice of cenlre well or f10aling calandria

The difference between Ihe results recorded with Ihese two types of pan is rather slighl, and
can vary according to the more or less careful design of Ihe pan.
We ha ve been conce rned in fact with los ses of head, bul Ihere are Ihree olher impOrlanl
characteri st ics:
(a) Graining ' vo lume
(b) Maximum level of massecuite
(e) Healing surface.
(a) The graining volume depends largely on the design of the bOllom of Ihe pan. Wilh
standard designs, the t'wo types of pan do not differ much from this poinl of view, but ii
is possible 10 obtain a graining volume slightly more advanlageous wilh Ihe ce nlre-we ll pan.
The floating-calandria pan can with difficulty give a value below 30OJo and frequenlly reaches
33 OJo.
(b) As regards maximum level of massecuite, there is very little difference between the tw·o
types of pan.
(e) Considering heating surface, we have seen (p. 655) that the floating-calandria pan
Iyould theoretically require a slightly greater diameter to avoid having a higher head loss for
equal healing surface. Generally, it is preferred to have a calandria slighlly smaller, and con-
sequentlya heating surface slightly lower; the results obtained are nevertheless equivalent.
Speed of circulalion
J Webre" has delermined lhe velocity of circulation of massecuite in a calandria pan, of the
following characteristics:
Diameler of pan: 3.6 m (12 ft.)

Diameter of centre well: 0.9 m (36 in.)
Height of calandria: 1.2 m ( 4 ft.)
Diameter of tubes: 0.127 m ( 5 in.)
Number of tubes in calandria: 418
Heating surface: 195 m' ( 2,100 sq.ft.)
Maximull1 height of massecuite aboye upper tube plate: 2.1 m (7 ft.)

Working volume: 34 m 3 (1,200 cu.ft.)
Massecuite boiled during test: C massecuite
The graph in Fig. 33.17 gives tile mean circulation speeds found in the course of the slrike.
Tile velocity of circulation, which averaged 0.47 mis (1.53 fl./s) during the first hour, fell
to 0.0043 mis (0.014 ft./s) during the sixth hour. it is seen that, 2 hours after the commence-
6.----------------------------,24
--
5: 18
E4
"O
e u
--
~
o ~
~o 3 12 Q1
J:
U U
L
'0 lO
"O 2
2'
'0 6
.Q
~ 1
o 4 6
Time elapsed, hours
Fig. 33.17. Circularion speed during a strike.

662 SUGAR BOILrNG" eh 33
menl of Ihe slrike, Ihe speed of circulalion has already fallen to a very low value, Near the
end, ir' is negligible.
In Ihe beel induslry, Claassen 26 gives Ihe following velocilies:
Velocily
Purily
al slarl ar finish
A massecuite 96 - 1,68 mi s (3.3 - 5.5 rU s) 0.22 mis (0.72 rUs)

B massecuile 82 033 - 0.22 mi s (1.08-0.72 rt .ls) 0.006 mis (0.02 rLls)
With cane, Bosworih" indicares lhe following mean velocilies of circululion:
Refinery massecuile: 20 cm/s (8 in ./s)

Raw 'faclory A massecuile: 10 (4)
Raw faclory AB massecuile: 8 (3)
Raw faclory B massecuile: 4 cm/s (1.6 in ./s)
Raw faclory C massecuile: 2 (0.8)
EVAPORATION COEFFIClENT
The evaporalion coefficienl of a pan is Ihe weighl of water evaporaled from Ihe massecuile
per unil healing surface in uni! of time. It is generally expressed as kg/ m' / h (Ib ./sq.fl ./h).
The va rialion in evaporalion coefficienl in Ihe course, 01' a s lrike is similar 10 Ihe variulion
of Ihe velocity of circulalion, which we have jusI discussed. The same tests by Claassen in
a beel fa clory gave:
Evapora/ion coefficienl
Purity
(kglm'/h) (Ib .lsq.jt./h)
Al slarl Al Jinish Al starl Al Jinish
A massecuite 96 55 0.7 11 0.14

B massecuite 82 10 1.0 2.05 0.2
These figures correspond 10 Ihe following heal-Iransfer coefficienls:
Heat-transJer coefficienf
PurilY
(kcall m' / OCl h) (8. T. U.lsq.jI./°Flh)
Al slarl Al finish Al slort Al finish
A massec uite 96 850 - 1,000 200 180-200 40

B massecuile 82 200 - 300 50 - 100 40- 60 10 - 20
,. . . HEAT1NG STEAM 663
Webre" gives, for cane massecuites :
Evapora/ion ro/e, in kg/m'/h (Ib ./sq.f/./h)

Puriry
Al slar{ A/ finish Average
B massecu ¡le 72 34 (7) 1.2 (0.25) 11 (2.26)
the hear-transfer coefficienl varying, in the course of the st rike, from 490 to 24 kcal /m'l
°Clh {100-4.88 B.T.U .lsq.nPF/h).
For ca landria pans in Cuba, rhe same author" gives finally the evaporation coefficients
quoted in Table 33.7). We add so me figures from South Africa:
TABLE 33 .7 (ef. TABLE 40.8)
EVAPORATION RATES OF PANS. IN kg/ m'/h (Ib./sq.rt ./h)
Max;mum Minimum Adop/ed in S. Afriea
FOOlings 85 (17.5) 17 (3.5 ) 79 (16.1)

A massecuj(es 71 (14.6) 32 (6.6 ) 59 (12.0)
B massecuites 46 ( 9.4) 11 (2.2 ) 49 (10.0)
e ma ssecuites 36 ( 7.5) 1. 7 (0.34) 39 ( 8.0)
Honi g JO gives, for an A massecuite of purity 86, with a coil pan and heating steam at
1.25 - 1.4 kg / cm' absolute (18 - 20 p.s.i.a.), the following de.tails of the values of evapora-
tion coefficient:
COllcenrrating 60° brix syrup to saturalion: 120 -70 kg/m'/h) (25-15 Ib.lsq.fl./h)
lntroduction of magma and establishing
the grain: 70 - 58 (15 - 12
From footing to final volume of
massecuite: 58 -47 (12- 10
Heavyi ng up the massecuite during the last
20 minutes: 47 -23 (10- 4.7)
HEATING STEAM
Formerly, eDi l pans were heated with direct steam, generally reduced to 2 - 2.8 kg/cm' gauge
(30 - 40 p.s.i.g). At present , all strikes are heated either with exhaust steam or, to a con- ..
siderable extent, by bled vapour. Good modern pans, however, are necessary to enable sugar
boiling to be done with bled vapour, and the boiling is obviously slightly slower. On the other
hand, there is less risk of decompos ition of sucrose. Sometimes even vapour under slight
vacuum is used. Generally, vapour from the 1st effect is used; if the boiling becomes too slow
or difficult at the end of the strike, a change is made to exhaust steam for heavying up.
When bled vapour is used, it is advisable to open the incondens a ble-gas valves more widely
(cf. "Setlings of Valves", p. 528).
Steam entry
For pans with centre well, it is preferable to distribute the Sleam through several entries plac-
ed around the calandria. A great quantity of steam surging against the outer tubes im-
mediateJy in front of the steam entry produces a very rapid circulation at that point at the
beginning of the strike, at the expense of other zones of the calandria. At the end of the
strike, however, during heavying up, this zone near the steam entry produces false grain.
From this point of view, it is also advisabJe to provide each steam entry with a conical baffle
to distribute the steam, and avoid such direct impingement on the tubes facing the steam en-
try.
For f1oating-calandria pans, lhe best system of steam entry is to pass the steam ínlet pipe
through the save-all and bring it down vertically to the centre of the calandria. The pipe is
furnished with a jac ket leaving a space of J 9 mm (~ in.) under vacuum between the steam
pipe and jacket, to avoid splashes of massecuite becoming caramelised on the hot pipe.
STEAM CONSUMPTlON AT THE PAN STAGE
In evaporation, we llave seen (p. 563) tllar 1 kg of heating steam wa s s ufficient tu evaporare
approximately 1 kg of water from the juice.
At the pan stage, if the steam consumption of the pans is expressed as a ratio of the
theoretical quantity of water to be evaporated from lhe syrup, it is seen that this ratio is ap-
preciably greater than l. This is due to water used to dilute the molasses, water for washing
out the pans, and water for dissolving false grain, all of which represent additional water
which must be evaporated as well as that present in the syrup.
What then is the ratio k ro be allowed for between the quantity of steam required and the
quantity of water originally present in the syrup?
Deerr) I estimates: 1.43

Tromp": 1.74
Webre)): 1.23
Webre)4, however, ha s more recently given the following more detailed values, relative to
a juice quantity of 45,000 kg (100,000 lb.) per hour at 16 0 brix:
Evapora(jon Sleam consumplion Coefficielll k

(kg/h) (Ib ./h) (kg/h) (Ib.h)
Strikes A 2,760 6,090 3,035 6,700 !.lO
B t,O t 5 2,240 1, t65 2,575 1. 15
e 890 1,970 1,070 2,365 1.20
TOlal 4,665 10,300 5 ,270 11,640 I.IJ

_ STEAM CONSUMPTION AT THE PAN STAGE 665
The coefficient in Ihis case, however, lakes into accounl only heat losses, as the water for
diluting molasses is included in the 1st column; this gives a mean coefficient km = 1.30:
kA = 1.27
ko 1.32
kc 1.38
km = 1.30
At Pleystowe, in Auslralia", and in the Philippines 36 , the quantilies ofwater, in addilion

to concentration requirements, have been measured. Table 33.8 gives the figures obtained:
TABLE 33.8
QUANTITY OF WATER TO BE EVAPORATED AT PANS, IN kg/l.c. (lb./Lc.)
A uslra/ia Philippines
Movement or balancing water 13.7 (30.2)

26.0 ( 57.5)
Pan washour water 2.9 ( 6.5)
Molasses di[ution water 13.2 (29.1) 6.5 ( 14.3)
Wash water al cenIrifugals 5.5 (12.2) 1. 9 ( 4.2)
. Total added water 35.3 (78.0) 34.4 ( 76.0)

Original water from syrup 49.8 (110.0)
Total waler la be evaporated 84.2 (186.0)
The figures for the Philippines correspond to an evaporation 1.7 times the theoretical
quantity of water to be evaporated from the syrup. However, the quantities added may show
great variations between one cOllnlry and anolher; in Taiwan"", for example, figures have
been reported of 1.3 wilh defecation and 1.6 for carbonalion.
We may determine this coefficient k by a calculation similar lo that of p. 562 applied to
a vacuum pan for the whole period of a strike. The heat lost is obviously very important,
on accounl of the time necessary to effect the necessary heat exchange. lt may be estimated
at about 20"70 of the total heat transferred during the strike. The result depends to a great
extelll 011 the quantity of water added to the molasses and returned to the pan, expressed as
a percentage of the water originally present in the syrup. This varies greatly according to the
methods used. In the French sugar faclories which we are acquainted wilh, it should scarcely
exceed 10 - 20"70.
In these conditions, we find k = 1.5. FCB admits km = 1.52.
For the individual steam consumption of a vacuum pan, we may take as a mean J7 for the
duration of the charge 0.22 t/h of steam per m J (14 Ib./h/cu. fL) of nominal capacity for
A massecuite, or 0.18 (11.5) for C massecuite.
Values generally accepted. Widely diverging figures are given in the technicalliterat"ure for
the steam consumption of vacuum pans:
666 SUGAR BOJLlNG eh. 33
Stearn consumplion
(kgl¡.c.) (Ib./¡.c.)
17 123 275
Lapez and Clark ':
Paturau 37b : 125 280
Flelcher and Slewan, vapaur al I04'C: 140 314
Jenkins J7c : 115-170 kglLC.; mean : 150 336
In Australia J ?: 160 358
In Brazil:
ordinary pan: 165 370
pan with circulator: 128 287
Calculation of steam consumption. For eaeh of the three masseeuites, we may reekon:
Sleam eonsumption = Qkm kg/h per Le. (33.29)
Q = kg of masseeuile per I.c .h.
Masseeuile A: k = 0.275 Batch operation: m = 1.5

Masseeuile B: k = 0.300 eontinuous operation: m = 1.2
Masseeuile e: k = 0.360
Example. Assuming A ma ssee uil e is boiled in balch operalion, and B al1d e in conlinuous
operarion;
Vulume or A massecuite = 140 liLe. . Weighl = 140 x 1.47 = 206 kg/Le. (460 Ib.lLe.)
Volume of B masseeuile = 54 l/Le. Weight = 54 x 1.47 = 80 kg/ Le. (180 Ib .lLC.)
Volume of e masseeuile = 361/1.c. Weight 36 x 1.47 = 53 kglI.c. (119 Ib. / I.c.)
Steam eonsumplion:
A slrike: 206 x 0.275 x l.5 85 kg (190 lb.) Sleam per Le .

B strike: 80 x 0.300 x 1.2 = 29 kg ( 65 lb.) steam per Le.
e strike: 53 x 0.360 x 1.2 = 23 kg ( 50 lb.) sleam per Le.
137 kg (305 lb.) Sleam per l.e.
Steam for agitation. Due to lhe high densily of the massecuile at the end of Ihe charge:
ir circulates very slowly al thal slage and remains almosl motionless in certain zones of Ihe
pan. Mechanieal circulalion eonlribures sllongly to improve lhe SilUarion. bul one remedy
adopled is admission 01' live sleam inlo Ihe ma ssee uile by means 01' a circul,¡r perl'oraled pipe
al Ihe borlom of lhe old rype of pans. aboul one-lhird or Ihe radial widlh 01' Ihe calandria.
reekoned from Ihe ourer wall of the pan, rhal is, ar a disranee from Ihe wal! 01':
HEATING SURFACE AND RATIO OF HEATING SURFACE TO YOLUME 667
In South Africa, this agitating steam is given the name of "jigger steam" (perhaps implying
Sleam which makes Ihe massecuile dance a jig). The quantity of addilional steam thus con-
sumed may altain 50"70 of rhe evaporalion produced as a whole in the pan. The coefficient
m indicated above can thus extend, for example, from 1.5 to 2.25. For economy, Fives
Cail- Babcock, in its continuous pans, uses for such agitation the incondensable gases escap-
ing from the pan.
HEATING SURFACE AND RATIO OF HEATING SURFACE TO YOLUME
A very important factor in the design and performance of vacuum pans is the ratio of their
heating surface to their working capacity. We have just seen (p. 598) that lhis ratio in itself
is nor sufficient to characterise the evaporalive capacily or the speed of a pan; bUI, for the
majority of pans with tube diameters as used at present, it constitutes a dominating factor.
For a convenient expression of this ratio, lhe working volume is expressed in cubic metres,
wilh healing surface in square metres (in cubic feet and square feet in the British system).
We have then:
s Heating surface of pan

(33.30)
V Working capacity
A well-designed pan should have a definite ratio SI V. However, this ratio should depend:
(a) On the steam used for heating
(b) On the massecuite to be handled.
(a) Steam. Coil pans,utilising steam at pressures between 0.5 and 4 kg/cm' (7 and 60
p.s.i.), generally have a ratio SIV of 3.3 -4.9 m'/m' (1-1.5 sq.ft./cu.Jt.), preferably.
3.9-4.6 (1.2-1.4).
Calandria pans, utilising exhaust steam at a pressur,e of 0.5 - 1 kg/cm' (7 - 15 p.s.i.), "
should have a ratio SI V of 4.9 - 6.6 m '1m' (1.5 - 2.0 sq. ft./cu. f1.).
lf Ihese pans are intended to use normally bled vapour from effects; at a pressure of
0-0.42 kg/cm' (0-6 p.s.i.), it will be advisable to in crease their heating surface so as to
raise their .ratio SIV to 6.6-7.2 m'/m' (2-2.2 sq.ft./cu.ft.).
The optimum proportions of heating surface are summarised in Table 33.9.
In other words, the heating surface will be increased all the more according as the steam
used is at lower temperature.
TABLE 33.9
RATIO OF HEATING SURFACE TO YOLUME
Type o[ H.S. Sleam used Sleam press. Oplimum S/V ratio

(kg/cm') (p.s.i.g.) (m '1m ') (sq.ft./cu.ft.)
Coils Live steam 0.5 - 4 7 -60 3.9 -4.6 1.2 - 1..4

Calandria Exhaust 0.5-1 7 - 15 4.9-6.6 1.5 - 2.0
Calandria Bled vapour O -0.4 0- 6 6.6 -7.2 2.0 - 2.2
668 SUGAR 1\011ING Ch. 33
(b) Massecuile. The influence of [he massecuire be [rea[ed is less importan¡ rhan rha[
!O
of lhe sleam. However, it is desirable lo take il into account, since the massecuite becomes
more viscous as i[s purity decreases. Now j[ js necessary to hea[ a viscous, badly circulating
massecui[e more carefully and more genlly, on accounl of the risk of caramelisa[ion and for-
mation of false grain. Hence it is desirable 10 decrease rhe heating surface and also the sream
pressure, when low-grade material is being Ireated, so that Ihe rale of boiling may be reduced
as required by Ihe viscosity of Ihe material.
Table 33.10 gives, for example, suitable figures for differenl grades 01' masseeuite, using
exhausl sleam.
TABLE jJ.IO
OPTIMUM VALUE OF RATIOS/V FOR D1FFERENT STRIKES

.... _--_ ._---
Time lor strike Ro/io S/ V
(hours) (m' / m') (sq.jl.lcu.jl .)
Refined sugars 2 9.8 J

Special white sugars 2; - 3 8.2 2.5
1s1 massecuites 3-4 59 1.8
Low-gradc massecuiles 4-8 4.9 1.5
HEIGHT OF MASSECUITE, CIRCULATtoN, HEATlNG SURFACE AND GRA1NING VOLUME
lt musl not be supposed Ihal a desired ratio of heating surface volume and a cerlain grain-
10
ing volume ean be adoP led independenlly. There are in effeel four importanl faelors 10 which
one should slrive lO give th e op[imum value when designing a pan of a given eapaci[y:
(a) The maximum heighl of Ihe massecuite, which should be as small as possible, [O avoid
re-solulion of cryslals.
(b) The circulalion, which should be as rapid as possible, in order 10 give rapid working
and a good exhaustion.
(e) The graining volume, which should be as smal! as possible, in order 10 permil Ihe max-
imum exhaustion wilh [he minimum volume of massecuite per 10llne 01' caneo
(d) The heating surface required lO give the desired ralio SI V. For A and B massecUi[es,
the higher Ihe heating surface, the fasler wil! be Ihe pan; for low-grade pans, where su eh fas[
boiling is nol required, Ihe greater Ihe healing surface, the lower will be Ihe pressu're and
lemperalure of Ihe heating steam required, hence lower heat losses and less colour formalion.
It is readily seen Ihal Ihese four faelors are contradictory:
(a) If Ihe heighl of Ihe massec llile is decreased, circulalion wil! be improved, bllt Ihe grain-
ing volume will be increased . Or, if Ihe same graining volume is mailllailled, Ihe healing sur-
face will be decreased.
(b) If Ihe circulalion is 10 be improved, for a given Iype of pan, it is of[en necessary lO
increase Ihe centre well or Ihe annular space, and thus to decrease the healing surface. The
graining volume al the same lime is increased. In the same way, increasing lhe [ube diameler
would improve [he circula[ion, but at Ihe expense 01' healing surface, in 11-\'0 ways: firsily,
CAPACITY OF PANS 669
because, for a given calandria, the healing surface is inversely proportional lO lube diameler;
secondly (see Tables 33.5 and 33.6), since, when the tube diameter is increased, the diameter
of Ihe centre well or the width of lhe annular space must be increased in order to conserve
optimal proportions.
, Finally, we see that, for a given type of pan, a given diameter of tubes, and a given circula-
tion space (central or other downtake), a compromise must be reached between heighl of
massecuite, graining volume and heating-surface - volume ralio. Ir is not possible to do more
than choose the optimum compromise for the duty desired.
These dictates of design render it difficult to design a pan having, for example, more than
5.9 m' heating surface per m J (1.8 sq. ft./cu. ft.) of use fui capacity, without exceeding a grain-
ing vo'lume of 30"70.
Only rhe adoption of mechanical circularion would render solutions possible which other-
wise are absolutely incompatible. In particular, it permits of much greater massecuite
heights, of Ihe order of 2.1 m (7 ft.), without serious risk as regards re-solution of grain.
CAPACITY OF PAN S
The capacity of a vacuum pan is generally measured by the maximum volume of massecuite
which it can contain. This maximum level is generaIly (ef. p. 646) in the middle of the top
sight glass; which obviously is a way of saying that the designer places rhe top sight glass in
such a position that its centre coincides with the maximum level which he has fixed.
However, the voluJ11e of a pan is only superficiaIly the principal factor in its capacity in
terms of tonnes cane per hour. The determining factor is in reaIity its heating surface, which
determines the quantity of water which il can evaporate in the course of Ihe season froJ11 the
syrups, molasses and massecuite which it will llave lO handle. Many people reckon the capaci-
ty of a factory as regards its pans, according to the heating surface of Ihe latter.
Tllere exists moreover a certain proportion between heating surface and working volume
(ef. p. 667). Jf a cOJ11parison is made between various pans, sorne with coils and sorne calan-
drias, and if allowance be made for the fact that SOJ11e of these are heated with exhaust steaJ11,
others by bled vapour, and if it be assuJ11ed that all these pans are correctly proportioned
(that is to say, they have the desired heating-surface - volume ratio), it wil! then be preferable
to refer to them in terms of voluJ11e, because the heating surface has been modified according
lO lhe sream or vapour used for heating. In other words, three pans each of 28 mJ(l ,000
cu.fL):
the first a coil pan, using reduced live steam, with heating surface s = 130 J11' (1,400
sq.ft.),
the second a calandria pan, using exhaust steam, S = 165 m' (l,800 sq'/fL),
the third a calandria, heated by vapour from the 1st vessel, s = 185 m' (2,000 sq. fL),
wilI llave practically the saJ11e working capacity, that is to say, they would boil massecuites
of the same category (A, B or C) in the same tiJ11e.
For lhis reason it remains logical lo reckon pan capacities in terms of voIume. lt wiIl be
of interest lO indicale also the heating surface.
We consider that in raw sugar manufacture and for calandria pans, a pan capacity of 1.6
m J (57 cu.fL) with a heating surface of 9-10 m'/t.c.h. (lOO-lIO sq.ft./t.c.h.) should he
provided. The distribution of this will be indicated later (p. 676). With horizontal pans with
plate elements of the F.L.C. type. these figures could be very readily reduced to 1.5 m' (54
cu.fL) and 9 m'/t.c.h. (IDO sq.ft. / t.c.h .). In South Africa and Mauritius'ó •• 1.7 m' / t.c.h.
(60 cu.ft./t.c.h.) is generally available as a mean volume.
;" ; .-
SUGAR-BOILING .PROCEDURES
. . ..
"
: j
When concentration of the syrup coming from the evaporators is cOnlinued in a vacuum pan,
when the massecuite has been "grained" and "built up". and when this massecuite has been
subsequently passed lo the centrifugals. the sugar remains in the centrifugal basket , and the
mother liquor passes through the gauze. The mother liquor so separated is termed the
"molasses" from the centrifuged massecuite. The first massecuite obtained from virgin syrup
(to which sometimes a c~rtain proportion of first molasses is' "boiled in" 10 th e pan) is called
A (or first) massecuite, a nd the mother liquor separated from it in the centrifugals is called
A molasses, sometimes first molasses or A syrup.
However, this A molasses still contains a high proportion of crystallisable sugar. lt is
therefore put asid e, and is used . for example. to "build up" further massecuites on a suitable
footing. Such a massecuite is then called B or second massecuite, and the mother liquor
which is sepa rated from it in the centrifugals is termed B (or second) molasses.
This operation may be repeated seve'rál times, but the number of massecuites is soo n
limited, beca use :
(1) The molasses beco mes more and more exhausted of sugar
(2) AII the sugar which it contains is not crystallisable, since the non-sugars immobilis e a
certain proportion of sugar
(3) The decrease of purity consequent on the removal of sugar, together with the repeated
boiling, mixing and centrifuging, give rise to an in crease in the viscosity of the successive
mola sses obtained, rendering the last massecuites very difficult to treat and 10 keep in circula-
tion in the pans.
The last molasses obtained. which is considered to be practically exhausted. or from which
no further recovery is attempted, is termed "final molasses", or in common parlance simply
"molasses". It is se nt out from lhe factory to the distillery, where unfortunately iI takes with
it the considerable proportion of sugar which it still contains; though the attempt 10 recover
this sugar has been given up, it is very far from being negligible in quantity, si nce it generally
constitutes the greatest loss suffered in the manufacture.
The procedure employed in order to attain the desired recovery of sugar is obvibusly of
great importance. Accordingly we shall stud y the processes generally employed.
Puritíes. AII processes of sugar boiling are based on purity. Indeed, purity is the simplest
crilerion of exhaustion. Unfortunately, it is not the best: one molasses at 36 apparent purity
may be welI exhausted; another, al 34, may resull from dereclive work and could ha ve been
easily reduced to 32.
SUGAR-BOILING PROCEDURES 671
There are several ways of calculating the purity p. The purily has the value:
jJ_sxJOO (33.31)
B
p = purity
s rIfo in the material analysed
= sugar
B = total material in solution, as % of this material.
.c Now, the quantity of sugar s may be estimated in two ways:
(a) As suerose: for this it is necessary to use the Clerget method of analysis, which is time-
consuming.
(b) As polarisalion, for which a single reading in the polariscope is sllfficient. Since this
method is much simpler and more rapid, it is the one most frequently used. However, on
account of the presence of reducing sugars, the rotatory powerof which is opposite to that
of sucrose (Ievo-rotary instead of dextro-rotary), the polarisation always gives a figure for
sugar content lower than the true quantity of sucrose contained in the soJution.
In the same way, the total solids in solution (sugars plus non-sugars) are determined in
three different ways:
(a) Dry substanee, or solids by drying.
(b) Refraetometrie dry substanee, obtained by the reading ofa refractometer . .This figure
generally differs only sJightly from the true dry substances, but is always higher.
(e) Gravimetrie solids, or "brix", obtained by the reading of a Brix saccharometer or a

hydrometer. This figure differs from the true dry substance in the same direction but more
markedly than the refractometric brix, thus giving a figure appreciably higher. Although the
use of the refractometer has increased greatly, many sugar countries still use the hydrometer,
which means that brix and purity figures are not comparable between the two groups of
countries.
According to the analytical methods employed, we thus distinguish:
(a) True purity:

' . ',' . . \, : 1:
. sucrose '
p = ,.'. (33.32)
dry su bstance ..
(b) Gravity purity:
(33.33)
(e) Apparent puritY!

: ~ . ..
poi
jJ = (33.34)
brix
672 ,: ; :.! : '., SUGAR BOILlNG " . .. , . Ch. 33
....\ ,.: .
Certain American countries still conduct factory control on the basis of apparenl purities.
There is little disadvantage in this for control of the c1arification or for that of molasses ex-
haustion. It is useful, however, lo determine the sucrose (Clerget) for materials which in-
f1uence the sucrose balance to a substantial extent, that is, at least for mixed juice and for
final molasses. The question of exhaustion will be discussed in terms of apparent purities,
with special comment when the question of Clerget purity is involved for molasses.
An approximate calculation is given by
True purity = 21.5 + 0.785 X Apparent purity (33.35)
In the discussion which follows we shall assume thal al! the purities are apparent figures.
The boiling process commences with syrup the purity of which is of the order of 85, and
generally finishes in the cane sugar factory with a molasses the apparent purity of which is
approximately:
Mediocre exhaustion (or unfavourable conditions): 40

Good exhaustion (or normal conditiolls): 36
Very good exhaustion (or good conditions): 32
Exceptional exhaustion (or very favourable conditions): 28
(1) Two-massecuite system

This term describes the process of operating in two stages. It is little used except in temperate
countries where the syrup purity is very low. It consiSls (Fig. 33.18) of forming two types
of massecuite:
(a) A fírst massecuite, of purity 75, formed from a footing of straight syrup, wilh relurn
of high-purity firsl molasses and, if necessary, lower-purity first molasses (see below)
Fobting
o, syru p
2nd Mass
p.GO
'.\
F'inal Molasses
1st Molosses 1st Molasses
p . 35-41
r 19 ht he o v y L-"--''-'-'--''-6!J
p.62 1st Sugar p.55 2nd Sugar
(or magma)
Fig. 33.18. Two-massecuite SySlem . .

SUGAR-BOILING PROCEDURES 673
(b) A second massecuite, of 60 purity, built up on a footing of straight syrup, with return
exclusively of lower-purity molasses.
At the centrifugals the first massecuite may be treated by double purging, or by single
purging with separation of heavy molasses (fugalling without washing) and light molasses of
, higher purity (corresponding to the period of washing with water and steam during which
a certain quantity of sugar dissolved by the water or steam goes out with the molasses).
The purities which should be obtained are indicated in the diagram given (Fig. 33.18),
which is self-explanatory. The sugar from the second massecuite may be either despatched
as it is, for sale, or made into magma in the mixer below the centrifugals for use as footing
for the first massecuites.
Turbines Turbine5
~
e Sug¡w-
Final molasses
9rNr ...... e r
p,.-SQ
Suga r Sugar
p.98"5 p,. 97·~
Fig. 33.19. Three-massecuite system.
(2) Three-massecuite system (Fig. 33.19)

This is the system most frequently adopted. Three types of 'massecuite are boiled:
(a) A massecuite of purity 80- 85, formed on a footing of e magma and built up, accor-
ding 10 the syrup purity, either entirely of straight syrup or on syrup with more or less
substantial additions of A molasses near the end of the strike
(b) B massecuite of purity 68 - 72, formed on a magma footing and built up entirely of
A molasses
e
(e) massecuite of purity 56 - 60, grained on a blend of syrup and A molasses of purity
72 - 75, and built up with B molasses, after establishing and growing the grain.
The A and B sugars are despatched for sale, being centrifuged generally with light washing
\Vith water. In this case a light-coloured raw sugar is obtained, of polarisation about 98.5
for the A and 97.5 for the B sugar. The amount of washing may be varied according to the
quality of sugar required. More often a more thorough washing with steam is used. Generally
the rich and poor moIasses are not separated, to avoid complicating the operation, since these
t\Vo molasses differ only slightly according to the degree of washing employed.
The e sugar is pasty (due to adhering molasses); it may be remelted, but the general and
most economic method consists of remixing it betow the low-grade centrifugals with water,
juice or syrup. The best solution is perhaps the use of juice, taken from lhe c1ear-juice box
of the clarifier, stored and cooled in a small unlagged tank.
674 SUGAR BOILlNG eh. 33
Ir there is an excess of e sugar relative 10 the requirements for A and B footings, il is
remelted ; but this excess can be avoided by controlling the grain size. For example, it may
e
be planned to produce a sugar of 0.3 mm, a B sugar of 0.7 and an A sugar of I mm. The
e
size of the grain depends on the quantity of ground-sugar slurry introduced in the graining,
and on the fineness of the mixture.
e
Remelting the sugar, though il" is less economi cal, has at least the advantage of helping
to give a purer A sugar crystal and one of better filterability.
The purity drops are generally of the order. of:
18 - 20 points between A massecuite and A molasses

21-23 points between B massecuite and B molasses
22 - 30 points between e massecuite anu e moJa sses.
(3) Four-massecuíte system

As far as we know, this. system is utilised only in a few faclOries in Hawaii and the Antille~
and to a diminishing extent in Australia. The author has used it only in exceptional cases.
Four types of massecuite are boiled":
(a) A massecuite, formed from the slraight syrup
(b) AB massecuite, formed from one-third of syrup and two-thirds of A molasses
(e) B massecuite, formed from one-quarter of syrup and three-quarters of AB molasses
(d) e massecuite, formed from one-eighth syrup and seven-eights of B molasses.
The purities obtained are, according ,t o the mutual control of Queensland factories)8,
(averages for 1940), as given in TabJe 33 . 11.
Thesugar from the first three massecuites forms the shipment sugar, wilh puriries of99.5,
99 and 98, respectively.
Thís system, like Ihe preceding one, may equally well be used with magma or grained
footings .
TABLE 33.1 I
PURITIES IN 4-MASSECUlTE SYSTEM
Massecuite Brix Massecuile purily Mol. purily Purity drop Cryslol % brix
A 91.8 86.9 68.8 18. I 57.8

AB 92.4 79.4 59.5 19.9 49. t
B 92.9 72.9 53.4 19.5 41.8
e 93.5 . 61.2 36.8 24.4 38.6
This procedure increases the quantity of moJasses reboiled, and consequenIly tends 10 in-
crease Iheir viscosity, to an extent which risks losing Ihe benefits obtained from the additional .
complications of the system.
Double-magma system. In the 3-massecuite process, which is by far lhe commoneSl, it is

possible to arrange to produce only A sugar, by util ising e
sugar, mi xed inlo magma as
fooling for th e B massecuiles, and lIsing B sugar again in Ihe form of magma as footing for
SUGAR-BOILlNG PROCEDURES 675
the A strikes. Even in this case, it may be arranged so that there is no excess of C sugar;
but there is unavoidably an excess of B sugar. The neatest way of operating then consists
of separating the B centrifugals into two equal groups: one which supplies the sugar ro be
mixed as magma to serve as footing for the A massecuites, the other furnishing commer-
cial sugar. The lalter receives some water wash, while the other half receives no wash.
This system has Ihe advantage that only about 13070 of the commercial sugar consists of
B sugar, instead of about 27%. It allows of more rapid fugalling of the portion of B sugar
which is used as magma, with a better exhaustion since it is not washed; and, contrary to
what may be expected, it requires hardly any extra capacity in pans or A centrifugals than
does the single magma process.
Alternative procedures. There are three main systems of operating the three-massecuite
system:
(a) CB - CA. The C massecuite is seeded and its grain is used as magma to serve as fooling
for the A and B strikes.
(b) CBA. The C massecuite is seeded and its grain is used as magma lO serve as footing
for Ihe B slrike, Ihe grain of which serves as footing for the A slrike. The excess of crystal
is remelted.
(e) Syslem of footing for B and A . A syrup slrike is seeded and this grain serves as fooling
for the B and C strikes. The C sugar is remelted, the B sugar serves as fo o ling for the A
massecuile.
.. ;,-
-. '. ,
Quantitics oC massecuites
Taking into accounl the molasses returned to the various charges, the total volume of
massecuite will be of the order given in Table 33. [2.
These volumes of massecuite per ton of cane will obviously vary with the brix and Ihe
puril Y of Ihe mixed juice, ;above or below Ihe mean values given.
. , TABLE 33 . 12
Syslem
'. "
..
~o,
. 3-mass
., ~~"-'-"-------
. '. : ~ : ¡ -, \ .~1/~, i :l:mass. r ;;: 1 iSingle-,_( f~ JJouble- 4-mass.

magma magma.
A massecuite
.140,' (5)
.. 0" 1
95 (3.4) 125 (4.5) 85

."-
(3 )
AS massecuire 55 (2 )
B massecui(e 30 (1) 50 (1.8) 50 (1.8) 35 (1.3)
e massecuile 37 (1 .3) 37 (1.3) 25 (0.9)
Totals 170 (6) 182 (6.5) 212 (7.6) 200 (7.2) " ¡ I !;";(;; J~
" i
Infiuence of purity on boiling timé , i '

Purity has a marked inf1uence on velocity of crystallisation. Van Hook 39 indicates that, for
certa in syrups, this crystallisation velocity falls by hall' when the purity drops from 100 to
95, and to one-ninth of ilS value when the purilY drops from lOO to 80. Hence there are con-
siderable differences between the times necessary for boiling A, B and e massecuites.
For a given massecuite, it is considered in Jamaica'o that, provided the purity does not dif-
fer too greatly from normal, the tim e for boiling a strike increases by 2070 when the purity
falls by one unit (83 - 82, for example).
Distribution of pans between the various massecuites

The time necessary for a strik e increases rapidly in proportion as the purity of ¡he charge
decreases (cf. Fig. 33.3 and Table 33 . 10). It follows that the proportions of the total pan
volume to be reserved for each of these massecuites vary greatly from the proportions of the
respect ive volumes of the massecuites.
With modern and well-designed pans, the following times of boiling are typical:
S. Africa Fives Cai! - Babcock

A massec uite: 2j- 3 h 4j h 3.3 h
B massecuite: 3 -4 h 6 h 4.5 h
e massecuite: 4 -8 h 9 h 8 h
This leads to the following distribution of pans in terms of useful capacity:
(h! / t. c. h.) (cu.ft,lt.c.h.)

A massecuite: 6 (21) or: 37.5%
B massecuite: 4 (14) or: 25 %
e massecuite: 6 (21) or: 37.5%
Total 16 (56) lOO
For the 4-massecuite formula, Tromp" suggests:
A massecuite: 8 = 33 "lo
AB massecuite: 7 = 29"70
B massecu ite: 5 = 21 "lo
e massecuite: 4 = 17%
24 100"70
The first column simply gives the relative proportions.
Relative location of pails

The order in which pans are arranged or aligned on the pan stage is of sorne importance.
In a 3-massecuite system, for example, there will be two (single-magma) or three (double-
magma) sizes of grain, and it is important to avoid mixing grain of different sizes. Now the
MOLASSES 677
pans are connected by a "cut-over" pipe of large diameter, since massecuites and magmas
are difficult materials lO transfer through a pipe, and there always remains a considerable
vo lume of crystals in this piping after each "c ul over" or Iransfer. The row or rows of pans
should accordingly be loca ted so Ihat Ihe normal Iransfers of the different Iypes of mas-
Secuile or magma do nol use the same pon ion of this piping system. This is easi ly avoided
by a judicious arrangement of Ihe pans; if it is impossible, in an old factory, Iwo cut-over
pipes may be provided.
Crystal yield from massecuites ....

The crystal yield from a massecuite (sometimes termed the exhaust ion of Ihe massecuite) is
the propon ion of crystal recovered from the massecuite, expressed as percentage of its
sucrose conten!. Jt has the va lue:
100 (j - m)
r (33.36)
j (lOO - m)
j = purity of massecuite
m = purity of molasses from that massecuite.
The following figures have been reported from South Africa 42 for average crystal yie ld:
A massecuite: . 62.5%.
B massecuite: 60.3 %
e massecuite: 56.60/0
The recovery from the e massecuile is by far the most imporlanl, since il determines the
purilY of the final molasses and consequenlly the overall recovery. II may vary between 42
and 60.
" .:.
MOLASSES
Exhausted molasses
There is no absolute criterion lo indicatewhether the molasses obtained is really exhausted.
According 10 Deerr 4l , experience indicales that, in an exhauSled molasses, for unit of non-
sugar, 00455 water is required 10 mainlain the non-sugar in solution, and for unit of water,
Ihere is approximately 1.8 of sugar dissolved in Ihis w·a ler. Hence aboul 0.82 of sugar for
l of non-sugar.
Deerr slates thal sugar will not cryslallise from such a molasses when funher water is
removed.
'. ¡. : (,. . ~ :. .! ~ " , ", .: • • • : •.:',;; ', ~ ; ,

The composition of such molasses would be as follows:
Dry substance: 80070

Polarisation: 27
Sucrose: . 36%
Non-sucrose: 44%
Brix: 90
True purity: 45
Gravity purity: 40
Apparent purity: 30
This composition obviously is given as typical only. and Deerr comments thal in praclice
better figures are often obtained.
Exhaustibilily of molasses
Lacking a belter cri terion , the degree of exhaustion of a molasses has generally been judged
until recentl y by its purity, the Clerget purity being a better index than the apparent purity.
However, it has be en long realised that the purity reaehed depended on the eomposition of
the impurities eontained in the juiee and consequently in the molasses . In particular, the puri-
ty attainable was:
(a) Lower as the proportion of redueing sugars wa s higher
(b) Higher as the proportion of ash was higher.
Many formulae have been proposed, of which severa l have been given in the seeond edi-
tion . The more important are ¡he following:
(a) The Douwes Dekker 44 formula:
P = 36 - 0.08r + 0.26c (33.37)
P = true purity attainable with normal exhaustion of the molasses (sometimes termed target
purity)
r redueing sugars OJo of non-sucrose in the molasses
e = ash (sulphated) % non-sucrose in the molasses with:
Non-sucrose = dry substance - Clerget sueros e
and" :
Carbonated ash = sulphated ash x 0.752
The Douwes Dekker formula applied only 10 defeeation factories was:
P = 33 - 0.055r + 0.31c (33.38)

MOLASSES 679
Dry substance, difficult to determine accurately, may be obtained by the formula of Sijlman~
for defecation factories:
Dry substance = brix by dilution '1 : 9 by weight - (0.72 x sulphated ash %)
The value for dry subslance varies greatly depending on lhe melhod of analysis. The
, following are figures delermined in Maurilius 46 for lhe same product lhe ash conlent of
. which was 14.36%:
Brix by dilution ~ (wt./vol.): 93.34

Brix by dilution t (wt. / wt.): 93.09
Brix by dilulion 1 (Wl. / wl,): 88.60
Refractomelric brix by dilution f (wt./wt.): 83.98
By drying (under vacuum): 81.37
By drying (at 105°C): 79.94
lt will be Iloticed that the refractometric brix approaches the true figure more c10sely than
the gravimelric figure.
(b) In Queensland", the formula of the Sugar Research Institute is:
R
P = 40.67 - 17.8 log- (33.39)
e
P = true purity obtainable
R = reducing sugars% molasses
e = sulphated ash %.
(e) In South Africa 46 :
R
P = 39.94 - 19.60 log - (33.40)
e
The similarity with the Australian formula suggests that a more general formula could be:
R
P 40 - 18.5 log- (33.41)
e
(d) On account of the differences in these various formulae, Réunion uses the very simple
formula:
R
P=40-4- (33.42)
e
P refraclometric - Clerget pur'ity obtainable, R and e as aboye.
l•.
~_ . '" ''''''
Quantity of molasses per tonne of cane

If the molasses is not weighed, or if it is desired to check the result given by the materials
balance oC the factory, it is easy to caIculate the weight of molasses per tonne of cane which
the factory should produce.
Let:
Q = weight of mixed juice % cane
B = brix of mixed juice
P = purity of mixed juice .
q = weight of molasses % on cane
Bm brix of the molasses
P m = purity of the molasses
E = 1055 in muds + undetermined losses, expressed as a rati o o f the sugar contained in
mixed juice
r boiling-house recovery (cf. p. 838).
The sugar contained in the mixed juice has the value QBP. Of this, the factory recovers
QBPr.
The remaining sugar:
QBP (l - r)
should be found in the molasses, muds and undetermined losses, if losses by inversion or
caramelisation are neglected. Now the sugar lost in the molasses has the value:
qBm Pm
We shou1d therefore have:
Hence:
QBP (l - r - E)
q =
Bm Pm (33.43)
Example:
Q 98 B = 15 = 85
Bm = 95 = 40
r = 0.90 = 0.01
This gives:
98 X 15 X 85 (1 - 0.90 - 0.01)
q 2.96% on cane
95 X 40
CONDUCT OF THE SUGAR BOJUNG 681
CONDUCT Of THE SUGAR BOILlNG
The job of the sugar boiler is certainly the mosl critical of all those in the factory. Although
il tends lO become more and more simplified and conlrolled by instruments, sugar boiling
is still certainly a matter of skill, and this skill and this craft on the pan of the s ugar boilers
,. still have a profound influence on the quality and yield of sugar.
A strike consists of four principal phases; these will be described with particular reference
to C massecuites, which are the most critical.
(a) Concenfrafion
The sugar boiler introduces into tlle pan a certain quantity of either syrup or a mixlure of
syrup and molasses of about 75 purity. This quantity is determined by the graining volume.
Il should be as small as possible, while being sufficient to cover the calandria, or the bottom
coil; otherwise there would be caramelisation of the splashes and small drops of syrup which
would make contact with the exposed portions of the heating surface.
The smaller the volume of syrup drawn in, or the graining volume, the smaller will be the
number of crystals in the final massecuite, and lhe larger will be the crystals.
The sugar boiler should add further syrup as the volume in the pan is decreased owing lO
lhe concentration of the charge, so as to maintain lhe liquid level in the pan always high
enough to cover the heating surface in use .
(b) Graining
As Ihe syrup becomes co ncentrated, ir becomes more viscous. When the supersaluration has
attained the required value, graining is carried out. This was formerly done by the "waiting
method" or by shocking, i.e. by sudden introduction of a "drink" of cold sy.rup. It is now
done (with few exceptions) only by seeding.
In the absence of inslrumenls which wil! be described laler (p. 686), the right momenl COr-
responds to a brix of lhe order of 80. The sugar boiler recognised this condition by the
viscosity of the syrup, lhe drops of which f10w down more and more slowly on the sight
glasses. He al so used the "string proof"; he lOok a sample of syrup by means of the proof-
stick and, laking a smal! portion between thumb and index finger, he separated the fingers
quickly; Ihe righl condition for graining corresponds lO a string which breaks at a length of
aboul one inch. lf it is too soon, the string breaks ",s soon as the fingers are separated; if
loo late, il does not break.
Graining by the waiting methoa took place in lhe JabiJe zone (ej. p. 631). Graining by
shocking was done in the inlermediale zone, lhe shock itself giving a rapid passage inlo the
labile zone (S = 1.60 -1.70). Graining by seeding takes place in Ihe melaslable zone, al
aboul S = 1.10-1.20 for high-purily strikes, 1.15 -1.18 for lower-purily material. Al the
righl momenl Ihe vacuum is reduced lO 58.5 - 61 cm (23 - 24 in.), and the operator waits unlil
Ihe inslruments (or the slring proo!) indicate afresh lhe correct concentration al this new
lemperalUre. The. slurry of ground sugar is then introduced, generally by a cock provided for
Ihe purpose, which must of course discharge inlO the pan below the syrup level. This cock
and attached lube should be of ralher small diameter, in order that the quantity of air taken
in wilh Ihe slurry should Ilot take Ihe fine seed grain with il lowards the condenser, Ihrough
682 SUCAR BOILlNC eh. 33
the massecuite, in the form of fine bubbles. The cock will be opened cautiously 10 avoid Ihis .
. After the grain has been introdueed, steam is sh ut off eompletely to avoid possible solution
of the fine crystals by contact with the heating surface. After waiting a few minutes, boiling
is then continued very gently, so as to allow the grain to grow. Further additions of syr up
are not made until 30 - 60 min after seeding, and the vacuum is then gradually brought back
to normal, in a further 15 - 30 min.
Since graining for a e massecuite is a long and critical operation, witll risk of forming false
grain, it is recommended that the operation be carried out in a small pan and in a medium
of relatively high purity; this is best obtained by a mixture of syrup with a high-grade
molasses. The B molasses is not introduced until the crystals have reached a reasonable size
(40 - 50 mierons). To avoid at that stage an excess supersaturation, the I'nolasses is diluted
by addition of water: 5 - 10 min in A and B massecuites, 2 - 8 min wilh e slrike. This may
also be done by reduction of the vacuum.
Preparalion of lhe seed. The grajn of the ground sugar slurry should be as uniform as
possible, the aim being a size of 10 -25 microns. Knovl and Moller" recommend a time of
grinding of 8 hours atleast, followed by a period in rotating containers of 24 hours, which
reduces the grain to 5 or 8 mierons.
Sinee the icing sugar used for preparing the grai n has a great tendency to setlle as a com-
paet mass, this disadvantage can be avoided by adding IOJo of tricaleium phosphate. The
prepared slurry on its part has a tendency to settle, so it js advisable to use it promptly, or
to keep only the neeessary quantity, in a small bottle and for a short time only.
Quantity of seed lo introduce. Honig and Alewijn 50 estimate (and we share their view) that
best results are obtained when seeding is effeeted by means of a slurry of very finely
powdered refined sugar. This slurry is prepared in a small ball-mill where the sugar is
suspended in an organie liquid which does not dissolve suerose. sueh as isopropyl alcohol,
ethyl alcohol, petrol, etc. They recommend 160 g of sugar per 100 m' (4.5 g/ lOO eu.ft.) of
final e masseeuite. The quantity obviously depends on the fineness of grinding of the seed
grain and the size of final grain required. Roger Bax", in Mauritius, reckons 530- 565 g of
sugar per 100 m' (15 -16 g/lOO cu.ft.) of final e massecuite. Belle Glade in Florida" gives
1.6 kg per 100 m' / 1 Ib.!I,OOO cu.ft.).
The sugar for preparing the seed should be very dry. lf moist, jt forms small lumps. It fs
necessary to keep it in demijohns, in airtight tins or in stoppered bottles. The ball-mill is It~ft
to run for 3, 6, 12 or even 24 hours, in order to obtain the desired fineness of seed crystal.
(e) Building up (he grain

After introducing the seed slurry into the pan, supersaturation eontinues to inerease for) - 5
min. As soon as this time has elapsed it is necessary to commenee the use of movement water,
in order to maintain an evaporat ion rale suffieient to give good eireulation . Use of movement
water will be eontinued for 15 -20 min until the crystals become visible to the naked eye;
this practice avoids an incre,ase of supersaturation which would involve formation of secon-
dary grain. "
As soon as the grain islafge enough to be observed in a proof, th e experieneed sugar boiler
CONDUCT OF THE SUGAR BOILlNG 683
will know whelher he has enough grain or too mucho I f he has too much he proceeds lO
dissolve a ponion of it by the rapid introduction of a large charge of syrup. If he has insuffi-
cienl grain, there is little remedy; he wiJl be obliged to boil a large grain, which is not a great
disadvantage for high-grade massecuites, but wiJllead to unsati sfactory exhaustion in a final
massecuite . To avoid having an irregular grain, it is necessary lO lake particular ca re nOl to
form a funher crop of grain, otherwise crystals of lwo different sizes will be formed, which
will be very detrimental to lhe fugalling.
The remainder of lhe strike consisls parlicularly of developing the exisling grain wilhout
forming false grain (that is to say , new grains which may form either cryslals of a differenl
size, rendering Ihe fugalling ver y difficull, or a fine crystal which is liable 10 pass Ihrough
Ihe holes in Ihe cenlrifugal gauzes and so enrich Ihe molasses which is separa led).
Wilh Ihis object, il is necessary to slrive 10 mainlain Ihe greatest possible uniformilY of
operalion, and 10 maintain constanl bolh Ihe vacuum and the steam pressure.
Any sud den increase in vacuum or any sudden fall in sleam pressure causes a risk of form-
ing secondary grain, due lO lhe reduclion in boiling lemperalure in lhe pan (causing a sudden
passage inlo Ihe labile or inlermediale zone).
Apan from lhese two common causes, false grain ma y also be due lO:
(1) Rate of evaporalion forced too high
(2) Inlroduclion of syrup or molasses al lOO low a lemperalure
(3) Entry of air by leakage al Ihe bollom door of the pan, if il is nol tíghlly c1osed.
If false grain does form, lhe sugar boiler should nOlíce lhis promplly, andproceed lO
dissolve it by;
(a) Raising Ihe temperalure in lhe pan, by decreasíng th e vacuum
(b) Inlroducing a large quantily of syrup or of water so as to dissolve the fine grain.
When boiling large-grain sugar, it may even be difficult to avoid false grain unless a ver y
dilute .syrup or even juice is available for use as pan feed.
If false grain is formed near the end of the slrike, lhe high viscosity and Ihe lack of circula-
lion in lhe massecuile render il almost impossible lO redissolve it (ef. Fig. 33.17).
The sugar boiler will nOI resume feeding Ihe pan wilh syrup (A massecuile) or will nOI com-
mence feeding molasses (8 and C massecuiles) untillhe crysla\¡ l!av~ atlained a size such lhal
they represenl aboul one-lhird of the volume of Ihe massecuile.
(d) Tighlening Ihe massecuite

Guided by expe rience, lhe sugar boiler introduces syrup (or molasses) into the pan at arate
sufficient (1) to compensate for the quantity of water evaporated, (2) lo increase slowly and
progressiveiy Ihe volume of Ihe massecuile in Ihe pan, in such a way that Ihe concentralion
increases wilh Ihe level of Ihe massecuite, and so that the brix wiJl approximale 10 the max-
imum value desired when the massecuite has reached the level corresponding 10 Ihe full pan.
During the last phase of the slrike, we have therefore in the pan a very lighl and ver y
viseous massecuite, circulalion of which is very laborious. Concenlralion is co ntinued to
"Iighten" the material to the maximum obtainable.
In order to mainlain an acceptable circulalion during Ihis final phase of Ihe slrike, move"
menl water wiJl be introduced as was done after graining; this will be done during the last
half hour or hour of Ihe slrike. As well as giving sorne improvemenl in the circulalion, this
practice at the same time achieves a reduction in the supersaturation and so reduces the risk
of formation of very fine false grain in this last critical period of the strike.
When it is observed that the crystals occupy the maximum space, and that the mother li-
quor occupies only the void volume remaining between the adjacent crystals, which are
touching each other, the strike is "dropped". That is, the vacuum connection is shut off,
the cock communicating to the atmosphere is opened, which breaks the vacuum with a
characteristic whistle, and tllen the discharge door of the pan is opened to the crystallisers
or mixers below.
When the pan is empty, steaming-out is commenced: a steam valve is opened to admit
steam to the interior of the pan, leaving the bottom door open. The steam dissolves the sugar
and cleans the vessel.
Exhaust steam will be used, as it is more effective and more economical than live steam.
A more complete washing is obtained by lIsing water sprays arranged round the upper part
of the pan; the water should be hot and under pressure, well directed on the sides of the pan.
Actually, only the upper portion of the pan need be steamed out, since the part correspon-
ding 10 the graining volume. is automatically washed by the thin syrup introduced at the
beginning of the following charge, while that syrup is being concentrated.
Feeding. There are two principal methods of feeding the syrup or molasses to the pan:
(a) Discontinuously by "drinks"
(b) Continuously by leaving the inlet valve set at a reduced but constant opening.
The latter method permits a constant supersaturation to be maintained, or allows the
supersaturation to be increased in a progressive and regular fashion. lt is much better than
the former method, which gives poor or inferior results; it also gives appreciably faster boil-
ing.
Automatic feeders give continuous feeding, the actuating valve opening more or less accor-
ding to requirements.·
Supersaturation. It is not possible to indicate precisely the supersaturation to be maintain-

ed, since it depends on the pj>rity of the syrup or mother liquor, which itself varies in the
course of the strike. However, since graining is carried out practically always on a syrup of
80 - 85 purity, it is possible to indicate typical figures. Although graining may be carried out
by seeding in the metastable zane, it is generally carried out, whether by seeding or by shock-
ing or by the waiting method, in the labile zane. The following supersaturations may
therefore be recommended:
(a) Graining: 1.25 < S < 1.40

(33.44)
(b) Building up the grain: 1.08 < S < 1.20
Webre" considers that, for C massecuites, a normal supersaturation is ¡ .325, and may
var-y from 1.25 to 1.40,
Tests carried out in Australia 54 have shown that, for growing the crystals in A massecuites,
it is necessary to keep between 1.07 and 1.17, according to the zane of the pan involved, if
it is desired to avoid formation of false grain.
CENTRAl AND INDIVIDUAL VACUUM 685
There are two condilions which permit these values to be more easily maintained. These
are:
(1) Individual vacuum
(2) Use 01' Ihe cuilomeler or other instruments, and automatic feed.
CENTRAL AND INDIVIDUAL VACUUM
For reasons of simplicity and economy, many factories used toconcenlrate the vacuum
syslem 01' the factory in one part of lhe building, gene rally known as lhe "vacuum house",
and the single installation was known as central vacuum.
The faclOry then has only one vacuum pump, only one baromelric condenser, one pump
for cold water and one-pump for hot water ,'rom the condensers. The multiple effecl and
all the vacuum pans were then connected by vapour piping to lhis central condenser.
This installation was very practical from the mechanical point of view, and conducive to
minimum cos!. However, it had a serious disadvantage. If the multiple effect does not pro-
duce appreciable disturbances in the system, it is by no means the same with the vacuum
pans. When syrup is introduced into one 01' lhe pan~, and concentration is commenced,
evaporation is very rapid (cf. p. 663); the evaporation and condensation of a quantily 01'
vapour so much greater than normal constitules súch an addi'tional load on the central
vacuum syslem that lhe whole inslallation cannot bul feel the effects. Somelim~s the vacuum
falls abruptly in this way from 66 lO 61 cm (26 to 24 in.), for example·. When by chance two
pans commence a strike at the same time, lhe trouble is obviously more serious'. Such sudden
changes are obviously very detrimental to strikes in process in the other pans; we have just
seen (cf. p. 683) lO what extent it is important for sugar boiling and for fugalling to maintain
a very uniform vacuum. A variation 01' 13 mm (} in.) in vaCUllm, under certain conditions,
is sufficient to cause formation 01' false grain.
A parlial remedy may be oblained by furnishing lhe vacuum valve dI' each pan wilh a small
pipe 50 - 75 mm (1 - 2 in.) in .diameter by-passing the val ve, and furnished itsel l' with a small
valve 01' lhe appropriale diameter. When a pan is restarted, ¡he large vacuum valve is then
left cJosed, and lhe vacuum is raised by means 01' the small by-pass. Thus the quantity 01'
air la be handled and consequently the overload imposed on the central vacuum system is
limiled. When the vacuum in the pan has nearly reached its normal value, the main valve
is reopened.
Webre" recommends the installation of a small vacullm system reserved specialIy for use
when reslarting pans.
These devices pro vide a solution for the pan connection, which, however, is incomplete, .
since when the vacuum valve is opened the pan is certainly at lhe same pressure as the vacuum
syslem, bul is fulI of air, and lhis is sufficient to exceed lhe capacily 01' the air pump. Further,
when steam is opened inlO the calandria 01' lhe pan, the excessive evaporation load al the
start of the strike remains too high and still has its influence on the whole vacuum system,
A slight improvemenl may be obtained by providing at each pan a separate condenser con-
necled to the central air pump.
However, the only complete solution is lhe individual vacuum system. This consists of hav-
ing each pan, and similarly the multiple effect, entirely separate and providing for each a
smal.l individual vacuum system.
This solulion obviously presents some disadvamages:
(a) Mulliplicit y of units (condensers and pumps).
(b) High cost. Not only are more units required, but further, the sum of lhe capacities of
rhe individual condensers and pumps mUSt be mu ch greater lhan the capacity of the central
condenser or pump, since each individual installation must be capable of evacuating the max-
imum quantity of air and of steam from the pan which it serves, whereas the central vacuum
system is designed on lhe mean output of several pans, on lhe assumplion lhat only one of
lhcse will be working under peak ~ondilions, that is, at the beginning of a slrike.
(e) Power consumplion will be appreciably higher, since each pump is designed for max-
imum dUlY, and works during mOSl of the time far below its nominal power consumplion;
this always causes a higher power consumption, especially for eleclric motors.
(el) Consumption of cooling water will be greater.
On the other hand, it has several advantages:
.2 (a) lt eliminales the enormous and cumbersome vacuum piping connecting the central con-
den se r to Ihe multipleeffect and to all the vacuum pans. Each small condenser may be placed
in immediate proximity to the pan which it serves.
(b) A breakdown of one unit involves ashutdown of only the pan concerned and can
general.ly be repaired without shutting down the factory.
(e) Finally, the very great gain, which is the main object of the syslem, is that the operator
of cach pan can regulale its vacuum at will without affecling the operalion of lhe olhcr unils.
When low-speed reciprocating air pumps were used, individual vacuum was really hardly
practical, but with the introduclion of jel condensers and particularly rotary vacuum pumps
using a liquid annulus (such as lhe Nash type), the value of the system cannot be overem-
phasised. AlI of the A and B pans could be grouped under the same vacuum system, but the
C pans at least should have individual vacuum equipment.lndividual vacuum constitutes an
essential condition for good operation of the factory; ilS installation is possible wilhout
serious alterations, and its higher cost is rapidly recovered by the improvement in efficiency
of the factory and in quality of the sugar.
However, there is one case where central vacuum could regain preference. It is where the
factory has continuous pans only for A, B and C strikes. At present such cases are very few,
but the cxtension of continuous pans will inevitably render them more and more common.
There is lhen no longcr anYlhing 10 disturb lhe vacuum, which can remain slrict ly uniform;
and there is nothing against installing a central vacuum system, which is simp ler and more
economical.
INSTRUMENTS FOR PAN CONTROL (G.H.].)
Since degree of supersaluration is the mosl important variable in sugar boiling, some type
of instrument to indicate degree of supersaluralion is a necessity for efficient operalion. In-
struments used are of two main c1asses: one uses boiling-poinl elevalion of Ihe material, while
the other used electrical conductivity, as an indication of supersaturation. In either case, the
[NSTRUMENTS FOR PAN CONTROL (G.H.J.) 687
relalionship between the property measured and Ihe supersaturation of the mother liquor
must first be established ror the particular class of material concerned; and, with either
method, the detecting elements must be correctly located to ensure accurate results.
Instruincnts based on boiling-point rise

These instruments measure the boiling-point rise (BPR) or Ihe massecuite relative to that of
pure waler at the same absolute pressure. Since the boiling-point rise of a solution, for a
given solute, is directly proportional to the concentration of solute, the supersaturation coef-
ricient is given by the ratio of the boiling-point rise of supersaturated solution to tha! of a
sat~rated solution at the same temperature. With pure sucrose, the relationship of boiling-
point rise to degree of saturation is readily established; with impure solutions such as those
treated in the raw sugar factory, the effect of the impurities mUSl be ascertained for each type
of material.
Attempts at using BPR as a measure of supersaturation were unsuccessful until Smith"
in the 1930's established the conditions necessary for dependable readings. The main re-
quirements are
(a) Correct location of the thermometer elements in the massecuite
(b) A dependable arrangement ror mcasuring the corresponding vapour lemperature.
Due to the efrecls of hydrostatic head, the lemperature of the massecuite at any depth
below Ihe boiling surface is considerably higher than that at the surface; the latter is Ihe true
boiling point corresponding to the working vacuum. Smith accordingly placed the ther-
mometer element in the downtake, on the reasoning that the temperature of the descending
massecuite is the same as that at the surface, after lhe superheat due to hydrostatic head has
been released by flash.
Measuremenl of the vapour temperature is best obtained by attaching a small pilot pan
to the vacuum pan; water is boiled in the small pan, the vapour discharging into the vapour
space of the main pan. The temperature in the small pan thus gives the boiling point of water
at the vapour pressure in the pan, and the difference between the readings of the massecuite
thermometer and the thermometer in the small pan thus gives the boiling-point e1evation.
lt is found in practice that the thermometer element in the downtake does not give an ac-
curate measure of the temperature at the surface of the boiling massecuite. Since the
massecuite circulation does not follow the ideal pattern depicted in Fig. 33.9, the superheat
due to hydrostatic head is not entirely released at the surface, and the temperature of the
descending massecuite is higher than that al the boiling surface. The resulting inflation of
massecuite temperature thus increases as the level in the pan builds up; hence, lo maintain
a uniform supersaturation, an increasing BPR (as read by the instrument) must be used as
the pan fills. With automatic control, a suitable cam can be used to set the apparent BPR
to an increasing figure as the pan builds up.
Generally, supersaturation coefficients are not calculated for normal operation, but BPR
itself is used as the controlling figure, i.e. the boiling is carried on at a specified boiling-point
rise.
BPR - purity - saturation relationships. In order to determine supersaturation coefficient,

it is necessary lO establish lhe value of the BPR for a saturated solution of the composition
688 SUOAR BOJLlNO Ch. 33
concerned and al lhe temperalure in use. Holven" has eSlablishecJ lha[ [he BPR al saluralion
increases wilh increasing lemperalure 01' lhe Solulion, and increases wilh decreasing puril~'.
The increased BPR at lower purities is a result 01' lhe increased 10lal solids conlenl 01' a
saluraled Solulion 01' lower purilY, relalive to pure sucrose under similar condilions. Figure
33,20 shows lhe relalionships for one type 01' material as given by Holven. Sllch graphs 01'
course apply only for non-sugars 01' a parlicular composilion, and lile aClu'll values IVill I'ar"
nOl only wilh purily 01' lile mOlher liquor al a given l'acIOry, bUI lI'illl lile nalure 01' lile non-
sugars presenl.
Having eSlablished such relationships for lhe parlicular composilion 01' mal erial concern-
ed, lhe supersaturalion coefficient for such material in the pan is readily determined from
lhe boiling-poinl rise relative to the established figure for that material al saturation,
1'0
U
o
e
~
ro
L
~ 10 e---
~
,O .???
.py~ V
vri\'j ~
----
~
------
~ pV\lt'i
ro -------- ~ 'CP .??
p0 í1 \'i ----------'-
w
a: -----
---- ---
'J
O,?
?Uf\\'f ~
ai
5
~
f-- -- ~?.:c--
60 65 70 75 80 85
Massecuite temp. (oC)
Fig. 33.20. Boiling-poinl elevalion or mOlher liquor as a runclioll ol' lemperalure. (Reproduced by permission al'
John Wiley <llld Sons.)
Effect of temperature varialions, Ir is readily seen lhat lhe BPR is a funclion 01' lhe concen-
Iralion 01' dissolved solids, and gives a measure of supersaluralion onll' it'lemperalure (and
hence solubililY) remains constant. If lemperalure "aries, lhe BPR IVill remain essenlially
constanl, bul lhe solubililY will alter and Ihe supersaturalion coefficienl IVill change, Hence,
if Ihe BPR is 10 give a reliable measure 01' supersaturalion, the absolule pressure or vacuum
in the pan must remain conslant; and it is found lhal aulomalic conlrol 01' vaCllum is an
essential for salisfactory use of the BPR method,
Instrumenls, Resistance thermometers are generally used in modern inslallations as lhe

most suitable type for continuous recording, The inslrumenls are thus 01' Wheatslone-bridge
type, registering the 1emperalure difference in lermS 01' Ihe resislances 01' the thermomeler
elemenls, Indicaling, recording and conlrolling instrumenls are used; and [he feed 01' syrup
or molasses lO Ihe pan is controlled, manually or automatically, 10 mainlain lhe sel value
of BPR,
INSTRUMENTS FOR PAN CONTROL (O.H.J.) 689
Conductivity instruments
Honig and Alewijn in Java", about 1927, considered using viscosity as an index of super-
saturation, and chose electrical conductivity as tlle most convenient indication of viscosity.
The method depends on the reduction of conductivity with inc reaslng viscosity, due to the
relarding effect of viscosity on the mobility of ions in solution. It was found ¡ha! conductivity
folJowed the supersaturation more closely than did refractive index, which was used lO some
extent al the time. With the development of robust electrodes for use in a pan, the method
was adapted to practical use in the factory, and is now very widely used.
As with the BPR method, position of electrodes in the pan is important. They are generally
placed below the calandria, or in (he downtake, to oblain a sample of the material correspon-
ding appro.\imately to ils temperalure and concentratíon al the surface afIer it has released
its superheat. The electrodes must be placed at a suitable distance from the wall of the pan,
and from any other metal bodies such as coils or calandria, to avoid short-circuiting of the
current to such metal. Dimensions of electrodes have been generally standardised, e.g. in
Queensland, cylindrical electrodes of 16 mm (i in.) diameter and 44 mm (I~ in.) long are us-
ed, spaced 75 mm (3 in .) apart between centres. The electrodes are suilably mounted for
ready removal; this is important, as frequent c1eaning is necessar y to maintain consistent
readings.
As with the BPR method, supersaturation coefficients are not gene rally calcuJated for or-
dinary operation; conductivity figures (often expressed simply as current in mA at a standard
voltage) are used as the basis for control. Establishment of the correct values, of course, re-
quires prior calibration for each type of massecuite, and for differing compositions of the
non-sugars concerned.
Conductivity - viscosity - supersaturation relationships. The relationship of conductivity

to supersaturation may be summarised in general terms by stating that the viscosity of a
molasses follows the supersaturation fairly closely for variations in either concentration or
temperature within the normal range of pan operations. As specific resistance is approx-
¡mately proportional to viscosity, lhe resistance in turn follows the supersaturation coeffi-
cient fairly closely, i.e. there is an inverse relationship between conductivity and supersatura-
liol1 coefricienl. It will thus be seen that, by fortunate relationships between different proper-
ties, Ihe conductivity gives a good indicalion of supersaturation even wilh slight variations
in temperalure. for this reason, the conductivity method, unlike the BPR method, is nol
seriously affected by modera te changes in vacuum.
The conductivity reading of a massecuite is influenced by the presence of crystal , since the
crvslal is essentially a non-conduclor; Ihe volume occupied by Ihe crystals causes a decrease
inlhe volume of conducting material between the electrodes. Thus, with an increasing crystal
content as the charge progresses, a constant conductivity reading means a lower supersatura-
tion coefficient; on the other hand, the decreaslng purity of the mother liquor means a higher
concentration of electrolytes, with some compensating effect on the conductivity.
Instruments. Conductivity can be measured by a very simple instrument; for example, by

connecting an a.c. supply (al 30 y for normal raw sugar massecuites) to the electrodes, and
reading the curren! by a milliammeter. Provided the voltage is sleady, Ihis gives reliable
readings. Mains frequency of 50 cycles is satisfactory, though higher-frequency supply would
give greater accuracy. The Briti sh "Cuitometer" (Fig. 33.21) is a refinemem of this arrange-
ment, with a stabilised voltage su pply and a choice of voltage over a considerable range, for
use with different massecuites. More sophisticated instruments such as lhe Kent l\l1ullelec use
a Wheatstone bridge and recording pOlenliometer, and give a reading in resista nce rather
than conductivity; these are extensively used to operate automatic control of the syrup or
molasses, thus controlling to a set conductivity (or resistance) figure. Kelso" has developed
a simple and effective controller, consisting of an extension of the simple instrument reading
current in mA for a given applied voltage; this instrument, with suilable proportioning of
feed pipes and valves, gives satisfactory control with a simple on-off method .
Fig. 33.21. CuilOmeter (Sumasuco).
Olher instruments. Ditmar Jansse 60 has developed an instrument based on heat transfer
as an indication of supersaturation . Since heat transfer depends mainly on the viscosily of
the massecuite, this instrument also uses viscosity indirectly as a measure of supersaturation.
Refractive index, read by a refractometer specially designed for use on the pan, was one
of the earlier properties used to indicate supersaturation, and has been revived in recenr years
to a limited extent. Since refractive index gives a measure of concentration, it indicares super-
saturation only if temperature is kept constant, and in this respect it resembles the BPR
method.
Importance of instruments
The use of instruments 10 indicate supersaluralion has provided a scienrific basis for control
of the sugar-boiling process, in place of the earlier "mysterious art" of the sugar boiler. This
in turn has led to a vast improvement in sugar quality (particularly in uniformilY of crystal
size), and in effective capacity of pans and centrifugals; and such improvements have resulted
in a substantial improvement in sugar recovery. Modern standards of performance IVo uld in-
deed be impossible without such instruments.
Recent developments
In a review of recent developments, Wright 6o , com menlS thal conductivity measurements
are parlicularly suitable for control of raw sugar strikes Wilh purities below 95, provided the
OTHER FACTORS 691
inorganic ash level of the raw material feed does not fluctuate rapidly. Improved instruments
for conductivity measurement have been developed and conductivit y methods are generally
preferred for raw sugar boilings. Boiling point elevation methods are less used because of
superheat interference with measurements, while consistency (rheology) measurements are
used mainly for high-purity boilings.
Automatic control of boilings, and of pan stage operation in general, is used to an increas-
ing extent (see chapter 46).
OTHER FACTORS
Grain sizo
The size of the crystals should be inversely related to the viscosity of the mother liquor.
The growth of the crystal takes place by attachment of sugar from solution on the surface
of the crystaJ. Now:
(1) The smaller the grain, the greater is the total surface area of the crystals.
(2) The smaller the grain, the smaller is the average distance to be travelled by any molecule
to reach the surface 01' the nearest crystaJ. Now, the more viscous the massecuite, the more
dilTicult il lI'ill be ror each molecule to reach the immediate neighbourhood of a crystal. For
Ihis reason it is necessary to strive to increase the crystal surface, and lO decrease the average
distancebetween crystals.
The object, therefore, will be to boil C massecuite with the smallest grain size possible,
consiSlent wilh requirements of rugalling. In Hawaii, the general grain size rorC massecuites
is 0.2-0.3 mm; generally, the grain size is kept at 0.3 mm or between 0.25 and 0.35 mm,
and il is not desirable to exceed 0.35 mm.
For the A and B massecuites, the grain size is less important. For B massecuite it is general-
Iy kept about 0.6 mm, and between 0.8 and 1 mm for A sugar.
The grain size also depends On the syslem of boiling. In general, the following sizes (mm)
are sought at the discharge of Ihe pan:
Footing A B e
CB/CA system: 0.50 - 0.60 0.50-0.60 0.30 - 0.40
CBA system: 0.55 - 0.65 0.40-0.450.25-0.30 "
Footing C and BA: 0.35 0.70-0.80 0.45-0.50 0.40-0.45
Brix
In Ihe absence of ralse grain, the purity of the molher liquor varies in inverse relationship
lI"ill1 rhe brix of Ihe massecuile. Thieme 61 has found, for example, the relative variat"ions
5110\\"n in Table 33.13.
It is necessary therefore to strive to boil the massecuites as heavy as possible, and par-
licularly so for the final massec uite. A brix of 96° is easily attained, sometimes 98° and even
101 0 (97 - 98° refraclometric).
However, Ihe "heaving" or "tighlening" cannOI be obtained when the pan is already full
or nearly fui!. A good sugar boiler sho uld maintain a maximum brix and maximum super-
saturation (the cuitometer alJows this to be done without risk), and not wait untiJ the pan
is rull to tighten up the massecuite; on the contrary, he should conduct the boiling in such
a way Ihat the brix progresses with the rilling, and that the brix reaches the desired value at
the time when the leveJ or the massecuite reaches the middJe 01' rhe top sight glass.
The brix vaJues generally obtained are:
Densimetric brix Refractometric brix

(1 : 5 dilUlion)
A massecuite: 92- 96 91 - 93
B massecuite: 94- 97 92 - 95
C massecuite: 97 - 101 95 - 97
Chen 62 recommends a brix or 97 ror C massecuite. Below that rigure, the purity or the
molasses increases by 0.72 per unit or brix below 97.
TABLE 33.13
VARJATION OF MOLASSES PURlTY WITH BRIX OF MASSECUITE
Brix of final massecuife Purity 01 morher liquar

Densimetric Refractometric when dropped
97 93 44
98 94 42
99 95 40
100 96 38
Vacuum. Caramelisation, inversion and colour rormation are proportionally more marked
with the higher temperatures. It rollows that, when makirig white sugar, it will be necessa ry
to utilise a correspondingly lower steam pressure and to maintain in the pan a corresponding-
Iy higher vacuum when a better coJour or sugar is required.
Vacum is the ractor which has the greatest influence on the massecuite temperature in the
pan. Ditmar Jansse 63 considers that the most ravourable temperatures ror A and B mas-
secuites are b'etween 65 and 74°C (150 and 165 ° F); colour J'ormation and undesirabJe reac-
tions causing decomposition are then minimal and the crystallisation rate is satisractory. For
C massecuites, the temperature will be kept prererabJy in the neighbourhood or the Jower
limit (65 °C).
Cryslal surface. The crystal surface area is given as a runclion or lhe length or the crystal,
measured under the microscope, by lhe equation 64 :
0.00421
s = (33.45)
I
s = surrace area or crystals, in m 2 /g

I = length or crysta1, in mm.
OTHER FACTORS 693
This equaIJon enables an eSlimale of lhe cryslal surface 10 be oblained, al a given momenl
in the slrike, as a funClion of lhe linear dimension of lhe cryslal.
Crystal content of massecuite

The f1uidity or inversely the consislency of a tight massecuite depends essentially on its crystal
conten!. This content may be expressed in weight, eilher as per cent of massecuite or per cent
01" bri x; in lhe latter case il is advisable to make the meaning clear by specifying "OJo on brix",
since lhese IIVO values are very c10se logclher when Ihe bri x is in lhe neighbourhood of 100.
Gillell and Kenda 61 consider that tightening Ihe massecuile scarcely influences the nuidity
unl ill!le cryslal conlent reaches 43% by weight on brix, and consider that , for most factories
in Hllwaii, the optimal concentration of the C massecuites should be belween 45 and 48%
on brix. They consider that a difference of 1% around this optimum, assumed determined
accurately (e.g. 47%), leads to an increase of 1.3 - 1.4 in the purity of the molasses.
Honig 66 considers that lhe crystal content of massecuite generally remains in the
neighbourhood of 30- 36% in C massecuites at the moment of dropping. This content ob-
viously increases in the crystalliser and reaches 40 - 45 % as a final figure. Payne 67 considers
thal a good compromise corresponds lo 35 -40% and that 45% is a maximum, the visc osity
becoming absolutely prohibitive aboye that value.
In Autralia, for A massecuiles, the crystal contenl is maintained in the neighbourhood of
35 - 40% during the strike, and increased quickly lO about 50% before dropping. Ir is con-
sidered thal , during the strike, a crystal contenl of 50% is excessive and conducive to false
grain 68 • 30-35% is considered as a light massecuite, 40-50% as a tight one.
Kelly·· has shown that Ihe viscosity increases sharply when lhe crystal content reaches
44%, a value at which the crystals can no longer move independently, and that at 48% the
massecuite would completely lose nuidity. [t is thus necessary to keep a practical value of
40 - 45%.
Bauserman'o recalls that the void volume, between sugar crystals in random arrangement,
represents about 75% of the true crystal volume. He considers that a massecuite containing
46% of crysla!s by vo!ume is still of a practica! consistency. This would have therefore:
Crystal volume: 46%

Volume of voids between crysta!s: 46 X 0.75 34%
Apparent volumc of crystals: 80%

Surplus liquid for centrifuging: lOO - 80 = 20%
and he considers that it is found in practice tliat an optimal massecuite is one having a surp!us
of 20% when supplied to the centrifugals, or as measured in Gillett's laboratory apparatus,
which is a very useful aid to correct practice in sugar boiling. He accordingly recommends
a massecuite of 46% crystal before centrifuging.
In Mauritius, Lamusse and Wiehe 71 reckon crystal contents as percenlage on brix of the
order of:
o'" . '
694 SUGAR BOILING eh 33
As dropped Leaving cryslalliser

A massecuite: 40 - 600/0, average 48 % 45 - 65%, average 56%
B massecuite: 30 - 45%, average 36% 35 - 50%, average 42%
e massecuite: 25 - 40%, average 32% 30-45%, average 37%
or about 116 leaving the crystalliser for 100 leaving the pan.
Calculalion of crystal conten! of massecuile. Thc crystal content is readily cletermined in

the laboratory. Jt may also be calculated in the following manner. Let:
B = weight of solids % massecuite B, = weight of solids % mother liquor

S",'" = weight of sugar .% massecuite S, = weight of sugar % mOlher liquor
S S,
P purity of massecuite = ~" x 100 P, purity of mot her liquor - x 100
'" . '" B,
x % crystal on massecuite P, = purilY of sugar.
We have (ef. p. 839):
x P, (P", - P,)
S", P", (P, - P,)
Hence:
B.o P ",
- P..
x P (33 .46)
, 100 P, - P,
This is the same expression as the S.J.M. formula.

If il is assumed that the crystals consiSl of pure sucrose (P, 100) and if Ihe cryslal con-
tenl is required not as % massecuile but as % on brix, say xo, we will have:
x P111
- P t'
Xo = = (33.4 7)
B 100 - P,
'"
which could be calculalecl even more conveniently by writing that, % brix of mother liquor,
the purity of the massecuile is equal to Ihesucrose conlenl of lhe molasses plus that of the
crystals, divided by lhe 10lal solids:
P, + Xo Pm - Pf
Pno = hence: Xo
100 + Xo 100 - P,
Inversion losses
Experiments by King and Jison 72 have shown Ihal inversion losses were very low al 50 - 60°C
e
(122 - 140°F), became perceplible al 70° and considerable aboye 80°C (176°F). These lests
were made with A molasses of 54 apparent purilY and 6.0 pH.
OTHER FACTORS 695
Cleaning vacuum pans

Vacuum pans accumulate much less incrustation than do evaporators. Many factories
opera te for a whole season without cleaning the pans. However, an excelIent practice in cer-
lain countries is to boil out Ihe pans with water for a quarter of an hour at the end and at
the middle of Ihe week, and so maintain them in a very high state of cleanliness".
Disposition of C sugar
The sugar obtained from the low-grade centrifugals handling the e massecuite is generally
brown, pasty and impregnated with molasses, since the last strike is not washed. It cannot
be sold in this state. We have therefore the choice of two ways of using it:
(1) Remelting. Fir'stly the sugar may be remelted. For this purpose sorne clarified juice is
pumped lO lhe mixer which receives the e sugar below the centrifugals. This mixture may
then be taken by means of a rota pump and sent to a mixing tank situated near the effect
supply tank, where it is redissolved in clarified juice. lt is thus sent back into manufacture,
between the clarifiers and the multiple effect.
This method has the disadvantages:
(a) Of placing an extra load on the whole boiling house, by re-circulating through it in the
form of solution sugar which had already been crystalIised.
(b) Of increasing the brix and sometimes decreasing the purity of the clarified juice enter-
ing rhe evaporator; and this adversely affects the average heat-transfer coefficient in the
evaporators.
(2) Utilisation as footing. The best practice is that devised by Spencer 14 and explained by
Solano and Villalobos1 5 in an excellent artic1e which we recommend to the reader. It consists
of using the e sugar as grain or footing for A and B massecuites. The procedure is thus as
follows: the e sugar is remixed in the magma mixer placed below the e centrifugals by adding
syrup, clear juice, or even water. The magma thus formed is taken up by a pump and
transferred to a crystalliser - mixer, preferably under vacuum, situated on the pan floor; this
serves as a storage vessel and also as a means of keeping the magma mixed to uniform con-
sistency. The A and B footings are then drawn from this mixer.
This method presents several advantages:
(a) Jt eliminates a11 recirculation at evaporators and pans, since the e sugar when once
crystallised is not remelted in juice. Hence the capacity of the multiple effect, the A and B
pans, the B mixers and the A and B centrifugals, is increased.
(b) The e sugar, consisting of sma11 crystals, provides an excellent grain on which to build
up the A and B massecuites.
(e) The sugar boilers handling A and B massecuites are relieved of the delicate operation
01' graining. There is less risk of producing false grain or uneven grain. They start, on the
contrary, with a good grain, relatively uniformo Hence an improvement in the pan work, on
A and B massecuites.
(d) The A and B strikes are boiled more rapidly, since they commence after the graining
phase with a grain already comparatively large. Hence there is a further gain in capacity for
the A arld B pans.
In this case the e massecuites must be boiled more carefully; they must be grained by
seeding and ca re must be taken to obtain a good homogeneous and uniform e sugar.
This "simple magma system" has, however, one disadval1tage, i.e. il leads to a commercíal
sugar of inferior refíning qualíties, since lile e graín always contains some ímpurítíes \\'hích
remain included in the nucleus of the commercíal sugar cryslals produced from íl. Also, e
sugar from continuous centrífugals suffers breakage and does not form good graín,
Magma
The magma purity should be watched carefully: íf 100 low, of the order of 80, ít causes an
undesirable return of molasses to the process. On the other hanó', íf a hígh purity is obtaíned
at the expense of the e sugar recovery ín the centrifugals, it is too hígh. Generally, a puríty
about 85 is a good compromise where single purging ís employed, or about 88 with double
purging.
Moreover, Ihere need be no objectíon to a higher puríty, if this purity ís obtained without
washing the sugar, and if the e massecuíte has been boiled good and tight (i.e. with high
cryslal content). There is good reason to be well satisfíed with a e sugar of hígher puríty,
and Ihus of a higher-puríty magma, When circumstances are favourable (Iow viscosíty and
regular graín), a magma puríty of 90 may be attained or exceeded. Stevenson'ó in Australía
considers that the highest purity praclicalIy obtainable is 92-93 (pol/refraclOmetric brix),
and points out that a high magma puríty has a favourable influence on sugar qualíty (reduc-
tion of ash content) and filterability.
Proportion of crystal in the magma. When míxing magma, ít is desirable to add the quanti-
ty of syrup necessary to render ít sufficíently fluid for pumping, bul no more. Thís ís well
. judged by eye, according to the consístency of Ihe magma, For calculalion purposes the
quanlíty may be reckoned on about half syrup (or molasses) and half cryslals. In other
words, the aim should be to reconstitute the massecuíte which has just been fugalled by
replacing íts molasses content by syrup, but usíng the mínimum quantity of syrup compatible
with satisfactory operatíon of the magma, It is partícularIy advísable 10 arrange automatíc
addítíon of syrup or molasses",
TABLE )).14
MOLASSES RECYCLED AS A FUNCTlON Of e SUGAR PURfTY
Purity Cryslof % Molasses 0/0 Molasses 0/0 Molasses recycled

01 e sugor sugar sugar crys/Of % mass, al 45% cryslof
80.1 66.3 33.7 50.9 0.45 X 50.9 = 22,9

88.1 82,5 17,5 21.2 0.45 X 21.2 9.5
92,2 . 90.3 9.7 10.7 0.45 X 10,7 = 4,8
Hessey and Manníng" and Jensen 79 have made some ínlereslíng comments on Ihe com-
posítíon of magma and e sugar. In Ihe Auslralian condilions considered, Ihe proportion of
molasses was related 10 the purily of the e sugar as shown ín Table 33,14.
OTHER fACTORS 697
By inlerpolaling these values, and remembering that massecuite with 45070 of crystal ob-
viously contains 55% of molasses and that, for a given massecuite and a given molasses, the
quanlity of molasses eliminated should be the same, we obtain lhe figures of Table 33.15.
TABLE 33.15
MOlASSES RECYCLED AS A FUNCTlON OF e SUGAR PURITY
Purily Cryslal Molasses Molosses Molasses recycled Molasses Re/arive quanf.

of C sugar % sugar % sugar % cryslol % mass. al 45% eliminated of C mass.
cryslol % moss. produced
80 66.1 33.9 51.3 23.1 55 - 23.1 = 21.9 188

85 76.4 23 .6 30.9 13.9 55 - 13.9 = 41.1 100
90 86.2 13 .8 16 7.2 55 - 7.2 = 47.8 86
92 90 10 11.1 S 55 - 5 = 50 82
This table demonstrates the influence of C sugar purity (i f the magma is made with water)
or of mag ma (if made with juice, syrup or molasses) on the quantity of C massecuites. It
also shows the importance of ensuring that the magma purity does not descend below 85.
Double-magma process. The boiling system just described wa s devised by Spencer and is
described as the single-magma process: the C sugar, remixed as magma, serves as footing for
the'A and B massecuites, fugalling ofwhich furnishe s the commercial sugar, which is a mix-
ture of A and B sugars.
This concept may be pursued further by operating Ihe double-niagma process, which has
developed logically from the single-magma sys lem and has been formerly described formall y
by Carsolio' o. 11 consists of forming a e magma by remi xing the C sugar with high-grade
molasses, syrup, clear juice or water, and using this magma as fooling for Ihe B massecuites.
A B magma is formed in the same way by remixing lhe B sugar wilh syrup, juice or water,
and using thi s magma as fOOling for the A massecuites. The end result is that the commercial
sugar is A sugar only (Fig. 33.22); the advantages are:
(a) A better-quality sugar, since it originates only from A massecuites.
(b) A minimum recycling of A and B molasses. This is Ihe great advanlage of the process:
the massec uile viscosities are minimal, the massecuites are freer, and there is a favourable
effect on recovery.
(e) Reduction of graining to a minimum. Only C massecuites are seeded (an advantage in
common with the single-magma process) ..
(d) In the same way, some economy of steam. Since there is no recycling, heating and boil-
ing the same molasses twice is avoided.
(e) There is obviously more A massecuite, and slightly increased capacity in paos, mixers
and A centrifugals is required, but the difference is of liltle magnitude, since the strikes build
up beller and more rapidly and are fugalled more readily. Capacity of pans , mixers and B
centrifugals is improved. We may reckon:
A massecuite: 127 - 153 dmJ/ t.c. (4.5 - 5.4 cu. ft./t.c.)

B massecuite: 51- 62 dmJ/ t.c. (1.8-2.2 cu.ft./l.c.)
C massec uit e: 28 - 42 dm J/ I.c. (1 -1.5 cu.fl./I.c.)
698 SUOAR BOJUNO Ch. 33
Generally, there will be an excess of C and B sugars. The excess C sugar could be remelted
or utilised Cor part of lhe A massecuites. The B centrifugals may be divided so as to produce
only lhe quantity of sugar necessary for lhe A footings, thus remixing part under the B cen-
trifugals, and diverting the remaining B cenlrifugals lO lhe conveyor, so lhal lhis sugar IS mix-
ed wilh lhe A sugar and goes oul as commercial sugar. The first portion of lhe B centrifugals
would nOl receive any washing; the second could be washed.
This combinalion furnishes an economic and elegant method of operaling lhe sugar boil-
ing.
Formation of magmas. The following is a summary of the CBA double-magma process:

A massecuite run up wilh slandard liquor (syrup plus remell of excess of B and C magmas)
Remelt of B alld e magmas carried out wilh clarified juice
B massecuile run up wilh A molasses plus molasses from affinalion of e sugar
C massecuile grained from syrup and run up on B molasses
B magma made up wilh slandard liquor
e magma before affination carried out with syrup
Affined C sugar remixed with syrup
Size of crystals: C fooling, 0.17 mm; A sugar, 0.8 mm.
A and B massecuites. In lhe single-magma syslem, lhe A and B sugars are generally despatch-
ed for sale. For lhese commercial sugars lhe objective will be a moderate grain size of 0.7 - 1
mm. In order to obtain a grain of this size. starting from a footing of e sugar of 0.35 mm,
lhe final volume of massecuile should be about 9 times the volume of magma made from
C sugar, which is used as footing:
3/-
0.35 "V 9 = 0.35 X 2.08 = 0.73 mm
To achieve lhis, lhe following simple procedure may be followed. Assuming an A or B pan
of 30 m 3 (1,050 cu.fL), the graining volume of which is 10 m 3 (350 cu.fL):
(a) Take from the magma mixer (see aboye, "utilisation as footing") a footing of 10 m 3
(b) Build up this footing to 30 m 3 wilh syrup
(e) Transfer 20 m 3 of lhe massecuite oblained to a seed storage vessel for A and B
massecuites
(d) On the remaining 10 m 3 in lhe pan, boil an A or B massecuite
(e) In the same way, utilise the two other footings each of 10 m 3 which ha ve been Slored
in the seed vessel, eilher in lhe pan concerned or in another pan
(f) If ¡here is loo much magma, remelt it and send illo [he syrup tanks; if, on Ihe conlrary,
there is not enough, decrease the initial grain size of the C sugar, and in crease the quanlily
cul over lo the seed vessel.
Graining on molasses
We have seen ("Concentration", p. 681) that graining can be done eilher on syrup or on a
mixture of wrup and an appropriale grade of molasses. The lalter melllod has been inlroduc-
ed by Webre" and consists 01" graining on a mixture 01" syrup and molasses proponioned 10
OTHER FACTORS 699
oblain a purily of 70 - 74; Honig and Alewijn" suggest 72 - 78. In Quecnsland, a mixlure
of 4 part s A molasses lo 1 of syrup is used, w hich in Ihat country corresponds to a purity
of 70 - 75 . The grain oblained is more uniform , co ngl ome ra les do nOI form al Ihose purilies,
and Ihe final puril y drop is som ewhal grealer, si nce Ihe sl rike commences from a fooling of
lowe r purily.
Syrup ¡nlet lO the pan. Previously, dis cha rge o f sy rup inlO Ihe pan was made b y a pipe
lermin a lin g ab rupll y in Ihe cenlre nea r Ihe botlOm. The sy rup, wilh a densilY of a boul 1.30,
entering a massec uil e of density about 1.47, tended 10 rise in large globules to the surface
where il spread as a sheet, mixing imperfecll y and sl o wly wilh the massecuile. T o avo id Ih is
disadvantage, mode rn pans are provided wilh a dislribuling pipe in Ihe form of a SIa l", o r
a ring pipe provided wilh several outlets or small radial branches.
Storage tanks for syrups and molasses

The final mola sses lea ving the centrifugals is sent direct lO Ihe distillery or for sale elsewhere.
The A and B molasses, on the ot her hand, mu sl be co llecled, mixed, and Slo red in lank s while
waiting 10 be returned int o Ihe B and C massecui les.
Similarly, a certain syrup storage is required belween Ihe evaporal ors and pans. Capacities
recommended by Sa(inas 8J In Cuba and average figures reported for Puerto Rico' 4 are:
Puerto Rico Cuba

Fo r syrup: 615 l/I.c.h. (135 Imp.gal./I. c .h.) 820 (180)
For A and B molasses: 1,225 IIl.c .h. (270 lmp.gal. / I.c.h .) 1,000 (220)
Treatment of A and B molasses. The storage tanks for Ihese molasses should be provided
wilh:
(1) Eith er a coil for compressed air, or preferably a slirrer such as a ship' s propeller ·
dried e
( p= 88) (p= 73.7 ¡ (p = 58)
(p=69)
',384
1, 384
( p.65 )
(p = 54 ¡
Fig. 33.22. Exhall.'\tion diagram, eSA process .

/
(2) A steam coil, or other means of heating.

This permits of:
(a) Diluting these molasses by mean s of hot water, which will preferably be condensale
from the later ves seIs of the multipIe effecl
(b) Dissolving completely any crystals which may be present in lhe molasses and which if
introdueed into the pan would cause irregular grain size
(e) Mixing thoroughly, homogenising and controlling the diluted material to a very
uniform brix and temperature, whieh will assist and improve the strike.
As brix of these diluted molasses a figure of 70 - 75° will be adopted, and a temperature
a few degrees aboye that of the masseeuite in the pan, say 75°e (165°F) as a minimum.
(Henee a mnemonie for remembering easily the suitable values of these two quantities:
75/75.) These storage tanks will be furnished with an indicaling thermometer wilh a large
dial; the tanks will be lagged, and al so the piping eonnecting them to the pans .
.Seecific heat of molasses. The speeific heat of molasses may be obtained with somewhat
better precision than the simple formula (30.1), by means of the formula of Janovsky and
ArchangeIsky":
e 1 - [0.6 - 0.0018/ + 0.0008 (100 - P)] 1% (33.48)
(e = 1 - [0.6 - 0.001 (t - 32) + 0.0008 (100 P)] 1%
e = specific heat of a molasses, in kcal/kg (B.T.U./lb.)

/ temperature of the molasses, in °e ¡OF)
P true purity (suerose/ dry substance) of the molasses
M = dry substanee OJo in the molasses.
Specific heat of crystal sugar

Between 40 and 80° e, this is given to a close approximation by e 0.283 (ef. eqn (36.3)).
Proportions of syrup and molasses

The fabrication superintendent has continually lO sol ve the following problem:
Problem. It is desired to obtain a massecuite of purity Pm by means of a footing (syrup

or massecuite) of purity Ps and a returned molas ses of purity P., What are the respective
proportions of syrup and molasses to use?
So/u/ion. Let:
Qs = weight of syrup required
Q, = weight of molasses required
Qm weight of massecuite obtained
Bs = weight of dry substance % of syrup
B, weight of dry substance % of molasses
Bm = weight of dry substance % of massecuite.
OTHER FACTORS 701
Equating the quantilies of dry subslance (d.s.) and of sugar contained in lhe syrup and
in molasses LO the quantities in the massecuit e:
Q,B, + Q, B, = QmBm
Q,B,P, + Q, B, P, = Q," B", P",
Eliminating Q, B, belween Ihese two equations, we have:
QB
, , = Qm Bm - Q
. B
s s
QsB)P=QBP
s e mmm
Q, B, P 111 - Pr:
(33.49)
P, - P,
where the first member represent s rhe d.s. of lhe syrup % of the d.s. of th e ma ssecuite.
H ence:
Q, B P - Pr:
= '" _-
- -111- -_ .. (33.50)
Qt/I B, P, - P,
where lhe first lerm represents the weight of syrup % of wei ght of massecuite.
By volume, we s hol l have:
V., d Bn' ,
(P", - P)
'" - - , - -- - l.:
(33.51)
V dB
, , (P, - P,)
'"
In lhe sallle way , we have:
. " ,'; ',','
V, B dm (P, P,)
= '" (33.52)
V
'"
, ,
Bd (P, - P)
,
V.' =
volume of syrup
V, =
vol ume of molasses
Vm volume of massecuite
d, = density of syrup
d, = density of molasses
dm = densilY of massecuite
Equal ions (33.5 1) and (33.52) give:
V, B,d, (Pm - P)
,
(33 .5 3)
V, Bd
, , (P, - P)
m
702 SUOAR BOILlNG Ch. 33
We may comment that the volumes given by these last three eq uation s do nOI indicare the
level at which feeding of the respective materials into the pan is commenced, since Ihe
materials become concentrated as the charge proceeds. The figures correspond to the tru e
volumes of each product before introduction into the pan.
Calculation of eqn. (33.49) may be made very rapidly by the foliowing device. The three
quantities for the data p.
,e P and Pare
m placed in the form of a cross as shown:
and the differen ces are inserted in the diagonal directions. We thus have
) P, P,
and addition of the two differences shown on the right gives the total (P, - P) , of the pro-
porlions sought, the proportion of syrup (Pm - P,) being shown on the level with P" and
below, on the same line as P,i'
the proportion of molasses (P.J - Pni ). If, for example, \Ve
have: P, = 85, P, = 60, P m = 80, we obtain
8S,- 20 )
'-80~ 25
6O--------- ............... 5
or 20/25 syrup and 5/25 01' molasses (in terms 01' dry solids).
Quantilalive scheme for pan slalion

To demonstrate the method of calculation for the pan station as a whole, we give a very sim-
ple example: the three-massecuite system, CBA. The method of calculation and the reasoning
used apply to other, more complex cases which may be encountered.
We assume a factory crushing 100 I.c . h:, in the following conditions:
Brix Purily
Clarified juice: 15 87
Syrup: 68 87
Molasses: 85 36
Commercial sugar: 99.2 99
B sugar: 96 92
. C sugar: 94 85
OTHER FACTORS 703
Massecuites
A B C
Brix 93 94 97
PurilY 88 58
PurilY drop 19 20 22
PurilY of molasses 69 36
Litres per I.c.h. 140 58 37
We assume lhe condilions for lhe A and C massecuiles, bul nol lhose for lhe B, which
if assumed may be incompalible wilh lhe olhers. To proceed lo lhe calculalion commencing
from lhe syrup and lhe molasses; from lhe molasses we pass lo lhe e massecuile and ils
fooling, lhen lo lhe e magma, and revert to the A massecuite. We then assume a probable
purily for lhe B massecuite, and repeat the calculalion, modifying lhe figure if this leads to
a quantity or purily drop which is abnormal. Undetermined losses in the manufacture are
neglected.
The whole calculation is made in terms of dry substance. We do nol pass to normal quan-
lilies by means of brix unlil lhe table is complete and satisfactory. We calculate previously
the quantities of dry subslance in massecuite, including B massecuite, to ensure that it will
be approximately normal.
The calculation is made with the aid of the Cobenze diagram (p. 702), to resolve the pro-
blems of mixtures and proportions.
Mixtures. If we take lWO products A and B of respective purities P and p, and mix qA of
A and J - qA of B, the purity Pm of the mixture is given by:
Pm - p P-r"Ji'
m
and:
P-p P-p
or:
and:
Massecuite dl"y substance. The following are the normal values which we aim to maintain
approximately:
e massecu;te: 37 I/t.c.h. = 37 x 1.47 or 54.4 kgll.c.h. = 54.4 x 0.97 = 52.8 kg d.s./l.c.h.

B massecu;te: 57 IlLc.h. 57 x 1.470r 85.3 kg/l.c.h. = 85.3 x 0.94 = 80.1 kg d.s./t.c.h.
A massecu;te: 140 I/l.c.h. = 140 x 1.47 or 205.8 kg/t.c.h: = 205.8 x 0.93 = 191.4 kg d.s./t.c.h.
Sugar and molasses. The syrup contains: 100,000 x O. J 5 = 15,000 kg of d.s., which gives
(eqn. (39.4» (Fig. 33.22):
87 36
15,000 x 15,000 x 0.807 12,140 kg of d.s. in sugar
99 36
704 SUGAR BOILING eh. 33
and:
15,000 x 0.193 = 2,860 kg of d.s. in lhe molasses
C massecuile. Quanlity of d.s. in e sugar:
85____ /,22 e sugar

'. ........ 58 /'
36 / ~27
n molasses
2,860 x tí = 2,330 kg/h
T otal d.s. in, e massecuite:
' 2,860 x ~ = 5,190 kg/h
Composilion 01 C massecuile.
. ':-
Dry substance in e fooling :
69~ ,..........---4 A molasses

. 58
5 4 ~ ~u 11 B molasses
5,190 x " --
~ 1,384 kg/ h
Dry substance in B molasses:
5,190 x H- = 3,806 kg/h
A massecuile. Dry substance in A molasses:
99~ ~19 A sugar

88
69 ~ ~;-¡. A molasses
, •• f • \ : • •
12,140 x ~ = 7,028 kg/ h
Remaining in A molasses after taking for e fooling:
7,028 - 1,384 = 5,644 kg/h
Total quantity of B massecuite:
2,330 + 5,644 = 7,974 kg/h

OTHER FACTORS 705
We now check th a t 2,330 is an acceptable propon ion for footing:
2,330 = 29"70 of 7,974
which is acceptable.
e magma. The magmas are ntixed with wa ter in order to retnin their purity and to simplify
operations. There is thus 2,330 kg/ h of d.s. which serves ro go ro lhe B massecuites.
Purity ollhe B massecuiles. This will be:
= 5,644 x 69 + 2,330 x 85 =
P8 7,974 73.7
B molasses. We ShOllld find:
9 1.7 ________ .--- 19. 7 B sugar

73.7
~
54 ---- ~ m18 B molasses
7,974
J7.7 = 3,807 kg/h d.s.
X 18
Al! is corree!. B sugar:
7,974 x :i:; = 4,167 kg/h d.s.
A massecuile. Dry substance in the commercinl sllgar:
4,167 + 15,000 = 19,167 kg/h
and we check that:
19,167 x H = 12,139 kg/ h d.s.
The true quantity of commercial sugar is:
12,140
= 12,238 kg/ h
0.992
and the mo1asses:
2,860
3,365 kg/ h
0.85
Calculalions for Ihe boiling house

Throughout the whole boiling-house process, and particularly for sugar boiling and fugall-
ing, it is very inleresting and practical 10 relate the ca lcul alio ns to unit of non-sugar. In ef-
fect, water is evaporated and sugar withdrawn, all Ihe way fro m sy rup to l'inJI 1ll018Sses.
Calculalions Ihus cannol be based on Ihe weig hl 01' eilher brix or Sllcrose, or on purilies. The
non -sugar, on the conlrary, is Iheoreti ca lly COIlSlan[ and does no[ va ry frolll beginning [O end
of the process. The non-sugar entering wilh the syrup should be recovered in the final
molasses, apart from the small proportion left in Ihe commercial sugar, and in Ihe absence
of accidental losses of material in the course of the process.
Assuming, for example, a B syrup of purity 42 and a final molasses of purity 35 , a recovery
as crystal from Ihis B molasses in Ihe course of [he C s[rike will be:
42 35
100 - 42 100 35 0.724 - 0.538
p = 0.257 25.7"70
42 0.724
100 - 42
l -----Hr---------?
F ig . 33 .23. Pan "'ilh mechanica l circulalioll (Flc(cher & Slewélrl).

PANS WITH MECHANICAL CIRCULATION 707
In rhe same "'a y. an expressiol1 for rhe exhausrion process may be advantageollsly
calculared in terms of unirs of non-sugar. The true quanliries are readily obrained wilh lhe
aid of rhe purity figure. by relaring the non-sugar lo the total product (i.e. sugar + non-sugar
+ water). The calculations are thus simplified. .'
PANS WITH MECHANICAL CIRCULATION
Mechanical circulation has found in Americaan ardenr promoter and supporter in A.L.
Webre; iI becomes increasingly popular.
Pans with mechanical circulation are operated as for other pans. However, they present
some important differences compared with the latter. (Fig. 33.23).
(a) Speed of cireulation. Webre 86 designs his circulators for a velocity of massecuite in the
tubes of 45 cm / s (18 in ./s) , which allows only abour 3 s for contact wilh lhe healing surface,
reducing subsrantially the maximum lemperature. Actually, however, the velocity given to
the massecuite is far from attaining that value. It has been measured 87 and found to vary
from 20 cm / s (8 in .ls) at the beginning of the strike to 5 - 10 cm/s (2 - 4 in.ls) al the end
of the heavying-up in rhe case of the e massecuite. The lalter values are neverlheless much
superior to those obtained with natural circulation (ef. p. 661) .
(b) Evaporalion coefficients. Evaporation coefficients found by Webre for natural cir-
culapans have already been given (p. 663). Completing Ihe table, we recall these values below
and add those found by the same author in the same series of experiments on the same
massecuite (B) and at rhe same purity (72):
Heal·tfonsj er coel ficienl, Evaporation coeff¡cien(~ in kg / m 2 /h

in kcallm '/ 'C/ h (Ib .lsq .jl./h)
(8 , T, U.lsq.jl./'F / h)
Start Finish Anish Mean
Nalural circulal ion 490 (100) 24 ( 5) 34 (6.98) 1.2 (0.25) ti (2.25)

Mer haniciJl drculalion 550 (t 13) t93 (40) 35 (7.2 ) 12 (2.5 ) 20 (4 . t )
It is seen rha! mechanical circulation does not alter performance greatly at Ihe beginning
of ¡he charge, bu! modifies il subsrantially at the heavying-up periodo In this case, the
evaporation coefficient at the end was ten times greater for mechanical circulalion, but in
general Webre reckons only six times greater.
(e) Duralion of strike. lt folJows Ihar the duration of Ihe strike is substantially reduced.
Webre 88 reckons a saving in time of:
A massecuites: 15 - 20070 hence duration 80 - 85 % of previous

B massecuites: 25 - 30% hence duration 70 - 75% of previous
e massecuites: 40 - 50% hence duratian 50 - 60% of previous
(d) Steam pressure. In the same way, Iow-pressure vapour may readily be used, for exam-
pIe, vapour bIed from the second effect.
(e) Height of massecuite. Finally, the height of the massecuite aboye ¡he calandria may be
pushed considerabIy aboye what is reasonabIe with natural circulation. A height of 2 or even
2.4 m (7 or 8 fr.) may readily be attained without difficulty. Hence a gain in capacity and
a decrease in graining volume.
In short, mecha ni cal circulation permits the use of bled vapours at low pressure, and con-
sequently economy in fuel, while improving the quality of the sugar, the purity drop, and
consequently the yield. It is in C massecuites that it gives the greatest improvement.
(f) Power consumption. The power consumed by ¡he circulator inereases very rapidly as
the massecuite is tightened up near the end of the strike.
Spengler and Horn 89 have measured the power necessary to circulate lhe massecuite in a
small pan. Table. 33.16 gives the results obtained, as a funclion of lhe temperature and the
crystal content 90 . The figures in .lhe table correspond 10 the powerconsumed in watts.
TABLE 33.16
PQWER ABSORBED BY MECHANICAl CIRCULATION, IN watts
Temperafure, in oC (0F)
Cryslal %
massecuae 30 (86) 40(104) 60 (140) 70(158) 80° (176°)
O 83.8 82.5 81.5 80.5 80.0

5 86.8 85.5 84.5 83.5 82.3
JO 88.8 C\. 87 86 85 84.1
15 90.6 88 86.5 85.6 84.3
20 91 88.5 87.5 86 85
25 93 89 88.5 87.1 86
30 95 90 89 88 86.2
35 100.8 92.6 92 91 88.3
40 106.9 100 98.5 94.2 92.7
45 125 119 107.5 102.3 97.6
50 204 183.3 142 126 106.6
55 335 300 250 190 129.1
For a pan of 250 hl (880 cu.ft.), Duus 91 gives an average power of 22.5 kW (30 h.p.), wilh
a peak at the end of the charge of 45 - 48 kW (60 - 65 h. p.). Webre 91 estimales 55 - 75 kW
(75 -100 h.p.) for the peak power required by a pan of standard type 4.25 m (14 ft.) in
diameter (approximately 400 hl (J ,400 cu. ft.».
Approximately, we may estimate:
Nominal power to be inslalled: 2.3 kW/m' (0.087 h.p./cu.ft.) of \\'orking capacity

Peak power consumplion: 1.9 kW 1m 3 (0.07 h.p./cu.ft.) of working capacity
Average power consumption: 1.0 kW 1m' (0.04 h.p./cu.ft.) of working capacity
The efficiency of the stirrer is very low, of the order of 7%. lt has been found in
PANS WlTH MECHANICAL CIRCULATION 709
Auslralia 9J lhar a circulalOr of semi-axial and semi-radial f10w gave a mllch betler efficiency,
of lhe arder of II OJo, For an impeller of the Webre type, the position giving the best resull
corresponded lo lhe bOltom of the centre well, with the impeller having 40"70 of ils thickness
(i,e, its heighl) in Ihe interior of the downlake and 60070 below lhe lower lube pi ale, The cir-
clllalion remains good 94 as long as lhe fraction of lhe heighl of the impeller situaled within
lhe downtake is belween 100070 (bottom of the impeller flush with the tllbe plate) and 35070.
The oplimal diameter of the impeller is 0,94D (D = inside diameter of downtake), Its pitch
should be 1,5 D, and its horizonlal projeclion should cover 4 sections of 60° in lhe case of
a 4-blade impeller or 2 seclions of 90° in the case of 2 blades.
The angle of allack of the blades is generally 3r, II is advantageous if the botlom of the
pan has a central conical seclion, as shown in Fig. 33.9, This assists in directing the f10w of
the massecuite towards the outer walls of the calandria.
On account of lhe large increase in power consumption as the tighlening up of the masse-
cuile proceeds, il is of advanlage lO have 2-speed agilators. The higher speed is lhen used
al lhe starl of lhe strike, and lhe low speed from the lime when lhe massecuite level reaches
aboul three-quarters of Ihe working capacity. In this way, excessive power consumption is
avoided, while slill realising, at any period of the strike, a circulation very superior to what
\\'ould be obtained with natural circulation, which indeed is practically nOlhing al Ihe finish.
Jenkins 91 considers lhat it would be necessary lO reduce the speed to 30070 below lhe maxi-
mum,
The 2-speed drive may be realised by a motor with two sets of windings, or by a 2-speed
gearbox, bul the latter solution is expensive.
Webre" recommends stopping the circulator at the moment steam is shut off, as the power
load on the mOlar increases abruptly when boiling ceases.
(g) Speed of the circulator. The circulator located in the centre well takes up a large propor-
lion of ilS cross-section, If it is not to obstruct the circulation more than it assists it, it is ne-
cessary that it should rotate at a cerlain minimum speed.
Webre" has adopted lhe following speeds for circulalors of 1.2 m (4 ft.) diameter in pans
01' 3,65 m (12 fl,) diameler:
For footings, A and B massecuites: 80 r.p.m.

e massecuites of brix up to 97: 60 r.p.m.
e masseeuites of brix greater than 97: 50 r.p.m,
Venlon" eonsiders that it would be of advantage to retain a speed of about 50 r.p,m. for
all heav)' massecuiles,
The impeller may have a large central hub (Fig. 33.23) or a narrow hubo lt may be a ship's
propellor with 3 blades, and in this case it is advantageous to fix on the wall 01' the downtake
4 vertical plates arranged radially, of radial width about 20070 of the radius of the downtake,
\\'ilh lhe objeet of guiding the deseent of the masseeuite vertieally and avoiding horizontal
lurbulence (Fig, 33,24), The impeller may also be formed of blades fixed on a conieal boss
\\'ilh an apical angle of aboul 26°, the blades being almost normal to the eone".
The peripheral speed al lhe extremity 01' the blades is gene rally between 5 and 7.5 mis
(16 -25 ft./s, more often about 6.5 mis for massecuite of ver y high purity, or between 3.5
and 5 mis (11 - 16 ft.ls) for low-grade massecuite. A ship's propellor with a large boss con-
sumes less power than one with a narrOw hubo
In pans with mechanical circulation, a shorter tube length is generally adopted than for
pans without agitator 49 , for example, 600-700 mm (24-28 in.).
Advantages of mechanical circulation. Summarising and supplementing the advantages al-

ready indicated, Webre indicates the following:
(a) Saving in time for the strike (ef. p. 707)
(b) Maximum temperature reached by the massecuite substantially lower
(e) Crystals better formed, more shapely and more regular
(d) Less colour in the sugar and reduced risk of sugar losses by local overheating
fig. 33.24. Calandria for mechanical circularioll pan wi¡h radial blades.
PANS WJTH MECHANICAL CIRCULATION 711
(e) Possible ready application of automatic feed control!ed by the power consumption of
the motor; when power increases, the feed valve is opened; when it decreases, the valve is
closed
(f) Possibility of feeding the pan with syrup and molasses only s/ightJy undersaturated, wi-
thout risk of reme/ting crystal
(g) Less deposit on the lubes, due 10 rhe abrasion effect by friclion of the circulating
crystals
(h) Possibility of utilising a lower pressure of steam for heating.
The disadvantage of mechanical circulation is the power consumption.
Applicalion. Pans with mechanical circulation give a marked improvement in the boiling,
and improve the quality of Ihe product. They permit a valuable gain in the purity of molasses
and render possible work with tighter massecuites. They are thus strongly recommended, par-
ticularly with C massecuites. Ir may even be justifiable for a new factory to equip al! pans
with mechanical circulators. The only alternative to compete with this would be equipment
with continuous pans. A series of pans offered by Fives Cail- Babcock with mechanical agi-
tators is identical with that of their pans with nat fixed calandria, the only difference being
the addition of the agitator, which can in facl be installed without difficulty in their ordinary
pans (Fig. 33.25).
fig. 33.25. fives Cail- Babeoek pan with eireulator, type CTM.
712 SUGAR BOIIING Ch. 33
Fig. 33.26. Boi!ing sration wirh mechanical ci rculalion pan s (B.M.A.).
CON TINUOUS VACUUM PANS
Continuous pans have appeared in the course of the 1970's, and are expanding rapidly. For
the same space occupied, theyaccomplish the same work as o rdinar y pans ín the sa me timc.
They presenl numerous advantages ín space occupied, cost, simplicity and economy of opera-
tíon, and theír ínílíal díffícultíes have been the only reason delayíng rheir more general use.
In the presenl situatíon, the contínuous pan should become general.
Fives Caíl- 8abcock continuous pans

The best-known and practically the only type in wide use al the moment is the contínuous
pan of Fives Caíl- Babcock (Figs. 33.27 and 33.28).
The pan consisls of a cylindrical body with horízontal axis, and with reinforced end plates.
In the lower half of the pan, there is an assembly of longitudinal tubes arranged in horizontal
rows; the upper row is flat, while the bottom rows are shaped to foJlow the curve of the cylin-
CONTINUOUS VACUUM PANS 713
drical body of the pan, leaving a space at the sides between the tubes and the pan wall for
dOIVI1\Vard circulation of the massecuite. The tu bes are free and not surrounded by any metal
sheets. Being disposed in a rectangular pattern and not staggered, they are in vertical rows
also, thus facilitating the ascending circulation in the interior of the tu be assembly.
The tubes are of 35 x 38 mm, and this exterior diameter permits general standardisation
of tube sizes lhrougllOUt the faclory. Thel' mal' also be of 27 x 30 mm. The thickness is 1.5
mm. They are fixed al lhe ends by expansion joints lo allow for expansiono
Verlical baffles divide the pan into a number of compartments, which may vary between
10 and 16, bUl \ViII be standardised at 13. These compartments communicate with each other
by an opening located at the base of the partitions. The first compartment occupies the full
width of the pan; it delivers on the left into the second compartment which, with the third,
occupies the space bet\Veen the first and second transverse partitions; the second delivers
across the vessel into the lhird, which delivers longitudinally on the right into number 4, and
so on; the intermediale compartments are in pairs across the pan.
In lhe beel sugar induslry there are pans carrying out all the sugar-boiling operations, in-
cluding seeding and graining. With cane sugar, assuming that the CBA or CB/CA systems
are followed, the footing for a C massecuite is formed in an ordinary pan and the continuous
pan is fed with lhis fooling; with A and B strikes, the continuous pan is fed direct[y with
the magma which is fed into the firsl cOll1partmenl.
Fig. 33.27. Continuous pan (Fives Cail- Babcock).

Controls. For the three·massecuite system, continuous pans are equipped wilh four
systems of control designed to maintain al a constant level:
(a) Steam pressure in the tubes
(b) Vacuum in the pan
(e) Pressure of agitating steam
(11) Massecuile level in the pan.
In addition, Fives Cail- Babcock supply:
(1) For A and B massecuites: (a) a control adjusting the f10w of syrup or molasses Q admil-
ted into the later compartments as a function of the density of the massecuite delivered; (b)
a control maintaining an input of syrup or molasses into the early compartments proportio-
nal to Q.
(2) For C massecuites: the compartments are separated into three groups each having ilS
equipment for regulating the temperature or the conductivity of the massecuite controlling
lhe feed of molasses into the preceeding compartments.
A f10wmeter registers the total feed of syrup or molasses introduced into the pan.
The incondensable gases from the steam are used to supplement the mixing and agitation
produced by the boiling in the pan, by injecting the gases along the lower portion of the pan,
thus serving 10 homogenise the mass and prevent stagnation of the bottom layer. The desig-
ner sta tes that this supplementary agitation avoids formation of false grain and contributes
to production of a regular crystaL The incondensable gases are evacuated wilh the vapour
from the massecuite from the top of the pan. This agitation is thus necessary. Moreover, with
cane, it is necessary that the pan should be lagged; this contributes 10 avoiding deposit of
crystal on the wal!s of the pan. With the same object, a heating jacket or double encIosure
may be provided and supplied with steam at ver y low pressure. In equipment for massecuites
of very high purity, the formation of such deposits is also prevented by means of small swing-
ing nozzles which ha ve received the nickname of "whirling dervishes".
Range of sízes. Fives Cail - Babcock make these pans in four diameters D with four or six
different lengths L available, giving 13 differenr capacities V In the medium sizes, a choice
is offered between short and long models. Al! pans have a ratio SI V of 10 m'/m J (3
sq.ft./cu.fL). Table 33.17 gives the pan dimensions and in each case the volume V of
massecuite which can be treated per hour, also the capacity A in I.c.h. of the factory which this
equipment should serve according to which massecuite (A, B and C) it wil! be required to han-
dIe.
Other continuous pans

A pan very similar to lhe Fives Cail - Babcock was installed at Mossman in Ausrralia in
1976. It has been the object of numerous studies by Broadfool and Wright 'OO , after which
t hey have made the following recommendations:
(a) To limil possible entrainment, they consider the voJume of vapour space aboye the
massecuile level should represent 80 - 86070 of the massecuite volume in the pan.
(b) The magma inlroduced in a C pan should have at least 20% of crystal, and lhe growlh
of cryslals should go from 0.18 mm at enlry to 0.30 al lhe exit, for a ralio weighl of
massecuile 10 weight of magma of approximately 3.5 - 4.
CONTlNUOUS VACUUM PANS 715
(e) The coefficient of variation of crystal should range from 0.25 in the magma to 0.30
for ¡he final massecuile.
(d) They suggest that lhe successive capacities of the compartments of a pan of 120 m' of
7 compartments should be: 6, 10, J6, 20, 20, 24 and 24 m J (or 5,8,13,17,17,20 and 20070,
respectively).
TABLE 33.17
SERIES OF CONTlNUOUS PANS (FIVES CAIL - BABCOCK)
Cap. Diam. Lenglh Diam. Lenglh Massecuite A Massecuite B Massecuile e

v D L D L v A v A A
(m') (m) (m) (m) (111) (m'/h) (I.c.h.) (m'/h) (I.c.h.) (m'/h) (I.c.h.)
16 31 3.715 8.1 60 6.4 85 3.2 70

19 3.1 4.455 9.5 70 7.5 100 3.8 85
22.5 3.1 5.135 1l.5 85 9 120 4.5 100
27 3.1 5.935 3.5 5.195 13.5 100 10.9 145 504 120
32 3.1 70415 3.5 5.935 16.2 120 12.8 170 6.3 140
38 3.1 8.900 3.5 7.415 18.9 140 15 200 7.6 170
45 3.5 8.900 4.0 5.935 22.3 165 18 240 9 200
54 3.5 10.385 4.0 7.415 27 200 21.8 290 10.8 240
64 3.5 11.870 4.0 8.900 32.4 240 25.5 340 12.6 280
76 4.0 10.385 4.6 7.415 37.8 280 3004 405 15.3 340
90 4.0 11.870 4.6 8.900 42.6 330 36 480 18 400
104 4.6 10.385 51.3 380 41.6 555 20.7 460
120 4.6 11.870 59.4 442 48 640 23.8 530
Fig. 33.28. Conlinuous pan (Fives Cail- Babcock).

716· SUOAR BOILlNO Ch. 33
(e) The partitions of the equipment should be coated with epoxy resin to prevent the sugar
crystals from adhering and faIling la ter into the massecuite, tending to block the passages.
(f) It is considered in Australia 'O' that the ratio of total area of passage between the tubes
to the corresponding downtake area for massecuite should be less than 2.5 and as low as
possible. We suggest approximately 2.
Advantages
Continuous vacuum pans are destined to replace discontinuous pans which are still almost
universal. They present great advantages:
(a) They can function at very low steam pressures on account of the low height of
massecuite aboye the calandria, and the agitation of the massecuite below.
(b) Steam consumption is uniform, in contrast to the high peak demands at the start for
batch pans.
(e) No discharge or steaming-out is involved as is the case after each batch boiling, with
consequent dilution of material and losses of heat.
(d) Total automation is possible, simplifying the operation of the factory.
(e) Space occupied is much less, first because the useful volume of the equipment is much
less for equal production capacity, and also on account of the gain in capacity due to the
uninterrupted operation.
(f) There is economy in manpower: one man can operate the whole of the pan stage.
(g) The number of pans is reduced: the factory can operate with 3 continuous pan s and
one for graining.
(h) Investment is lower: supporting structures are lighter, the large vacuum pump for the
condenser is perhaps not required.
(i) Maintenance is reduced.
(¡) There is the possibility of standardising tu bes with those for other units in the factory.
(k) It is possible to boil the massecuite to a higher brix.
Sorne disadvantages
Sorne disadvantages may be noted: ."
(a) Longer time to get the equipment into operation, when first installed.
(b) At the weekly shutdown an A massecuite is likely to set if left in the pan, hence the necessi-
ty to transfer the contents of each compartment to a mixer (also in compartments) where it is
maintained in motion. At the start-up on Monday, each portion must be returned to its
appropriate compartment to resume normal operation. Otherwise it is necessary to empty the
equipment at the weekly shutdown.
Langreney continuous pan s

This equipment was designed about 1970 by Francois Langreney. It depends on the idea that,
if the massecuite is confined in a narrow corridor, there is no need for separa te compart-
ments. As the massecuite is a viscous material, it has no tendency to mix as a mobile liquid
would do. Provided that the operation commences with a magma of sufficient consistency
and this is provided with a direct path in a narrow corridor, there is no necessity to divide
the equipment into separa te compartments. The object of these is only to prevent the
CONTINUOUS VACUUM PANS 717
massecuite from mixing with that of neighbouring stages, so that each stage corresponds to
a portion of the required crystaI size, and al! the crystaIs follow approximately the same path
as they passalong the equipment. Any crystals which lag behind, or which move faster than
[he main bulk, wiIl give Iarger or smaller grains than required, thus resulting in a poor quality
of sugar of uneven grain size.
The massecuite is heated in vertical tubes, and on leaving the tubes it returns down the nar-
row corridor and re-enters the calandria further downstream. Thus the height of the equip-
ment must allow sufficient space aboye and below the tubes for the massecuite circulation,
for release of vapour aboye the tubes, and for satisfaclOry entry of the massecuite at the bot-
tom of the tllbes. The forward moyement of the material is maintained by the flow of magma
and nlolasses entering. The material enters at ohe end of the corridor and leayes at the far
end (Fig. 33.29).
Thus the basic equipment designed on this principIe consisted of a long rectangular tunnel
having a narrow tubular calandria, for example, of 4 to 6 rows of tubes, while on the other
side Ihere was an even narrower canal or corridor. The botlOm portion of this allows a
transverse area, per unil of length, greater than thal of the calandria tubes for the same
lengt h, wit hou t gi vi ng excess area w here the massecui te coul d stagnate. Vertica 1 pi ates a boye
the calandria support a roof formed of a horizontal plate to arrest splashes of the massecuite.
The syrup or molasses feed to the boiling mass is introduced below the calandria at numerous
points, by suitable distributing pipes.
VAPOUR
SIRUP o
Fig. 33.29. PrincipIe or (he Langreney pan, massecui!e circulation.

Since an excessively long apparatus would not be acceptable, Langreney first considered
dividing this tunnel into two sections, one each side of the calandria, so that there would be
one calandria with a channel on each side of it. The magma was introduced at one end on
the one side, proceeding to the opposite end of the channel and continuing from one side
to the other and returning to the initial end, where the massecuite left by overflow and
descended by a barometric column to be collected 6 or 7 m (20 - 23 ft.) below. This was the
first pilot equipment, the functioning of which was satisfactory and encouraged the inventor.
However, even divided into two, the length of flow was insufficient. Langreney then had
the idea of changing the straight channel to a circular one; at the same time, he gained in
strength of the material by avoiding the necessity for reinforcing a flat pi ate. Taking a
diameter equal lO the length of the straight equipment, he thus multiplied the length by a
factor 71', and to avoid loss of the double-channel concept, he again provided two channels,
one on each side of the ring calandria. This latter was common to the two channels, and was
provided with a vertical partition separating the portion serving the interior channel from
that serving the exterior one. For a diameter of 7 m (23 ft.), he thus attained a length of 30
m (98 ft.). This is the equipment which he designated under the name of "crystalliser".
Description. In the present models (1982), the equipment has the same exterior appearance
as a normal vacuum pan. Inside, a radial baffle separates the beginning and the end of the
circular channels. The magma is introduced below, in the interior channel, against this radial
baffle. As the equipment is designed for a level of the boiling massecuite about 25 cm (ID
in.) aboye the upper pi ate of the calandria, vertical baffles up to I m (3 ft.) aboye avoid
lateral projection of drops and splashes. The interior circuit is separated from the exterior
by a cylindrical baffle rising aboye the calandria and dividing it into two sections correspon-
ding to [he respective heating surfaces. This baffle extends below the calandria and is thicker
at this position, since it serves as a support for the calandria. The massecuite passes from
the interior to the exterior circuit by a large opening situated in the supporting plate and ex-
tending from the bottom of that plate, against the radial baffle.
The syrup or molasses feed is piped to two circular distributing boxes situated aboye the
conical roof of the equipment, and descends by feedpipes distributed around the apparatus
and feeding into the two circuits. There is one distributing box for each circuit. A sight glass
is interposed in the vertical portion of the pipe, permitting visual inspection of the flow, and
a hand-operated butterfly valve is provided.
The transfer at (he bottom from vertical to horizontal flow is made by a T fitting, permit-
ting cleaning of the pipe. "c
Discharge of the massecuite is made near the radial baffle, by means of an overflow with
an adjustable weir pI ate, with sight glasses showing the overflow leve!. The circuit described
aboye may be followed in the opposite sense (Fig. 33.30): entry by the exterior channel and
discharge from the interior one. This arrangement is in fact necessary for theCA model
which is described later.
The calandria is in two portions welded together to form a single body. There is one steam
entry or, if necessary for large apparatus, two entries at 180 0 apart. Vacuum is maintained
constant. There are at least 10 conductivity meters along the travel of the massecuite, three
being in the first circuit, and seven in the second. The indications from electrodes 2 to 9 are
CONTlNUOUS VACUUM PANS 719
/"""-... TO CONDENSER
LIQUOR 1
LIQUOR 2
STEA M - - 11----1---
o
O
LL
on
'"
=::;;~
5TEAM .......
~~
. .
U::-LJ
¡I'
STEAM ~~~
Fig. 33.30. Langreney conlinuous pan, Iype CA.
connected in a current - pressure con verter and the result is transmitted to the molasses valve
or steam val ve.
Two systems of automatic control are employed at present. One consisls of regulating the
inpuI of molasses according 10 the integrated indication of conductivity, the two circuits be-
ing conlrolled separalely: Ihe firsl by electrodes 2 and 3, Ihe second by eJeclrodes 5 lO 9. The
sleam pressure is Ihus mainlained conSlant. The olher syslem consisls of regulating Ihe feed
valve for molasses in reJalíon LO a flowmeter placed on Ihe feed of magma, so as lo eSlablish
proporlionality between Ihese two feeds, and regulating the steam valve in relation to the in-
tegration of the 8 conduclivilY readings. The flow meter is gradualed in cubic meters per
hour, wilh an adjustable setting.
The eleclrodes must be maintained very cJean. For this purpose they are located at several
decimelres from the wall of the equipment and are surrounded by a sheath which directs a
jet of hot water under pressure on the e1ectrodes, opened every quarter hour (with A
massecuite) or hourly with e massecuite. A11 the instrumelle)i. f0r these automatic controls
are assembled on a control panel. r:.~
The sleam from the boiling massecuite is evacuated LO the condenser through the central
dome of the pan . The ralio SI Vi s approximately 9.2 m'l m J (2.8 sq.ft/ cu.ft). The calandria
tubes are of steel, 98.6 x 101.6 mm (3i- x 4 in.) and 1.20 m (4 ft.) in length. By limiting
them to I m (3.3 ft.), the heat-transfer coefficient would be improved, but to maintain the
same SI V, the diameter of the equipment would have to be increased by 10070.
The equipment functions well, and the coefficient of variation of the crystals is comparable
with that from discontinuous pans. Its si mplicit y is an attractive feature, its cylindrical form
and smaller overall size facilitating its installalion in the pan station. The lenglh of lravel of
the massecuite is a favourable factor.
There are 3 principal types:
(a) The 2L5, for capacities below 30 m 3 , withstraight element
(b) The CN, for capacities 25 to 80 m" cylindrical element
(e) The CA, for capacities 15 to 80 m 3 , cylindrical with an agitator at the end of the boiling
(Fig. 33 .27).
With the CN model, the space inside the interior circuit is unfortunately wasted, since it
is difficult of access: but it increases the diameter of the whole vessel by only 5% for a given
capacity. The CA model resolves this difficulty very elegantly by finding an excellent use for
this space. By adopting the reverse flow, the massecuite entering the exterior channel first
and then the interior channel, the massecuite coming to the end of the latter passes through
an opening in rhe central cylinder which thus forms a small vacuum pan with central
downtake, heated by a calandria slightly lower than the principal calandria of the equipment
and fitted with an agitator which ensures circulation of the massecuite at the moment when
it is most useful and most effective, i.e. at the end of the strike. The level in this inside pan
is maintained slightly lower than in the main circuits, and the massecuile is withdrawn at a
point in the periphery by a small opening opposite the point of entry lO this lhird circuit.
This model makes the Langreney the only continuous pan with an agirator. Thus modified,
lhis equipment, already original in its conception, marks an interesling stage in lhe hi story
of the continuous vacuum pan (Fig. 33 .30).
Table 33.18 gives dimensions of the various models of the CA pan.
TABLE 33.18
SERIES OF LANGRENEY CONTrNUOUS PANS TYPE CA
No. Diameler D Voiume V Healing sur/ace S
(m) (ft.lin.) (m') (cu.fl.) (m') (sq.fl.)
150CA 3.710 (12 fl. 2 in.) 15 530 138 1,488

200CA 4.298 (14 ft. 1 in .) 20 -:" . 706 184 1.984
250CA 4.673 (15 fl. 8 in.) 25 883 230 2,480
300CA 5.233 (17 fl. 2 in .) 30 1,059 276 2,976
350CA 5.639 (18 fL 6 in.) 35 1,236 323 3,472
400CA 6.045 (19 fr. 10 in.) 40 1,413 369 3,968
450CA 6.401 (21 ft. O in.) 45 1,589 415 4,464
500CA 6.757 (22 fr. 2 in.) 50 1,766 461 4,%0
600cA 7.391 (24-' ft. 3 in.) 60 2,119 553 5,952
700CA 8.001 (26 fr. 3 in.) 70 2,472 645 6,944
800cA 8.534 (28 fr. O in .) 80 2,825 737 7,936
(Diameler of small interior pan wilh agilalor = 43"70 of D.)

REFERENCES 721
Relative capadties of batch and continuous pans

The eapaeity of a continuous pan, reekoned in m'/t.e.h., may be reekoned as about 20070
higher ¡han ¡hat of a discontinuous pan of ¡he same useful volume.
Al Tongaal and Gledhow'o, it is considered that the respective capaeities, reekoned in kg
evaporation per hour and m', were approximately 5.3 - 6 kg/m 2 /h (1.1 - 1.2 Ib.lsq. ft./h)
for continuous Fives Cail- Babcoek pans, and that of bateh pans about twice that figure dur-
ing their time of operation. The advantage of the eontinuous pans is due to their superior
SIV(of the order of la m'/m' (3 sq.ft.lcu.ft.), compared with 6-8 (1.8-2.4)) and to the
fact ¡hat ¡hey function in a continuous manner, whereas ordinary pans operate intermittent-
Iy.
• > , "!.i
REFERENCES
t L. A. TROMP, Maehinery and Equiplllenl oJ Ihe Cane Sugar Faelory, Norman Rodger, London, 1936, p. 430.
2 P. H. PARR, Faels aboul Sugar, 31 (1936) 68.
3 J. G. DAVIES ANO R. D. E. YEARWOOO, Inl. Sugar J., 36 (1934) 239.
3a J. G. Z,EOLER, T.S.J., 37 (5) (Oel. 1974) 16.
4 J. G. DAVIES ANO R. D. E. YEARWOOD, Inl. Sugar J., 46 (1944) 240.
5 J. G. THJEME, Faels aboul Sugar, 28 (1933) 185.
6 R. MORoz, in P. HONro (Ed.), Principies oJ Sugar Teehnology, Vol. 111, Elsevier, Amslerdam, 1963, p. 430.
7 S. J. SAINT, Inl. Sugar J., 35 (1933) 311.
8 A. L. WEBRE, InI. Sugar J., 54 (1952) 76.
9 A. L. WEBRE, Sugar, 41 (12) (1946) 32.
10 N. SMlTH, Faels aboul Sugar, 32 (1937) 239.
11 L. A. TROMP, op. cil., p. 440.
12 J. HALPIN, Inl. Sugar J., 53 (1951) 248.
13 F. DAMBRINE AND J. C. GlOROI, Inl. Sugar 1., 66 (1964) 73.
14 A. L. WEBRE, in P. HONIO (Ed.), PrinciplesoJSugar Teehnology, Vol. 11, Elsevier, Amslerdam, 1959, p. 413.
15 A. L. WEBRE AND C. S. ROBINSON, Evaporalion, The Chemical Calalog Co., New York, 1926, p. 97.
16 H. CLAASSEN, Inl. Sugar J., 41 (1939) 220.
17 L. A. TROMP, Inl. Sugar J., 67 (1965) 210.
18 A. L. WEBRE. Inl. Sugar J., 47 (1945) 66.
21 L. A. TROMP, op. eil., p. 443.
22 W. E. SMITH, Inl. Sugar J., 37 (1935) 2i.
23 G. H. JENKINS, Proe. 25 Ih ConJ. QSSCT, 1958, p. 199.
24 E. HUOOT, Handbook oJ Cane Sugar Engineering, ISI edn., Elsevier, Amslerdam, 1960, p. 484.
25 A. L. WEBRE, [ni. Sugar J., 35 (1933) 186.
27 R. C. L. 80SWORTH, in P. HONIO (Ed.), Principies oJ Sugar Teehnology, Vol. 11, Elsevier, Amslerdam, 1959,
p. 390.
30 P. HONro, Principies oJ Sugar Teehnology, Vol. 'lI, EIsevier, Amslerdam, 1959, p, 363.
31 N. DEERR, Cane Sugar, Norman Rodger, London, 1921, p. 331.
32 L. A. TROMP, Inl. Sugar J., 40 (J 938) 226.
33 A. L. WEBRE AND C. S. ROBINSON, op eil., p. 298.
34 A. L. WEBRE, in G: P. MEADE, Cane Sugar Handbook, 9th edn., Wiley, New York, 1963, p. 150.
35 J. 8. CORVEN, Inl. Sugar J., 40 (1938) 481.
36 C. W. WADDELL, Inl. Sugar J., 41 (1939) 239.
36a C. J. Lu, T. W. HUNO AND C. M. HWANO, Proe. 131h Congr. ISSCT,1968, p. 1622 ..
./
722 SUOAR BOILINO Ch. 33
36b G. N. ALLAN, PrOC. 43rd Conf. SASTA, 1969, p. 178.

37 P. G. WRr oHT, Proc. 42nd Conf. QSSCT, 1975, p. 188.
37a LOPEZ ANO CLARK, Cuba Azucar, (Ocl. 1965) 51.
37b J. M. PATURAU, in P. HONro, (Ed.), op cil., Vol. II!, p. 57.
37c G. H. JENKrNS, Inlroduclion 10 Can e Sugar Technology, Elsevier, AmSlerdam 1966, p. 484.
38 M. A. DOOLAN, Inl. Sugar J., J7 (1935) 365.
38a G. H. JENKrNs, Inl. Sugar J., 44 (1942) 150.
39 A. VANH oO R, in P. HONro (Ed.), op. cil., Vol . 11, p. 176.
40 J . B. CUTHILL, Inl. Sugar J., 42 (1940) 331.
41 L. A. TRoMP, op. cil., p. 435.
42 C. G . M. PERK, Proc. 391h Conf. SASTA, 1965, p. 20.
43 N. DEERR, op. cil., p. 384.
44 K. DOUWES DEKKER, Proc. 71h Congr. ISS CT, 1950, p. 628 .
45 K. DOUWES DEKKER, Proc. 31s1 Conf. SASTA, 1957, p. 92.
46 J. D. DE R. DE STo ANTOINE ANO J. P. LAMUSSE, Rev. Agr. Sucriére l/e Maurice, 38 (1959) 96.
47 Sugar Res. inst o, Mackay, Queensland, Tech. Rep. No. 64, p . 2 .
48 S. Africa Yearbook, 1972- 73, p. 85.
49 E. A. KNOVL AND G. R. MOLLER, Sugar Technol. Rev., 3 (4) (1976) 277.
50 W. F. ALEWIJN AND P. HONro, in P. HONro (Ed.), op. Cil., Vol. 11, p. 348 .
51 R. BAX, Rev. Agr. Sucriere Jle Maurice, 37 (1958) 277.
52 G. ALEMAN, Sugar Azucar, 64 (12) (1969) 27.
53 A. L. WEBRE, in P. HONrO (Ed.), op. cil., Vol. 11, p. 403.
54 Sugar Res. Insl. Mackay, Queensland, Tech. Rep. No. 53, p. 5.
55 A. L. WEBRE, Sugar, 41 (12) (1946) 30.
56 W. E. SMITH, Facls aboul Sugar, 28 (1933) 84.
57 A. L. HOLVEN, in G. P. MEADE, Cane Sugar Handbook , 91h edn., Wiley, New York, 1963, p. 183.
58 W. F. ALEWIJN ANO P. HONro, in P. HONro (Ed .), op. cil., Vol. 11, p. 250.
59 L. D. KELSO, Proc. 23rd Conf. QSSCT, 1956, p. 133 .
60 H. A. DlrMAR JANSSE, in P. HONIO (Ed.), op. cil., Vol. 11, p. 316.
60a P. G . WRIOHT, Sugar Tech. Rey., 10 (1983) 71, 74,75 .
61 O. D'HorMAN DE VILLlERS, Rev. Agr. Ile Maurice, 62 (1932) 67.
62 CHEN, Taiwan Sugar, (May 1979) 99.
63 H. A. DlrMAR JANSSE, Inl. Sugar J., 57 (1955) 205 .
64 Sugar Res. Insl., Mackay, Queensland, Tech. Rep. No. 63, p . 9.
65 E. C. GILLETT AND W. KENDA, Inl. Sugar J., 52 (1950) 368.
66 P. HONro, Sugar J., 15 (4) (1952) 17 .
67 J. H. PAYNE, in P. HONIO (Ed .), op. cil., Vol. 11, p. 499.
68 P. G. WRIOHT, Proc. 281h Con!. QSSCT, 196/, p. 204.
69 F. H. C. KELLY, Inl. Sugar J., 59 (1957) 93.
70 H. M. BAIJSERMAN, Sugar Azucar, 59 (4) (1964) 58.
71 P. LAMUSSE ANO H. F. WIEHE, Proc. Jjlh Congr. ISSCT, 1962, p. 887.
72 R. H. KINO ANO N. L. JISON, Inl. Sugar J., 35 (1933) 158.
73 P. HONIO, op cil., Vol. 111, p. 186.
74 G. P . MEADE, Cane Sugar Handbook, 8th edn., Wiley, New Yo rk, 1949, p. 206.
75 J. A. SOLANO AN" V. VILLALOBOS, Facls abolll SlIgar. 43 (8) (1948) 32 .
76 D. M. STEVENSON, Proc. 31s1 Conf. QSSCT, 1964, p. 234 .
77 H. F. WIEHE, MauTÍlius Sugar Ind. Res. Insl., Ann. Rep., 1963, p. 131.
78 R. W. G. HESSEY ANO N. MANNrNO, Proc. 161h Conf.QSSCT, 1949, p. 87.
79 L. D. J ENS EN, Proc. 31s1 Conf. QSSCT, 1964, p. 242.
80 L. L. CARSOLlO, Proc. 91h Congr. ISSCT, 1956, Vol. 2, p. 336.
81 A. L. WE8RE, in P. HONlo (Ed.), op. cil., Vol. 11, pp. 144,293,298.
82 W. F. ALEWIJN ANO P. HONIO, in P. HONro (Ed.), op. cit., Vol. 11, p. 349.
83 J. G . SALINAS, Inl. Sugar J., 42 (1940) 330.
84 C. LANO, Sugar J., 13 (5) (1950) 53 .
85 W. W. JANOVSKY ANO P. H. ARCHANOELSKY, Sugar J., 14 (5) (1951) 12.
86 A. L. WEBRE, in P. HONIO (Ed.), op. Cil ., Vol. 11, p. 428.
87 J. H. NrcKLlN AND R. F. BEALE, Proc. 271h Con!. QSSCT, 1960, p. 219.
88 A. L. WEBRE, in P. HONro (Ed.), op. cil .. Vol. 11, p. 428.
REFERENCES 723
89 O. SPENGLER ANO E. HORN, Z. Wírlsch. Zuckerind., 86 (1936) 878.

90 O. SPENGLER AND E. HORN, In!. SlIgar J., 39 (1937) 397.
91 E. W. Duus, [ni. Sugar J., 43 (1941) 245.
93 J. H. NICKLlN ANO R. F. BEALE, Proc. 271h Conf. QSSCT, /960, p. 225.
94 S. HlLL, W. M. NICOL ANO P. D. FIFE, [ni. Sugar J., 71 (1969) 69.
95 G. H. JENKINS, [ni. Sugar J., 43 (1941) 245.
96 A. L. WEBRE, in P. HONIG (Ed.), op. ól., Vol. JI, p. 424.
98 C. B. VENTON, [ni. Sugar J., 53 (1951) 281.
99 J. P. ABBOTT ANO J. E. A. RISK, T.S,]., 37 (11) (April 1975) 10.
100 R. BROAOFOOT ANO P. G. WRIGHT, Proc. ASSCT, Bundaberg Conr., /98/, p. 25.
101 E. E. McDOUGALL ANO G. A. WALLACE, Proc. ASSCT, Townsville Conf.,1982, p. 383.
J02 Inl. Sugar J., 84 (1982) 303.
: : i ¡,'
', , ' .'

"-." 1:' .
;.' . ;; "
':', \
~ , ' .:!'\ , ' i -' l : .. ,' ¡ ..

' , ', )
34. Crystallisation
Object
The massecuite when discharged from the pan is at a high supersaturation. If it is allowed
to stand, the sugar stiJl contained in the mother liquor wiJl continue to be deposited as
crystals, but this massecuite is very dense and the mother liquor very viscous. Crystallisation
will soon ceas e if the massecuite is left undisturbed, beca use the layer of mother liquor sur-
. rounding the crystals will be rapidly exhausted, and the viscosity of the mass will prevent the
more distant molecules of sugar from circulating and coming in contact with the crystals.
lf we are to take advantage of the strong tendency of the rilassecuite to crystallise after
boiling, it must be kept in motion in order to change constantly the relative positions of the
particIes of mother liquor and of crystals. In factory parlance this is ter Oled "crystallisa-
tion"; strictly speaking, of course, the whole process in the pans constitutes cryslallisation
of the sugar, but in the factory Ihe term "crystallisation" is used particularly for the
crystallisation in motion after dropping the massecuile from the pan.
Crystallisation , then, is a process which consists of mixing the mass ecuite for a certain time
after dropping from the pans, and before passing to the centrifugals; and which aims at com-
pleting the formation of crystals and forcing further exhaustion of the mother liquor.
Proportions of different massecuites

We repeat in Table 34.1 figures for average proportions of the three massecuites :
TABLE 34.t
3-MASSECUlTE SYSTEM
(Quanlilies in dm'/ l.c. (cu. rt./I.c.)
Tromp OUT figures

Single magma Double magma
A massecuite 85 (3 ) 95 (3.4) 130 (4.5)

B massecuite 45 ( 1.6) 50 (1. 8) 50 (1.8)
e massecuile 40 (1 .4) 35 (1 .3) 35 ( 1.3)
.;
TOlal 170 (6 ) 180 (6.5) 215 (7 .6)
Density of massecuite .
For hO! massecuite we ha ve taken (Table 32.3 and Chapo 33) a specific gravity of 1.47 for
massecuites (density 92 Ib./c u. ft.). For cold material, between 30 and 40°C (85 and I05°F),
a value of 1.50 (94 Ib ./c u. fl.) may be taken.
DILUTION OF THE MASSECUlTE 725
Dilulion of Ihe massecuite

When the massecuite purges badly at the centrifugals it is sometimes diluled with waler, or
wilh a suilable grade of molasses. This dilulioll, especially wilh water, impairs Ihe exhauslion
and should be avoided. 1f il proves necessary 10 dilule for I'ugalling, il should be done only
2 or 3 hours befare passing 10 Ihe centrifugals.
Flow of Ihe massecuite '.

The minimum slope of chule lo be provided fordischarge of Ihe massecuite leaving Ihe pans
is given by Tromp' as 9° (160/0). He recommends preferably 11 0, or 20%. However, he in-
dicales elsewhere' 5%, or 3°, for Ihe cold massecuile afler cryslallisalion. This value is cer-
tainly a minimum and il would be advisable lo keep well aboye it.
Temperalure of cooling of Ihe massecuile

The massecuile on leaving the pans is al a lemperalure of70-75°e (l60-165°F). To whal
lemperalure is il advisable 10 cool il in Ihe cryslalliser?
Low-grade massecuites. Deerr l considers Ihal Ihe best lemperalure lo which to cool Ihe
low-grade massecuile is 41-43°e (lOS -110°F), alld Ihal if il is taken below thal figure, the
mother liquor becomes so viscous Ihal Ihe gain in sugar cryslals is offsel by the quantily of
addilional waler needed for purging in Ihe centrifugals.
Jenkins' suggests 38°e (JOO°F) as about the praclical limit.
If Ihe massecuile is rehealed before fugalling, a 10wer lemperature may be employed, 36°C
(97°F), for example.
High-grade massecuites. For massecuiles of higher purity Ihe limil of temperalure would
be lower, since Ihe in crease in viscosilY wilh cooling would be less Ihan with low grades.
Jenkins recommends cryslallising A and B massecuiles as for e
slrikes, but emphasises Ihe
importance of efficienl pan work; and has since expressed Ihe view thal wilh modern pans
capable of producing a massecuile of maximum cryslal content, cryslallisalion of high grades
is less altractive. Few raclories have considered il in thcir interesls lo praclicc crystallisalion
of high grades, firstly on account of Ihe danger of having Ihe massecuile go solid in Ihe
cryslalliser, and secondly on account of Ihe space required for Ihe exlra equipment necessary.
However, the operation would be interesting, particularly on B massecuite.
High-purity massecuiles presenl Ihe dangerous possibiJity of going solid, thal is, of soJidi-
fying in such a manner that they can be dealt wilh only by attacking with a pick or by dissolv-
ing Ihe mass. This possibility is a nightmare for overseers after stoppages due to slrikes or
power failures of long duration.
Such setling of a massecuite can occur if the purity is aboye 75 and the brix aboye 90, and
when Ihe stirring gear has been slopped for a few hours . . , .,
< • • •• ••
.- ', ' .
Rehealing of Ihe massecuite. If the massecuite is difficull lO handle al the cenlrifugals. il

may be reheated before centrifuging in order lo reduce its viscosilY. We shall discuss this
again in connection with centrifugals (eJ. p. 807).
726 CR YST ALUSA TION Ch. 34
Speed of crystalJisation
Speed of crystallisation in a massecuile is a function of the supersaturation, the temperature
and the cryslal surface area. If a constant speed of erystallisation is to be mainrained,
lemperature mus t be regulated as a fun ction of lhe supersaturalion, or inversely (cf. Table
33.2, p. 000). Experience, moreover, ha s shown' thar the best resulls co rrespond lO crysrall-
isalion al conSlanl supersaturation of the mother liquor. The objecl will thu s be to maintain
the supersaturation in the neighbourhood of 1.2.
Purity drop during crystallisation

Praeger 6 claims that, in the 3-massecuite system, it would be possible to obtain by crystallisa-
lion an additional 6 poinls' purily drop for each grade of massecuite.
In Louisiana, Daubert ' claims lhal it should normally be possible lo obtain, wirh a well-
controlled e massecuile, an apparenl purity drop of 27 poinls between massecuite and
molasses, e.g.: .
15 - 16 points in the pan
JI - 12 points in the crystalliser.
This is a maximum value, whieh we ha ve rarely known 10 be achieved .
In Au stralia, Fosler 8 considers th at, provided lhe l11assecuite is a llowed to attain equ il-
ibrium, the tru e purity will be reduced by one point for each 4°C (7°F) of reduction in
temperat ure.
Supersaturation
The same aulhor cons iders thal final massecuile ca n be discharged from Ihe pan al a super-
sa turation of 1.2 without risk of the formation of false grain in a crystalliser. 011 Ihe other
hand, mixing a residue of cold massecuite wir h freshly discharged massecuire ine vilably
forms false grain.
Sugar recovery
Problem. What are lhe prop orlions of sugar and molasses produced by a giv en massecuite?
So/u/ion . Let
P m = purity of massecuite
Ps = purilY of sugar
P, purily o f the molasses
Bm = weight of dry substance OJo of massecuite
Bs weight of dry substance % sugar
B, weight of dry substance % of molasses
Q", weight of massecuite
Qs = weight of sugar produced
Q, weighl of molasses obtained.
Bya reasoning identical with that of the problem on p. 801, we obtain:
Qs B P - Pe
111
'" (34.1)
Bs Ps P,
SUGAR RECOVERY 727
where Ihe firsl term represents Ihe weighl o/ sugar % on weighl o/ massecuile.
Since (he massecuile is generally reckoned by volume, we shall have:
Q In
= Vd
m 111
V = volume of massec uite, in m 3 (cu.fL) for example

d '" = densily of massecuite, in kg/ m 3 (lb./cu. fL) for example.
'" Hence:
Q, P 111 - P
-- ---e (34.2)
V B, P, Pe
'"
We have, very closely:
d", 1,500 kg / m 3 (94 Ib./cu.ft.)

B, 100
which gives:
Q, Pm - Pe Q, = 0.94B Pm - Pe )
= 15Bno P _ P (34.3)
Vm ( V m P _ P
, e m J e
where the firsl term represents the recovery R from m 3 (cu.fL) of massec uite, in kg (lb.)
of sugar.
Examp/e. If we assume the mean values of Table 34.2:
TABLE 34.2
YIELD OF SUGAR FROM MASSECUITES (NORMAL VAlUES)
Bm p p, p
m e
A massecuite 95 85 99 65
8 massecuife 96 72 98 50
e massecuile 98 58 95 35
we would have theoreticall y:
R A = 840 kg/ m 3 (53 Ib./cu.fL) ;

R B = 660 kg/ m 3 (41 Ib./cu.ft.)
Re 560 kg/ m 3 (35 Ib./cu.ft.)
728 CR YST ALLISATION Ch. 34
On account of the dilutions carried out, these yields in practice would barely exceed:
R~ 800 kg/m J (50 Ib./cu.ft.)

R; = 600-650 kg/m (37 Ib./cu.ft.)
'
R~ 500-550 kg/m J (31 Ib./cu.rt.)
In crystal per cent by weight of massecuite, Honig' and Eisner'o give (Table 34.3):
TABLE 34.3
CRYSTAL YIELD lJfo MASSECUITE (BY WEIGHT)

--_ .._ - -
Purily Honig Eisner (3-mass.) Eisner (2-mass.)
A massecuile 80- 90 50 51 60
8 massecuite 65 -80 45 47 45
e massecuite 58 -65 40 38
Exhaustion of Ihe massecuite

It is interesting to express the efficiency of operation, not in weight of sugar per unit volume
or unit weight of massecuite, but in weight of crystal recovered as percentage of sucrose in
the massecuite". This ratio has the advantage of varying little with the massecuite con-
sidered, A, B or C. This recovery with A massecuite should be of the order of 60 - 65"70, dou-
ble purging giving values slightly superior to those obtained by single purging, 60"70 with B
and 50"70 with C massecuite.
Exhaustion is given by a convenient expression"" derivecJ by the same reasoning as thal
of p. 839:
10,000 (massecuile purity - molasses purity)

Exhaustion (34.4 )
massecuite purity (100 - molasses purity)
Similarly:
massecuile purity - molasses purity

Crystal "70 massecuile (34.5)
100 molasses purity
Installation of crystallisers
In most factories, the crystallisers are placed at ground leve!. This is a mistake which is
detrimenlal 10 the recovery.
In such a case, much trouble has been taken, particularly wilh the third slrike, to obtain
a very tight massecuite. Hence it is inevitably Ihick, stiff, dense (sometimes wrongly called
viscous) and difficuIt t6 handle, especialIy when it is cold, after crystallisation. The pumps
refuse lO handle it, and the resull practically always is that the operators responsible for
feeding the low-grade centrifugals add molasses, sometimes even waler, to dilute Ihe mass
so Ihal it will be more readily accepled by the pump. Hence there is a complete deStruclion
[NST ALLA TION OF CR YSTALLrSERS 729
01' all lhe IVork laboriously carried out, up ro that stage, 10 oblain a dense massecuite; a
destruclion all the more complete because lhe operalors have a tendency to abuse the
dilution-waler valve.
One pallialive consists of having good pumps of Rota type, welllocaled below the trough
which su pplies lhem, and filted wilh shorl suclion pipes of large diameter.
Anolher pallialive consists of rehealing Ihe massecu ite in lhe delivery trough, by furnishing
lhis trou gh \\'ilh a double bottom which is heated by exhausl steam, but this again involves
some risk 01' re-solution 01' Cryslal.
Ho\Vever , Ihere exists only one eleganl melhod 01' really and complelely solving Ihe pro-
blem; lhal is, 10 design each inslallation in such a way as lO avoid and complelely banish lhe
handling 01' Ihe massecuile by a pump. For Ihis it is necessary lO locate lhe pans al a higher
level, above Ihe cryslallisers, which cOllsequently will be located on the first-f1oor level, jus t
belo\\' the pans; and the cryslallisers in lheir lurn should be aboye lhe dislributer-m ixer s up-
plving lile centrifugals, which Ihen will be localed al floor level, and juSl below lheir mixers.
This arrangemenl of lhe pl anl ha s an inf1uence on the final recovery, lhe imporlance of
which can hardly be exaggerated. The modificalions lO Ihe installalion which it mighl involve
in a badly laid out factory would probably be amply repaid in lhe first season.
Ordinary crystalliser
The ordinary or "kneading-Irough" crystalliser (Fig. 34.1) is a simple steel vessel, of U-
shaped cross -section, fitted wilh an agitalor permilting il 10 mainlain Ihe mass in slow and
continuous motion.
Fig. 34.1. Ordinary crystalliser.
Speed of rotalion. Deerr 12 recommends a rotational speed 01' the screw of one turn in I
min 45 s. Tromp ' suggesls ~ - ~ r.p.m. This speed is not of very greal impOrlance, the best
values being the lowest (! r.p.m.). It has been found, by varying the speed, that it has hardly
any perceptible effect as long as there is sorne movement.
The best values are accordingly the lowest, and the aulhor would recommend ~ r.p.m.
Power. The po \Ver required for the crystalliser depends on Ihis speed of rOlation. Deerr'
eSlimates aboul 25 kW/I,OOO m' (1 h.p ./ I,OOO cu.fl.) of massecuite; Tromp' 1-2 kW
(1.5 -3 h.p.) percrystalliser, according toits volume (12-50 m'; 450-1,750 cu.ft.), or
6 -12 m'/ kW (300 - 600 cu.ft./h.p.).
Honig" recommends that the installed power should be 210 kW/I,OOO m' (8.5 h.p ./ J,OOO
cu.fl.), in order to allow for the most unfavourable conditions. In Australia" a figure of
730 CR YST ALLISA nON Ch. 34
375 -400 kW/l,OOO rn' (15 -16 h.p./l,OOO cu.n.) is suggesled.

For typieal erystallisers, of about 20-50 m' (700-1,800 eu.ft.) eapaeity, and for a speed
of ~ r.p.m;, Horrig's figure of 210 kW per 1,000 m' may be used.
While crystallisers generally adopt the U shape, certain makers pret'er a cylindrical eross-
section, with an opening only of 600 mm (24 in.) at the topo
Time for crystallisation. TrompIS gives the following times of crystallisation:
A massecuite: 12 h
B massecuite: 12 h
e massecuite: 72 h
General practice is to keep the A massecuite a very short time in the erystalJiser, to give
a short period of crystallisation for the B massecuite, and to keep as many crystallisers as
possible for the e massecuite.
It is essential to provide long and careful crystallisation for the final massecuite, but there
would be sorne advantage in doing the same for the higher massecuites. When ordinary
crystallisers are provided, it is not recommended to go below the following times:
12 h crystallisation for A massecuite

24 h erystallisation for B masseeuite
72 h crystallisation for e massecuite
Capacity. Deerr estimates a total capacity for the battery of erystallisers of 5 m'/t.e.h. (180
cu. ft./t.c. h.).
Tromp, from the aboye times, estimates the proportions of the respective massecuites as
follows:
A massecuite: 50070 85 lIt.c. (3 cu. ft.lt.c.)

B massecuite: 28% 45 l/t.c. (1.6 cu.ft./t.c.)
e massecuite: 22 % 40 l/t.c. (1.4 cu. ft./t.e.)
From these figures, and the crystallisation times just quoted, he calculates the required
crystalliser capacities as:
85 x ~ + 45 x 12 + 40 x 72 42.5 + 22.5 + 120

24 24 24
or:
185 IIl.c./24 h = 44 hl/t.c.h. (160 cu.rt./l.e.h.)
This is a theoretical figure. However, taking into account loss of time and allowing a
necessary margin of safety, he finally quotes the following as practical figures for Cuba and
ORDlNARY CRYSTAL LISER 731
the Philippines; figures for olher countries ha ve been added (Table 34.4):
TABLE 34 .4
CAPACITY OF CRYSTALLlSERS, IN hl/ t.C.h. (cu.ft.! t.c.h.)

- _._~------
Minimum Maximum Mean ·
Cuba (Tromp) 50 (180) 70 (250)

Philippines (Tromp) 75 (270)
Natal 16 40 (135) 170 (620)
P~eno Rico 17 17 ( 61) 58 (208) 33 (118)
In Cuba 18 , requirements are estimaled as follows:
A massecuite: 6 hl/Lc.h. ( 21.5 cu.rt./Lc.h.)

B massecuile: 9 hIILc.h. ( 32.2 cu.ft./Lc.h .)
C masseeuite: 30 hl/Lc.h. (107.5 cu.ft./Lc.h.)
or a 10lal of: 4S hl/l.e.h . (161.2 eu.ft./Le.h.)
Where fi gu res are given ror C massecuile only, whieh is the most importanl, we find'O:
Queensland: 20 hl/t.c.h. ( 70 eu.rt./Le.h.)

Hawaii: 84 hl/Le.h. (300 eu.rt./Le.h.)
In order lO arrive al a figure among values varying so grea ll y, we would commenl lhal Ihe
limes of eryslallisalion whieh we have recommended aboye (12,24 and 72 hours) when alJow-
ing a safely margin of 250/0, give figures of:
A mass. B mass. C mass.
12 + 50 X 24 + 35 x -
1.25 [ 9S x ~-~ 72J = 60 + 62 + 131 1/1e./24 h
24 24 24
or respeetively:
14 + 15 + 32 hl/!.e.h.
or a lolal or 60 hl/Le.h. (222 cu.f!. / Le.h.).
Unit capacity. The unil eapaeity of Ihe erystallisers, or eapaeilY of eaeh unit, s hould be
fixed as a funetion of that of lhe pans. 11 is neeessary lO avoid mixing in the same erystalJiser,
erystals from two different pans, and also to avoid running a hot masseeuile inlo a
crystalliser partly filled witl1 one which has already been eooled. The unit eapaeit y of the
erystallisers wi ll thus be chosen equal to that of the pans supp lying them, inereased by
732 CRYSTALLlSATlON Ch. 34
15 - 200/0 (crystallisers of 36 m 3 for examp le, for pans of 30 m 3 ). Alternatively, two

crystallisers may be installed to serve o ne pan (two crystallisers each of 18 m 3 , for example,
for a pan of 30 m 3 ).
Calculalion for cooling in an ordinary cryslalliser

This calculation is made in a manner fully analogous to that which we have seen with rel a lion
lO hea te rs (cf. p. 449). Let:
V = useful votum e of crystalliser, in m 3 (cu. fL)
d = density of massecuite, in kg/m 3
e = specific heat of massecuite (= 0.44)
P = weight of massecuite in crys talliser, in kg (lb.)
S cooling surface of crystalliser, in m' (sq. fL)
D diameter of crystall iser, in m (ft.)
L length of crystaltiser, in m (fr.)
e ambient temperature, in oC (OF)
T o = initial tempera ture of massecuite (at I = O), in oC (OF)
T temperature of massecuite at time 1, in oC (OF)
t time of cooling, in hours
k heat-trans fer coefficient, in kcallm'jOC/h (B.T.U ./sq.ft. /oF/h).
We assume the crys talliser to be of standard U sect ion. lts cooting surface is equat to the
area of the wa ll s (ends and sides) of the vessel plus that of Ihe surface of the massecuile.
Generally, lhe vatue of 7 (1.4) is laken for k'o. This is an overall approximale value . w hich
allows for the masseeuite surfaee, where Ihe heallransfer is assisled by lhe absen ce ofa melal
surface, but adversely affected by convection.
Now:
S 2 X 7rD' + 2 D' + 7rD L + 2 ¡z

L + DL
8 2 2 2
or:
D (D + 2L) (1 + ¡)
Let:
L
= m L = mD
D
. We have:
s D' (1 + ¡) (1 + 2m) (34.6)

CALCULATlON FOR COOLING IN AN ORDINARY CRYSTALLlSER 733
Similarly.
7rD' D' mDJ

V=-L+ - L (34.7)
8 2 2
Hence:
S 2 (1 + 2m)
(34.8)
V mD
The formula for cooling, similar to thal for heating. is:
To - e kS (34.9)
In - - - = -- I
T - e Pe
or:
T = e+ (To - e) el (- KS/Prl (34.10)
But:
kS kS 2k (1 + 2m)
=
Pe Vde mDde
Hence:
T = e+ (To - e) e- (U/de)' 1 (/ .2m)/ mO (34.11 )
Replacing lhe Quasiconstant expressions by lheir values. we thus have:
T = e+ (To - e) e- O.02 • 1 iI • 2m)/mO (T = e+ (To - e) r O.O)· 1(1 • 'ml/mO) (34.12)
Now laking lhe mean Or commonest values for the other terms:
T = 70°C (I6QOF)
e= 30°C ( WF) T = 30 + 40 e- o.o" 1 (34.13)
D = l. 8 m ( 6 fL)
m = 3.33
we obtain the cooling graph as. given in Fig. 34.2 (OC).

734 CR YSTALLISA TlON Ch. 34
T"C
70"
60"
55° --1-
35° --\- -j-+-+-+-t---¡P-T--~_

30°
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 hours
Fig. 34 .2. Cooling curve for massecuilc in ordinary cr)'slalliser.
TYPES OF CRYSTALLISER
Crystalliser with double helix

These are crysta llisers which are widely used in cenain Brilish counlries. They are analogous
10 ordinary cryslallisers, bul carry IWO shafls and IWO helical slirrers rOlalin g in opposile
direclion s, being driven by Iwo worm wheels from lhe same worm (Fig. 34.3). The upper
helix is provided wilh a triple stirrer strip and one-Ihird 01' ilS heighl is aboye Ihe massecuile
leve!.
Since Ihe cryslalliser is narrower in relalion 10 il s vol ume Ihan Ihe ordillary lY[le, il orrers
a relative ly grealer cooling surface; and Ihe ll[1[1er heli., brings Ihin lil yers 01' massec uilc inlo
conlaCl wilh the air and so givcs a more rapid coolillg.
Contrary 10 an idea which was widespread until recently, it has been found lhar this
method of slirring the massecuil e does not presenl any disadvanlage, and that lhe cr,Ystalliser
with a double helix allows of a coo ling time shoner by half rhan rhar required for ordinary
crys tallisers.
Report s from Ihe Philippines 21 indicate a reduclion even 01' Iwo-Ihirds in rhe time 01'
cryslallisation. There would, however, be a slighl emulsificatioll lI'ilh air, which ma y
Fig. 34.3. Doub le-he lix cr yslR lliser.

TYPES OF CRYSTALLlSER 735
somelimes be delrimental to Ihe fugalling. Any inrroduction of air bubbles into a massecuite,
syrup or molasses leads 10 an increase in viscosilY.
Tromp 21 indicates Ihat a capacity of 3.75 mJ / r.c.h. (133 cu.fl.lt.c.h.) would be sufficient
for final massecuite wilh this type of crystalliser. It is presumed that this capacity is given
for a duty equivalenr (O that which would be obtained with the 7.5 mJ / Lc.h. (266
CU.fL / l.c.h.) indicated aboye for al! massecuites with ordinary crystallisers (ef. p. 731, Table
344).
Ragot crystall¡ser
The Ragot crystalliser is an ordinary crystalliser in which the stirring strip of the helix has
been replaced by a coil carrying water.
This will obviously al!ow of rapid cooling, and also presents the advantage that reheating
01' lhe massecuile can also be carried out before fugalling by replacing Ihe cold waler in this
coil wilh hOI waler.
Water-cooled crystallisers
Modern waler-cooled crystallisers are practicalIy always designed with the cold-water inlet
and hot-water outler arranged in rhe shaft, which is Ihen in rhe form of a central rube carry-
ing the cold waler, surrounded by an outer IUbe so Ihat rhe hot water returns through the
annular space between the inlet tube and this oUler sleeve. The inlet and the outlet for Ihe
water are gene rally located on the one end of the crystalliser.
The heat-exchange surface is altached to the outer tube.
The form of Ihis surface varies from one designer 10 another. In one syslem widespread
in the American hemisphere, it consists of two concentric radial tu bes. In the Fletcher - Blan-
chard (Fig. 344), the heat-exchange surface consists of IUbes with closed ends, one series
straight and one series curved, imo which and from which the water flows during the rota-
rion. In the Fives Lille cryslalliser (Fig. 34.5), it is in the form of a hollow helical strip, which
on the outside contributes to a lateral movemenr of the massecuite, and on the inside, like
the preceding model, is traversed by Ihe cooling water as the shaft rotates. Another model
has spiral plates (Fig. 34.6).
All rhese crystallisers permit the same degree of cooling to be obtained as for the ordinary
type of crystalliser, without any disadvantage and in a much shorter time, generally in J 2 - 20
h, averaging say 16 h, as compared with 2-3 days. They thus afford a great economy in
spacc required in the factory.
Fig. 34.4. Blanchard crystalliser, Flelcher patent.

736 CRYSTALLlSA TION Ch. 34
.... .. water 1---

7000
. - rl====:::::::=====i.
oN
<O
Cold water
entry
1 ,
:'- _2.~9g ____ __ ~
Fig. 34.5. Cryslalliser Wilh "nag" s,i rrers (Fives Cail- Babcock) .
.... .4, ~~
,
/1 r-
:
V r-D :
I
/ 1
I I
I 1
I I I 1 I
I I I
I I I
~ I -- ]-
.+4-
\ ! -.-
"" I
Fig. 34.6. Arrallgemenl or cryslu llisers in :')t'rie.(,.
The cooling could be as rapid as desired, as rhe crysra l.li sar ion reduces rhe saturar ion
temperature by 2-5°C (4-8°F) per hour, while ir is generally nor passible 10 cool more
rapidly than 1-1.5°C (2-3°F) per hour 2J •
The rate of crystallisation decreases wirh decrease in puriry or remperaru re. Crysrallisalioll
is rhu s more rapid ar Ihe beginning of cooling, and parlicularly higher wirh A and B rhan
wirh C massecuire.
However, ir is recommended Ih ar Ihe massecuite should nOI be cooled immediarely and
abruptly as soon as it is discharged from the pan into the crysrailiser. Jr will be lefr (O mix
for one to two hours before circulating coo ling water, ro avoid risk of formarion of false
grain.
Ir is agreed" Ihar Ihe heat-exchange surface for lhe caoling elemenrs shauld be 01" Ih e arder
TYPES OF CR YSTALLlSER 737
of 1 - 2.5 m'/m 3 (0.3 - 0.8 sq. fUcu. ft.) of capacity. Honig recommends that it should not
exceed 2 m'/m 3 (0.6 sq.ft./cu.ft.).
Capadty. In Hawaii, a capacity of 4.25 m]/t.c.h. (150 cu.ft./Lc.h.) is recommended for

water-cooled crystallisers, compared with 8.5 (300) for ordinary crystallisers, for C
massecuite; in South A frica'" a total of 5.4 mJ/t.c.h. (190 cu.ft./t.c.h.) for aH massecuites.
Baikow" recoml1lends for C l1lassecuile 2.25 mJ/t.c.h. (80 cu.ft./t.c.h.), plus 2 crystallisers,
one filling and one emptying.
Series. The series of Fives Cail - Babeock water-cooled cryslallisers ranges from 23 to 60
J
m (800-2,100 cu.ft.) in twelve differerH sizes. The SIVratio varíes from 1.05 to 1.7 m'/m J
(0.3 - 0.5 sq. fUcu. ft.); t he speed is 1 r. p. m. ,with power of 0.075 - O. l kW 1m] (3 h. p./ 1,000
cu.ft.).
Vacuum cryslallisers. In Ihe operation of the boiling house, il may be necessary 10 hold
in reserve siorage some massecuiles or l1lagmas to be reprocessed later. For Ihis purpose
cylindrical crystallisers are used, completely c10sed and maintained under vacuum, with ínlet
pipes for syrup or molasses and sometimes a jacket for admission of steam, condensates be-
ing withdra",n from below. Speed of rOlation 01" Ihe agilators is generally 1 r.p.m. Apart
from Ihese fealures and Ihe Ihiekness of Ihe walls, lbese crystallisers present no particular
features.
Conditions of operation, B.M.A. recommend that Ihe difference in temperalure belween

Ihe massecuile and cooling waler should nOI exceed 12°C (22°F), olherwise crystaIs of sugar
collecl on Ihe cooling elemenls and so reduce the efficiency of heat transfer.
They insist also that the cooling elements and any baffles should be designed so as to avoid
any introduction of air into the massecuite, for the reason indicated aboye. They specify also
lhat horizontal crystallisers do nol operate satisfactorily unless Ihe ratio of non-sucrose lo
water is lower t han 3:
B- S
100_B<3 (34.14)
Above that value, only vertical water-cooled crystalJisers treat massecuite efficiently. They
do not give rise to the short-circuiting which occurs in horizontal crystallisers, allowing
pockets of massecuite 10 slagnate in certain corners, at the expense of exhaustion and
regularity of crystals.
Crystallisers in series. When a battery of horizontal crystallisers is available, air- or water-

cooled, it is advisable lO arrange them to operate in series rather than individually. Assuming
that they are·of identical design and dimensions, they should then be located so that each
member of the series is 140 mm (5j in.) higher than the following (Fig. 34.6). The massecuite
thus enters at one end of the first unit, lea ves at the far end and overflows by a gutter, slightly
inclined, to enter the second unit; continuing in the same way from the second into the third,
738 CR YST AlLISATION Ch. 34
the massecuite circulates alternately to and fro along the separa te crystallisers. The capacity
01' lhe unils is lhus fully Lllilised.
This arrangement un fortunately does nOl prevent the establishment 01' local currents anu
consequenl stagnation 01' massecuite in lhe corners 01' the lank. This fault may be parliall)"
remedied by closing off and covering the dead corners by welded plates. For the same reason,
a barrIe is interposed in the upper part ofeach tan k towards the middle point, to avoid local
currents and oblige lhe massecuite lo circulate to the bottom of lhe lank. The elliptical or
spiral agitators contribute effectively lO homogenising the massecuile. Care will al' course be
taken to see that these plates across the dead corners do not interfere Wilh the rOlalion 01'
the agitators.
Werkspoor crystalliser
This crystalliser (Fig. 34.7) has an exterior form similar to that 01' the ordinary crystalliser.
However, the shaft, instead of carrying a helix, is fitted with discs (Fig. 34.8) wilh a gap in
the form of a 45° or 60° sector, the cut-out parts 01' alterna te discs being spaced 180 0 aparl.
Both shaft and discs are hollow and designed lO permil circulation 01' water. The massecuile
is introduced continuously at the end from which Ihe shaft is driven, and flows along lhe
crystalliser by gravity, passing from one space between discs to the next by means 01' the open
sector of the disc, and overflows at the opposite end of the crystalliser; the cooling waler
Fíg. 34.7. Werkspoor crystalliser.

enlers al the latler end, which is Ihus Ihe outlet end for the massecuile, passes in succession
Ihrough alllhe di scs, and relurns Ihrough a pipe or Ihe hollow shafl of lhe cryslalliser lO leave
al Ihe end al whi ch il enlered.
This is Iherefore a counlercurrenl circulalion. 11 presents lhe advanlage lhal lhe hOI
mass ecuile enlering comes inlo conlact only with waler which has already been healed, and
Ihal al an)' poinllhe lemperature of the cooling water is progressively lower as the massecuite
becomes cooled (Fig. 34.9). These conditions practically eliminate risk of false-grain forma-
lion.
-~
Fig. 34.8. Disc of Werkspoor cryslalliser. Fig. 34.8a. Massecuite bafiles in Werkspoor.
Power required. This is about half of that indicated for lhe ordinary crystalliser (ef. p.
729). Honig'· has observed lhat lhe power for Werkspoor crystallisers is also substantially
lower lhan Ihal required for crystallisers wilh lhe cooling waler passing Ihrough lubes, and
is of Ihe arder of half lhe requirements of the laller, whereas the heat lransmission is of the
same arder. This is an importanl advanlage when very heavy massecuiles are being lrealed.
Quantlty oC water required. Lec

To = lemperalure of lhe massecuite entering lhe cryslalliser
T ~ lemperalure of lhe ma ssecuile leaving
lo ~ lemperalure of water entering
= lemperature of water leaving.
The quanlily of waler required would be lheorelically:
(To -. Tlc
w ------,- kg of water per kg of massecuile (34.15)
I - lo
c specific heal of lhe massecuite 0.44.

740 CR YSTALLlSA TION Ch. 34
~MC
IJ
.. Hbt
water
60"
5 cf f - - -
34'
3~~~=-----------------~
Fig. 34.9. Graph or ¡empera¡ures in Werkspoor crystalliser.
lo practice, we shall have:
To - T
w 01 V de ------
I - lo
(34.16)
W = total quantitl' of water required, in kg/h (Ib./h)

01 coefficient taking ioto account the cooling of the molasses from the cenlrifugal which
is added to the massecuite: a value of 1. IS - 1.20 is oflen taken
V = volume of massecuite to be treated, in m'/h (cu.ft./h)
d = densitl' of the massecuite = I,SOO kg/m' (94 Ib./cu. fl.).
11 is nOl necessarl' to consider losses of heal during Ihe cooling operalion, because:
(1) The waler circuil is completely submerged in the massecuite, hence lhe efficienc)' is
practically equal to unitl'.
(2) There is an approximate compensation belween two associated thermal phenomena,
which are secondarl' and which we shall neglect for lhis reason, namell':
(a) The massccuile is also cooled lhrough the ouler walls of the crl'slalliser, and Ihraugh
its surface exposed to lhe airo
(b) On lhe olher hand, the cooling water musl absorb, in addilion 10 Ihe sensible heal af
lhe massecuite, the heat of crl'stallisation of lhe sucrose which deposits on the crl'slals during
the process. This heat of crystallisation generalll' represents from 8 to 100J0 of the sensible
heal involved.
However, the favourable effect (a) is generalll' somewhat greater than the unfavouleblc
effect (b); consequenlll' the arparenl elTiciency is slightll' greater than l.
TYPES OF CR YST ALllSER 741
In praclice. il IS found Ihal Ihe quanlily of waler used is of Ihe arder of:
w 0.75 - 0.80 kg/kg of massecuire
or approximarely:
w· = 1.2 mJ/m J of massecuire
T romp 17 gives w = 0.8 kg/kg, and Ihe figures which he quoles correspond ro a coefficienr
Ci = j .4. He adds rhar lhe cooling should never be regulaled by alrering rhe ralio of warer
ro massecuile, since rhis would disrurb smoorh operarion. It is necessary on lhe conrrary ro
maintain this ratio al 0.8 weight for weight.
Dilution. To facililale circulalion and cryslallisalion, lhe massecuile mal' be dilured in lhe
cryslalliser. For lhis purpose a molasses or syrup as close as possible 10 lhe morher liquor
01' rhe masseeuile should be used, for example, lhe final molasses in a C massecuire. This
is fed 10 lhe massecuile by a pipe aboye rhe crystalliser, wirh a nozzle aboye each disco Since
lhese nozzles lend lO become blocked arter sroppages or the weekly shutdown, ir is recom-
mended lhal rhe pipe be replaced by a norched horizonral lrough, wirh a nolch abo ve each
disc (or beller, 3 norches, lhe central one in lhe axial plane of rhe disc). There is no disadvan·
lage in conlinuing lhis dilulion 10 the oullel end of Ihe cryslalliser; rhis does nor affecr lhe
purily of rile molasses frol11 Ihe cemrifugals if the molasses used for dilurion is close to the
molasses purily.
Crystal deposits. The walls and the cooling elements tend 10 collecr deposils of sugar which,
on lhe elemenls, inlerfere wilh heal lransmission and, on lhe walls, may end up by falling,
obsrrucling lhe ourlers and causing our-of·balance loads in lhe cenlrifugals. This disadvan-
lage mal' be avoided by raising lhe lemperalure of lhe cooling waler, by coaling lhe walls
",ilh epo\y resin and by inslalling scrapers againsl rhe discs.
Somerimes a layer of denser massecuite adheres to the discs: this mal' be due 10 too rapid
cooling. 11 can be derecled by taking a sample of massecuite from the disc by hand: it is more
viscous Ihan the body of lhe material. Warm water mal' also be circulated rhrough the discs
for 3 minutes every 4 hours, in place 01' cold warer; this prevents formarion of this thick layer,
as well as deposilion of sugar.
Precautions. Ir is necessary ro feed the m~ssecuire inlO the si de where the disc descends
inro rhe mass, not ar the side where it emerges. Jf rhe crysralliser is fiIJed up ro the shafr,
small partirions should be arranged in rhe space berween Ihe waIJ of rhe rank and Ihe discs,
in rhe plane of rhe discs.
Cooling surface. The cooling surface should be proporrional 10 rhe capacily of rhe
crysralliser, or more precisely, ro lhe quanrily of massecuire 10 be cooled per hour. It depends
also on lhe massecuire remperarure enrering rhe crystalliser, rhe remperarure of cooling waler
available, rhe degree of coolin!} required, elC Tromp indicares as optimum the temperarures
which \Ve quole in Table 34.5 and which we have used in rhe graph of Fig. 34.9.
742 CR YST ALUSA nON Ch. 34
TABLE 34.5
WATER-COOl.E D COUNTERC URRENT CR YSTALUSERS: OPTIMUM TEMPERATURES (TROMP)
('C) (' F)
Massecuite entering 68 154

Masseeuite leaving 34 93
Water elHerillg 30 86
Water !eaving 54 129
Generall y. the values for vacuum which we ha ve recommended will give massecuites leav-
ing the pans at 75 - 80°C (167 - 176°F). and which. even after a period in lhe slorage mi wr,
will still be al 70- 75°C (158 - 167"F). On Ih e olher hand, coo ling Ihe massecuile below40°C
(104°F) is ol·l en nOI allempled; and lhe lempe ra lure of cooling waler is nor a maller of
choice.
The Irue coefficient of heat tra ns fer in a Werkspoor ha s been established by the experimenl
station of Java and reported by Honig", who had participaled in the determinations,
lt was of the order of:
k = 35-50 kcallm, /o C / h (7- 10 B,T.U .lsq.ft P F/ h)
on massecu iles of high purity (> 70) wilh a new and clean crysta lliser . A similar determina-
tion, made in Au stralia 29 on C massecuiles, with rather older cry slalli sers wilh sorne scaling,
has gi ven: c·
k = 12 kcal / m, /oCl h (2 .5 B.T.U ./sq . fi./°F/h)
However. taking into account the fav o urable fa clor s indi ca led aboye, designers generally
apply, for Ihe simplified melhod of calculatíon co rres ponding to eqn. (34.17), more oplimiSlic
apparent coefficients as given in Tabl e 34.6. We add values which we consíder il is prudenl
lo use when considering performance over a no rmal period of years.
lt is imporlanl, moreover, to poinl OUI thal while wilh ordinary cryslallisers Ihe rOI Ulio nal
speed has lillle influence o n crystallisalion, with waler-cooled cryslallisers, on Ihe Olhe r
hand, il does affec! lhe heal-lran sfer coefficient lO
TABLE 34.6
APPARENT HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFIC1ENT FOR WERKSPOOR CRY5TAlUSER5, IN kca l/ m1/ OC(h

( B. T. U ./sq. fL!' F /h)
Used by Recommended
manu!ac(urers
For A massecuites 75 (15) 40-60 (8 -12)

For B massecuites 65 (13) 35 - 50 (7 - 10)
For e massecuiles 25 ( 5) 25 (5) :
Calculation of cooling surface. We llave:
Vdc To - T To - I
s- ex In (34. ¡ 7)
k (To - t) - (T - lo) T - lo
s = cooling surface of the Werkspoor, in m'(sq. ft.)

a = factor taking into account the diluting molasses added
V volume of massecuite (before dilution), in I/h (cu.ft./h)
d specific gravity of the massecuite = 1.5
e speci fic heat of the massecuite = 0.40 - 0.44
k heat-transfer coefficient, given by Table 34.6
T o = temperature of lhe massecuite entering lhe apparatus, in oc (OF)
T = temperature required for massecuite leaving, in oc (OF)
lo = inlet temperature of cooling water, in oC (OF)
= outlet temperature of water, in oC (OF)
We assume generally:
To 75°C (l6JOF)
T 40°C (104 °F) and ex 1.15
50°C (l22°F)
\Ve would recall that:
In x = 2.3 log x
Cooling time. Jn the cane sugar factory, the cooling times allowed are genetally as given
in Table 34.7.
TABLE 34.7
COOLING TIMES GENERALLY ALLOWED IN WERKSPOORS
A massecuite (ir boiling 3 massecuites) 11 h

1SI massecuite (if boiling 2 massecuites) 2 h
8 massecuile (if boiling 3 massecuites) 2 h
e or final massecuite 12- t5 h
Standard dimensions. The Werkspoor licence for France has been acquired by the Com-
pagnie de Fives Lille. This firm manufactures crystallisers for A massecuite of which the
diameter D is either 2.8 or 4 m. The discs have an outside diameter D' about 20 - 30 mm
(l in.) less than the interior diameter D of the vessels (D' = 2.78 m, for example, for a
crystalliser of D = 2.80 m). The open sector of the discs is 45° or 60°, and the;r unit coolíng
surface s may be calculated approximately by:
(a) 45° sector, square arms:
' ," . -<'1 '-.: :;::., ,-,"

744 CR YST ALLlSA nON Ch. 34
..
.
.~
'
s = (1 + O.ID) D " (1 + O.03D) D" (34.18)
s cooling surface of one disc, in m' (sq. fL)

D' = exterior diameler of a disc, in m (fL)
D = inside diameler of vessel , in m (fL).
(b) 60° seclOr, round shaf¡:
s = 1.225D"
The height of massecuite level aboye the axis is about 1/20-1/10 of the diameter.
However, the capacity of the crystalliser is generally estimated as if the tank contained no
di scs, shafl , or pipes and assllming Ihal Ihe massecuite level was limiled to the axis (which
amoun ls 10 assuming Ihal Ihe volume of massecuile aboye the axis compensales for the
volume occupied by the shaft, the discs, etc.). For the working volume, so defined per unil
length of the tank, we have therefore:
7rD'
u = 0.3927 D" (34.19)
8
u = theoretical working volume per unit length of the crystalliser, in mJ/m (cu.f1. / f1.)
D = diameter or interior width of the tank, in m (1'1.).
In the latest models, where the level of massecuite is kept well aboye the shaft, generally
about O.3D aboye the shaft, the useful volume of massecuile aboye Ihe axis may be reckoned
as 0.3D> L.
The tank of the cryslalli ser is generally proporlioned so Ihal Ihe lenglh is abolll 3 - 3.5
limes its diameter, wilhoul allowing Ihis secondary consideralion la override Ihe eventual re-
quirements of space required and difficulties of inslallalion.
The space between discs increases from inlet 10 outlel of massecuile, but Ihe mean value
of Ihis spacing should nOI fall below 20 cm (8 in.). lt is determined by Ihe formula:
L 0.5 (1 + p) L - 1.6 (1 + p) )
e ( (34.20)
n - 1 - P n-I-p
e average spacing between discs, in m (f1.)

=
L = 10lal length of the crystalliser tank, in m (fL)
p number of intermediate bearings (Ihe lenglh between bearings should be at leasl 3 m
(10 fL) and at mosl 6 m (20 fL))
n = number of discs (which should always be an odd number).
For equal performance, il is more expensive Ihan a vertical cryslalliser, due 10 Ihe COSI of
fabricating the discs.
Design of a Werkspoor crystalliser. Dala. We shall assume we are dealing with a factory ..;
working at 200 I.c. h., employing a 3-massecuite double-magma system, and oblaining 125
l. (4.5 CU .fL) of A massecuile per Le. We require lO calculale lhe dimensions of a Werkspoor
cryslalliser inlended 10 treal the A massecuile.
Volume and dimensions ol lhe Werkspoor. The quanlily of massecuite lO be Irealed is 125
IIt.c., o r a LOLal volume of:
v = 125 x 200 = 25,000 I/ h (900 cu. ft./h)
which will be increased by the addilion of mol asses for diluting to:
V' = 1.15 x 25,000 = 28,750 I/h (J ,035 cu. ft ./h)
The lime for cooling will be 1 hour 30 min, according lO Table 34.7. Hence the capacity of
lhe cryslalliser:
e = 28,750 x 1.5 = 43,125 1 (1,552 cu. ft.)
We assume lhe choice of a Fives Cail- Babcock Wer kspoor. These are supp lied in only lwo
diamelers: 2.8 a nd 4 m (9.2 and 13 ft.). The 4-m size being much loo large for a faclory of
200 l.c.h., we choose the sma ller size. The discs will thus have a diameter of 2.78 m, and
the useful volume o f (he crystalliser will be:
(a) The lower half-cylinder: u' = 0.3927 D' L

(b) The vo lume aboye Lhe shaft: u" = 0.30D' L
Hence:
V' = (0.3927 + 0.30) D' L = 0.6927 D' L
and we require:
V' 0.6927 X 2.8' x L = 43,125 l (1,552 cu.ft.)
To find the useful volume, we deduct the volum e lost, dúe lO:
(a) The shafl; we assume it cylindrical, of 0.30 m diameter:
y' = 0.7854 X 0.3' = 0.0707 m J/ m
(b) The discs; we assume that they are s paced al intervals of 200 mm, the minimum value
generaJIy employed, and have a thickness of 50 mm . Thus there are 5 per m; if the open gap
is 45°, the volume occupied by (he discs ;"ill be:
315
v" 0.7854 x 2.78 ' x 360 x 0.05 x 5 = 1.3278 mJ / m
The total volume lost is thus: . • ' . • ,' o ", " • ., _•.
,'" .
, .~.. y' + v" 0.0707 + 1.3278 1.3985 mJ/ m
746 CR YST ALUSA TION Ch. 34
The useful volume is thus:
43.12 5
(0.6927 X 2.8' - 1.3985) L 43 . /25 m J L = 10 .70 m (35.78 ft. )
4.0323
Cooling surface. If we assume that the :nassecuite has cooled lO 70°C (15 8° F) in Ihe
s torage mixer, and that coo ling water is available at 25°C (77 °F) , and if we accept 50°
(//2 ° F) as Ihe exil temperalure of Ihe warm waler, and assume a heal-trans fe r coefficient
of 60 kcal/m'¡OC/h (12 BT. U ./sq. ft ./°F / h), the cooling surface required (eqn. (34.17), lak ·
ing 0.4 as lhe specific hea t of lhe massecuile, will be:
s = 1.15 x 25,000 x 1.5 x 0.4 x 70 - 40 x In 70 - 50 =

60 (10 - 50) - (40 - 25) 40 - 25
= 495 m' (5,430 sq.ft.)
Surface area of a disco (360° - 60° = 300°).
s -'-- 1.225 x 315 x 2.78' = 9.94 m' (107 sq .ft.)

300
Number of discs.
495
n 49.8
9.94
(Calculalion in Brilish unils gives 50.7.) We assume 51 discs, Checking Ih e mean spa cing
(eqn, (34 .20)) , we have :
10.70 - (0,5 x 2)
e = = 0.198 m (0.66 fl.)
51 - 2
To avoid a spacing closer lhan 200 mm, we make Ih e lenglh of Ih e cryslalliser 10.80 III (35.4
fl.).
Water consumption. We ha ve, (eqn. (34.16)):
70 - 40
W = 1.15 x 25,000 x 0.4 x x 1.5 20,7001 / h (46,500 Ib ./h)
50 25
Il is seen th a t wilh the temperatures adopled, the quantil y of cooling waler necessa ry is
app ro ximately 1 1 per h for each IIh of massecuite 10 be cooled, In olher wo rds, lhe volume
of waler reqllired is rOllghl y equal lO lhe volllme of massecuile 10 be cooled.
Checking an existing Werkspoor. When a Werkspoor is installed and it is desired to know

what temperatures of massecuite and water it would give for the quantities of massecuite to
/ be cooled and with the available cooling water, we have:
T - lo e- (kSlcrVdc) + (kS/W) = m
To -
- (o o: Vdc
r
To - T W
(tbe symbols having the same values as in eqns. (34.16) and (34.17); hence we have: .
T = lo + m (To - t)
1 = lo + r (To - n
Solving for T and 1:
10(1 - m)+ mTo(l -r)

T= (34.21)
1 mr
lo + r (To - n
We may recall that:
(1) If Y = e- X, t hen - x = In y = 2.3 10g Y
. (2) Log e- x = - 0.4343 x
(3) If a negative logarithm is found, for example, log a - 0.372, we shall write: log
a = 1.628.
Results. Table 34.8 gives some results which we have obtained, operating with 3
massecuites, with a Werkspoor handling the first 2 massecuites, A and B:
TABLE 34.8 .
EXAMPLE OF RESULTS Wlrn A WERKSPOOR CRYSTALUSER
A massecuile B massecuire
When dropped from pans

Brix of massecuite 94.4 95.6
Apparent purity or massecuite 80.2 65.5
"
Apparent purily or mOlher tiquor 61.5 50.1
0""
Leaving (he Werkspoor

Purity of molasses (no washing) 56.7 46.2
Total purily drop 23.5 19.3
Purity drop or molasses 4.8 3.9
Terrip. of mass. entering crystalliser, in oc CF) 72.5 (163) 72 (162)
Temp. of mass. leaving crystalliser, in oC (OF) 46 (115) 48 (118)
Temperature of cooling water, in oC (OF) 24 (75) 27 (81)
Coo¡ing time t h 40 min 1 h 45 min
748 .; . CRYSTALLISA nON Ch. 34
In Java Jl figures of lhe following 'order were reponed:
Cooling: 25°C (45°F) in a period of 2 h 30' min

PurilY drop of Ihe mother liquor: 5°
Storage vessel. Since lhe Werkspoor opera les continuously, and lhe pans batchwise, it is
obviously necessary to provide an intermediate vessel to receive the massecuite between lhe
pans and lh e Werkspoor.
For this duty an ordinary mixer is used (or sometimes two). [1 is necessary that its capacilY
should be 1.5 times that of the largesl pan discharging into it.
Spacing between discs. We know lhat:

(1) The speed of cryslallisalion is grealer al higher temperatures.
(2) This speed increases with lhe supersaturation, but in practice allains a maximum al a
relatively low supersaturalion
(3) Viscosil Y increases wilh supersaluration
lt is lherefore of advanlage 10 work wilh a relalively low supersaturalion and lO cool as
rapidly as possible lhe hOl masseeuile al lhe inlet, sinee il permits of a maximum rate of
crystallisa lion.
11 is for this reason lhal lhe Werkspoor progressively increases lhe spacing between coo ling
discs from the massecuile enlry lo lhe massecuite outlet.
Reheating. The massecuile is reheated before fugalling, with lhe objecl of reducing it s
viscosity. The Werkspoor is well adapled to lhis operalion; it is sufficienl lO provide a little
exlra length, so as lo enable lhree or four reheating discs lo be placed after lhe cooling discs .
The calculalion for lhis rehealing portion is made in a similar manner to thal for lhe cooling
portion. However, the reheating should be rapid and of short duralion; hence lhe reheating
discs are placed c10se together.
In order 10 avoid re-solution of sugar in the neighbourhood of lhe healing surface, it will
be advisable lO use, both in lhe Werkspoor and in any other rehealing equipment used before
fugalling, a heating medium of relalively low temperalure, for example, bled vapour al about
75°C (16rF) (or 46-48 cm ([8-19 in .)vacuum), or preferab[y water at a temperature very
slightly aboye lhe saturation temperature of the massecuite. Payne" estimates rhat this water
s hould not be al a temperature higher rhan 2°C (4°F) aboye rhe saturarion temperalure, 10
avoid risk of local overheating.
Use of the Werkspoor. Compared with ordinary crystallisers, lhe Werkspoor offers the ad-
vantage of taking up much less space and of improving the eXhauslion. The latler advan tage
is perhaps most marked with A and B massecuites; with final masseeuite, its use is somewhat
more critical. However, notably in Queensland, it is normally used with low-grade massecuil'
es, and with excellen! results when used with efficient reheating arrangemenls.
Vertical cooler-crystallisers
Massecuites lea ve the vacuum pan s at 75 - 80°C (165 -175°F). If these are ordinary batch
TYPES OF CRYSTALLISER 749
pans, the massecuile goes lO holding cryslaJlisers, where il cools lo aboul 70 - 75°C
(160-165°F) and from which it goes to the crystallisers proper. ¡fthe pans are ofcontinuous
type, Ihe massecuite can go directly to the crystalliser. ¡t is generally cooled to about 40°C
(105°F) but is lhen loo visco us for centrifuging. It is then reheated 1050 - 52°C (122 - 125°F)
for feeding to the centrifugals.
The solubility of sucrose decreases progressively as the temperalure is reduced, and as mix-
ing favours contact between crystals and mother liquor, it s passage through lhe 'cryslallisers
permits completion of formation of crystals and exhau stio n of the molasses. Th e most effec-
tive equipmel1t for performing this function is the ver tical crystalliser-cooler. Werk spoor
cryslallisers would perform Ihis fUllction equally well bUI, for equal capacity, lhey are ap-
preciably more expensive.
' :. ' ,:" l
Fig . 34.10 . View of !he upper bank of cooling elemen!s of a venical crys!alliser .
• • , '. , " ' o'"
750 CRYSTALLISATION Ch. 34
Description. Vertical crystallisers are manufactured by SEUM and Fives Cail- Babcock
in France, by B.M.A. in Germany, and in several other industrial sugar countries.
They consist of a cylindrical tank with a vertical axis, in steel plate 8 - 12 mm in thickness,
3.60-5.20 m (12-17 fL) in diameter and 7-16 m (23-52 fL) in height. The roof of the
tank supports the drive gear for the stirrers and also provides aman door and massecuite
entry. A vertical shaft, consisting of a large·diameter pipe, is suspended from a su bstantial
bearing and supported at the bottom by a thrust bearing; it carries at regular intervals several
groups of horizontal stirrers covering practically the full interior diameter of the tank, alter-
nate stirrers oeing set at 90° spacings. In the French designs, the cooling elements consist of
horizontal layers of parallel pipes, 6 - 19 in number, connected by U-bends and J"illing the
interior circle of the crystalliser (Fig. 34 . 10). These layers of tubes are connected one to the
other by pipes outside the crystalliser. In neighbouring layers, the pipes are alternately at 90°
to those aboye and below.
In the B.M.A.equipment, the cooling'elements consist of discs with a gap of 30 or 60°,
consisting of two sheets of metal separated by vertical ribs in the form of concentric circles
covering the major part of the remaining 300 or 330°, and forcing the water to cover prac-
tically the full sur face of the disc (Fig. 34.11). The elements are con nected in series by suitable
pipes, and the 30 - 60° gaps are displaced in successive discs by 90° in the anticlockwise direc-
lion. The agilator immedia'tely below rotating in the clockwise dire ction thu s assists the
massecuite flow to pass to the lower stage by the gap in the disco In the case of an upward-
flow crystalliser, the displacement of the gap in the disc is in the opposite direction, that is,
c1ockwise. The pipes are of 76.2 mm (3 ") diameter, and thickness 2.9 mm.
In the Fives Cail- Babcock and SEUM crystallisers, the drive of the stirring gear is el'-
fected by means of 3 pins fixed on a disc at 120°, actuated by 2 jacks which act alternately
on these pins producing a 60° movement, thus giving a complete revolution in 6 such
movements. The jacks are actuated by a hydra uli c system powered by electricall y driven
pumps serving the group of crystallisers. In the SEUM drive, the driving disc is controlled
by a clutch, the setting of which may be regulated accord ing to the resistance offered by the
Wo ter in let Water outlet
I Water ¡nlet·
¡(
/( + \
l
\~~J)
I
~-------- ------~ ,,- Water autlet
F ig. 34.11, Horizomal seclion oC a cooling disc of a B.M,A. vertical cryslalliser wi th lli!S(;s.
.,: ,;~,A
massecuite; thus the degree of tightness of the massecuite may be controlled. The stirrers do
not stop, as a valve slows the mechanism down when it approaches the maximum resistance.
The B.M.A. drive is effected by an electric motor with reducing gear. A "diluter" is mounted
on top of the crystalliser; this communicates with the different stages by exterior pipes, and
permits dilution with molasses or water.
Particulars of the Fives Cail- Babcock, SEU M and B.M.A. are given in Tables 34.9,34.10
and 34.11, respectively. The Fives Cail- Babcock series offers adjustable speed up to 0.6
r.p.m., while the B.M.A. series offers a choice of 2 heat-exchange surfaces for each size of
crystalliser.
TABLE 34.9
FrvES CAIL- BABCOCK VERTICAL CRYSTALLlSER-COOLER
Capacity (m J ) 80 100 120 t50 175 200 300

Height (m) 7 8.2 9.7 11.7 13.6 11.3 16
Diameler (m) 4.45 4.45 4.45 4.45 4.45 5.20 5.20
Rows of tubes 6 7 8 13 15 12 19
Heat-exchange surface (m') 86 100 115 187 218 250 375
Power (kW) 11 15 15 19 22 26 38
TABLE 34.10
';,'
-.' . ,',' .. '.,-' . ...
SEUM VERTicAL CRYSTALLISER-COQLER HEATERS
Capacity (m J ) 150 179 200 227 275 310

Height of massecuile (m) 10 11. 95 13.50 10 12.10 13.70
Diameter (m) 4.50 4.50 4.50 5.50 5.50 5.50
RoH's of rubes 12 15 17 12 15 17
Heat-exchange surface (m 2 ) 190 237 269 293 366 415
Torque (m kg) . 17,000 25,000 30,000 30,000 . .. 40,000 40,000
Power (kW) 15 19 23 23 . 38 38
TABLE 34.11
. . . .. . . ~ . . . •...
B.M.A. VERTICAL CRYSTALLISER-G()OLER I
Capacily (m') 100 150 185

Heighl (m) 10 12 12
Diamel", (m) 3.6 4.5 4.5
Heat-exchange surface (m 2 ) 93 or 186 .150 or 300 175 or 350
Power (kW): n ~ 0.8 r.p.m. 11 15 15
n ~ 0.55 r.p.m. 7.5. 11 1.1.
; • : jt
, . . "... ' I~ .; "
/
752 CR YSTALLISA TION Ch. 34
Application. Vertical crystallisers may be grouped in series; they are often installed in
threes, the massecuite descending in the first, rising in the second, and descending again in
the third; this avoids pumping between the different units. However, since the density of
massecuite increases as it cools, it is more logical to pump it to the top and let it descend
in all units. The three cooling units may be followed by a fourth used for rehealing before
fugalling, in which the massecuite naturally rises while being heated.
The temperature sought in cooIing masSecuites is of the order of 40°C (105°F). To obtain
such a result with low-grade material, it is essential that cooling should be slow. Generally,
it is recommended that lhe cooling rate should not be greater than 0.8 - 1°C (1.5 - 1.8°F)
per hour, which requires 36 - 50 hours, and ¡¡mits the mean temperature difference between
massecuile and water to 15°C (27°F). The volume of vertical crystallisers facilitales maintain-
ing these conditions. I f a temperature difference of 25°C (45° F) could be tOleraled, a coolillg
rate of 3°C/h (5°F/h) could be mainlained. Some authors state thal a rale of 2°C/h
(3.5°F/h) couId be maintained without producing false grain, while maintaining a super-
saturation of 1.2. Care should be observed in attempting this; according to B.M.A.,
massecuites with a ratio of 4.5 of non-sugars to water may be treated without difficulty,
which indicates the high efficiency of their equipment.
Advantages. Vertical crystallisers appear destined to replace olher types, even the
Werkspoor, on account of their advantages:
(a) Large volume for small f100r space occupied
(b) Suitability for installation out of doors
(e) High efficiency, due to better contact hetween massecuite and heat-exchange surface
(high SI V)
(d) Facility of automatic regulation
(e) Little or no short-circuit flow
(f) Very good thermal efficiency, leading to improved purity of molasses
(g) The efficacy of these crystallisers is such that a viscosity of 12,000 - 13,000 poises may
be obtained in the outgoing massecuite; normally a value of 9,000 - 10,000 is readily obtained
(h) Cost is reduced.
When two or three crystallisers are avaiIabIe, one-third, half or two thirds of lhe lasl olle
may be used for reheating the massecuite before centrifuging.
Design for vertical crystallisers for e massecuifes

We consider he re the requirements for a verticaI-crystalliser station for cooling and rehealing
of C massecuite; conditions assumed are a factory of 250 I.c.h. producing 40 1 01' e
massecuite/t.c. (1.43 cu.ft./t.c.), or 10,000 I/h, amounting lO 11,500 I/h (415 cU.ft./h) by
addilion of 15OJo of molasses for dilution. The temperalure of massecuile froOl the pan is
assumed as 75°C (165°F), lO be cooled lO 40°C (l05°F) and then rehealed 10 50°C (IIO'F)
before fugalling. At 1°C per hour, we require 35 hours, hence a crystalliser capacity of 400
m' (14,200 cu.ft.).
If we choose crystallisers o f the SEUM or Five Cail- Babcock type or 150 m' (5,300 cU. rt.)
each, we require 3 units of 150 m' (D = 4.45 m, H = 10.5 m), of which lhe first I\VO \Vould
be used for cooling and, of the third unit, one-third would be used for cooling and Ihe re-
;J
TYPES 0F CRYSTALLlSER 753
Illaining IIVo-lhirds for rehealing. Following Ihe recommendalions above, Ihese would be ar-
ranged for downlVard flow in Ihe firsl and second unils, wilh a pump belween, and upper
f10w in Ihe Ihird unil, which is connecred 10 rhe bottom of the second by a very short pipe.
These cryslallisers ha ve 12 or 13 layers of heat -exchange tubes each of 14.4-15.8 m'
(155-170 sq.ft.) of heat-exchange surface, or a tOlal of 190 m' (2,044 sq.ft.) per crystalliser.
In these designs approximately 1 m' of tube surface is in slalled per m' of cross -sect ion of
Ihe equipme nt. The illlerval between layers of lubes is approximately 800 mm (32 in.). The
heal-Iran s fer coefficienr may be taken as 25 -30 kca l/ m 2/ OC/ h (5 - 6 B.T.U. /s q.ft. ¡OF/ h)
for the tubular units, and 10 (2) for the walls of the tank.
Cooling. Since the areas of walls and tubes increase linearly along the travel of the
massecuite, we can add the effects of th e two coefficients, while remembering lhal lhey apply
Fig. 34.12. Series or Ihree ve rtical crystallisers (B.M,A.).

754 . , . CRYSTALL¡SATl9N Ch. 34
to different areas. For the reheating, on the other hand, only the former, for tubes, is rele-
vant.
The upper limit permissible for the tempera lure difference between massecuite and water
is 15°C (27°F) otherwise crystals may deposit on the tubes and cause a marked drop in effi-
ciency of heat transfer. Accepting this figure, we design for a temperature of 60°C (140°F)
for the water leaving the crystalliscr, wilh water cntering at 25°C (7rF).
The area of tubes for cooling is 190 x 2.3 = ~37 m' (4,700 sq.ft.) and the area of the
walls 7rD x 10.5 X 2.3 = 338 m' (3,635 sq.ft.).
The heat quantilY (total heat transfer per hour) coming into play is:
11,500 x l.5 x 0.44 (75 - 40) 265,450 kcal/h (1,071,566 B.T.U./h)
This corresponds lo:
(a) Tube layers: 437 x 15° x 25 163,875 kcal/h ( 649,728 B.T.U./h)

(b) Walls: 338 x 30° x 10 = 101,400 kcal/h ( 402,284 B.T.U./h)
265,275 kcal/h (1,052,012 B.T.U./h)
We assume a temperature difference of 30°C (54°F) for the walls, taking the mean
massecuile lemperature as 0.5(75 + 40) = 57.5°C (135.5°F), and ambient temperalure as
27.5°C (81.5°F).
Quantity 01 water required. The quantity of water to be used per kg of massecuite is:
(75 - 40) 0.44

w = 0.44 kg/kg massecuile
60 - 25
and the total quantity:
75 - 60
W = 11,500 x l.5 x 0.44 = 7,590 kg/h (17,000 Ib./h)
60 25
0.44 specific heat of massecuite

1.5 density of massecuite (93.6 lb./cu.ft.).
Reheating. If we were to use for reheating the water leaving crystalliser No. 1, the quanlity
would be insufficient to obtain the required temperature rise 01' 10°C (18°f"). It will be
necessary to pass this water through a small heater to raise its temperature lO something
aboye 60°C (140°F) and compensate the quantity by the higher temperature. The waler will
in any case lose ¡O°C, since:
7,590 kg waler X 10°C = 11,500 x 1.5 x 0.44 (50 - 40) 75,900 kcal
II is a queslion of finding lo whal lemperalure l' Ihis water should be healed lo oblain
lhe IO'C rise required, by means of Ihe 133 m' of crystalliser surface reserved for rehealing.
As the coerricient of heat transfer is 30 kcal/m'¡OC/h (6 B.T.U./sq.rr./°F/h), and the mean
temperature of the massecuite between 40 and 50°C is 45°C, we require:
133 x 30 (t' - 45) = 75,900 l' = 64°C (I47"F)
It will be sufficienl lO heat the water from 60 to 64°C (140 to 147°F) in order to heat the
massecuite to 50°C. Ca re will be laken lo insulate the upper two-thirds of the reheating
crystaIliser.
Coefficients, We recall the values of the heat-transfer coerricienls involved in these calcula-
tions, wilh Ihe possible range of varialions in practice:
\
Specific heal of massecuile:
Used in calculations: 0.44

Quoled by Honig JJ 0.525, 0.45 - 0.50
Quoted by oliler authors: 035-0.4
Precise values may be calculaled by formulae (33.48) and (36.3).
Heal-Iransfer coefficienl:
(kcal/m,/oC/h) (B. T. U/sq.fIPF/h)

Tubes (heating or cooling): 25 - 30 5-6
Walls: 10 2
Precise figures. When the temperatures differ by more lhan those assumed, lhe simple
calculation aboye is not satisfactory. It is then necessary to use the precise formulae:
Heat transferred lo the massecuile:
M o:Vdc(To - T)
Heat-exchange surface required:
o:Vdc Tr> - T To -' f

S = c-=-----,------ In
k (To t) - (T - lo) T - fo
The calculation is orren made al so in lhe following manner: the logarithmic mean
temperature 111m between hot and cold massecuite is calculated:
(To - t) - (T - lo) M
M m S =
To - 1 kM m
In
T - lo
756 CR YSTALLISA TlON Ch. 34
s heat-exchange surface, in m 2 (sq.ft.)

Oi coefficient taking inlO account the diluting molasses added
T o = massecuite temperalure at entry, in oC (OF)
T required exil temperalure of massecuite, in oC (OF)
(o entry temperalure of cold water, in oC (OF)
( exit lemperature of water, in oC (OF).
REFERENCES
I L. A. TROMP, Maehinery and Equipmenl of Ihe Sugar Cane Faelory, Norman Rodger, London, 1936, p. 449.
2 L. 1\. TROMP, op. ei/., p. 521.
4 G. H. JENKINS, Inl. Sugar J., 44 (1942) 123.
5 A. VANHoOK, in P. HON/O (Ed.), Principies of Sugar Teehnology, Vol. 11, EIsevier, AmSlerdam, 1959, p. 181.
6 A. H. PRAEOER, Inl. Sugar J., 42 (1940) 287.
7 W. S. DAUBERT, Inl. Sugar J., 50 (1948) t59.
8 D. H. FOSTER, Inl. Sugar J., 61 (1959) 84.
9 W. F. ALEWJJN AND P. HON/O, in P. HON/O (Ed.), Principies of Sugar Technology, Vol. /J, El sevier, AmSlerdam,
1959, p. 337.
10 J. E/sNER, Basic Calculalions fo r Ihe Sugar Faclory, Booker Brothers & McConnell, London, 1958, p. 8.
II C. G. M. PERK, Proc. 38/h Conf. SASTA, 1964, p. 15.
I la S. African Sugar Techn'Ol. Assoe., 561h Ann. Rep" p. 14.
12 N. DEERR, op. cil ., p. 403.
J3 P. HON/O , Sugor J., 18 (2) (1955) 43.
14 P. G. WRIOHT, el al., Sugar Res. Insl., Mackoy, Queensland, Teeh. Rep. No. 76, p. 25.
15 L. A. TROMP, op. cil., p. 517.
16 A. C. WATSON, Facls Sugor, 28 (1933) 256.
17 C. LANO, Sugor J., t3 (5) (1950) 53.
18 J. G. SAL/NAS, FoclS Sugar, 35 (1940) 31.
19 M. A. DOOLAN, Inl. Sugor J., 41 (1939) 425.
20 H. J. SPOELSTRA, Inl . Sugor J., 69 (1967) 195.
21 R. C. P/TCA/RN , Int . Sugor J., 33 (1931) 541.
22 L. A. TROMP, op. cit., p. 525.
23 D. H . FOSTER, B. D. SOCKH/LL AND E. T. RELF, Inl. Sugor J ., 61 (1959) 84.
24 P. HON/O, Sugar J., 18 (2) (1955) 41.
24a G. N. ALLAN, Proe. 43rd Conf. SASTA, 1969, p . 185 .
25 V. E. BA/KOW, Sugar Azucar, 51 (4) (1956) 56.
26. P . HON/o, Sugar J., 15 (4) (1952) 22.
27. L. A. TROMP, op. cil., p. 518 .
28. P. HONIO, Sugar 1.. 14 (5) (195 1) 11.
29. B. G. AOKINS, Proc. 23rd Conf. QSSCT, 1956, p. 49.
30 G. C. DE BRUYN. in P. HONlo (Ed .), Principies of Suga!' Technology, Vol. 11, EIsevier, Amsterdam, 1959,
p.471.
31 A. H. PRAEOER, Inl. Sugor 1.,42 (1940) 286.
32 J. H. PAYNE, in P. HON/G (Ed.), Principies of Sugar Technolog)', Vol. 11, EIsevier, AmSlerdam, 1959, p. 504.
33 P. HON/O, Principies of Sugar Technology, Vol. /JI, Elsevier, Amsrerdam, 1963, p. 565.
35 .. Centrifuga! Separation
Object
Once the mother liquor has been exhausted to the practical limit for the strike concerned,
it remains only to separa te the crystals in arder to obtain the sugar in the commercial formo
This operation is carried out in centrifugal dryers, which are called variously: "cen-
[rifuges", "centrifugals", or commonly abbreviated to "fugals". The operation is known
as "purging", "centrifuging", "centrifugalling" or "fugalling".
Until recently, batch machines were lhe only cines in use toany extent; in recent years,
however, continuous machines have been used to an increasing extent, and are now extensive-
Iy used, at least for low-grade rnassecuite.
BATCH CENTRIFUGALS
The centrifugal machine

Practically all the batch centrifugals in existence at present are based on the Weston machine,
named after the British engineer who originated it in its present formo
It consists of a cylindrical basket designed lO receive the massecuite to be treated, and car-
ried on a vertical shaft, which is driven from its upper end by a motor or pulley (Fig. 35.1).
The basket is pierced with numerous hales to allow the molasses to escape, and is provided
with circumferential hoops to withstand the centrifugal force; the basket is lined with metal
gauze, which serves to retain the sugar while allowing the molasses to pass through.
The basket is open at the top to allow massecuite to be fed into it, and a bottom opening
allows the sugar to be discharged when the machine is stopped. While the machine is running,
that is, during charging and drying, this discharge opening is generally c10sed by a cone of
thin sheet metal.
The basket is attached to the shaft by a spider occupying the bottom opening, while allow-
ing ample space for dischargc of the sugar. It is surrounded by a casing dcsigncd to catch
the molasses separated and la protect the operator from the moving parts. This "monitor
casing" has an opening at the top corresponding to that of the basket, which may be closed
by means of two half-covers on hinges, provided with a hale through which the shaft passes.
There are generally several centrifugals, forming a battery, and arranged in a line. The
massecuite to be fugalled is fed into a distributor, which resembles a sma.11 crystalliser or mix-
er placed behind the heads (or driving motors) of the machines. At each centrifugal, a hinged
chute enables massecuite to be run from the mixer to charge the basket.
For lhe high-grade centrifugals, water pipes and steam pipes run along the length of the
battery, to allow of steaming or washing the sugar.
At the end of the drying period the centrifugal is stopped by means of a brake, which
758 CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATlON Ch. 35
..... " ,
Fig. 35.1. Section of a C411 centrifugal (Fives Cail- Babcock).

BA TCR CENTRIFUGALS 759
generally coosists of brake-shoes provided with a suitable frictioo lining and surrounding a
drum 00 which they tighteo when released.
AII ceotrifugals are now automatic. The many operations oecessary for their functioning,
i.e. starting, charging, control of charging speed, c10sing the massecuite gate, acceleration,
washing with water and steam, dryiog at high speed, change to low speed and control of
discharging speed, openiog the discharge cone, dryiog out the sugar, srartiog the oext charge,
all are carried out by means of a complex assembly of controls, programmed to operate io
the correct sequence.
Basket. The basket s are constructed of greater or lesser thickness according to the cen-
trifugal force to which they are to be subjected. Those which are subjected to the highest
slresses work c10se to the limit of tensile streogth of the metal; they are made of
chrome - copper steel and their hoops sometimes of oickel stee!.
The baskets of ceotrifugals 60 cm (24 io.) io height have:
For 1,000 r.p.m.: 5-6 mm (r.-~ in.) thickoess of basket, with 6 hoops
For 1,500 r.p.m.: 5-6 mm thickness of basket, aod 12-15 hoops
The baskets of ceotrifugals of 1,370 mm diameter aod 1,067 mm height (54 x 42 in.) are
5 mm (f¡¡ io.) io thickoess aod ha ve 16 hoops of 35 mm (1 i in.) width; these are for 1,200
r.p.m. (Fives Cail- Babcock, Model C41l). The B.M.A. machioes of similar dimeosions,
1,320 x },200 mm (52 X 48 in.), have baskets 13 mm O in.) in thickness, without hoops,
but with 3 reinforciog bands of 28 mm (l! io.) ooe each at top aod bottom, and one at mid-
height.
The holes in these baskets are of 7 mm (12 in.) diameter, and are spaced at about 22 mm
<l in.) betweeh centres. ., '
Gauzes. On account of this wide spacing, a simple perforated sheet or a siogle woven gauze
would be unsatisfactory as lining: the greater proportion of the perforatioos would lie against
the smooth side-walI of the basket, and would not allow the molasses to escape. The basket
is then generally furnished with two different linings:
(1) A backing gauze, an ordinary woven gauze in brass or copper wire of 0.75 -1.5 mm
(f¡ - ,~ in.) diameter with openings of 5 -la mm (A - ~ in.), which serves to separate the
gauze proper from the wall of the basket: or preferably, a "stabbed" lining consisting of
brass or special steel sheet, puoched and perforated to give suitable projections; this is more
uniform and more effective
(2) A gauze proper, designed to retain the crystals; previously, this was sometimes a woven
copper gauze, of Liebermaon type (Fig. 35.2), single or double, but now is nearly always a
perforated sheet.
In certain fattories, two backing gauzes are used. Tromp', for example, recommeods the
interposition of a 7-mesh woveo gauze between the 4-mesh backing gauze and the perforated
Iining. Krieg sil11ilarly advises the use of a "sandwich" gauze between the lining, of per-
forated sheet, and the stabbed backing sheet; or use of the followiog liniogs':
760 CE NTRIFUOAL SEPARATION Ch. 35
-
--
- -
- --
- -
-
------
---
- --
- --
-
-
-
-- -- -
Fig. 35.2. Diagram or Liebermann lining . Fig. 35.3. S Joned gauze. Perroralions in rows .
[$"$l'M4
f0Wff1?0b1
ezMwA
------
-------
------- Inlr.
------- ::~~ )0.3
------
- - - --
-----
------
Fig. 35.4. Slolled gauze. Staggered arrangemen!. Fig. 35.5. Section or perrorations (mm).
(a) A backing gauze, in annealed brass 16 meshes/ dm (4 meshes/in.), al' \Vires 1.2 mm (i!.
in.) in diameler, placed aga in st the baske!.
(b) An inler mediale gauze, also in annea led brass, al' 28 meshes/dm (7-mesh), 0.75 mm
(¡, in .) diameter, belween this back ing gauze a nd the perforaled lining.
This additional gauze facililales Ihe !low of molasses, bul is not indispensable.
Perforated gauze. Gauzes formed 01' perfor ated sheel are al' pure copper, stai nless sleeI,
or special alloy. They are provided wil h hor izont al slots 4 mm in length and 0.3 -0.4 mm
in widlh , generally 0.35 mm, arranged either in eolumns (Fig. 35.3) or in slaggered formalion
(Fig. 35.4). The piteh of these perforations in the venica l direction is I mm (100 s lo ls per
100 mm) . The area al' openings is of Ihe order 01' 24 -26070 of lhe 10lal a rea .
The wid th of 0.3 - 0.4 mm refe rs \O (he interior faee of Ihe gauze: Ihe perforalion s are in
fa e( pyramidal (Fig. 35.5), (his arrangement having the objecl al' avoiding the possibililY 01'
er ys (a ls al' (he exacl dimension 01'0.4 mm beeomingjammed in (he perfo ra lions 01' Ihe gallze.
This width of 0.4 mm is obvio us ly importan!. On its preci se val ue depends lhe size 01' (he
fine grain which (he gauze wi ll allow lO pass, or even (he size al' Ihe grai n al' lhe masseeuile,
sin ee in certa in countries (he final m assecu i(es are of(en boiled wilh a g ra in size al' 0.2 -0.3
mm. In this case i( is obvious ly neeessary (O modify (he widlh al' Ihe perforfora(ions, or bel-
ter , to use c1ose-woven Liebermann linings. Gauzes wi(h round hales o f 0.5 mm are also us-
ed.
Th e Ihiekness 01' the perfora led s heel varies from 0.45 la 0.80 mm , ofIen 0.5 mm (slainless
s(eel) and 0.7 mm (brass). T he Ihinne r gauzes have a shoner Jife bUI give better operalion.
BATCH CENTR IFUGALS 761
The Iinings should be cut to a length somewhat greater than the interior circumference of
lhe basket, in order to ensure t hat t here is no gap in the Iining once it is in place; but t he
lap arranged should be at a minimum , sin ce it forms a verti cal band of greater resistance t o
flow of molasses. The gauzes sho uld be cut to the lengths given in Table 35.1.
TABLE 35.1
LENGTH QF CENTR JFUOAL SCREENS
Diam. o/ machine lnside circum/erence o/ basket Lenglh of perfora/ed sheet
(in.) (mm) (mm) (jt .!i" .) (mm) (jUin .)
40 1.015 3,192 10 n. 51 il1. 3,230 10 n. 7 in.

42 1,065 3,352 II fL 3,380 II n. I in.
48 1,220 3,830 12 fL 7 in, 3,870 12fL8in.
54 1,370 . 4,309 14ft. 2 in. 4,350 14fL 3in.
The m argin of overlap allowed is about 25 - 38 mm (1 - 1~ in.), the actual overlap be in g

about 60 mm (21 in.) , due to the thickness of the backing gauze,
The la p of the gauze should be arranged in such a way th at, while the basket is rotating,
Ihe resista nc e of the air tends to hold the free end against the othe r, and not so that the air
tend s to enter between the two en ds.
The principal European suppliers are Krieg & Zivy in France, and Fontaine in Germany.
Surnrnary of sorne concepfs of gyratory rnechanics

The study 01' cenlrifuga ls il1volves several concepts in mechanics, whi ch we sha ll recall here,
in order lO simplify Ihe discussion which follows.
Notation. We sha ll use the following nomencla lure:

r = radius of gyration, in m (fL)
v = tangential velocity, in mis (fLls)
n = speed of rotation, in r.p.m.
w = angu lar velocity, in radians/ s
time, in s
m = mass = plg, In kg wLlm/ s/ s (f.p.s, units)
p =' weight, in kg (lb.) \
g = acceleration of gravity ,; 9.81 mlsls (32.16 fLls/ s)
F, = centrifugal force, in kg (lb.)
F, tangential fo rce, in kg (lb.)
J, = radi a l acceleration, in m/s/s (ft ./s / s)
J, tang en tial acceleration, in mlsls (fL / s/ s)
e = torque, in kg m (lb. fr.)
T work, in kg m (lb. fL)
P power, in kg mi s o r W (fLlb./s or h.p.)
762 CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATlON Ch. 35
1 = moment of inertia, in kg wt. m' (lb. wl. sq.ft.) = plgr'

F, = kinetic energy, in kg m U.p.s. units).
Equations of definilion. The principal ones are:

(1) Weight:
-p = mg
Ir we take as unit of force the kilogram (pound) weight, then for:
p = 1 kg wt. m =
1
9.8
0.102 (p = 1 lb. m = _ 1-
32.16
= 0.0311) (35.1 )
0.102 is then the mass of a body weighing 1 kg wt., in the industrial system ofunits (0.0311
for 1 lb.).
In the system where the basic figure is mass instead of force, one kilogram mass is the mass
of a body of weight one kilogram weight.
(2) Angular velocity:
2rrn
w = = 0.105 n (35.2)
60
(3) Radial acceleration:
y'
i, w'r (35.3)
r
(4) Centrifugal force:
my'
F, mj,
r
= mw'r (35.4)
(5) Tangential force:
dy dw
F, mj, =m -
di
mr -
di
(35.5)
(6) Torque:
dw
e F,r mr' (35.6)
dI
BATCH CENTRlFUGALS 763
(7) Power:
p = Cw (35.7)
(8) Work:
T = ¡p di ¡Cw di (35.8)
(9) Moment of inertia:
J = ¡mr' (35.9)
(JO) Kinetic energy:
F, = ¡mv' ¡mr'w' w' Jmr' Jw' (35.10)
Value of the torque. We have
dw
¡mr (35.11 )
di
whence:
dw dw
C = 'ErF = ¡mr' - = J (35.12)
I di di
The torque is often represented by the motive torque Cm decreased by the torque CJ of
friction or other resistance:
C = Cm - CJ (35.13)
Kinetic-energy theorem. We have sometimes to utilise the theorem: half the change in
kinetic energy of a system in a given time is equaJ to the sum of the work done by external
forces acting on the system during that time ..
Dimensions of centrifugals
Size of centrifugals is characterised by the two principal dimensions:
(1) The interior diameter of the basket: D
(2) The interior height of the basket: H.
These two dimensions are standardised; formerly, there were:
5diameters: 30 36 40· 42 48 in.

and
4 heights: 18 20 24 30 in.
764 'CENTRrFUGAV SEPARATION Ch. 35
but the first two diameters and the firsl height have disappeared, due (O labour costs and
the requirements of automation, since automatic cont rol equipment is delicale to inslalJ with
small machines; hence only the folJowing dimensions are now used or fabricated:
1,015 1,065 1,220 1,370 mm

4 diamelers :
40 42 48 54 In .
and
610 760 915 1,065 1,220 mm

5 heights:
24 30 36 42 48 in.
The (1 ,015-mm) 40-in. height is now se1dom used. These dimensions give [he following 10
combinations (Table 35.2):
TABLE 35.2
STANDARD DJMENsr0l':'lS OF CENTRIFUGALS: D X H
Brilish dimensions Melrie dimensions (mm)

(in.) (eonlinenla{ makers)
Nominal AClUa{
40 x 24 1.015 x 610 1,0 16 x 609.6

40 x 30 1,0 15 x 760 1,016 x 762
42 X 24 1,065 x 610 1,067 x 609.6
42 x 30 1,065 x 760 1,067 x 762
48 x 24 1,220 x 610 1,219 X 609.6
48 x 30 1,220 x 760 1,219 x 762
48 x 36 1,220 x 915 1,219 x 914.4
48 x 42 1,220 x 1,065 .1,219 x 1,067
54 x 42 1.370 x 1,065 1,370 x 1,067
54 x 48 1,370 x 1,220 1,370 x 1,2 19
The diameter of 1,015 mm (40 in.) is practically a duplication of Iha! of 1,065 mm (42 in.).
It corresponds to American standards, whereas 1,065 mm is Ihe European size .
. Krieg 1 has proposed the following toleran ces, which are fairly generally accepted, and
should be rigorously observed:
TABLE 35.3
FABRJCATlON TOLERANCES
Fabrica/ion
"Precision" "Regular"
Diameter +0 +0
- 2 mm (0.080 in.) -4 mm (0.160 in.)
Heighr +0 + 2 mm (0.080 in.)
- 0.3 mm (0.012 in .) -0.3 mm (0.012 in.)
BATCH CENTRIFUGALS 765
The true dimensions, rogether with the indication "precision" or "regular", should ap-
pear on the inner edge of the top opening of the basket. Dimensions marked in this way
would avoid confusion when ordering accessories.
Speed of centrifugals
A factor quite as important as the dimensions, from lhe point of view of centrifuga! capacilY,
is the speed.
Speed and diameter are the factors determining the centrifuga!. force,· i.e. the force
available for expelling the molasses during fugalling.
Now lhe centrifugal force is proportiona! (ef. eqn. (35.4)) to w'r, i.e. proportional to w'D.
lf IheQ we lake as standard speeds for a 1,065-mm (42-in.) centrifuga! ! ,000 and 1,500
r.p.m., il will be necessary, to realise lhe same centrifugal force, to run machines of other
diameters al the speeds given in Tab!e 35.4.
TABLE 35.4
SPEEDS GIVINO EQUAL CENTRIFUGAL FOReES IN CENTRIFUGALS OF D1FFERENT DIAMETERS

(Centrifugal force = G times weight)
Diameter Speed 01 rOIOlion

(r.p.m.)
(in.) (mm) G = 516 G= 1,161
40 1,015 1,025 1,537

42 1.065 1,000 1.500
48 1,220 935 1,403
54 1, 370 882 1,323
I f we consider a centrifugal of a given speed, and if its speed is varied, we shall obtain a
more rapid and more complete drying as the centrifuga! force and therefore the speed of rota-
tion is increased.
In other words, if one centrifugal is running at a higher speed than another, both being
identical machines and fugaJling the same massecuite, the machine running al higher speed
will complete its drying before the other.
I t is found by experience that in such a case the same degree of drying is obtained by runn-
ing the two machines for times inverse!y proportiona! to their centrifugal force, i.e. to the
square of the speed:
8n' = constant (35.14)
8 = time of drying.
Numerous experiments have confirmed this. In Hawaii, for examp!e', it has been ascer-
tained that 1,015-mm (40-in.) machines working on low-grade massecuite gave the same
results, with regard to purity of sugar and of molasses, by running for:
68.2 min at 1,150 r.p.m.
44.3 min at 1,400 r.p.m.
33 min at 1,600 r.p.m.
766 CENTRIFUGAl SEPARATlON Ch. 35
[n all cases. charging and discharging occupy an addi¡ional time of about 5 minutes in al1.
par! of which il would be logical to include as operaling time. Thus the relationship (35.14)
is veri fied lO a c10se approxima l ion.
We see from this lhe great gain which is offered by high speeds with regard to centrifugal
capacity.
'o' , ',o .: ,
Comment. We have just been comparing the work of the same machine al differenl speeds.
If we had compared centrifugals of different dimensions, it is obvious Ihal the centrifugal
force, the only factor influencing drying, will vary also with diameter. We should have then:
IJ Dn' = constant (35.15)
whereas the factor D does not appear in comparisons of one machine al different speeds,
or of machines of the same diameter when compared with each other.
It follows that lhe centrifugal effect has the value:
kDn'
IJ
The highesl speeds attained are of the order of 2,200 r.p.m., in centrifugals of 1,015 mm
(40 in.) diameter l .
Mean equivalenl radius

In a rotating centrifugal, the cenlrifugal force on the sugar crystals against the gauze is ob-
viously greater than that on the cryslals on lhe inlerior surface of lhe sugar layer. Jt is of
interest to ascerlain what is the radius for which lhe centrifugal force is equal to the mean
force exerted on the whole mass of sugar. This radius is termed the "mean equivalent radius"
and will be designated by R m (Fig. 35.6).
Lel us consider a fugal of axis yy', of height h. and interior radius R at the gauze. Let
r be lhe corresponding radiu s at the inner wall of the sugar layer . The thickness of the sugar
wall is thus (R - r) . The centrifugal basket will be assumed to have a flat bottom, and the
small quantity of sugar contained within the top conical plate aboye the height h will be
I R
: - -. - - ' ---1
I
-- --
-
--- I
_!_-~
--
-- 1
dx ---- I
Ih
- - I
--- -- I
--
= =
Fig. 35 .6. Cakulíllioll of mean equivalen! radius.

J,
neglected. Considering the cylinder of infinitesimal thickness dx, situated at radius x, the
centrifugal force to which (his cylinder is subjecled will have the value:
,. ' dj = m w'x= 21l"X dx hQw'x21fhew2X2 dx
e being (he specific gravity of (he massecuite.

The tatal centrifugal force will be:
F = r 21rhew2x2 dx = 21rh e w' [X;];
The total mass of sugar has Ihe value:
M = (1l"R 2h - 1l"r'h) e = 1l"he (R 2 - r')
Ir lhis were concentraled al the radius R m , it would be necessary for the centrifugal force
to be equal lO F:
hence';
2 R' r' (35.16)

1 -R-'--r-'
We lhus have the figures of Table 35.5.
" . ," . .
TABLE 35.5
EQUIVALENT MEAN RADIUS Rm
Diamet" 01 basket Value 01 Rm lor sugor layer 01 Ihickness (mm):
(mm) (in .) 152 (6 in,) 178 (7 in.) 203 (8 in.) , 229 (9 in.) 254 (10 in .)
1,015 40 436 (17.2 in.) -425 (16.7 in.)

1,065 42 461 (18.2 in.) 450 (17.7 in.) . 440 (17.3 in.) '
1,220 48 537 (21.1 in.) , 526 (20.7 in .) 515 (20.3 in.) 504 (19,8 in .)
, 1.370 54 613 (24.1 in.) 601 (23,7 in .) 590 (23.2 in.) 579 (22 .8 in.) 568 (22.4 in.)
Table 35.4 has been calculaled according ro lhe equivalenl mean radiu s, the basis being
D = 1,065 mm (42 in.), lhickness = 152 mm (6 in.), with lhicknesses for other sizes propor-
(ional (O (he respective diameters. In Table 35.5 the radii corresponding to the commoner
thicknesses are given in ilalics. o',
,r .
o ,.
768 . CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATION Ch. 35
Ratio between centrifugal force and gravily

The effect of various centrifugals is compared by lhe ratio of the centrifugal force exerted
on ¡he material to that of gravity. .
Gravity exerts a force equal 10 the weight: p= mg. The centrifugal force itself has the
value:
F = mw'R
'"
The ratio sought, O, . thu s has the value:
. ...
F mw'R m 4'1r'n'
0= = 'RltJ 1119 - n - )' R
p mg 60' X 9.8 .
, ( 1,000 '"
(35.17)
: .j".: ,: ". ' , " .,.'

, .:
Rm = equivalent mean radius, in m (in.).
Example . For a J ,220-mm (48-in.) centrifugal with a 203-mm (8-in.) layer rotating at 1,500
r.p.m., the ratio O will be:
G = 1,119 X 2.25 X 0.515 = 1,297 (O 28.4 X 2.25 X 20.3 1,297)
Cycle
1I musl not be supposed Ihal running at operating speed is the only important operalion in
the course of the fugalling. The other phases of the process occupy a subslantial fraction of
the cycle of operations, which is greater in high-grade massecuites than wilh low-grade pro-
ducts, and is naturall y greater with more rapid cycies.
The following, for example, is the succession of operations for a complete cycJe, in ¡he
treatment of high-grade massecuite:
Charging and acceleration: 1 min

Drying and washing at speed: O 40 s
Electrical braking: O 15
MechanicaJ braking: O 10
Discharging: . ,. O 20
Complete cycle: 2 min 25 s
Operation at normal speed, of course, occupies a much greater propon ion of (he cycle for
low-grade products, fugalling of which is much slower and more difficulL
We may estima te, according to the speed of the machines, the times given in Table 35.6.
( :. ~ ! ·TABLE 35.6
TIMES OF FUGALLlNG
A massecuites 2- 6 min
8 massecuiles 4-10 min
e massecuites 10-45 min
The facrors which influence the time of fugalling are:

(a) The viscosity of lhe molasses, which depends on its temperature and purity (whether
A, B or C massecuite)
(b) The size and regularilY of the crystals
(el The rapidity of acceleration of the machine, lhal is, lhe lime required 10 reach ils
operating speed
(d) The centrifuga! force developed by the centrifuga! at its operating speed
(e) The time of braking and of discharging.
Moreover, washing with water and steam may contribute to lengthening the cyc!e.
The inactive time which is most unfavourable to capacity is phase (e), i.e. the period of
deceleration. While the acceleration takes about the same time, it still constitutes a useful
phase of the operation, since, from the beginning of filling and accelerating, the amount of
molasses removed is quite substantial. The deceleration period, on the contrary, is dead lime
without useful effect. The low capacity of certain centrifugals is thus due simply to their inef-
fective braking.
Capacity
The working capacily or the sugar production of a centrifugal machine depends on two main
factors:
(a) Contents of the basket in vo)ume of massecuite
(b) Time of the cycle.
(a) Capacil)' of Ihe basket. The capacity of the baskel may be expressed eilher in volume
of Illassecuite or in weight of sugar. The quantity of sugar to be obtained from a massecuite
varies considerably (ef. p. 728), and it is preferable to express the contents in volume of
massecuite, when it is desired ro compare one machine with another, while using weight of
sugar when considering the sugar production from lhe machi ne.
The shape of the basket is now very simple, the bottom and the upper rim of the basket
being flar. The volume of massecuite lhus depel1ds on:
(1) The area of the lining of the centrifuga!
(2) The thickness. of lhe layer of massecuite.
Centrifugals are designed to receive a layer of massecuite or of sugar proportional to their
diameter. The manufacturers generally provide for a massecuite layer of maximum thickness
equal to 14 or 15OJo of the diameter. Since a margin of safety in filling is always allowed,
it is necessary to estimate for calculation purposes a maximum of 14% for calculations of
power and load 011 machine, and a mean of 10-12% for calculation of capacity:
770 CENTRIFUGAL S~PARATION Ch. 35
eM = 0.28 R 0.14 D (35.18)
e", = 0.20 R 0.10 D (35.19)
eM = maximum lhickness of massecuite

em mean thickness of mass ec uite
R = inside radius of basket
D = inside diameter of basket.
However, this expression is appli ca ble without qualification only to high-grade ma ssecuites
which fugal readily. With low grades, it is generally the properties of the massecuite which
delermine lhe lhickness of layer which can be handled. The lalter may somelimes drop 10
half lhe lhickness corresponding to lhe f1ange of the IOp of lhe baskel, or even lower.
Th e volume of massecuite per charge will have lhe value:
v = 7reH (D - e) (nat top and bOltom) (35.20)
This is readily obtained by means of Guldin's lheorem .

V = volume of massecuite corresponding to the thickness e of massecuite, and expressed in
dm'
e thickness of lhe massecuite, in dm
H = interior height of the centrifugal basket, in dm
D = inside diameter of the basket, in dm
The same equ31ion applies in ,1I1y cOnsislenl sy.\lem 01' ullilS; I'or ~.\al11ple, wilh all linear
measurements in feet.
If we give e values of 0.12 D and 0.14 D, we obtain lhe figures of Table 35.7.
TABLE 35.7
YOLUME OF MASSE CUlTE CQ NTENT FOR YARrous CENTRIFUGALS
D x H Maximum volume of massecuite
Theorelical Practica!
(e = O.UD) (e = 0./2 D)
(mm) (in .) (1) (cu .JI') (1) (CU.jI.)
--_ ._...
1, 015 x 610 40 x 24 246 8.68 215 7.59
1,015 x 760 40 x 30 305 10 . 77 267 9 . 43
1,065 x 610 42 x 24 272 9.60 237 8 . 38

1.065 x 760 42 x 30 337 11.90 295 10.41
1,220 x 61 0 48 x 24 356 12 . 57 311 10.98

1,220 x 760 48 x 30 442 15.60 386 13 . 63
1,220 x 915 48 x 36 528 18.64 491 1627
1,220 x 1,065 48 x 42 618 21.82 539 1833
1,370 x 1,065 54 x 42 778 27 .46 681 24.04

11 ma)' readily be verified that the two columns of this table correspond very closely to Ihe
equations:
390 D'H (V, = 0.000225 D' H) (35.21)
vp
= 340 D'H (Vp 0,000196 D'H) (35.22)
V, = maximum theorelical contents of basket, in dm 3 (cu.ft.) of massecuite

Vp = maximum practical contents of the basket, in dm 3 (cu.ft.) of massecuite
D = diameter of basket, in m (in,)
H = height of basket, in m (in.).
(b) Length of cycle. We ha ve already considered (p. 768) the factors influencing the time
of cycle, Those which depend on the characteristics of the machine are:
(1) The centrifugal force developed when running at speed
(2) The rate of acceleration
(3) The rate of slowing down and discharging ..
The first factor, centrifugal force (and consequently the running speed). is the most impor-
tant, particularly for low-grade materials. Equation (35.15) shows that the higher this force,
the shorter the cycle, The centrifugal force is the producl of two factors: D alld n, Ihe laller
to the second power; both of Ihese work in opposition 10 the two other factors, (2) and (3).
Whell D and n are increased, the acceleration time cannot at the same time be reduced except
at the expense of power consumption. Only the discharging time is practically independent
of dimensions and speed: it is substantially constant and takes about half a minute.
Considering f1at-bottomed machines, eqn. (35.22) gives us:
y = N Vp = 0.340 D'HN (0,000196 D'HN) (35.23)
y volume of massecuite handled per hour, in 1 (cu.ft.)

D diameter of· basket, in m (in.)
H = height of basket, in m (in.)
N number of cycles per hour.
Capacities for different sizes are given in Table 35,8,
To convert these capacities in volume of massecuite to capacity in weight of sugar, it will
be necessary to multiply them by the figures for yield (R A , R B or Re) on p. 728 or
preferably by the actual yields obtained in the factory under consideration.
Screen are a
In sorne countries, centrifugal capacity of a factory is often expressed in terms of screen area
of lhe machines. Obviously lhis gives only a rough measure of capacity, since it takes into
account neither the actual contents of the basket nor the speed, nor the Ilumber of cycles per
hour. It amounts to substituting for eqn, (35.23) an equation of the form e = k DH.
With older machines, a figure of 0.2 m'/Lc.h, (2.2 sq.ft./t.c.h.) was considered necessary
for A and B massecuites and 0.3 (3,3) for C massecuite. With modern machines, it should
be ample to provide:
""
N
TABLE 35.8
-::;;' CAPACITY OF CENTRIFUGAlS IN LITRES OF MASSECUITE PER HOUR
()
0.340 . Number al cyc/es per haur
DxH DxH D'H D'H '"Z>-i
. (in.) (mm) (1) (1) 2 4 6 8 10 12 15 18 20 22 25 30 ~
tT1
c::
40 x 20 1,015 x 510 524 178 357 713 1,070 1,426 1,783 ··2,140 2,675 3,209 3,566 3,923 . 4,457 5,349 O
>
40 x 24 1,015 x 610 629 214 428 856 1,284 1,712 2,140 .2,567 3,209 3,851 4,279 4,707 5,349 6,418 te'
x en
40 30 1,015 x 760 787 267 535 1,070 1,605 2,140 2,674 .3,209 4,012 4,814 5,349 5,884 6,686 8,023 m
."
42 x 20 1,065 x 510 578 197 393 786 1,179 1,573 1,966 2,359 2,948 3,538 3,931 4,324 4,914 5,897
42
42
x
x
24
30
1,065
1,065
x 610
x 760
694
867
236
295
472
590
944
1,179
1,415
1,769
1,887
2,359
2,359
2,948
• 2,831
3,538
3,538
4,423
4,246
5,307
4,718
5,897
5,189
6,487
5,897
7,371
7,076
8,845
~>-i
48 x 30 1,220 x 760 1,133 .385 770 1,540 2,3!! 3,081 3,851 4,621 5,777 6,932 7,702 8\472 9,628 11,553 13
Z "
48 x 36 1,220 x 915 1,359 462 924 1,849 2,773 3,697 4,621 5,546 6,932 8,318 9,243 10,167 1 I ,553 13,864
48 x 42 1,220 x 1,065 1,585 539 1,078 2,156 3,234 4,312 5,389 6,467 8,084 9,701 10,779 11,857 13,474 16,168
54 x 42 1,370 x 1,065 2,007 682 1,365 2,729 4,094 5,459 6,824 8,188 10,235 12,283 13,647 15,012 17,059 20,471
Far BrÍtÍsh unÍts: 1 I = 0.0353 cU.ft.
(j
:::r
w
CA
BATCH CENTRIFUGA LS 773
0.10 m /I.c.h. (1.1 sq.ft./t.c.h.) for A and B sugars

'
0.10 m ' /I.c.h. (1.1 sq.ft./t.c.h.) for e sugar
or a total of 0.20 m' / t.c.h. (2.2 sq.ft./t.c.h.).

BUI, 10 provide a safe margin, Ihe areas are increased to:
0.12 m'/t.c.h. (1.3 sq.ft./I.c.h.) for A and B sugars

0.13 m'/t.c.h. (1.4 sq.ft./t.c.h.) for e sugars
or a total of 0.25 m'/t.c.h. (2.7 sq.ft./I.c.h.).

We would emphasise thal Ihese figures have always only an indicati ve and approximate
value.
Screen areas for various sizes 01' machine are given in Table 35 .9.
TABLE 35.9
SCREEN AREA FOR VARIOUS SIZES OF CENTRIFUGAL
Size Area
(mm) (in .) (sq .JI') (m ')
1,015 x 610 40 x 24 20.9 1.95

1,015 x 760 40 x 30 26.2 2.43
1,065 x 610 42 x 24 22 2.04
1,065 x 760 42 x 30 27.5 2.55
1,220 x 760 48 x 30 31.4 2.92
1,220 x 915 48 x 36 37.7 3.50
1,220 x 1,065 48 x 42 44.5 4.10
1,370 x 1,065 54 x 42 49.5 4:60
.. ; . ' .. "
Momen! of inertía
The mamen! 01' inertia , Ihe definition 01' which we llave given in eqn. (35.9), plays an impar-
lanl role in lhe calculation 01' power consumed by centrifugals.
Tlle moment 01' inertia depends on the mass 01' Ihe rotating bodies and their distance from
the axis 01' rotal ion. Ir is different therefore according as Ihe centrifugal is empty or full 01'
massecuile, and again changes progressively as Ihe molasses is eliminated during the fugall.
ing. We may Ihus distinguish three principal values 01' the moment 01' inertia:
(1) Momenl of inerlia of lhe emply cenlrifugal
(2) Momenl 01' inenia 01' Ihe cenlrifugal filled wilh massecuite immedialely afler charging
(3) Moment 01' inenia 01' the cenlrifugal filled with sugar, al the end 01' the fugalling.
Moreover, the mass 01' lhe rotating material is not the same for all machines 01' the same
dimensions. For example, a centrifugal designed to resist a centrifugal force of 500 x g
would not be designed in the same wa y as a basket intended lo withstand a force 01' j ,200
x g: special steels 01' higher strength would be employed in the latter case, the thickness 01'
melal would be increased, the number 01' hoops increas ed, etc.
774 CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATION Ch. 35
Jt follows that the moment of inerlia depends. not only on the dimensions of the cen-
trifugal, but also on the speed for which it has been designed, and Ihe eXlenl to which it is
filled.
Table 35.10 gives moments of inertia (kg wLm' and lb. wt.sq. fL) for various centrifugals.
TABLE 35.10
MOMENT OF INERTIA OF CENTRmJGALS
Dimensions Speed· Moment or ¡nenia

(r.p.m.)
(mm) (in .) kg wl.m 2 lb. wI.sqJI.
Emply Charged Final Emply Charged Fínal
1,015 x 610 40 x 24 1.500 9 17 15.5 65 123 112

1,015 x 760 40 x 30 1.500 10 20 18 72 145 130
1,065 x 610 42 x 24 1
1,500 11 20 16 80 145 116
1.065 x 760 42 x 30 1,500 12.5 23 20 90 166 145
1,220 x 760 48 x 30 1,450 24 38.8 34.7 173 .280 251

1,220 x 915 48 x 36 1,300 25 44 37 180 318 268
1,220 x 1,065 48 x 42 1,200 26.3 50.5 41.5 190 365 300
1,370 x 1,065 54 x 42 1,200 46 78.6 71.4 332 568 517
(For values in kg m', mulliply Ihe above rigures by 9.8; ror values in Ib.sq.n., muhiply Ihe
va!ues in the lable by 32.16.)
Variation of moment of inertia. The moment of inertia of a centrifugal varies according

as it is empty, charged with massecuile or full of sugar. It is of interesl to know how lhese
moments of inertia vary with the characteristics of the centrifuga!. For this purpose we shall
discuss what are the limitations which its dimensions and its speed impose, and which are
reflected in the design and Ihe inertia of the machine.
Stress in the basket. The most important elemenl concerned in the momenl of inerlia of
lhe empty machine is the basket. Now, the thickness of the shell of lhe baskel, or rather the
strength of the combination of shell and hoops, must be sufficient to withstand the cen-
trifugal stresses to whieh it is subjeeted.
Lel M be the lotal mass of lhe baskel ano lhe massecuile al lhe full charge for which il
should be designed. The force lO which lhe wall of lhe basket is subjeeled has a value of:
F, = Mw'r (35.24)
This force is distributed over the whole surfaee of lhe wal!. Hence lhe stress per unil area:
. Mw'r
p (35.25)
7rDH
From lhe poinl of view which concerns us (lhe effecl of varialion in ¡he weighl of lhe
,-)
...''.
BATCH CENTRlFUGALS 7(.5
basket), il reduces to assuming, for simplificalion, Ihat the basket consists of a shell of
uniform Ihickness, wilhoul perforalions and wilhoul hoops. In this case, if jis Ihe maximum
st ress permissible for Ihe metal employed, we shall have (Fig. 35.7):
Fig. 35.7, Stresses in basket.
:' . ;" . ' :. ;,.
pD
e (35.26)
2j
e = Ihickness of metal.
Or:
!>! ,
e = 27f'DHj = 27f'Hj
. (35.27)
Now M is proportional to D'H (e/. eqns. 35.21, 35.22), as far as the principal load, i.e.
lhe massecuile, is concerned. Using k and k, for the numerical coefficients, we shall have
Ihen:
," ."-.: .' .,.. : . : • • "... ' . ;; ( : I ': .' , ) • , : i i , 1 '';:: :
D'Hn'D
e = k = k,Djn" (35.28)
Hj
JI is seen thal the thickness of the basket should be proporlional 10 DJn'.

The mass m of ¡he basket will therefore be proporlional to lhe volume of lhe melal com-
prising il:
m = k, 7f'De H = k J 7f'D D'n'H = k. D'Hn 2
and its momenl of inerlia 1p will be:
Ip =m D' = k, D6Hn ' ,(35.29)
/
Actually, the moment of inenia of the empty centrifugal varies much less rapidl y as a func-
tion of each of the three factors D, H and n . This is due to the fact that the motor, the shat"t
and the parts other than the basket do not have to withstand the centrifugal force exerted
by the massecuite, al so to the fact that, as the centrifugal stresses increase, the designers
employ steel of higher strength; these are more expensive but make the basket lighter. Final-
ly, the moment of inertia of the empty centrifugal increases only according to the formula:
1p = 7 nD' ..¡¡¡ (Jp = 0.074 nD' ffi) (35.30)
Moment of jnertja of the massecujte or sugar. The weight of m assec uite fugalled is propor-
tional to D2H (e/. eqns. 35.21, 35.22). [ts moment of inertia 1, will thus be proportionalto:
1, = k D'H D' = k D'H
and will have the value:
1s = 9D'H (J, = 0.[7 D'H) (35.31)
Total moment of inertja while drying. The total moment of i nenia during the drying period
will thus ha ve the form:
1 = lp + 1,= 7 D'H (~ + 1.3) (35.32)
These va lues assume D and H expressed in m (fl.), 1 in m' kg wl. (square feet-pounds
weight), and n in thousands or r.p.m.
Power requjrements
There are two types of power to be considered with centrifugal machines:
(a) The power for starting, or power required during the period of acceleration: Pa
(b) Power while running; P, .
The lalter is obviously much s maller than the former, since it corresponds on ly (O main-
taining the speed, whereas the power for starting corresponds to the e.\penditure of energy
necessary to bring the centrifugal from rest to its operating speed, thus giving it a con-
siderable kinetic energy.
(a) Acceleration periodo The theorem of kinetic energy gives us;
Ta = -lw'
2 = º ) " P di
O u
(35.33)
Ta = work corresponding to ¡he acceleration period

º = efficiency
= duration of the acceleration periodo
Or, assuming Ihe power is conslant and equal 10 Ihe mean power during the accelerat ion
period:
. . .. ,.
Iw 2
2
= º p. I (35.34)
Or:
In 2 '.' (35.35)
p. = k -
t
k numerical coeffic ient.

Replacing 1 by il s va lue taken from eqn. (35.32), correspo ndin g lO its mean value for the
acceleration period, we have:
nD ) (35.36)
( .J H +1.3
In practice, we may take:
2
P = 0.3 D ' Hn ( nD
- + 1.3 ) (35.37)
• t.fH
' j ", ' , ' •
p. = power consumed by the centrifugal during the acceleration period, in kW

D inside diameler of basket, in m.
H interior depth of basket, in m.
n speed of rotation al full speed , in thousands of r.p . m.
{ = duration of acceleration period, in mino
(b) Period at speed. When running at speed, we tnay a~s~'!ne that ¡he ;torque due lO fric-
tional resistances has I he val ue:
C = D 4Hn (1 + 4n) (35 .38)
C =torque due lO frictionaI resislance, in m kg.

D =diameler of baskel, in m.
H =deplh of basket, in m.
n =speed of rotation, in thousands of r.p.m.
Hence the power consumptioll while al speed:
Cw
P, = = D4Hn (1 + 4n) I05n
75 . . 75 '
. , .;
/
778 , CENTRIFUGALSEPARATION Ch. 35
or:
D'Hn'
370 (1 + 4n) (35.39)
P, ~ power consumed by the centrifuga! at speed, in kW.
Power and capacity

From eqn. (35.15), we may deduce:
(35.40)
;: .
N ~
number of cycles per hour.
This equation, however, is valid only for the running periodo The accelerating time, on the
other hand, would be detrimentall y affected by n and by D; in more precise terms, eqn'
(35.37) shows that, merely to retain the same accelerating time ( with a centrifugal of larger
diameter, it is necessary to expend a power consumption P more than proportional to D':
we thus see the enormous influence of diameter. Braking time is similarly affected., Discharg·
ing time remains approximately the same in al! cases. Since with low-grade products the runn-
ing period predominates, we may consider eqn. (35.40) as a c10se approximation for this case.
If we relate it to eqn. (35.23), the latter becomes:
y ~ k DJHn' (35.41)
The power exerted per unit weight of massec uite treated or per unit rate of sugar produced
is thus:
(a) Accelerating:
P
--"- - k' - --
D'Hn'
nD +
DJHn'( ( W
1.3) k ' D ( _nD_ + 1.3) (35.42)
y - , I ..¡ H
(b) Running:
P, D'Hn'
~
k" (1 + 4n) k" D (1 + 4n) (35.43)
y D'Hn'
lt is seen that the power consumption per unit weight of sugar increases with diameter of
machine, and, to a smaller extent, with the speed.
This expression for the relationship of specific power as increasing with D and to a lesser
extent with n, is, howe ve r, more marked with A and B sugars.
On the other hand. the height H scarcely affects the situation: capacity and power are both
approximately proportional to H. Hence the advantage of choosing a centrifugal giving the
g~eatest depth of basket for a given diameter.
ELECTRIC DRIVE 779
The diallleler , however, offers an advantage, in addilion to its influence on capacity. Since
alternaling current at 50 cycles generally fixes lhe speed al 1,500 r.p.m., only lhe diameter
can in effect be varied io increase the centrifugal force. Hence the advanlage of large
diamelers, at leasl for Jow-grade material, provided of course that Ihe speed of 1,500 r.p.m.
is used. For A and B sugars, I he centrifugal force developed at 1,200 or 1,300 r.p.m. is ample,
even at 1,065 mm (42 in.) diameter.
Typical values of power consumplion at speed. Application of eqn. (35.39) gives the
figures shown in Table 35.11 :
TABLE 35.11
PQWER CON SUMPTlON OF CENTRfFUGALS A T SPEED
Dimensions Power, in k W (h.p.), required al;
(I/1m) (in.) . 1,000 r.p.m. 1,500 r.p.m. 2,000 r.p.m .
1.015 x 610 40 x 24 3.4 ( 4.5) 10.7 (14.2) 24.5 (32.6)

1,015 x 760 40 x 30 4.3 ( 5.7) 13.4 (17 .9) 30.7 (40.9)
1,065 x 610 42 x 24 4.J ( 5.5) 13 .0 (17.3)
'1.065 x 760 42 x JO 5.2 ( 69) 16.4 (21.8)
1,220 x 760 48 x 30 8 .9 (11.8) 27. 8 (37 . 1)
1,220 x 915 48 x 36 10.6 (14 . 1) 33 .4 (44 .5)
1,220 x 1,065 48 x 42 12.4 (16. 5) 39.0 (52 )
1,370 x 1,065 54 x 42 19.5 (26 .4) 62.5 (SJ .J)
ELECTRIC DRIVE
There were previously Ihree c1assical methods of drive for centrifugals: hydraulic, belt and
electric motor. Only electric drive has survived. Thus we consider only electrically driven
centrifugals.
Coupling
These machines are driven by a vertical electrical motor, Ihe shaft of which is in line with
that of Ihe centrifugal, and which drives it either by a direct coupling, by means of a friction
c1utch , or a hydraulic coupling. The friction c1utch, the brake lining of which wore rapidly,
is no longer employed. The hydraulic coupling consisted of a driving wheel fixed to the motor
shafl, and driving, through the mediu lTl of oil , a turbine wheel fixed to Ihe cenlrifugal shaft.
This assured a smooth drive. This method of drive was very successful throughoul 1955
under Ihe name of "fluid drive", but it involved a high power consumption, of the order
of 13 kWh per tonne of sugar, or more than double the normal consumption; for this reason
it has fallen from favour. Direct drive is now practically universal.
Motors for centrifugal drive

There are two principal melhods of electric drive for centrifugals:
780 CENTRIFUGAL SEPARAT/ON Ch. 35
(1) By 3-phase induction motor: this may have a wound rotor, but more often is of
squirrel-cage Iype. The latler lype is distinguished by ils simplicily and robuslness .
(2) By direcl-currenl molors supplied Ihrough Ihyrislors from Ihe a.c. nelwork of Ihe fac-
lory. This solution offers several advanlages:
(a) Choice of speed of lhe centrifugal independent of Ihe frequency of Ihe a.c. supply.
Speed is no longer lied lO 1,500 r.p.m.
(b) Precise conlrol of speed, hence of the drying lime.
(e) Specific power consumption one-Ihird lo lwo-lhirds of Ihal of an induclion motor:
3 - 4 kWh/lonne of sugar in Ihe massecuile, as' againsl 8 -10 kWh / lonne.
(d) Eliminalion of lhe peak currenl demands for each change of polarity of an induclion
molor. The power demand of Ihe d.c. molor is conSlanl and conlrollable during acceleration
and braking.
(e) Less healing of Ihe motor. The higher power consumption of the induction motor
causes heating of the rotor before changing of polarity and braking. The efficiency of the
d.c. motor is much higher, leaving about one-third of the heal to be dissipated, thus render-
ing the motor much smaJler.
(j) Operation without sudden peak loads, due 10 eliminalion of lh e abrupt acceleralion
wilh an induction mOlor. Mechanical parts are lhus less critica!.
(g) Flexibility of operation, due to conlrol of the rates of acceleralion and braking, thus
permilting adaptation of the fugalling 10 Ihe quality of massecuile handled. This regulalion
is not possible with induction molors.
E z C411 'Normal' centrifuga' (FeS)

e E Torque I speed diagram
1(.00 (212 eyeles /hour)
MOlar: 1700 - 2000 mN
1200 Qver excitolion
2200
\-------,
,, ------l
1000 1000-
1100
,, I
fl r '- ' ----j
.00 . 15 1, 1
11 I .~
"00 1I 1
I
50' 1100 :I ,) , \
I1 I
I
1000 "
11 /
__ J V
I 1
I \ ,
'" 80' ,I \ . L ______ -' __
1
60' ______ Torque í mN )
: I \ Speed (rpm) '
. '200 40'
l.: L___ J \
- . - - - Without over
excitat ion
100
o 20 '0 ~O BO 100 120 HO 160 , ao t ¡me I ~(onds)

Looding Accel~:orot i on 101 ; n sp~~d Slowi"9 down D1scnorge
!-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _,Cyc le
Fig. 35.8. Diagram couple/ speed of a C411 cenlrifuga!'.

ELECTRIC ORIVE 781
Regenerative braking
One of the interesting characteristics of electric centrifugals is that, lhanks to regenerative
braking, t hey permit of a partial recovery of the energy expended. With alternating current
this is obtained by means of a motor of double polarilY, which can work with half the normal
number of poles. Such a motor wiIl run for example al J ,500 r.p.m. (4 poles) or 750 r.p.m.
(8 poles), and if it is switched abruptIy from 4 lo 8 poles, it will return energy to the Hne
until its speed has fallen lo 750 r.p.m.
In practice, lhis regen'erative braking is effeclive only down to aboul 60"10 of lhe normal
speed. However, lhis corresponds lo more lhan half lhe slored energy, since:
l' - 0.6' = 0.64
11 \Viii be seen that lhe energy thu s recovered represents only a small fraclion of lhe lotal
energy used. It is no less interesting on that accoun!.
With d.c. motors, a much greater proportion of the stored energy may be recovered. In-
deed, with present-day mOlors, supplied by thyristors, as the supply is unidirectional,
regenerative braking is obtained by reversing the direction of lhe excitation curren!. The
mOlor thus works as a generator.
Operating conditions of centrifugal motors

The efficiency of electric motors driving centrifugals is low, since they operate alternately
during acceleration and during running at speed , and lhere are no motors in existence which
give a good efficiency in conditions varying so greatIy.
The same disadvanlages are encountered again wilh regard to power factor. The power
factor increases to 0.80 or 0.90 for a brief period during the acceleration, but \ViII faIl to 0.40
Or 0.50 while running al speed. At that part of the cycle, lhe power of the motor is con-
siderably greater ¡han that required to maintain the speed (on lhe subject of the power factor,
ef. p. 1074).
It is of advantage, therefore, not to seek too rapid an acceleration. A compromise should
be sought between a motor too powerful, which wili accelerate rapidly and which will have
a low efficiency and a low power factor while running, and a motor of too low a power,
which will lose much time in acceleration.
For high-grade massecuite, it is of advantage to have somewhat more powerful molors,
since they are nearly all the time engaged in accelerating. For low-grade products, on the
other hand, it will be of advantage to takecare of the power factor on account of the long
period of running at speed.
On the other hand, what limits the power of an electric motor is the heat produced. If it
is capable of supplying 50 kW when running continuously, it would, for example, be able
lO give an output of 60 kW if it were stopped for ~ minute in every 3 or 4. Conversely, a
mOlor which delivers a peak power al short intervals will be obliged to run for the rest of
the time at a lower power output than the mean continuous power of which it is capable,
to avoid exceeding its maximum permissible temperature.
Now centrifugal motors necessarily work in a very intermittent manner: they furnish a high
peak power during acceleration, run for some time at speed, [hen have an idle period cor-
782 CENTRlFUGAL SEPARATION Ch. 35
responding lO Ihe braking and discharging. The motor to be adopted will depend then on
the duration of the cycle, and on the conditions of acceleration which are desired. We shall
see below "Choice of electric motor" (at foot of this pagel how the power should be de ter-
mined as a function of these di verse requirements.
Power-factor correctioD
In an electrified factory, itis the centrifugal station which generally plays the greatest part
in depressing the power factor, on account of the abnormal conditions of operation of its
motors.
At Puunene, in Hawaii 6 , measurements were made of the power factor of a battery of 15
centrifugals of 1,065 x 610 mm (42 x 24 in.), using 3-phase current at 60 cycles, 440 V,
with 2-speed motors (1,200/ 600 r.p.m.) taking 22.5 kW (30 h.p.) during acceleration and
3.25 kW (5 h.p.) during running. For the running period a value ofcos <P = 0.442 was found.
After connecting sta tic 3-phase condensers of lO kV A to the motors, the power factor was
increased to 0.876 for the same periodo The total current taken by the motor, previously
23.15 A, was thus reduced to 11.7 A, or a saving of 50070.
Speeds for charging and ploughing out

The centrifugal is fed \Yith massecuite at a speed between IDO and 350 r.p.m., preferably in
the neighbourhood of240 r.p.m.; discharging by plough at a speed between 30 and 60 r.p.m.,
preferably about 35 r.p.m.
The firm of Broadbent supplies electric motors capable of operating at five differenl
speeds, three of these being fixed and Iwo adjustable, for feeding and ploughing OUI'.
Special characteristics of electric drive

Although they are almost universal at the present day, electrically driven centrifugals do
possess sorne disadvantages. They demand of their motors contradictory operating condi-
tions, since these conditions cannot be optimal at the same time for accelerating and for
operation at speed. The motor is thus the result of a compromise, the most obvious effecl
of which is to reduce the power factor.
Electrical centrifugals are rather expensive, since they demand as many mOlors as there are
machines. Each machine, however, is independent, forming a separa te unit by itse1f; hence
ease of locating each machine. If trouble is encountered with one motor, only one machine
is shut down; hence minimum interruption to production.
The individual motor has enabled the realisation of machines of highest performance,
highest capacities, and best quality of sugar produced. Upkeep expense is less: breakdown,
stoppages and replacements of motors are rareo Complete automation has made them
economical in labour.
These advantages have led to their quasi-monopoly. Their real competitor is still an electric
machine: the continuous centrifugal, which is destined to be further improved and to
gradually replace the batch centrifuga!.
Choice of electric motor

Three factors are involved in choice of motor.
ELECTRlC DRlVE 783
Fig. 35 .9. Control panel of a group of automatic centrifugals.
/
(1) Speed. The supply available being generaIJy a.C. limits the number of possible speeds
for induction motors to two. For normal European supply, corresponding to 3-phase 50
cycles, these are 1,000 and 1,500 r.p.m. The speed of 1,000 r.p.m. is now exceeded, which
no longer lea ves any choice for induction motors. For American standards of 60-cycle
3-phase supply, the possible speeds are 1,200 and 1,800 r.p.m., both ofwhich are acceptable,
the former for larger diameters, and the latter for machines of 1,015 mm (40 in.) diameter;
in the lalter case an exceptional centrifugal force and separating power is available.
lf intermedia te speeds are required, it is necessary 10 resort to a d.c. motor, which allows
European manufacturers to depart from the "magic number" of 1,500 r.p.m. and to adopt
in all cases the speed considered optimal.
With European standard s, we may take:
(a) For high-grade sugars, 1,500 r.p.m. for 1,065-mm (42-in.) machines. On the other
hand, 1,200 or 1,300 r.p.m. may be sufficient for 1,220-mm (48-in.) or 1,370-mm (54-in.)
centrifugals, although 1,500 r.p.m. may in many cases be preferable.
(b) With low-grade massecuite, a speed of 1,500 r.p.m. is strongly recommended for all
sizes, and a higher speed if possible for 1,065-mm (42-in.) machines.
(2) Cycle. The operating cycle is more or less fixed, on the one hand by the speed chosen,
on the other hand by the massecuite to be treated. Generally, we may reckon:
18 - 25 cycles per hour for A and B sugars

2 - 4 cycles per hour with low grades
these figures allowing sorne safety margino

Motors should be designed for the maximum number of operations, say:
25 - 30 per hour for A and B

6 per hour for low grade
(3) Acceleration time. In the case of high-grade massecuites, it is of advantage to reduce

the acceleration time to a minimum, in order to increase the useful operating time, and so
improve the capacity of the machi ne. There is, however, obviously a limit below which [he
acceleration time should not be reduced, imposed either by heating of the motor or by the
maximum peak load of which the motor is capable.
The maximum current which a motor can stand without damage is gene rally of the order
of three times the mean current corresponding to the nominal continuous load for the motor.
With low-grade massecuite the position is much easier, since it is preferable to accelerate
more slowly: too abrupt an acceJeration provokes a settling of the crystals which can
sometimes obstruct the interstitial passages for the molasses, when the crystals are nol
uniformo
Recent installations and present trends

Until the end of the Second World War, all operations of batch centrifugals were still
manually performed. Since that time, enormous progress has been made in automation. A
BLECTRlC DRIVE 785
firsl stage consisted of relieving the operator of the laborious operations, particularly
discharging, which was realised by means 01" "ploughs" (Fig. 35.10). The equlpment
necessary for lhe various elemenlary operalions of lhe cycle was furnished wilh servo-
mOlors, and the operator then had only to give the signal to initiate these operalions al lhe
appropriate moment, gene rally by simple push-buttons. Next, all these movemenlS have been
put under the control of an installation of contactors, time switches or time delay relays,
which control and carry out all the necessary operations of the cycle. The fugal operator has
become redundant and a simple supervisor is sufficient; present-day fugals are now entirely
automatic.
Fig. 35.10. Automatic plough (Western States).
The actuating medium is often compressed air, actuated by electrically operated valves.
Pneumatic operation can thus be al'plied to the massecuite feed valve, to wash water, to
separation of run-off molasses, to mechanical braking, to the closing device at lhe bottom
of the basket, to lhe cover of the monitor casing. There are also discharge ploughs actuated
by compres sed air or electric motor.
With the aid of knurled knobs and graduated dials, lhe various periods of the cyc1e can
be set and regulated: slarting, acceleration, running al speed, braking, discharging. Charging
is regulaled and the massecuile valve closed wilh the aid of a feeler which is sel according
to the thickness of the massecuite layer required.
/
786 CENTRlFUGAL SEPAR;'\TION Ch. 35
..1P'~
,e<-
-J:
v •
Fig. 35.11. Banery of 3 "CompaCl 220" centrifugals (48 x 30 in.). Induction-motor drive (Fives Cail- Babcock).
In the field of French machines, the most notable at present is the "Compact" of Fives
Cail- Babcock (Fig. 35.11). These machines require no overhead steelwork, as the motor is
supported by a cone mounted on the monitor casing of the centrifugal; hence economy in
installation costs and great stability. The cone is easily and rapidly dismantled.
Fives Cail- Babcock offer the "Compact" machine in three models, the standard C411
and two optional models for factories treating less ¡han 220 I.c. h. Figures for these are given
in Table 35.12, which al so includes sorne figures for B.M.A. machines, also widely
employed.
Fives Cail- Babcock reckon the capacity of a C411, with massecuite purity of 88, as 24
t/h of massecuite (16 m'/h), with sugar output of 410 t/24 h.
ELECTRlC DRIVE 787
TABLE 35.12
"COMPACT" CENTRIFUOALS (FIVES CAll.-BABcoex:)
Massecuite Massecuite
thickness capacity (max.)
Model DxH DxH Speed Cycles Sugar
(mm) (in.) (mm) (in.) (kg) (lb.) . (r.p.m.) (per h) (tI24h)
C411 1,370 X 1,065 54 x 42 195 8 1,300 2,865 1,200 24 410

C221 1,220 x 760 48 x 30 175 7 700 1,540 1,450 25
C331 1,220 X 1,065 58 x 42 175 7 1,000 2,200 1,300 24
B.M.A. CENTRlFUOALS
Massecuite Massecuite
thickness capacity (max.)
Model DxH DxH Speed
(mm) (in.) (mm) (in.) (kg) (lb.) (r.p.m.)
Standa rd 1,320 X 800 52 X 31! 180 7 800 1,750

1,320 X 1,000 52 X 39 180 7 1,000 2,200
Variant 1,320 X 1,000 52 X 39 1,000 2,200 1,500
1,320 X 1,000 52 X 39 1,250 2,750 1,500
1,320 X 1,220 52 X 48 1,550 3,400 1,500
The basket is of stainless steel, the hoops of alloy steel of very high tensile strength. The
fugals are entirely automatic, the control equipment, with time switches and indicating in-
struments, being housed in cabinets, with a small panel at the machine fOL manual control
for test purposes, and another panel where in case of trouble a signal light serves to indicate
the location of the fault.
The machines of one battery are coordinated by a de vice assuring a regular sequence of
commencing the cycles of different machines, in order to avoid simultaneous starting or stop-
ping and to achieve a steady power consumption.
The plough is actuated by compressed air, a piston moving it verticalIy and swinging it into
position. lts blade remains outside the casing during charging and spinning. Discharge takes
place at a speed of 40 r.p.m.
Figure 35.8 (p. 780) shows a graph of speed and torque for a "Compact C411" on A
massecuile.
As an example of recent installations from other countries, we take one of the best known,
that of Roberts (Western States) (Fig. 35.12). This organisation manufactures the machines
shown in Table 35.13. . . . .
The 1,220 x 760 mm (48 x 30 in.) machines running at 1,450 r.p.m. and the 1,370 x
1,015 mm (54 x 40 in .) machines (1,160 r.p. m.) are generally designed for low-grade
massecuite.
All the centrifugals listed in Table 35.13 can be supplied as fully automatic machines. The
motors are two-speed, of squi rrel-cage type. Water washing is applied under a pressure of
3.5 kg/cm' (50 p.s.i.), by a pipe with 6,7 or 9 nozzles, each delivering 9l1min (2 gal./min).
The wash period may be adjusted between 3 and 12 seconds. Discharge is effected by rotating
the basket in the opposite direction by an independent 2.3-kW (3-h.p.) motor; this has per-
mitted lhe designer lO leave lhe plough inside lhe baskel, its blade facing forward during the
Fig . 35 . 12 . Ballery of6 Ro bens G & D centrifugals. 54 X 40 in.; d .c. and thyristor static convener (Western Sta tes).
TABLE 35 . 13
WESTERN STATES G8 CE NTRIFUOALS
Massecuile Massecuile eye/es Massecuite

Ihiekness eapacilY eapacilY
D x H DxH Speed Fact o r
(mm) (in.) (mm) (in.) (dm') (euJI.) (r.p.m.) G (s) (per h) (lIh) (eu.ft./h)
1.015 x 760 40 X 30 150 6 315 11.2 1,150 645 202 18 5,650 200
315 11 .2 1,450 1,026 170 21 6,700 237
1,220 x 760 48 X 30 175 . 7 445 15.7 960 542 210 17 7,620 270
445 15.7 1,160 792 180 20 8,890 314
445 15.7 1,450 1,238 165 22 9,700 342
1,220 X 915 48 X 36 175 7· 530 18.8 960 542 215 17 8,890 314
530 18.8 1,160 792 185 ' 19 10,400 368
1,3 70 x 1,015 54 x 40 175 7 670 23.9 860 497 230 16 10,400 365
670 23.9 960 620 210 17 11,300 400
670 23 .9 1,050 741 t90 19 12,600 443
670 23 .9 1,160 905 180 20 13,200 466
e
o (
I
)
:nt~_ l1
q R 4
"
12 tn
....
tn
()
>-l
~
2 el
o
~
:<tn
"'. . 13
<
" . 1 4 - - --
,
3 3
.~ '.
Fig. 35.13. Conlinuous centrirugal K 850 S (B.M.A.).
-.J
00
'O
790 . CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATjON Ch. 35
ploughing, bu! backward relalive 10 Ihe operating rotation. The end portion of lhe blade is
flexible. The discharging speed of the basket is35 r.p.m.
The eleclrical inslallalion provides numerous safety devices, e.g. lhe motors are equipped
with thermal overload relays; Ihey cannol be switched to high speed wilhoul having passed
through low speed; the small reverse mOlor for ploughing cannot be switched on unless the
main motor has been swilched off; pJoughing cannot be carried out unless washing has taken
place; the plough and Ihe mechanism for Jifting the dlscharge con e are inlerconnected.
OPERATION OF CENTRIFUGALS
Washing
From the centrifuging poinl of view, three fraclions of Ihe molasses must be distinguished:
(a) The ex ces s moJasses, which is the proportion in excess of whal is necessary 10 jusI fil!
Ihe voids between the cryslals. This excess renders the massecuite fluid and isremoved very
readily.
(b) The proportion jusI necessary 10 filllhe voids between crystals. This has 10 be removed
by f10wing belween the crystals which are then louching each other. It is more difficult 10
remove Ihan Ihe excess fluid.
(e) The molasses film surrouriding lhe crystals. This is much Ihe most difficult to remove,
on aCcOunl of its adhesion . .
(A) Water washing. Due to this film, it is seldom possible lo produce a suitable commercial
sugar wilhoul sorne washing. This consisls of applying waler in a fine spray on the surl"ace
of the sugar, when the first lwo fractions of molasses have been removed. The water washes
the molasses film and removes il; al Ihe same time it unavoidably dissolves a small amount
of sugar, and the washing period thus gives a molasses of higher purity and lower brix, called
"rich syrup" or "Iight molasses". This is sometimes separated from Ihe firsl portions of
molasses separaled, which are known as "p~or" or "heavy" molasses, if Ihe quanlity of il
is worth the exlra trouble. However, to avoid delrimental effecls on Ihe purilY drop, Ihe
amounl of washing must be kepl lO a minimum; wilh aUlomatic cenlrifugals, washing for
example will occupy from 2 to 8 s; 2 - 3 s oflen being sufficienl 10 give the required improve-
ment in colour and qualily. .
It has been found in Mauritius' Ihal Ihe polarisalion of Ihe sugar was better when Ihe
washing was effected later in (he course of (he drying period (30 - 40 s after high speed has
been reached).
Chapman 9 eSlimales Ihallhe besl moment for applying wash is when 75% of the molasses
has been eliminaled. Wilh high-speed centrifugals operating on a shorl cycle, the washing,
which lasts from 3 10 10 s, is effected about 50 s after charging or about 20 s before lhe end
of the period of running at high speed.
Benz 'o , in Germany, has given a formula relating Ihe quantily of waler used for washing
10 lhe corresponding rise in purity of the sugar:
P' 100 _ 100 - P (35.44)

J + W
OPERATION OF CENTRIFUGALS 791
P' = purity of washed sugar

P = purity of the sugar if not washed
W = quantity of water used OJo of massecuite.
(B) Steam washing. By applying steam on lhe wa!! of sugar in the centrifuga!, much less
is dissolved, whi!e the temperature of the mass and consequently its fluidity is maintained
or increased. This washing wilh sleam is optional; it generalJy follows lhe water washing and
is continued until spinning is complete.
The steam used is generally direct saturated steam, sometimes reduced, at a pressure of
2 - 5 kg/cm' (30 -70 p.s.i.). At these pressures, the nozzles furnish an output q of steam
which, expressed in kg per minute per cm' cross-section (!b./min/sq.in.) of the nozzle, is
roughly equal to the pressure P of lhe steam expressed in kg/cm' (p.s.i.):
q kg/min/cm' = P kg/cm' (q Ib./min/sq.in. = 0.15 P p.s.i.) (35.45)
Sorne people prefer superheated steam. This has the advantage of not dissolving the
crystals, and of avoiding di!ution of the film of mo!asses which covers them, but it gives a
less effective washing, since its on!y effect is to maintain a high temperature and so decrease
the viscosity of the m.olasses and facilitate its removal. JI is preferable to wash the A and B
masseclIites wirh saturated steam, and ro refrain from washing in any way the final
masseclIite.
(e) Washing with superheated water. A recent trend is to replace the water and steam
washes with a wash with superheated water.
Water under pressure is heated to 105 - 110°C (220 - 230°F), the pressure being regulared
so as to oblain aboul 3.5 kg/cm' (50 p.s.i.g.) at the nozzle or the spray used for washing.
The water is thus broken up into very fine spray, which gives a uniform distribution on the
walJ of sugar, and so enables the qllantity of water used to bereduced. At the same time,
the sugar is raised to a higher temperature, and is hotter and drier when it leaves the cen-
trifuga!; this contriblltes to a greater efficiency of washing.
This wash water is also sometimes added in two portions, separated by an interva! of sorne
20 seconds; this would further increase the efficiency of more washing for a given qllantity
of water.
Arrangement of washing sprays. Certain types of spray give a very poor distribution of
lhe water. It is important to obtain as uniform a distribution of the spray as possible. Since,
in general, washing is !ess effective at the upper par! of lhe basket, it is advisable lO direct
the sprays slighlly upwards.
Quantity of water and steam for washing. Deerr'! gives:
Water: 1 kg per 10 kg of.-sugar, or 10% on weight of sllgar

Steam: I kg per 5 kg of sugar, or 20% on weight of sugar
T romp l2 quoles a maximum of 8070 of sugar for wash waeer.

The values used for modern cenerifugals are generally much lower ehan ehese figures. ofeen
less than half. They often vary between 2 and 5% on weight of sugar.
Double purging. Double purging is al presenl employed in lhe manufac ture of white sugar.
With raw sugar, it is rarely used for high-grade rnassecuites. but is often used for e sugars.
It consists of first purging the massecuile in a ballery of centrifugals without any washing.
The molasses obtained is thus a "poor" or "heavy" molasses. The sugar is discharged into
a mixer Jocated beJow these first ce ntrifugaJs, where it is remixed to a massecuite by mingling
with higher-purity molasses or with syrup, clarified juice, or water. From there it is sent LO
the mixer-distributor of a second battery of centrifugals, called " fini shing" centrifuga ls,
where it is purged with water and steam washing. The molasses so ob[ained is a "rich" or
"Iight" molasses.
This procedure gives a beautiful sugar and an excellent separation of molasses, but requires
two batteries of mac hines instead of one.
e
DoubIe purging of sugar. With e massecuite, doub le purging improves the exhaustion,
gives considerable safeguard against irregularities of work in the final massecuite, and assists
a beteer elimination of slarch 13, hence a better filterability of A and B 'sugars.
The e sugar ob[ained in the firs[ se[ of fugals is remixed as a magma in the mixer below
the mach ines , generally by mingling wilh B molasses. Fresh B molasses is used, taken from
[he storage [anks , diluted [O 70° brix and rehea[ed lO 70°C (158 °F).
After the seco nd purging, the resul[ing e
sugar is again mixed to a magma with syrup.
About 30% of syrup will be used for 70% of e
sugar; or in lerms of dry su bsta nce, 20%
in the syrup and 80% in [he sugar. The rich syrup obtained by the second purging in [he
finishing fugals will be returned lo the e massecuite and no[ lo the B slrikes; il will be
pumped to the B storage tank o r preferably [O a special (ank alo ngside, wi[hou[
recirculation l •.
Relative capacities of fírst and finishing fugals. The battery of ma chines for first purging
is practi ca lly the same as for single purging.
The finishing machines, having a much lig hter and more rapid duty, can be subslanli a lly
smaller in number. Davies ll gives lhem a capacity 21 times higher lhan [hal of the first purg-
ing machines, or, for condilions in Jamaica, 1.7 and 4.2 mJ / h (60 and 150 cU.ft. / h), respec-
tively, or 5 machines for first purging for every 2 finishing machines, if [hey are similar
machines. In the same tests, he has obtained with double purging a sugar of 95.2 polarisa-
tion, compared with 88.8 for single purging. When the fugalling of e sugar is slow and
laborious, the relative capacity of the finishing machines is still more marked and their
number may be as low as one-third of lhal of [he first purging machines.
Purity of low-grade sÍlgar

It is estima[ed in Hawaii l6 that the purity of the sugar from the low-grade massecuite should
be maintained in the region of 70 -75 apparent. If the purity falls below this figure, the quali-
ty of the high-grade sugars would feel the effeces of it, in darker co lour and in filterabililY
OPERATION OF CENTRIFUGALS 793
in ¡he refiner y; and there would be an increase in the volume of low-grade massecuite to be
handled at pans, crystallisers and centrifugals (it is necessa ry to allow for 300/0 more low-
grade massecuite for sugar at a purity of 65 relative to sugar at a purity of 75).
These Hawa iian va lues are very low; when raw sugar of a high polarisation is manufac-
tured, by the single- or double-magma system, it is necessary to maintain a purity of 80 - 85
for the C sugar, 85 if possible. With double purging, this mal' go as high as 88 - 92.
Conditions for good performance. Good performance at the centrifugals depends on two
essential properties of the massecuite to be treated:
(a) Uniformit y of grain size
(b) Viscosity of the mother liquor.
When Ihe grain is not uniform , fugalling can become very difficult. A definite symptom
is given by the appearance of a film of molasses on the inner fa ce of the wall of suga r, which
persists sometimes until the end of the fugalling.
[n this case, and if the type of machine permits, a slower and more gradual acceleration
of the machine should be tried: a centrifugal with very rapid acceleration provokes the for-
mation against the gauze of a tightly-packed layer of sugar which seriously retards the
passage of the molasses, since the fine grain lodges in the interstices between the larger grains.
The best period of acceleration, in ¡his case, is such as to accelerate from zero to 1,500 r.p.m.
in approximately 24 - 3 minutes. A slow machine , or rather one with a long acceleration
period , will give in this case a better-quality sugar and a better e1imination of molasses; at
the' same time it offers the advantage of a much lower peak power consumption.
Such slow acceleration is recommended for e massecu ites; but the proper solution consists
aboye all of arranging to produce massecuites with a grain size ás uniform as possible.
Ventilation and desiccation

Chapman" recalls that various tests have demonstrated the unfavourable effect of evapora-
tion and cooling on the fugalling of low-grade sugars: the proportion of residual molasses
may be found to increase by more than half (e.g. 23% on crystal, compared with 15%). He
recommends accordingly that covers should be provided always for low-grade fugal s and that
they should be kept c10sed while running to minimise air circulation and cooling of the
massecuite, and that a very small quantilY of steam should be introduced inside the basket,
to maintain a high humidity with the same obj ect.
Cleaning ,
It is advisable to clean the centrifugal gau~es with steam, at least once per da y, in order to
remove crystals which lodge in the openings. The manufacturers supply a small pipe especial-
Iy for this purpose.
Damaged gauzes
Sometimes a centrifugal gauze becomes tom or split. This accident is recognised by the
presence of crystals in the molasses. Frequent checks should be made for such trouble: the
crys¡als are readily detected by feeling betweenthe fingers. The tom gauze must be repaired
or replaced immediately.
Such escape of crystals may equally be due to an excessive ciearance (greater ¡han 0.8 mm)
belween the gauze and the top of the baskel, or to defecls in lhe basket or defecls in the
gauze.
The firm of Krieg and Zivy supplies "retaining rings", or "anti-Ieak", or an "anti-Ieak
band" designed lO remedy lhis fault and to render the centrifugal tighl against leakage of
crystals. One is sometimes surprised at the decrease in purity of molasses which the use of
such anli-Ieak devices realises.
CONTINUOUS CENTRIFUGALS
With balch machines there are many disadvantages: the complexity of the operations of each
cycle, as expressed in a most impressive arra y of electrical equipment for automatic
machines; the low efficiency in the use of energy in lhese machines with their accelerating
and braking phases, and the impossibílity of devisíng an electric motor well adapted ro al!
phases of the cycle; the dead times; and particularly the disadvantages inherent in discon-
tinuous operatíon of any process. Allthese motives have long led technologists lO seek a
method of continuous operation . However, while such a method appeared basical!y so much
simpler than one involving the imposing trappings of automatic centrifugals , a long and
laborious task has been involved to bring it into practical use; and it stil! leaves something
to be desired in certain aspecls. Since 1960 it has, however, entered a phase of rapid expan-
sion and has been adopted by most newly built factories.
Continuous operation is obviously ideal from the mechanical point of view: lhe machine
runs at a constant speed without stopping, is fed by a continuous stream of material, fur-
nishes a conslant output of sugar, and requires no operator and only inlermiuenl supervi-
sion. It is lhe one method for the future.
Equipment
There are many different continuous machines. They may be divided into two principal
types:
(l) Pusher type, which were soon abandoned
(2) Conical machines, which in turn may be divided inlo:
Those with axis horizontal (similarly abandoned)
Those with axis vertical.
Centrifugals with axis vertical. This ís the type which has predominated and is now the Only
one made. Il is made by Hein - Lehmann, B.M.A., WeSlern Stales, Silver, Fives
Cail- Babcock and Smith - Mirrlees (Figs. 35.13 - 35.17).
The perforated basket has a cone angle of 25 - 34 0 and rota tes al 1,200 - 2,600 r.p,m. Its
diameter is 80 - 125 cm (32 - 50 in.). It uses a perforated screen with openings varying from
0.09 mm for B massecuite to 0.06 mm for C massecuite; perforations may be as low as 0.04
mm. The OUlput of massecuite is of lhe arder of:
CONTlNUOUS CENTRIFUOALS 795
4- 8 t/h for C massecuite

7 -13 t/h for double purging of C
7 -15 t/h for B massecuite
20 - 30 t/ h for A massecuite
The power required is 30 - 90 kW.

The massecuite, heated to about 50°C (122°F), falls as a thread into the middle of the
cane, the apex of which is replaced by a small plain bowl (Hein - Lehmann, Silver) or a per-
rorated bowl (B.M .A.). Washing is effected by a pipe running along a generatrix of the cone.
The heavy and Iight molas ses are recovered separately. The sugar escapes over the rim of the
cone (Figs. 35.13 and 35.14).
The Western States Company indicates that, for C massecuite, a common optimal quantity
ofwash wateris 15 -25 11m 3 (0.10-0.15 gal./cu.fL) ofmassecuite. In Mauritius, an optimal
figure for B.M.A. machines is given as 35 11m 3 (0.22 gal.lcu.fL), under 2 kg / cm 2 (30 p.s.i.)
pressure. Conrad specifies that the wash should be applied at the lowest point of the basket and
should extend upwards for 150 - 200 mm (6 - 8 in.) at most, this length depending on the
viscosity of the massecuite, and that the spray should be normal to the basket, the nozzles
being about 50 mm (2 in.) from the screen. One nozzle may well be sufficient, with an orífice
of 1.2 mm; an orifice of 2 mm is 100 large. If ¡he point of application of the wash is brought
further up the cone, the purity of molasses wiJl be increased. As for purity of the sugar, a
figure of 85 - 88 should be obtained'8.
The thickness of the layer of sugar is very small: 2-5mm.Atthedischarge.itis hardly
more than the dimension of the biggest crystals.
Feed of massecuite is controlled by an automatic regulator according to the power absorb-
ed by the motor. With B.M.A. machines, this regulator adjusts an iris diaphragm placed in
the massecuite feed pipe.
The Western States machines are provided with a motor of 30 kW (40 h.p.) and a large
multiple V-belt of rubber.
..
. ,.... , "" .
Fig. 35.14. Silver contimious centrifuga! for cornmercial sugar. .

Fig. 35 . 15. COOlinuous cen tr ifugal wil h large diame ter casing FCI OOO GC3 .
Grain breakage
One of the main groundsof complaint against continuous centrifugal s is lhal lhey break the
crystals. This damage is due to two causes:
(a) The crystal is eroded during its travel up the cone.
(b) !J is broken by ¡he vio lent shoc k when it is thrown out or lhe cone. To avoid lhí s lalJer
( :
. ¡};
CONTINUOUS CENTRIFUOALS 797
A AmI/ea de muse-cuita A Musecuile ¡ntaka A Alimentación de mssa cocidl
a A/flvéo d'sau B Water inlel pipe B Enlrad a de egua

e Plancl'lUI du SaNie! e SaN ies plallo,m e Platalorma de se rvicio
1/ YeMa pneumatlQ ue de rAola08 d. 1/ Pneumalic IIDW regulBting valvB 1/ V~ J"'ula neum~ljca de regulación
débil 2/ Cantralleed wilh inspection de Ilujo
.2/ Alimentación centtar con mirilla
21 Ahmenlalion eenllale avec ragald opening
JI Lavado coaxial central.
.,
JI Clai'talla coaxial cenlral
Cloin;age coaxial annu'.ire
JI Coaxial cenlral washing systlm
I,! Coaxial fino !Vpa washing systlm I,! lavado coaxial anular
51 Aecalenlam ianto pOlv.por del,
~. Massecuite sleamheating
51 Récl'la uffag8 vapeur di mISS ...
masa cocida
CUlle &1 Feed bowl
&1 Bol d,slributeuf
11 Cub ata de distribuciOn
71 Accele ration poI
11 Cubeta de aceleración
11 Pot d"ac e éIé ralion 11 Pi"ot system
11 Pivotaria
t' pi"otellB 91 EQuipped bas"'et
./ Canasta equipada
9/ Panler éQuipe 1111 Radial washing syslem
101 lavado radi.1
'01 Clalr~age radial 1'/ BaMla 11/ Tabique
11/ ChIcana 121 Suspendld chember
121 Cámara suspendida
121 Cuv. cuspendue Calling c1eaninlj) t\lba
1l! Tuba de net'loy8ge dt CUVI '"
,I,! Base-plata
lJ1 Tubodtlimpiel8 dela cuba
11,! PlaQuedebast 141 PI.ca de bale
,5/ SUQ8rdischlHQ8 hoppa,
151 Tréml8 d"'va cultion du sucra
15/ Tolv! de deJctrlj)1 dllllúc.r
111 Runo" disch.rQ8 pipa
,&1 So..,ie des éQouts 1" Salida de l. mili
171 Motor
11/ Motor
17/ Moteul 111 Control desk
111 Pu!)itr.d. maniobra y control
111 Pu!);,re d, commlnda
d: Ji,'
'¡--~-
@--.:Al-.._,
®-~~
1l,)-----{t /
ISi}---"-~----\
"o" ~
Fig. 35.16. Continuous centrifugal FC1000 GC3.

/
disadvantage, certain manufacturers (B.M.A., Western States, Silver, FCB) provide machines
with an outer casing of very large diameter, so that the crystals have a long travel before striking
the casing, and are slowed down by air resistance. These Iarge-diameter machines are par-
ticularIy offered for cornrnerciai A and B sugars (Fig. 35.14).
Fives Cail- Babcock supply, rnainly for B rnassecuite, the FCIOOO GC3 (Figs. 35.15 and
35.16) the casing of which is 3 m (lO fl.) in diameter, and the basket angle 30°. They also
supply the FCIOOO GCV4, with a diarn eter of 4 or-even 5 m (13 - 16.5 fl.), and a basket angle
.."', RAlENTlSSEMENT DU SUCRE

DAN S I..'AIR
• '\.Iefe dI! jet B de cannes
(suefe d'oullenure movtnnl!t : 0,4)
• viluse de rOl ilion du pan;er :
. 1 750 trlmn
• vilesse d'ejection du sucra : 84 m i l
SLOWING OF SUGAR IN AIR

• B suike cane .lugar
(mun aper1ure : 0 .4)
• Bnsket rOllting spead : 1,750 rpm
• Sugar ejection speed : 84 mis
DISMINUC ION DE LA VElOCDAD DEL
AZÚCAR EN El AIRE
• Alucar de templ a B de caña .
lalucar de abenura media: 0,4).
• Velocid.d de rOlaci6n de 1I cenull :
1750 r.p.m .
• Velocidad de eyecci6n dll núcII ' :
84 m por IIIgundo
D.' Q,I 0.107 G.I 1.'
Trl¡ecfoir. du lucre· Pafh o, auG" . Tr.ytC1ori. dll azuc., 1""
Un Itllemple d 'euortuse continue av&<: cuve

de gf8nd diamé"e : Fe l000-S€-Gev IIVIC
CUVI d," m de di,melre.
An e)lamol, of e eontinuoul cenvifugll w llh

• large di.metar euing :- f(; l000-SE-GCV
with 4-m di. meter euing_
Un ejemplo de centrlfug . eonlinua con cuba

de gran dl6metro : Fe l000-SE-GCV. con
cub. da 4 metro. de di'me1ro.
11 Pln,,, 'quip. 11 Equippad bllkl1 "CenlllllQuipldl

le.,ee dp.r. rion lwilh runoN leollllp lreeiÓnd,
d" gouu) sapa/ltion) mi, I",
V Cuve IUlpendue V Suspanded elling V CUbllusplndidl
_ JI Capolaga du modul a 31 Modur, co."r JI Cubil"l di' módulo
_ ti ~éelpl.ere. lucre IJ Suglr lec.pt. d l 4J 1I1e.plAeulo dll ulÍCtr
y Couvercr. de CU.,111 51 COVII 01 c lling Ind y h", dtcubey
d,/.clptaele ' I ceptlel. de ("lpUe"lo
bu", "AJpif1tion del
71 MOlnl
61 Vlprx.rr e Jth .~
71 Motor
... AJpiución 4. V1hG.
JI M OIOI
if lAJXIC.IGI ~r if CubMrr1l ~ mo1M
10~ __________________________________________ "lI4olQr eonr
~
Fig. 35.17. Continuous centrifugal FCIOOO GCY. Slowing action of air on crystals as a function of their size and
the length of their path .
.,ti
.";",
CONTINUOUS CENTRlFUGALS 799
of 25°, which can treat A massecuite and furnish a commerciaJ sugar wíth a mlnlmum
breakage of crystal (Fig. 35.17). Figure 35.17 shows graphs reJating the speed of impact of
the crystals to the distance traveJled before striking the casing, as a function of their dimen-
sions.
Jt has been proposed in Réunion to provide the upper edge of the casing of the GCV cen-
trifugal (and continuous machines in general) with a curved surface designed to deaden the
shock, soften the violent impact of the crystals, and make them gradually change direction
(Fig. 35.18). This system, tried in Europe, has not given the expected results, but it seems
that it can be perfected. The idea could be applied in the form of a bladder which, part-
inflated, would be of similar shape and which would be inflated automatically at íntervals
of a few minutes, and would then assume a convex shape and díslodge the layers of crystals
which tend to form at that location and constitute a nuisance with centrifugal casings. This
has not yet been tríed out, but ít seems that it might prove satisfactory.
The speed of impact which is liable to break the crystals ís of the order of 9 -18 mi s
(30 - 60 ft./s). It is often with the object of keeping below this limiting speed that small
machines of 0.6 m (24 in.) diameter are used.
Specific work
Repeating in another form the caJculatíon leadíng to eqn. (35. (7): the centrifugal force per
unít mass of material or, which amounts to the same thing, the centrifugal force relative to
gravity, has the value (eqn. (35.4)):
. mv'l r 2 v'
G (35.46)
mg Dg
The work necessary (per unit mass) to obtain this separatíng force G is equal to the kinetic
energy per unit mass:
: ' ¡. . ' . : ..
.;,·;i': · :.
'.,
. ; . ~
, .: ~
., :,
."
, l" .
Fig. 35 . 18. Damping· device pro po sed as shock absorber for crystals.
800 CENTRIFUGAL SEPARA nON Ch. 35
T = jmv 2 (35.47)
It follows that the work expended per unit separating force, that is, per unit of gravity,
has the value:
T = mg D (35.48)
G 2v 2 /Dg . 4
/t is thus proportional to D. It follows that both from the point of view of specific work
and from that of avoiding crystal damage, it is of advantage to use small diameters.
Fig. 35.19. Calculation or capaci¡y.
Capacity
The capacity of a continuous centrifugal is measured by the quantity of massecuite which
can be passed through the machine per hour. This quantity depends on the separating capaci-
ty of the machi ne. Now, ir we consider an element of mass which we shall take as unity, dm
= ], the separating capacity or drying capacity will be proportional to the product of the
centrifuga] force developed on the unit mass, by the area offered to the total mass of
material. We have then (Fig. 35.19):
(a) Component of centrifugal force perpendicular to the screen:
f = ti m w2 x cos Oi = I X w2 X cos Oi
(b) Area offered ds; thus:
Capacity = d q = k f ds = k w' cos Oi x ds
Considering the annulus of massecuite of radius x and height dh, situated at the level M,
the centrifugal force is the same for all elements dm of this annulus. We shall obtain the total
capacity Q by integrating the capacities d q along the cone, from r to R. We have:
dq = kW'COSOiXds
CONTlNUOUS CENTRlFUGALS 801
dh dx
ds = 27rx d ¡ = 27rx -- - 27rx - - - - - -
cos C( cos C( tan C(
Hence:
dx
dq k w' cos C( X . 27rx - -- - - = 27rkw' x' dx
cos C( tan C( tan C(
ll1legraling:
27rkw' 27rkw' (R3) _ r ))

Q= )
R
__
, tan
-x'
C(
dx
tan C(
S,
R
x' d x =. tan C(
3
Q 2kw' 7r (r' - r') (35.49)

3 tan C(
lt will be seen that the fraction occurring in this expression represents the volume Vof the
pOrlion of the cone forming the centrifuga!. We may thus write:
Q = 2 kw' V (35.50)
Q capacity of the centrifugal, in tonnes of massecuite per hour

k numerical coefficient
w rotational speed of the machine
V volume of the frustrum of the cone forming the centrifugal
C( apical angle of this cone
R = radius of the upper circle of discharge of the sugar
r = radius of lhe small lower basin receiving the massecuite.
The ca pacilY of a continuous centrifugal is thus proporlional to its volumc, to the square
of its angular velocity, and to a coefficient which depends on the massecuite being handled
(A, B or C), on its consistency a nd its temperature, and on the percentage of openings in '
the perforated screen.
Hourly capacity
Eastaughffe 19 considers that:
(a) Capacity is proportional to : . 1 . . . ··
_ 1 ( " \,' ..
q =
(b) Effectiv~ area drainage A:

802 ·CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATlON Ch. 35
(e) Effeclive force F:

~ ..
~D' + d'
F = n2 (n in r.p.m.)
2
(d) Transil lime / is proportional lO:
Al J[.S1l1 C/
Hence capacity in tonnes per hour:
n' j~r!..~ 7':1 (D +

FA/ k 2 2
Q= (35.51)
q ..JSiñ C/ M .fP.
k coeJ'ficient .
R - r
[ength along s[ope of cone = -sin
-._-
C/
D 2R
d 2r
M= molasse~ removed fJ!o massecuite
1'- = viscosilY of mo[asses, in poise.
Capacily in massecuite and capacily in sugar

Deldcn!O has very aplly remarked Ihat Ihe capacily of cenlrifllgals in general, and of con-
linuous cenlrifugal, in particular, when reckoned in weight of sugar per hour, depemls on
lhe cryslal comenl of massecuile. The faclOr limiling lhe capacily of Ihe machine is lhe quan-
lily of massecuile fed lO il, much more lhan lhe oulpUI of sugar which il gives. Now, lhe
propon ion of cryslal has lhe value (eqn. (33.46)):
P P - P
x:::::: .J. _.!!'.._~ ___~ B
100 P, _ P, m
The essenlial faclor hefe is Ihe purily drop (Pm - P).

, Ir, for lhe same 5ugar and lhe
same brix of massecuite, we have differenl purily drops, lhe capacilY of lhe centrifugal in
lerms of sugar wil! vary as a result.
Example. For
([) P, 35
and comparing the 2 cases
) (2) P, = 30
TABLE 35.14
DIMENSIONS "A'ND CAPACITIES QF COI"IíINUOUS CENTRIFUGALS
,ke and Model Basket Casing diam. Power Gauze Capacily Optimal Steam Jor purging
(kW) openings (t/h) wash
Angle Top diam. Screen area Speed (m) (¡{'/in.) (mi- ('lo m.e.) (bar) (p.s.i.)
(deg .) (r .p .m.) crons)
(mm) (in .) (m ') (sq.Jt.)
:B FCIOOO BP (fo( 34 98l. 39 1.098 11.8 1,930 1.75 5 fl. 9 in. 45 60 4.5 - 8 2.5 0.4-0.7 6 - 10
e massecuite low
grade)
=B FCIOOO AF (for 30 901 35; 0.989 10.6 1,930' 1.75 5 fl. 9 in. 55 90 lO -13 2.5 - 5.0 0.4-0.8 6- II
e massecuite and 1,750 45 or
affined C) 1,500 130
(")
o
:::B FCIOOO SE (for 25 911 36 1.203 13 1,750' 1.75 5fl.9in. 55 90 18 -30 3 -5 0.2-0.6 3- 9 Z
A massecuite and 1,500 45 or ::!
Z
affined B) 1,200 (ord. c.) 130 c:
o
c:
CB FCI250 (for 34 1,237 48 1.832 19.7 1,880 2.15 7 fl. O in. 90 60 9 20
(ID '"
(")
e massecuite in (1,600 Or in
large faetones) affining) 90 affining) .,'"::oZ
I:;j
:.M.A. K850S 30-34 850 33; 0. 8 8.6 1,650- 1.75 5 fl. 9 in. 30- 37 60 4-6 (C) c:
2,400 al 1,450 or 7 - 10 (B) Cl
r.p.m. 90 F:
'"
I.M.A. KI 100 30- 35 1,100 43 · 1.45 15.6 1,400- 1.90 6 fl. 3 in. 55 -75 60 10-11
2,000 (induclion) or
90
l .M .A. K1500 JO 1,500 60 2.32 25 1,700 2.40 8 fl. O in. 90 60 24- 30 (A)
or 10- 15 (C)
90
WeSlern Sl.les CC5 30 940 37 1.07 11.5 2,480 1.66 5 fl. 6 in. 37 2175 4.- 8
*Depending on massecuile purity.

The FCIOOO AF centrifugal is generally supplied as GC3, i.e. Wilh casi ng 3 m in diameler, 10 avoid grain breakage as far as possible. 11 can aIso be supplied with remel! co
incorporaled. ow
The FCIOOO SE can also be supplied as GC3 Or GCV wilh 4· or 5·m caSling lO reduce grain breakage; also aspiralion of Sleam.
804 CENTRJ.FUGAL SEPARATlON Ch. 35
Wc havc:
96 56 - 35 98
(1) x = _ __ o
32.4070
100 96 35
96 56 30
(2) x 98 = .37.1%
100 96 30
or 15% more in lhe second case.

It is thus necessary lO specify either lhe purity drop or the crystal content, when stating
a capacity in weight of sugar per hour.
Equipmenl available. Dimensions and capacities oC continuous machines offered by Fives

Cail- Babcock, B.M.A. and Western States are listed in Table 35.14.
, "
Inslallalion and accessory equipmenl

Below the centrifugals, the discharge chute receiving the sugar is generally formed simply of
two sheets of metal embracing the discharge opening of the centrifugals and sloping to the
sugar conveyor. The angle of this chute with the horizontal should be at leasl 60°, and this
applies Cor both balch and continuous machines.
Fig. 35.20. Ballery DI FClOOO cominuDus cenlrilugals (Fi ves Cail- BabeDck).
CONTINUOUS CENTRIFUOALS 805
The discharge opening should be al leasl 400 mm (16 in.) for 1.015 - 1.065-mm
(40 - 42-in.) centrifugals, and at least 600 mm (24 in.) for those of 1,220 - 1,370 mm (48 - 54
in.).
The screens or gauzes for continuous centrifugals are of chrome nickel sheets with perfora-
lions (in mm):
0.06 x 1.66, sheet thickness 0.23 - 0.25

0.06 x 2.2 , sheet thickness 0.28 - 0.30
0.09 x 2.3 , sheet thickness 0.24
For br?ss gauzes, brass of 700/0 copper, 30% zinc is employed, 0.7 mm in thickness. In
Arcap stainless steel, the thickness is 0.5 mm. European suppliers of these gauzes are Krieg
and Zivy in France (Ref. N591), and Fontaine at Aachen in Germany.
Exhaustion
The second complaint reported regarding continuous centrifugals, and probably the more
disturbing, is that the purity of the molasses obtained is gene rally higher than that of lhe
molasses obtained by ordinary cenlrifugals working with lhe same massecuite*
This racl has often been verified. It arises mainly from lhe facI lhal il is scarcely possible
10 use continuous centrifugals on e massecuite withoUI a slight waler wash. The. thickness
of the layer of sugar being verysmall, there is unavoidably a slighl dissolution of sugar. It
ís Ihus essentíal to regulate the quantity of wash water with the greatest careo
However, this difference in purity may be kept below 1 point; sometimes it does nol exceed
.; poin!. lt should thus be kept in balance with the economies in labour, maintenance and
power offered by lhe continuous centrifuga!.
It has been shown 21 that breakage of grain in continuous centrifugals contributes to in-
creased purity of molasses due to fine broken crystals passing to a great extent through the
gauze. For example, the dimension of the crystals in the massecuite was shown to be 128
microns, and the sugar average 107 microns. On the other hand, the perforations of the gauze
become worn rapidly, and can increase in 100 days' operatíon from 60 microns to 160. It
is necessary lO change the screen when this increase is delected: a gain of more than 2 points
in purity may thus be realised.
Washing may be effected in two ways, with contin·uclus machines:
(a) Sometimes (as with Hein - Lehmann) by a co-axial arrangemenl, by introducing lhe
waler in the axis of lhe column of massecuite f10wing into lhe centrifugal.
(b) By radial washing, by a spray pipe placed parallel to a generalrix of lhe cone. The
radial washing may be adjusted and even reduced to zero, but lhis is difficult with co-axial
addition of wash water. . ,
The temperalure of lhe wash water should be of lhe arder of 80- 90°C (175 -195°F) .
. ... ' .
• However, F. M. Chapman in personal discussion has expressed (he op.inion that-conlinuous machines can handle
heavier massecuile and so could be operaled 10 give bener exhauslion lhan batch machines. Obviously rurther In-
vestigation is desirabJe, G,H .J.
Fig . 35 .21. 8attery af K 850 S co ntinuous centrifugals (8.M.A.).
With C massecuite, the total wash should be about 2 - J% on the weight of massecuite.
The optimal co-axial washing is 1.5%; the radial washing may supply 1 of the total wa sh.
With B massecuite, the wash water may be between 2.5 and 6% on weight of massecuite.
The most frequent cause of poor exhaustion in a continuous centrifugal is reduction of in-
put rate of massecuite while the wash water is left constan!. Jt is preferable to avoid such
changes in rate or, better, to eliminate the trouble by adjusting the waler to suit the
massec uite.
Conclusion
Continuous centrifugaIs are probably destined to become universal. At present (1982), they
have taken over lhe B and C centrifugal stations. They are only beginning to be lried with
A massecuile, where they encounter strong reservations on account of crystal qualiry. There
is every reason to suppose lhat the progress attending lhe fir st installations \Viii permit them
to resol ve the problems which are encountered al presenl. We know of [11'0 faclories already
, ACCESSORY PROC ESSES AND EQUIPMENT 807
",here lhe full manufaclure is on a conlinuous basis. in pans and cenlrifugals. for ¡he three
massecuiles.
ACCESSOR y PROCESSES AND EQUIPMENT
Dilution of massecuite
The densily of lhe massec uite and the viscosity of ¡he mola sses orten ca use dirriculties in the
handling and fugalling o f the massecuites. The simplest means of remed ying this is 10 dilule
lile ma ssec uile. This is generally carried OUl in Ihe di sc harge chule from lhe crystallisers. as
lhis a~sures a more even dislribulion 01' lhe waler. Ir Ihe wa ler is added in Ihe cryslalli ser ,
il is dirri cull 10 obtain an even dilulion, and sugar is una voidabl y dissolved. In any case lhi s
is an un satis fa ctory e;-; pedienl.
Quantiry oC waler lO add. ¡t is not neces sary lO inlroduce more lhan I or 20/0 of water by
\\'eighl o f massecuil e, or 1- 3% by volume. otherwise there is a risk of reducing lhe super-
sal uration 10 1 or less.
Reheating of massecuile
II is very dirricull 10 dilute a massecuile wilhoUl causing a certain re-solulion o f crystals. For-
lunalel y. there exists another means of decreasing viscos il Yand facilitating the fugalting; this
is rehealing.
In Ha wa ii" it is considered that Ih e viscosi ty o f the massecuite fa lls by 50% (or, better,
lh al its "fugalability" rises by 50%) when Ihe lemperal ure is incre ased by 5°C (9°F).
The reh ealing is then carried out. eilher in Lhe lasl discs of Ihe crysta lliser, where a
Werkspoor is installed, or in the mixer - distribulor supplying the cenlrifugals; in the lall er
case it ma y be effected by means of a double bottom. or by mean s of a co il , or again by
electrical-resistance heating between the dislribulor and Ihe centrifuga!.
The area of coi l required is 30 - 35 m'/ m ] (9 - 11 sq. fl./cu. f1.) of massec uite to be fugalled
per hour .
These areaS".<lre calculated on the assul11ption thal the water used for reheating and cir-
culated in lhe coil or the heal-exchanger is at a temperature which is not more than 3°C (5°F)
aboye the saluralion tel11perature o f Ihe massecuile, thal is, the temperature aboye which
CT I'SLa ls commence to dissolve (cf. Table 33.1).
Some manufacturers base their designs on larger lemperature differences, and consequent-
Iy supply heating coils in the l11i xer· d istributor o f much sma ll er area , o f the order of 3 m'/m]
(1 sq.ft./cu.ft.) of massecuile lo be fu galled per hou r, H owever , it mu st not be forgotten that
Ihe low-grade fugal cycle in Ha waii is of Ihe order of 1 hour; if lh e healing surface is ex press-
ed in terms of area per machine of 1,015 X 760 mm (40 X 30 in .) , fo r examp le. instead of
being related 10 volume of massecuite. the differences given aboye wilJ be much less.
In any case, it is recommended that Ihe lemperalure of lhe wa ler used sho uld no! exceed
tlle limit indicated (3°C aboye the saluration temperalure) .
For ma ssecuite heaters with coils, a heat-transfer coefficienl of 30-70 kcal/m 2¡OC/h
(6- 14 B.T.U ./sq .fl. ¡OF/ h) is raken. according to Ihe design and conditions of use".
Eleclrical-resislance healers
Massecuite heating by electrical resislance has been de veIoped in Queensland. It offers
808 CENTRlFUGAL' SEPARA nON Ch, 35
several advantages:
(a) Simplicily
(b) Easier and more effective temperature control
(e) Shorter time at temperature, hence less danger of re-solution
(d) Excellent adaptation lO continuous centrifugals.
The resistance heater (Fig, 35.22) consists of t:YO concentric pipes; the massecuile is passed
through the annular space between them. These lwo pipes'forlll two eleclrodes belween which
a pOlential difference is applied, The massecuite flows by gravity from a mixer aboye lO a
distributor running along the battery (in the case of batch centrifugals) or directly to the cen-
trifugals in the case of continuous machines (see Fig, 35,22), The latter arrangement is par-
ticularly favourable on account of the regular and continuous flow and the complete elimina-
tion of delay between reheating and fugalling,
Electric
neater
Continuou>
centr;'ugal
R
~
J 1117/7/ J) 17717 17//7) JI / l/l/JI

;I//////!/ //// / / / ////////////
Fig. 35.22. InSlallation or electrical resislance healer wi¡h con¡inuous cen¡rirugal.
Head-Ioss. The loss of head in the reheater is given by our formula (33.18), in which we
give:
(a) The head loss j' not in lb.lsq.ft. but in ft.:
1 ft. of massecuite = 94 Ib.lsq. ft.
(b) The now of massccuitc Q not in cu.fl./s bUI in cU.ft./hour:
1 cu,ft.ls = 3,600 cu,ft./hour
(e) The exterior diameter l> and the interior diameter F of the annulus, which we shall call
here D and d, now expressed in cm and inches.
ACCESSORY PROCESSES AND EQUIPMENT 809
We thus ha ve (ef. eqn. (33.19»:
J = 128 x 0.75 X Ji.Q X lO' m/ m

)
L lOg7f (D' - d')(D - d)' 1500 X 3,600,000
J 128 xO. 75 Ji.Q 20;736 )

X X ftlft
L g7f 2
(D2 - d ) (D - d)2 94 X 3,600
or:
0.00575 Ji.Q m/ m . 0.058 Ji.Q

j = () ftl ft)
(D2 - d') (D - d)' = (D2 - d') (D d)'
To tak e inro account the method of delerminarion of viscosity, the film effect, rhe
resisrance of rhe prorecrive grilles which are inrerposed al the enlry aboye and at Ihe delivery
below lhe healer, as well as the approximalions involved, particularly the repla ceme nt of the
logarithmic mean of the viscosity Ji. by its geometric mean (see below), Wright and Walkers
Ltd. reckon:
0.025 Ji.Q 0.25 Ji. Q ) (35.52)

j ()
(D2 - d') (D - d)2 = (D2 - d') (D - d)2
j 1055 of head in the heater, in m/m (ft. per fr.) of length

l' - viscosity, in poises (f.p. s. units)
Q flow of massecuite through the heater, in litres/ h (cu.ft./h)
D = exterior diameter of the annular passage, in cm (in.)
·d = interior diameter of Ihe annular passage, in cm (in.)
- Common dimensions are D = 38 cm (15 in.), d = 20 or 23 cm (8 or 9 in.).
Since il is obviously necessary to mainrain flow through the heater, il is obvious lhat) must
be les, lhan J. The beSI procedure is lo allow a margin of safety for variations in the f10w
required, for example, 20%, and lO take consequenrl y Q' = ' 1.2 Q, thus making) = l. The
regulating valve below rhe heater will thus normally not be full y open.
The viscosity of cold massecuite may vary between 350 and 2,000 f.p.s. units (5,000-
30,000 poise). A lypical order of magnilude is 10,000 poise (700 f.p.s. units). The heater will
reduce ir ro berween 2,000 and 4,000 poise. We may lake for rhe mean viscosity the geometric
mean belween lhe viscosit y at 'entry and rhat al exir from rhe healer. For example, if rhe
massecuire is al 12,000 poise (800 f.p.'s.) when cold and 3,000 poise (200 f.p.s.) at the
. lemperalure required for fugalling, we may rake:
l' = -J 12,000 X 3,000 = 6,000 poi ses (1' = -J 800 X 200 = 400 f.p.s. units)
The Wright and Walkers formula gives, for the va lid reasons given aboye, higher figures than
ours.
,/
810 CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATION eh 35
Power consumption . Assuming the reheating 1000/0 efficient, we ha ve:
p
Q x 1.5 (t - lo) C
(
p = Q x 94 (t - lo) C) (35.53)
860 3,413
P = power consu mption required for heatin g, in kW

Q = massecuite flow, in litres/ h (cu.fl. / h)
e = speeific heat of massecuite = 0 .40-0.44
lo initial temperature of massecu ite , in oC (OF)
I tempe rature of massecuite after heating, in oC (0F)
with:
I kWh = 860 kcal = 3,413 B.T.U.
Density of massec uite = 1.5 kg/litre (94 Ib./cu. fl. )
.. '.
Or:
P = 0.00079 Q (t - lo) (P= 0.012 Q (t - l o» (35.54)
For example, to reheat 100 e u. fl. / h of massecuite from lOO to 120°F, the power cons ump-
tion would be:
P = 0.012 x 100 x 20 24 kW (32 h.p.)
Length. Wright" gives the equation (35.55):
L 3.68 X lO·
P
k V' cos <p
D
log -
d ( L = 4.75 x lO. P l og
k V' cos <p d
E) (35.55)
L length of active portion of heater, in m (ft.)

P power requirement for reheating, in kW, gi ven by eqn. (35.54)
k spec ifi c co ndu etanee (Iogarithmic mean) o f the m<lssecuite, in mi cromhos/ em (in.)
V = "Voltage applied, in V
cos <p = power factor of the supply.
We may take approx imately k = 6.S (T - 30), where T = mean temperature (OC) of the
massecu ite between entry and exit.
The overall length gene rall y adop ted is 168 cm (S fl. 6 in .). The best method of regulating
the temperature reheating is by means of a silicon rectifier.
Equation (32.56) may a/so s uppl y the va/ue of P for a given heater.
Conductívity. Massecu ites normall y have a con du e ti vity of 50 - 250 mieromhos/cm at the
temperature of fugalling, this eo ndu ct ivit y increasing rapid/y as a fu ne tion of temperature.
Reheating is generally effected b y a con tinu ous ey/ in driea l e/ectrode o n the inner face of the
annu/lls and a succession of meta l rings on the outer circllmference distribllted over the
he ig ht of the heater, which are swit ehed on and off by the temperature contro l in order to
ACCESSORY PROCESS ES ANO EQUIPMENT 811
achieve Ihe Sellemperature. The change of COlld UCl ivit y wilh lemperalUre means that the cur-
renl supp lied by the lasl ring is appreciably grealer lhan Ihal supplied by Ihe firsl.
The mean cond ucli vi lY of Ihe mussecuite belween Ihe co ld entry and lhe hOI exil is '·airly
uniform and of Ihe order of 100 micromhos/cm. Heaters ma y be equipped wilh ASEA
Ihyristor conlrols, housed in a suilable cabinet, which regulale the current and consequently
Ihe temperature.
Improvement by reheating
Reheating massecuile subsla llliall y improves exhauslion. Al Centra l Jaronu 21 , in Cuba,
which at one lime was lh e biggeSl sugar factory in lhe world, lhe installalion of rehealing
led to Ihe following resulls:
Reduction in number of fugals from 30 lO 20
Increase of C suga r purity from 84.73 10 89.43
Reduction of molasses purilY from 32.62 to 31.32
Reduction of fugalling cycle from 16.5 to 10 min
The massecuile was heated lO 59°C (J38 °F).
At Raceland'·, in Louisiana, the fugalling lemperalures of m·assecuites as quoled by H onig
were:
Coo ling lO 38 - 40°C (100 - 104 °F) (mother liquor supersaturated)
Rehealing lO 52 - 55°C (126 - 131 °F) (mother liquor salurated)
Fugalling at thal lemp eral ure
Washing wilh hOI waler al 60-65°C (140-149°F), under 2 kg/c m' (30 p. s.i.), by fine
spray
QuanlilY of wash water = 3 I per 1,015-mm machine (0.66 ga!. per 40-in. machine).
In Hawaii, a temperature of 49°C (120°F) is not exceeded.
The oplimal limil of reh eat ing is approximately 50 - 52°C (122 - 125°F) in a mixer or
mixer-distribulor; wilh elec trical-resistance heaters, since Ihe massecuile remains a very short
time at b!gh. lemperature, this can easily be taken as high as 57°C (J35°F).
Ir we consider supersa turation rather than purity, and Irace lhe graph of viscosity as a
function of lemperalure, il is found that it passes through a minimum between 48 and 55°C
(119- J31°F)28.
Brix of molasses
Pagni er '9 , in Java, estimated that the optimal concenlration for fugallin g corresponded to
a mo lasses of 85° refractometri c brix. In lavaJO, however, al the beginning of the Second
World War, the average molasses altailled a densime tric brix of 95° (dilution 1 + 9).
Mixer-distributor for massecuile

The small mi xer-distributor for massecuite placed abo ve the centrifugals, which forms part
of the battery, should have a working volume co rrespo nding to the volume of massecuite
lreated in 15 or 30 min.
The agitator· should be rotaled at a speed n given by:
3.25
n = (35.56)
D
/
812 . CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATION Ch. 35
n = rotational speed of the agitator, in r.p.m.

D width of the trough of the mixer-distributor, in m (fr.) (or diameter of the helical or
padd le agitator).
Screw conveyors for massecuite

The massecuite is generally conveyed by a screw conYeyor in a horizontal (rough. A full screw
ma y be used, but more often the screw consists of a simple metal ribbon held in place by
steel str ips.
The pitch p of the helix is of the order of p = 0.7 D, D being the dia meter of the eyl ind er
enclosing the outer edge of the heliea! ribbon. The speed n of the rotation ofscrew is general -
Iy from 20 to 40 r. p. m., or, better:
15
n = (35.57)
D
n = rotati o nal speed of the screw, in r.p.m.

D = diameter of (he serew, in m (fL).
However, Tromp JI recommends a speed of 7 - 8 r.p·.m., aboye whieh he considers that
(here wi ll be too mueh baek -flow of a large proportion of the masseeuite.
OUlpUt. The output of a serew eonYeyor is given by the formula:
7rD'
V = 60 - - pnk = 47 pnkD' (35.58)
4
V volume of massecuite transponed, in m' / h (cu.f!./h)

D exterior diameter of the helix, in m (ft.)
p piteh of the helix, in m (fL)
n rotational speed of the helix, in r.p.m.
k eoeffieient taking into acco unt the extent to w hieh (he trough is fiHed (which sho uld
not be aboye the s haft) and the rate of movemen( of the material, which does no! ad-
vanee a d~stanee p when the serew makes one revolution.
In general:
D is of ¡he order of 0.3 - 0.6 m (1 - 2 n.)
p is of the order of 0.7 D
n is of the order ofl 5 - 40 r.p. m.
We may assume for k:

0.15 - 0.20 for ribbon se rews, or a mean yalue of 0.18
0.25 - 0.30 for a full se rew.
Power. For the power required for driving the screw eonveyo r, we may estimate approx-
imately:
P 1.15 D'L (P 0.043 D'L) (35.59)

P = power absorbed by the conveyor, in kW (h. p.)

D = exterior diameter of the helix, in m (ft.)
L = length of the helix, in m (ft.).
We must remember to lake into account al so the efficiency of the speed reducer or the
system of drive.
Sugar conveyors
There are two principal types of sugar conveyors:
(a) The screw conveyor
(b) The shaker conveyor, sometimes designated under the name of "grasshopper".
W~ shall con sider lhe method of designing these, and shall adopt, especiall¡: in the second
case, Tromp's mode of calculation J '.
(a) Screw conveyor. This conveyor is calcubted exactlyas for massecuite (ef. p. 812). The
output is given by:
7rD'
Q = 60 - pnkd = 47 pnkdD' (35.60)
4
Q = weight of sugar transported, in kg/ h (lb./h)

D exterior diameter of the screw, in m (ft.)
p = pitch of the screw, in m (ft.)
n rotational speed of the screw, in r.p.m.
k coefficient taking into account the degree of filling of the screw and of backward f10w
of the sugar
d apparent density of the sugar, in kg/m J (Ib./cu.ft.).
In general:
p is of the order of 0.7 D
n ranges from 15 to 25 r.p.m. (or 10/ D, D being expressed in m)
d ranges from 800 to 950 kg/m J (50 - 60 Ib ./cu. fL).
We may take for k:
0.10 - 0.12 for ribbon screws (Tromp gives 0.20)
0.15 - 0.20 for a full screw.
Thc power consumption is approximately:
p.= 0.8 D'L (P = 0.03 D'L) (35.61)
P = power absorbed by the sugár conveyor, in kW (h.p.)

D = exterior diameter of lhe screw, in m (ft.) ;. , . '
L = length .of the screw, in m (ft.). . . .. ; . • "
Tromp recommends:
(1) That the shafl be supported every 3 m (lO ft.), in the trough
(2) That a clearance of 6 mm (t in.) be allowed between the screw and the trough, to avoid
crushing the crystals
/
814 CENTRJFUGAL SEPARATlON C h. 35
(3) Thal lh e suga r which collects and ha rde ns in lhis space bet wee n screw a nd Iro ugh
sho uld be removed every week .
Screw conveyo rs ha ve Ihe disa d va nlage or crush in g Ih e sugar. For Ihis reaSOIJ , grnsshopper
co nveyors are gene rall y prererred.
(b) Grasshopper conveyor. This conveyor consisls or a wid e, f1al and shallow Irough, sup-
port ed on fl ex ible st rips inclined at 60° 10 Ihe horizontal (Fig. 35.23). The Ir ough is su bjecled
lO repea led vibrations by means of an eccen tric. The Jalter has a slroke e of approx imalely
40 mm (l! in .) and rolates at about 300 r.p.m. .
r
h
r
, ---- -- -------
,
I
, I
'-- -------------
Fig. 35.23. G rasshoppe r co nveyor.
At Ihe moment of the vib ration , the gra ins of sugar situated in Ihe Irough make a ho rizon-
tal jump or:
r (35.62)
Ci = inclination or the flexible slrips lO lhe horizo ntal

g '" acce leralion due lo gravity = 9.81 m/s/s (32. 16 rt./s/s)
v speed of projection or lhe grain = approximalely 1.5 limes lhe mean speed otO Ih e ec-
centric, in mis (n./s):
v = 1.5 2en = en (35.63)

60 20
e = stroke or the eccentri c, in m (fr.)

n = speed of ro la li on of Ihe ecce ntri c, In r.p.m.
Now, wh il e the sugar is thu s Ihrown forward, the co nveyor return s under il, and il is ar-
ranged so Ih all he return stro ke correspond s very c10sely lO Ih e time during which Ihe crysla ls
ar~ heing Ihrown forw ard, in ,uch a wa\' Ihal Ihe sugar Ihu.< rroceeds again Ihro ugh.a
d;,r,q~ t-:"":> fflf-l P. ' ..t..:.... m.
.:> :r.f'II.IJ.J:T:' --C1:rni'...:' .
r I = e sin n (35.(¡-l)
whence:
A r + r'
We have then:
Q = SAnkd (35.65)
Q = output of the conveyor, in kg (lb.) of sugar/min

S = useful vertical cross-section of the trough, in m' (sq.ft.)
A = r + r' = movement of the sugar per stroke, in m (ft.)
n = rotational speed of the eccentric, in r.p.m. = number of vibrations/min
k = coefficient of slip (approximately 0.5)
d = apparent density of the sugar, in kg/m J (800 - 950) (50 - 60 lb./cu. ft.)
Jf necessary, the sugar may be elevated by inc1ining the conveyor, provided that an angle
of 30° wilh the horizonlal is not exceeded.
The beSI malerial for the flexible strips is ash timber.
Power. The power requirements of the motor for a grasshopper conveyor may be ca1culat-
ed approximately as follows:
P 2.25 + S 3 + ~) (35.66)
10
P = power of the motor, in kW (h. p.)

S = horizontal surface of the trough (= length x width), in m' (sq.ft.).
This equation is useful for horizontal conveyors. If they are inc1ined and elevate the sugar,
il is necessary to add the corresponding work to be done, that is:
P'
QH p'
QH
(35.67)
60 x 100 ··60 x 550
'-.' ,', ' .. ' .'
P' = additional power required, in kW (h. p.)

Q OUlpUI of Ihe conveyor, in kg (lb.) of sugar/min
H= mean dislance in level belween the discharge end of Ihe conveyor and the poinls at
which sugar is discharged,from the centrifugals, in m (ft.).
Sugar elevators
The sugar is often transported to the dryer by an elevator which may be vertical or inclined.
II consists of a chain or a belt carrying buckets, running on a return pulley at the bottom,
3nd driven by a similar pulley al the top of the elevator.
The distance between buckets on the belt is 30-40 cm (12-16 in.). The speed of the belt
should be maintained between 18 and 30 m/min (60 - 100 ft./min). The capacity will be:
Q = GVN (35.68)
Q output of sugar, in kg/min (Ib./min)

G weight of sugar conveyed per buckel, in kg (lb.)
V speed of the belt, in m/min (fI./min)
N Ilumber of buckets/rn (buckels/fl.) of·bell.
For G, we may take half the weight of water whi~h would fil! the bucket on its upward runo
Rubber conveyors may be inclined at 23°.
REFERENCES
1 L. A. TROMP, Machinery and Equipmenl oJ Ihe Cane Sugar Faclory, Norman Rodger, London, 1936, p. 537.
2 E. KRIEG, in P. HONIG (Ed.), Principies oJ Sugar Technology, Vol. !ll, Elsevier, AmSlerdam, 1963, p. 294.
3 E. KRIEG, Sucr. Beige, 9 (1957) 371.
4 W. N. EKLUNO ANO J. H. PRATT, Facls aboul Sugar, 30 (1935) 95.
5 E. F. RICE, Inl. SlIgar J., 49 (1947) 210.
6 W. LOUCHER, F. W. PEACOCK ANO W. E. MURPHY, Facls abOlir Sugar, 27 (1932) 492.
7 InI. SlIgar 1. , 67 (1965) 93.
8 J. P. LAMUSSE ANO M. RANOABEL, Mauririus SlIgar Ind. Res. Insl., Ann. Rep., 1959, p. 93.
9 F. M. CHAPMAN, in P. HONIG (Ed.), Principies oJ Sugar Technology, Vol. !ll, Elsevier, AmsLerdam, 1963, p.
249.
10 E. BENZ, Inl. Sugar J., 57 (1955) 323.
12 L. A. TROMP, op. cit" p. 538.
13 J. D. DE R. DE STo ANTOINE, Mourífius Sugor Ind. Res. Inst., Ann. Rep., 1965, p. J 22.
14 C. G. M. PERK, Proc. 371h Conf. SASTA, 1963, p. 22.
15 J. G. DAVIES, Sugar 1.,26 (5) (1963) 44.
16 W. L. MCClEERY, Inl. Sugar J., 37 (1935) 198. ....
17 F. M. CHAPMAN, il1 P. HONIG (Ed.), Principies oJ Sugar Technoiogy, Vol. !ll, Elsevier, AmSlerdam, 1963, p.
258.
18 Weslern Slales Co. bookleL, 1965.
19 G. F. EASTAUGFFE, Proc. 39th Conf. QSSCT, [972, p. 224.
20 E. DELOEN, SlIgar Azucar, 59 (10) (1964) 31.
21 [nd. A/im. Agric., (1975) 838.
22 W. L. McCLEERY, Inl. SlIgar J., 37 (1935) 279.
23 F. M. CHAPMAN, Inl. SlIgar 1.,72 (1970) 10.
24 P. G. WRIGHT, [ni. Sugar J., 67 (1965) 369.
25 R: E. DIAGo, [ni. SlIgar 1., 41 (1939) 402.
26 P. HONIG, Inl. Sugar J., 43 (1941) 31.
27 W. L. MCClEERY, Facls aboul Sugar, 31 (1936) 145.
28 E. R. BEHNE, [nI. Sugar J., 49 (1947) 262.
29 L. J. H. PAGNIER, Arch. SlIikerind. Ned. en Ned.·[ndiii, 1 (1941) 529.
30 K. DouwEs DEKKER, il1 P. HONIG (Ed.), Principies oJ SlIgar Technology, Vol. !l, Else"ier, AnlSlerdam, 1959,
p. 553.
31 L. A. TROMP, op. Cil., p. 540.
36. Storage and Drying of Sugar
The commercial sugar leaving the centrifugals, which is to be packed for sale or export,
gene rally has a moisture content of 0.5 - 20/0. Moisture is very detrimental to keeping
qualities of the s ugar, when it exceeds a certain limit, and particularly when it rises aboye 1%.
Safety factor
Thi s limit depends on the proportion of impurities present in the sugar. A given percentage
of water is more detrimental with a sugar of higher purity. If we put:
% water
J= 100 - polarisation
(36. J)
then i f:
J < 0.3: the sugar will not deteriorate, or will deteriora te only slówly
J > 0.3: the sugar will deteriorate rapidly.
However, there is no general agreement on the limiting value of this factor J, known as
the safety factor of the sugar. In India " for example, it is given as:
0.22 for white or refined sugars

0.20 for raw sugars
Generallya figure of 0.25 is used instead of 0.3. Between these values, keeping qualities
. are considered to be doubtful.
Dilution indicator
A modification of the safety factor is preferred in Australia and is coming into use in so rn e
other countries. This is the Dilution Indicator (D.!.):
% moisture
D.I. = x lOO (36.2)
100 - (% poi + % moisture)
that is, moi sture per cent non-poI. It is considered that values of D.!. aboye 50 (correspon-
ding to a safe ty factor of 0.33) indicate considerable ri sk of deterioration.
The aut hor recommends the use of the dilution indi ca tor rather than the safety factor.
Conditions for storage of sugar

Spengler and Bottger' have established that between 10 .and 30°C (SO and 86°F) the keeping
qualities of sugar are independent of temperature . On the other hand, Webster' has shown
/
818 STORAGE AND DRYING OF SUGAR Ch. 36
that, between 31 and 40°C (88 and 104°F) and at humidities ranging from SO ro 78070, it is
only at the lowest humidities and temperatures that rhe safety factor is valid.
Various authors differ on the critical humidity, for which they give values ranging from
50 to 75070. Webster has found the value to depend largely 011 reducing-sugar contento
In Puerto Rico' it is considered that equilibrium exists between sugar and rhe atmosphere
al a relalive humidity of 63070; if the humidity 'falls belQw that value, lhe sugar will lose
moisture.
According to FreiseS, another factor influencing the keeping qualities of sugar is the pro-
portion of oils and waxes contained in the material of the sacks, which renders them less
permeable. Thus sugar stored in washed sacks will nor keep as well as sugar in new sacks.
SUGAR STO RES
Stores for bagged sugar

For good keeping qualities of the sugar in a store, ir is necessary to observe the following
precaurions 6 :
(a) The sugar should be bagged dry, and not too hot. If the sugar is at a temperature aboye
38°C (100°F), it will harden in the sacks.
(b) The bottom layer of bags should be protected from dampness, by inlerposing a grating
or a bitumen-lined paper.
(e) The bags should be arranged in large stacks, cubical as nearly as possible, to decrease
the surface-relative ro the volume.
(d) The stacks should be covered with bitumen-lined paper, at the tOP and sides. In Java,
it has been found advanrageous to cover the sracks of bags with a layer of dry bagasse,
designed ro protecr the stack from radialion from the roof. It is advisable also to paint rhe
roof with aluminium paint to decrease irs temperature.
Keeping qualities of sugar are worse:
(a) At higher temperat ures
(b) Al higher atmospheric humidities.
It would be of advantage to maintain thehumidity in the sugar store as uniform and as
low aspossible. It should nor rise aboye 65070.
Similarly, the sugar store should be kept al a remperarure as uniform as possible. It should
nor be opened except on dry and cooler days.
It will be of advantage to have a recording thermometer and hygrometer in rhe store.
Volume required. When the sugar is arranged in a closely packed stack, its bulk density
may be reckoned at 800 kg/m 3 (50 Ib./cu. ft.) of stack. It must not be overJooked rhat it is
necessary ro leave corridors around rhe sracks for rraffic and for handling the sugar. It is
likewise preferable not to stack rhe sugar c10se against the walls.
The use of portable conveyors and elevarors reduces costs of handling and stacking.
When sugar is stacked in hessian bags, it is advisable to give the sides of the srack a batter
of 20°. If paper bags are used, 74° is sufficient. The height of the srack mal' be 25 bags in
the former case and 40 in the latter'-
SUOAR STO RES 819
Bulk storage
Sugar stored in bulk in a silo deteriorates much more slowly than sugar in bags. The surface
of the pile absorbs some 1110isture, but then forms a crust which retards penetration of
moisture into the pile. The thicker this crust becomes, the more effectively il retards penetra-
tion of moisLUre. II is possible in this way to keep dry sugar for several years in tropical coun-
tries without appreciable loss of titre.
For bulk storage, calculations may be based on a bulk density of 800- 900 kg/m J (50 - 55
lb./cu.ft.). The sugar becomes considerably compacted in falling on to the pi le; at a depth
of 6 m (20 fr.), it would retain a density of 1000 kg/m J (62 Ib./cu. fr.); for a deep silo, one
may assume a mean density of 900 kg/m J (55 Ib./cu.fr.)8.
The angle of repose of dry sugar is about 33 - 36°. Ir may increase as far as 50- 53° w,hen
the sugar is moisr. It is the moisture content that determines this angIe, and differing values
would be found according to the moisture content of the sugar', In Australia 'o , at
Mourilyan, sugars from five factories investigated varied between 33 and 41°. In Réunion,
values ranging from 33 to 36° are found. The silo at Townsville has been built with a roof
angle of 35°.
For transport of bulk sugar, rubber belt conveyors shouId be limited " to a slope of 20°;
and a value of 16° is recommended. However, Meade 12 indicates a maximum of 22°. For
high-quality raw sugars, the author adopts 20°.
For the speed of such conveyors, a value of 2.5 mis (8 fr.ls) may really be used, as this
value is definitely exceeded by some manufacturers.
The pressure exerted by sugar in bulk is higher than is normally supposed. Economic
designs of silos gene rally do not exceed 3 m (10 fr.) in the height of side waJJs if these are
not buttressed, and consist mainJy of a roof covering a piJe of sugar, of prismatic shape (Fig,
36 1).
The sugar is delivered into lhe bulk store by the belt conveyor installed under the ridge
of the roof, and is diverted into the stack either by a movable plough placed aboye the belt,
or by a second belt conveyor which is movable and of length equal to half that of the bulk
stóre;.fed at ils centre and situated below the other conveyor.
Belt conveyor '
Fig. 36.1. Bulk sugar store.

/
Recovery of the sugar for loading ships, for example, is done from below, by hoppers
which are covered with special slides. The sugar is pushed into the hoppers, picked up by
a belt conveyor, and weighed on automatic scales (Servo-Balans or Schenk being weIl-known
makes). A loading boom, moving on rails the length of the wharf, and fitted with an arm
ending in a telescopic tube, delivers this sugar ro the bottom of the hold. A thrower-
distributor throws the sugar into the corners of the hold. The best-known make is
Stephens - Adamson, made in France und'er licence by Boyer. There is also the Lucas
Thrower, manufactured by Fletcher and Stewart.
Hoppers. To prevent sugar from adhering to the waIls of the hoppers, it is necessary, when
lhese are of quadrangular pyramid form, that the sides should have a slope of 7]0, which
corresponds to 72° in [he corners of the hopperlJ, For a cylindro-conical hopper, 65° is suffi-
cienl.
Loss of weight and of test

With raw sugar from a first massecuite, with a good dilution indicator, stored in bags in
tropical countries in a coastal c1imate, the los5 in titre is approximately 0.1 ° (2 - 4 in
recovery) per month. Handling and transport by sea aggravate the loss. When the sugar is
already deteriorated, the loss becomes more and more rapid; in other words, the curve of
lilre as a function of time has a parabolic form and sJopes rapidly downwards.
For sugar slored in bulk, it has been found at Kahului l4 (Hawaii) lhal the 105S of poJarisa-
tion is:
Factor o/ sa/e/y Number o/ ana/yses Mean 1055 oJ po/arisation

per monrh
0.15-0.24 125 0.01

0.25 - O.JO 55 0.02
Specific heat of sugar

The specific heat of crystal sugar, between 15 and 75°C, is approximalelyl':
e = 0.28 kcal/kg (or B.T.U./lb.)
or more accuralely:
e = 0.2775 + 0.000 085 t (e 0.276 + 0.000 047 t) (36.3)
temperature of sugar, in oC (OF).
Drying of sugar
The deterioration of sugar is retarded and the los5 in test is reduced if lhe moislure conlenl
of the sugar is reduced. The water content of raw sugar is generally within lhe range
"".0.5 -2"70. With a dryer, this may be reduced lO belween 0.2 and 0.5"70. This gives a saving
in two directions:
SUGAR STO RES 821
(a) The sugar keeps berrer

(b) The polarisalion and lhe lilre increase immediarely, in proportion to the water remov-
ed, and if for example the polarisation increases from 97.8 to 98.2°, the financial gain so
realised is much greater than the loss of weight due lO the water evaporated.
Sugar dryer
Figure 36.2 illustrates a dryer. It consists of an air heater with fan, and is divided inlo a dry-
ing portion and a cooling portion .
. ;'
Fig. 36.2. Sugar dryer (Comessa).
Calculalions for a sugar dryer. Drying by contact with hot air involves heating the air, to
increase its capacity for absorbing water, and bringing it into intimate contact with the sugar,
from which it evaporates the moisture.
(A) Vo/ume o/ airo There are two possible methods of circulation:

(a) Countercurrent flow, where the ' air flow s in the opposite direction to the sugar
(b) Parallel flow, where the air and the sugar flow in the same direction.
For safety, the calculation is based on the most unfavourable condition, that is, it is assum-
ed thal rhe ambient air is saturated. On the other hand, the air leaving a dryer is generally
nOI salurated; it is assumed that it has absorbed only:
(a) In the case of countercurrent flow: two-thirds of the quantity of water which it could
have absorbed if it had left in a saturated condition
(b) In other cases: one-third only of that quantity.
We have ¡hen , in the case of countercurrent circulation:
1,000 Ph 1,500 Ph
A (36.4)
¡ (H, - H o) H, - H o
A weight of air to be pa ssed through the dryer, in kg/h (Ib .! h)

P weight of sugar to be dried, in kg/h (lb.!h)
h moisture co nten t of sugar relative to unity (0.01, for ,:!xa mpl e)
Ha weight of wa ter vapour contai ned in satura ted a ir <l t th e temperature lo of entry of air
to the hea te r (ambient temperature), in kg/ 1,000 kg (lb.! I ,000 lb.)
H , = weig ht of water vapour contained in sa tura ted air a t the temperature 1, of ex it fr o m
the dr yer, in kg/I,OOO kg (lb. / I, OOO lb.) .
In th e case of ci rculation other than co untercurrent, the coefficient 1,500 in eq n . (36.4)
s hould be replaced by 3,000.
H, and H o are taken from the graph of (Fig. 36.3).
Knowing the weight of air, we m ay, if required, calcu late from it the vo lume:
A
v= ao + eo
(36.5)
V volume of a ir req uire d, in m 3/h (cu.ft.!h)

ao densit y of air at lo degrees , in kg/m J (lb. /c u. fL)
eo weig ht of vapour con tained in saturated air a t lo d eg rees, in kg/m J (lb ./ctt.!"L).
Figures 36.3 and 36.4 give graphs of e and a respectivel y as funct ions of temperalure.
Temperolure
58° 85° 104 0 122° 140"F
0 .15" 0.010
- ! 0.009
y/
0.14
0.008
0 .1 2 , - ---
//
e
0.007 'o
'3
- 0 .005 ~
V 0.005 -\(
.;
'",'
/
oi
o
>
0.004 n
V 0.003
v"
0.04 #
~ o.00 2
e
H
0.02
c:--
--------- O.001
20 . JO ° 40 ° 50 °
Temperature
60°C
Fi g. 36.3. Weighl of water vapour in saturatec1 air (per unir weighl and per unit volume).
SUGAR STORES 823
Temperature
68 86 104 122 140·r
,. 2
.1
~ ~
- 0.07
~
1 ~
~ - 0.06
0.9
-
~
~
-O.05
20 . 30 . 40 . 50 . TemperOlure
60 .e
Fig. 36.4 . Weighl or dry air per Ull il vo lume or sa Lurated air.
. ,. (B) H earing sU/face 01 rhe air healer. The air heater generally consisls or lubes, with 01'
without rins, in cast iron 01' in aluminium, which are supplied with sleam al about 5 kg/cm'
(70 p.s.i.) .· The condensate leaves at the bottom.
The hea ting surrace or this small heat exchanger will be given. by:
M
s (36.6)
s = healing surrace or the air hea ter, In m' (sq . rt .)

M = quanlily or heal ro be tran smitted, in kcal /h (B.T.U./h)
k = heat-IranSrer coelTicient, in kcall m '¡OC/h (B.T.U./sq.J't.¡OF/h)
T lemperalure or Ihe saluraled sleam employed, in oC (OF)
lo = lemperalure or cold air entering, in oC (OF)
1, temperature or hOI air leaving, in oC (OF).
We shall lake:
k = JO kcal/m'¡OC/h (2 B.T.U./sq.rt. /o F / h) .
824 STORAGE AND DRYlNG OF SUGAR Ch. 36
The quantity of heat M to be transferred is calculated from lhe fael lhat it eonsisls of three
principal terms:
(1) The heat neeessary lO heat the weight A of air:
q, = Ac (t, - lo) (36.7)
c = speeifie heat of the air = approximately 0.24 ..

(2) The heat necessary to evaporate the water eontained in Ihe sugar (this is generally the
most important term):
q, = Ph [607 + 0.3 I, - lol

(36.8)
(q, = Ph [1,093 + 0.3 (t, - 32) - (lo - 32)])
This quantity q, of heat eorresponds to that given up by lhe hot air be[ween T' reached a[
lhe oullel from lhe air heater and 1" and whieh has not been included in q,.
(3) The heal neeessary to heat the vapour contained in the weight A of air, assumed
saturated (this is generally a very small term):
q, = AHoc' (t, - lo) (36.9)
c' = specirie heal of the vapour = approx. 0.475.

Ho is expressed as kg of water/kg of airo
Strictly speaking, it would be necessary lO add Ihe heat necessary 10 hea[ [he sugar.
However, siJiee the latter is already at a lemperalure only slightly below lhal al which il
leaves , this term is generally neglected.
There remains the heat lost to the ambienl airo This is [aken into aecount a[ [he same time
as rhe preceding small term, by writing:
M = 1.25 (q, + q, + q,) (36.10)
The air should nOI be healed to more lhan 95 -100°C (203 - 212°F), or 110°C (230°F) ac-
cording lO Trom p '6, in order to avoid damage to lhe sugar by lhe high lempera[ure. I[ is ar-
ranged-generally that the lemperature of lhe air leaving the healer is belween 70 and 95°C
(l58 and 203°F).
The air velocity is of lhe order of 1 - 5 mi s (3 - 16 ft./s), but i[ is reported" [hal velocities
greater than 1 mis involve risk of picking up fine sugar crystals. In practice this speed is often
taken up lO 2 mis (6.5 fL/s), a limit which should nOl be exceeded, reckoned on the hot air
leaving the dryer.
The steam consumption will be:
M
Q (36.11)
r
Q steam consumption for the air heater, in kg/h (Ib./h)

r = lalent heal of lhe Sleam used (approx. 500 kcal/kg (900 B.T.U./lb.».
SUGAR STORES 825
Fig. 36.5. Bulk sugar silo, in four cells.
This steam consumption is gene rally of the order of 2 - 3 kg/lOO kg of sugaL

The portion of the dryer serving as cooler should reduce the sugar to a temperature of
35 -40°C (95 -104°F).
Since sugar dust is explosive when it is very fine and mixed with air, it is necessary to pro-
hibit smoking in the sugar-drying room, and it is preferable to install lhe fan for induced
draughl rather than forced draught, to avoid risk of blowing this dust into the drying room
lhrough leaks in the equipment.
The concentration of powde.red sugar in the air aboye which explosion is possible is 60
g/m' (0.06 oz./cu.ft.) for powder of 0.1 mm; it falls to 7 g/m' for very fine powder 18 . In
Sweden'9 a figure of 17 g/m' is given, without specifying the fineness.
Types of dryer, There are three principal types of sugar dryer:

(a) Vertical dryers with superimposed plates
(b) Fluidised-bed dryers
(e) Rotating-drum dryers.
Dryers wilh superimposed plales. Well- k nown dryers 01' this type are lhe French Comessa
(Fig. 36.2) a nd the German Buttner. Th ey are cylindrical in form, contain 20 - 30 rO lating
annular plates, with a central space which serves as a passage for the air. These plales are
divided into very small sectors, 30 01' 40 for lhe upner plates, 20-30 for Ihe lower ones,
sepa rated by 51015 which themsel ves are small sectors of 2 or 3°. The sugar deposited on the
top plate falls through the slol s onto the next plate when il encounlers an inclined scraper
which acts as a rake. The 51015 in successive plates are staggered so Ihal the sugar falls only
10 Ihe neXI pi ale and compleles almost a full rOlalion before encounlering Ihe nexl scraper.
Al a dislance ahead of Ihe scraper is an equaliser, which is a scraper sel al 20 - 30 mm (j - 11
in.) aboye the plates, and which smoolhs out Ihe hillocks of sugar and gives a uniform layer
on the plate. The sugar layer is (hu s about 25 mm (1 in.) in thi ckness and il s surface is renew-
ed al each drop. From the lowest plate, lhe sugar is discharged from the dryer by an inclincd
chute.
An air dUCI surroundi ng the plates conl<iins 4 tubular air healers supplied with Sleam at
J.5 - 2 kg /c m 2 (20 - 30 p.s.i.). The hol air passes over the plates and is removed by lhe cen-
Iral chimney; co ld air is supplied to the lower plales, the air heaters being limited 10 the upper
three-quarters of the equipment. The interval between the plates is approximately 20 cm (8
in.).
Thi s equipment scarcely damages the crysta ls, by reason of the low drop from one plale
10 the next and rhe fact that only a small proporlion of the crystals fall directly on Ihe plale,
Ihe remainder falling on to the initiall aye r of crystals. However, these dryers are bulky, and
an accident to a scraper or a plate ca n mean a serious amounl of broken melal.
Fluidised-bed Dryers. The suga r is distributed on a perforated plale; hot air passes Ihrough
this plate and through the sugar layer. The transmission of heat is very rapid, permitting a
ve ry brief time in lhe dryer. However, the rIuidisation and the air flow involve abrasion of
the crystals; the eqllipment also requires a rather high power consumplion.
Rotary-drum Dryers. This is the type most widely used . A French make is the Vernon, and
lhe one most widely used is the Roto-Louvre. In general it is cylindr ical, and set al a slope
of about 50 to the horizontal, which facilitate s the movement of the sugar from end 10 end
of the druIl,l, being repeatedly lifted and dropped through the countercurrent air flow. The
drum is often arranged 10 act as both dryer and cooler, the cold air entering at Ihe IOll'er end
and Jeaving near the middle of the drum, where the hot air is introduced. The drum rotates
slowly and is fitled with va nes which lifl Ihe sllga r repeatedly. The drum diameler is 1.5 - 2
m (5 -7 fl.), according 10 its capac il Y. The larger diameters have the disadvanlage that Ihe
repeated fall of the crystaJs causes abrasion al the corners of the crystaJs and produces a fine
s ugar powder which musl be co llected and recovered ; it setlles around the dryer, is scattered
around the sugar hopper, and even after deJivery into storage. To mini mise this trouble,
B.M.A. divide lheir dryer so that the crystals fall in a number of small drops, ralher lhan
the full diameter of the drum (Fig. 36.6).
o This trouble ha s prompled Fives Cail- Babcock in turn to design a multi-tubular dryer-
cooler (Fig. 36. 7); thi s consists of 6 horizontal, parallel dryer lubes sur rounding a central sup-
port tube of the same diameter, with 6 parallel coo ler tubes placed around these six, with
SUGAR STO RES 827
Fig. 36 .6 . Inner view of a B.M .A. sugar dryer.
Fig. 36 . 7. Multitube sugar !lryer (Fives CaiJ- BabcOck) .

a driving rnechanisrn for rotating the assernbly on bearings situated at the IWO encls of [Ile
supporting tube. The twelve tubes are provided with interior barrIes which ensure rnixing and
movement of ¡he sugar, which is inlroduced al one end of the dryer lllbes, and progresses
lo the far end, where it passes by appropriate chutes into the cooler tubes (Fig. 36.8). The
air frorn the air heater enters the tubes wilh the sugar and traverses the tubes in parallel cur-
rent wilh lhe sugar. The cold air enters al the delivery end of lhe cooler tubes, and f10ws
counlercurrenl to lhe sugar, leaving by lhe far end; it rnixes ·with lhe oUlgoing hOI air, and
both pass lhrollgh a washer or cyclone separalor lO recover the sugar dust which is Ihen
recovered, either dry or in solulion, and passed back lo lhe process.
V ... <.I<'IJO""'~''''I'
To d.o.!u,',"'l
H.,,,,, """'''~,..¡" d. ¡IOI.O SECHEUA A" 1,.1,
OA'I'ER F,~'" .i,
SECADOR 1 A,,. "...co
11 -2 ·3"" -5 -8) Hal "j,
Al,. Cllj~n1' E"n¡," du tuerl
Sv~, ¡"I....
~""OÓI eH: u.:.c.,
RECRQ!OISSEUI'I
COOlEA
ENFRIADOR So,.,;" óv """"_
11"·2'·:r· 4"· 5'· "') Sug ... ou<l.,
Sol~ óol ./ueor
Coupe Jonr;i/udinale sufvant A - A

Longitudinal section A - A
Corre long/(udinal A - A
Coupe transversafe $Uív8nt

a - a: passage des tubas
secheur3 (1 a 8) aux tubas
rafroidiSS6urs (1' é 8').
Transversal sec/lon B - B:
((ansler from drying tubas
(1 lo 6) lo coo/int; tubas
O' (O 6').
Corte transversal a - a.-
paso da los rubos ~ec8dores
(7 8 6) 8 los rubos
~nfriador~s (1' a 6").
COUP4 l~ns't'ers8Ie
, suivanr e -e
T~nsvflrs81 ,aerian e -e
Corte t~nsv.rSBI e-e
Fíg. 36.8. Longítudinal and [ransversal sections of a muhitube dryer (Fives CaiJ - Babcock).
SUOAR STO RES 829
Power and speed. The speed of rotat io n o f a single-drum dryer is approxi mat ely:
8-10
n -----¡¡- r. p. m.
Th e speed of the multi-tube is somewhat less. The power consumption of th e single- tu be type
is a bout 15 kW (20 h.p.) , that of the multi-tube ab out one-third of that figure, since the
weight of sugar is much better distributed.
Design of a dryer. We assu me the choice of a multi-tube dryer, of Fives Cail- Babcock
design (the calculati o n for a single-drum dryer is much simpler); the dryer is to trea¡.¡-he sugar
produeed by a fa e tory treating 250 I.c.h., the produetion o f whieh muy reaeh 30 t/h of sugar
leaving the ce ntrifu ga ls at a moisture content o f I OJo.
The volume of the dryer shou ld be:
v= Qt (36.12)
dr
v = vo lume of dryer, in m J (cu.ft.)

Q = weight of sugar, in t/h
t = tran sit time of sugar in the dryer, in h
d = apparent density of loose sugar = 0.80 kg/ dm ) (50 Ib ./c u. ft.)
r = ratio o f filling of the drye!.
For 1 % mo isture, we accept t/dr = 1.2 - 2, generally 1.35. If the moisture co nt ent differs
from 1% we multiply t by th e % moisture (1.5, for example).
We thu s have:
v = 30 X 1.35 = 40. 5 m) (1,440 cu.ft.)
This vo lum e must be di stribut ed between 6 tu bes , o r per tube:
40 .5
v = = 6.75 mJ (240 cu.ft.)
6
The designer proposes tu be diameters:
711 mm (28 in.) for volum~ lower than 3.8 m) (134 cU.ft.)
813 mm (32 in.) for volume of 3.8- 6 m3 (134- 2 12 cu.ft.)
914 mm (36 in .) for volume of 6 - 8 m3 (212-282 cu.ft.)
1,21 9 mm (48 in .) fo r volu me more than 12 m) (424 c u.ft.)
We take d = 914 mm (36 in.) . The length L of the tubes will be s uch th a l:
7rd' 6.75 = 10.3 m

- L = 6.75 (34 ft.)
4
or:
,. L 0.656
830 STORAGE ANDDRYING OF SUGAR Ch. 36
Coo/er. For lhe cooler, we retain lhe same number of tubes and lhc same 1cngth and cross-
sections as for the dryer; with cane, these are sufficient to reduce the sugar to 15°C (2rF)
aboye Ihe ambient temperalure, which is the objective generally sought. However, we must
check Ihat the air velocities are acceplable. The air heated to 90°C (195°F) drops lO about
40°C (105°F) after lhe dryer. Its density is thus about 1.129 (Table 45.3). The qllilntity
necessary is thus (eqn. (36.4), Fig. 36.3):
3,000 x 30,000 x 0.01

A 30,000 kg/h (30 t/h)
49 - 19
and its volume is:
30,000/1.129 = 26,570 m J (938,000 eu. fl.)
The cross-section of the dryer is thus:

'.
6 x 7r X 0.914'
3.94 m' (42.4 sq. ft.)
4
The veJocity of hot air leaving is then:
26,570
1.87 mis (6.15 rt./s)
3,600 x 3.94
which is close lO Ihe acceptable limil (2 mis = 6.5 fl./s) but ilcceplilble, particulilrly in
parallel flow.
At the exil from the cooler, il will be obviously much lower (1.67 mis 5.47 ft./s).
Automatic scales
The sugar hopper after Ihe dryer should be preceded or followed by an automalic scaJe.
When the sugar is to be packed into bags, Ihis may be a bagging scale. For blllk sugar, il
could be a conlinuous inlegraling scale on the bell conveyor, bul balch weighing is more ac-
eúrale and is 10 be recommended. These mus ! be kepl clean, and cheded al leasl Iwice per
day.
REFERENCES
1 R. C. SRIVASTAVA, K. A. NA RAIN RAO, H. S. CHATCRVEDI ANO F. N. CUPTA, Sugar, 39 (3) (1944) 40.
2 O. SPENOLER ANO S. BOTTOER, Jnl. Sugar J., 48 (1946) 42.
3 J. H. WEBSTER, Jnl. Sugar 1.,43 (1941) 46.
4 R. M. DOMINOUEZ, Sugar J., 17 (11) (1955) 55.
5 F. W. FREISE, Jnl. Sugar J., 35 (1933) 202.
6 E. R. BEHNE, Facls aboul Sugar, 35 (5) (1940) 30.
7 O. LYLE, Techn%gy lar Sugar Refinery Workers, 3rd edil., Charmall Jlld Hal!, Lonclon, 1957, p. 425.
8 C. P. MEADE, Cane Sugar Handbook, 9th edn., Wiley, New York, 1963, p. 259.
SUGAR STORES 83)
9 F. J . MAYO . SlIgar. 45 (8) (1950) 28 .

. 10 F. M . CHAPMA N. /nl. SlIgar J .. 54 (1952) 38.
1I A. C. CLAYTO N. Proc 2/sl Conf QSSCT, /954. p. 155.
12 G. P. MEAOE, op. dI., p. 256.
13 O. L YLE , op. cil ., p . 426.
14 Inl. Sugar J., 52 (1950) 262.
15 P. HONIG, Sugar J., 14 (5) (1951) 12.
16 L. A. TROMP, Machinery ond Equipment of Ihe Cane Sugor FoclOry . Norman Rodger, London, 1936, p. 545.
17 G. H. JENKINS, ¡nlroduclion lO Cone Sugor Tec/¡n %gy, EIsevier, Am sterdam, 1966, p. 388.
18 O. LYLE, op. cit., p. 378.
19 S. S. A. WEI8ULL, Sugar J., 24 (8) (1 962) 10.
.' '.
/
37. Sugar
Density
The true density of the suga r crystal is approximately 1.6 g/ cm'. In Australia, a figure of
1.58 (98.6 lb ./cu.ft.) has been used' for commercial sugar. The value for pure sucrose is
given as 1.596.
The apparent density of gránulated sugar varies considerabl y according to the form and
the regularilY of the crys tals. · It varies generally between 0.8 and 0.9 g/ cm' (50 - 55
lb .lcu .ft.).
White sugars often go as low as 0.72 (45 Ib.lcu. ft.)". The most frequent densities of raw
sugars, or washed raws, are of the order ofO.82-0.90 (51-56Ib. / cu.rt.) . By vibration dur-
ing fiJling, a co mpaction of 10-20OJo may be obtained, which thu s modifies th e aboye values
to a corresponding extent.
In a conical pile in bulk, we may generally assume 1OJo higher in density, for sugar under
pressure lb , per 10 m of height of the pile; or 0.7- 1.8OJo per 10m (33 fl.), J.3 - 3.2OJo for 20
m (66 fl.). In Hawaii, a figure of 88 1 kg/ m' is used .
SOlubility of sucrose in water

For a saturated.solution we have th e following relalionships , according to Verhaar';
E = 0.355 (158 - t) (37.1 )
28.162
s= - - - (37.2)
158 - t
10,000 10,000
s (37.3)
100 + E 100 + 0.355 (158 - t)
where:
E = water OJo sucrose
S = sucrose OJo water at the condition of satu ration
S = sucrose OJo of solu tio n
t = temperature of th e solution, in oc.
Table 37.1 gives several va lu es of the solubility of sucrose, as determined by Wise and
Nicholson 3 :
CONTRACTION 833
TABLE 37.1
SOLU81L1TY OF SUCROSE
Tempera/ure ('C)
20 r68'F) 30 r86'F) 40 (/04 ' F) 50 (122"F) 60 (140'F) 70 (158'F) 80 (176'F)
s 66.32 68.20 70.14 72.16 74.24 76.40 78.62

S 196.9 214.5 234 .9 2592 288.2 323.7 367.7
These are the values given by (he equation:
s ~- 62.77 + 0.1706 ( + 0.000 344 (' (37.4)
Charles 4 has given slightly different values, eorresponding ro the equation:
s = 64.4 + 0.0725 ( + 0.002057 (, - 0.000009035 (J (37.5)
In Poland 4 • the equation
s = 68.415 + 0.09559 ( + 0.0004905 (,
has been developed as applieable over the range 89.2°C ~ ( ~ 145.3°C.
. Contraetion
When sugar is dissolved in water, and the solution is diluted, the volume of the resulting solu-
tion is always lower than (he sum of the volumes of its two eomponents.
In the case of solutions of pure sugar, Paar states that this eontraetion is a maximum for
'
a ,oneentration of 57.3070, at whieh it amounts to 10.3 cm' per litre (or approximately 1OJo).
For impUTe solutions (he extent of the contraetion differs, but is generally greater than for
pure solutions.
Filterability
The filterability of eommercial raw sugar is an important quality to the refiner. The term
refers to the ease or otherwise of fillering in lhe refinery the liquors pruduced by dissolving
the raw sugars being Ireated.
The fillerability of a given sugar deperids on its impurities, and partieularly on the follow-
ing components:
Stareh
Waxes
Gums
¡ron and other phosphates
Silica
Certain elements such as Ca, Mg, Al, which are important particularly due to the fact that
they increase viscosity.
834 SUGAR Ch. 37
The sugar manufacturer has litlle means at his disposal for altering the se factors, which
depend on the nature of lhe cane ralher than on factory operation. One faclor by which lhey
can be varied is the washing of the filter cake, after rhe actual filtration: by restricting this
washing and avoiding excess, there is less risk of carrying the waxes on to the manufacture,
as these materials are very unfav ourab le. On Ihe olher hand, il is difficult to eliminale starch
during Ihe defecalion; slarch pass es Ihrough al¡d enlers the sugar cryslal 311d is found prac-
lically inlegral with the finished sugar.
Cane juices may conlain as much as 460 mg of slarch per lilre. A fair proporlion of Ihis,
however, can be eliminaled by centrifuging 6 . Il has also been suggesled in Australia Ihal
sla rch can be eliminated by the action of the nalural enzymes in the juice, by mainlaining
lhe juice al 70°C (158°F) for a cerlain lime, 10- 30 minutes. This procedure has been applied
in Soulh Africa. The starch is lhen depolymerised , while Ihe lempera lure do es nOI permit Ihe
formalion of dexlran.
In Australia, Briggs 7 has found a close correlation belween filterabililY of the sugar pro-
duced and the pH of the cJarified juice; lhese lwo quanlilies vary in the same direction: wti"en
lhe pH dropped from 7.0 lO 6.6, the filterability fell from 50 to 36, while an exceptional pH
of 6.2 gave a filterabilit y of about 20.
The impurities of Ihe crystal are oflen found in Ihe cenlre, when a low-grade sugar such
as C sugar has been used as footing for the cryslal. Further, the impurilies increase from Ihe
centre lowards Ihe periphery, whkh is normal, since Ihe purily of Ihe liquor decreases in Ihe
pan as the crys lal grows. Hence Ihere are two precaulions 10 oblain a sugar of beller
fillerability:
(a) I1 is necessary to remelt the C sugar (and if necessary the Balso) inslead of uling il
as fooling for A and B sugars
(b) It is desirable lO boil a small grain in order lo avoid peripheral impurities: Payne B
recommends 0.2 mm for C sugar and 0.6 for A sugar.
Inclusions in lhe crystal generally occupy 0.2070 of its volume', sometimes as much as
0.4070.
Titre
In French counlries, the value of the sugar is fixed proporlional to it s litre, also called
"rendemenl 2 - 4". This is a formula proposed by Girard in 1876:
Titre = poi - (2r + 4 e) (37.6)
r = reducing suga rs 070 on sugar

e =ash U¡O suga r.
The refinery moreover ded uct s 1070 of th e titre obtained, before multiplying by the price
unit o f titre. This 1OJo is considered to represent the losses in refining other than those caused
by reducing sugar s and ash.
In Australia, the "fiet titre", a very analogous figure, is used:
Net titre = poI - (r + 5e) (37.7)

REFERENCES 835
The E.E.e. has accepted an approximare simpIification:
Titre = 2P - 100
p = poI.
Regularity of grain, The reguJarity of crystal size is expressed by the coerficient of varia-
rion (c,v,). It is given by 100 times the difference between the sizes of screens which retain
16 and 84070 of the sample, divided by twice rhe mean opening (m.a, = mean aperture), that
is, the size of the mesh which rerains 50% of the sample. A good grain 'O has a c.v. of 20- 30;··
a poor one, a ¡'igure above 40.
REFERENCES
/ P. G. WRIOHT ANO E. T. WHITE, Proc. 13th Congr. ISSCT, 1968, p. /706.

/a B. FREE O ANO D. HIBBERT,lnl. Sugar 1.,53 (195/) /03.
/ b 1m. Sugar 1., 80 (19781 297.
3 w. S. WISE ANO E. B. NICHOLSON, Proc. 91h CO/lgr. ISSCT, /956, p. 33/.
4 D. F. CHARLES, 1/11. SlIgar 1.,62 (/960) /26.
4a A. SMELIK, J. VASATKO ANO J. MATEJOVA, Inl. Sugar J., 71 (1969) 90.
5 W. PAAR, Facls abouI Sugar, 3 I (1936) 68.
6 M. C. BENNETT ANO N. O. SCHMIDT, Inl. Sugar J., 61 (1959) 297.
7 J. BRIOOS, Proc. 30lh Conf. QSSCT, 1963,p. /57.
8 J. H, PAYNE, Rev. Agr. Sucril!re !le Maurice, 44 (/965) 234.
9 Inl. Sugar J., 79 (1977) 354.
10 Inl. Sugar J., 76 (/974) 21.
38. Molasses
Density
The true density of molasses is generally of the order of 1.4 -1.5; but it normally comains
fine air bubb1es entrained during the fug a1ling process and a1so picked up by friction every
time the molasses isdischarged in a fine stream imo a tank. These air bubbles escape only
very slowly, particularl y when they are very fine, and it is necessary to take them into account
in any figure for den sit y .
In Jamaica', it is generally estimated that the included air represents 10-15 070_of the
volume of the molasses. The volume of air moreover is greater when the molasses has been
handled repeated1y. We s hould ta ke preferably:
10OJo for light molasses

¡SOJa for heavy molasses
In Antigua', it was customary to s ubtract 5% of the theoretic a l weighl, bUl a careful check
has indic ated lhat il would sometimes be necessary lO allow 17OJo or more .
Il is therefo re impossible lo have a precise conlrol o n a volume basis. This can only be ob-
lained by weighing the molasses.
Several good lypes of automalic scale are available for weighing molasses. Such a scale re-
quire s an aulomatic correction for tare, lO lak e inlo accounl the film of molasses which re-
main s adhering lO the tank when it is emptied.
Viscosity
Viscosity is a most important property, since the viscosity which can be handled is lhe
limiting factor in the practical exhaust ibilily of molasses.
_. The viscosily of molasses increases rapidly as its temperature decreases. [t is estimaled J
that the viscosity al lemperatures of 50,45, 40°C is respectively proportional lO lhe figures
1, 2, 3. In other words, lhe viscosily of the molasses is approximalely Ihree times as high al
40°C (l40°F) as il is al 50°C (l22°F).
Viscosity increa ses equally rapidJ y with the brix.
Vi scos ity also in creases with lhe proportion of air entrapped in lhe form of fine bubbles
in the molasses. For example., Wilh 10OJo and 200/0 by volume of entrapped air, the viscosity
ma y be respec tively 15% and SO% higher than it would be in lhe abse nce of included airo
[¡ is ¡hu., advi., able wavoid di5charge o f fin al o r o¡he r molasscs imo a ¡ank in a fine s!ream,
a s ¡hi s di scharge en!rains air al lhe comaCl of thi s fine s¡ream wilh lhe li q ui d in the tank.
Molasses should f10w by an inclined guller eX lending lO lhe bOlton! of Ihe lank which is lO
b.e filJed .
STORAGE 837
Storage
Slored belween 30 and 35°e (86 - 95°F), molasses would lose 2 - 3070 per year of ils fermen-
table sugars'.
lf Ihe temperalure of storage is increased by looe (l8°F), this loss would be quadrupled.
Molasses stored in tanks has in several cases undergone explosive decomposition with sud-
den liberation of heat. The causes of this phenomenon have·never been fully unravelled, but
il has always followed a more or less lenglhy period of heating 10 40 0 e (104°F) or higher.
1I is Ihus necessary to walch Ihe molasses in slorage to ensure thal its lemperature does not
altain thar limiL
_Quantity of molasses in manufacture

11 is useful to know lhe quantity of molasses to be obtained from the massecuite and syrups
in stock at the end of the week, in order to oblain an accurate figure for sugar lost in
molasses.
In each of these products we may calculate the quantity of sugar to be obtained, given by
(ef. p. 839):
s U - m)
º = ) (s - m)
The corresponding quantity of molasses will thus be:
M = 1
sU m)
(38.1)
j (s m)
and, equating sugar with sucrose:
) - m m (l - J)
M = l (38.2)
) (s - m) ) (1 - m)
Assuming m = 40, we have, for examp!e, for ¡he severa! massecuites:
40 (100 - J) 2 100 - ) 2 x 15
A massecuite, purity = 85: M = 12%
60) 3 ) 3 x 85
B massecuite, purity 70: M = 2 x 30 = 28.6%

3 x 70
e massecuite, purity = 58: M = 2 x 42 = 48%

3 x 58
REFERENCES
I G. T. MAcDoNALD. Inl. Sugar J .• 46 (1944) 23.

o
2 G. T. WARREN, In/. SlIgar J., 47 (t945) 316.

3 A. SCHOUTEN, D. R. PARASHAR AND T. P. SAXENA, Inl. Sugar J .• 47 (1945) 192.
4 W. S. GRAHAM, Sugar Milling Res. Insl .• S. Africa, Q. Bull., 10 (1959) 104.
5 G. P. MEADE, Cane Sugar Handbook, 9lh edn., Wiley, New York, 1963, p. 273.
39. Boiling-House Control
Recovery
The lerm "boiling house" designales lhe whole of. rhe facrory excepr lhe milling sration, [har
is lo say, lhe loral of c\arification, evaporation, pan slation, cryslallisers and cenlrifugals.
Control of the milling plant has been already discussed in Chapo 21, in which the main
figure discussed was the extraction, defined as:
sucrose in mixed juice "70 cane

Extraction e
sucrose entering the milis % cane
The control of the boiling house commences at the point where control of the milling plant
finishes, that is, at the mixed juice.
The efficiency of the boiling house is defined in a manner analogous to thar of the mili'
plant. The term "boiling-house recovery" indicates the ratio of the sucrose obrained in lhe
sugar manufactured to that entering in the mixed juice.
slIcrose obrained in sugar manufactured "70 cane

Boili~lg-house recovery r
sucrose in mixed juice % cane
"Overall recovery" 15 the total efficiency of the factory:
sucrose obtained in sugar manufactured % cane

Overall recovery er
sucrose entering the milis % cane
Returning to the boiling house, it is seen that the recovery takes into account the following
losses:
..
Loss of sugar in fi!ter cake
Loss of sugar in molasses
Undetermined losses (Ieakages, entrainment, inversion, etc.).
Noel Deerr's SJM formula

Starting from a primary material, which may be clarified juice, syrup, or niassecuite, of puri-
ty j, we recover from this, sugar of purity s, in the ratio of Q per unit weight of dry subslance
in the primary material under consideration; molasses of purity In is also oblained. We shall
equate the weight of sucrose present in the primary material lO the weight of sucrose
recovered in rhe sugar and molasses obtained. Expressing all quanlities in lerms of unit
weight of dry substance in the primary material, we have:
l X j = Qs + (1 - Q)m
NOEL DEERR'S SJM FORMULA 839
Hence:
Q = -s ----mm
j
or :
• Qs sU m)
j j (s m)
Now:
Qs su c ros e co nlained in lhe sug ar obtained
j = sucrose co ntained in the primary material.
Then:
Qs/j = sucrose which should be extracred fr om rhe juice under considerarion for unir
sucrose conrained in rhar juice, if the re is no loss of sucrose during the operarion.
In other wo rd s, we shall have :
º = js-"-(sU -
m)
...,.
m)
(39.1)
º = reco very from this openlrion.
COl11menls. (1) This formula assumes thar rrue puri ti es are empl oyed. Deerr co mmenrs
rhar ir may be co nsidered accurare if s, j, and m are expressed in apparenr puriries, or any
other purity, on co ndition that the three puriries are expressed in the same manner . H owever ,
rhis is nor acc ur a re, especially for apparent purities; hence ir should preferably be used with
" rrue .puri ties, or wirh grav iry puriries if rhese are nor available.
(2) In the Phili pp ines it has been commented thar, in regard to payment of growers on
recoverab le sugar (and a lso for comparisol1 for cane varieties), it wo ul d be mo re accurate,
instead of usil1g for all ca ne a mean or fixed value of m,to replace it by a val ue:
m' = (100 - J)0.4 + K (39.2)
J = puriry of fir st expressed jui ce.o f the ca ne analysed

K = a COl1sral1r, for example, 28.57 (or other suitable loca l value).
This comment appears logi cal.
For example, with K = 33:
(a) J = 88, m' (004 x 12) + 33 = 37 .8

(b) J = 82, m' (004 x 18) + 33 = 40.2
(3) The va lue o f Q aboye represenrs the dry substance in sugar OJo dry subsrance in prim a ry
mat erial (syrup, fo r example). We have rhen:
840 . BOILING-HOUSE CONTROL Ch. 39
j m
Dry substance in sugar % dry substance in syrup (393)
s m
Example.
j = 85
s = 99
m = 40
j m 85 40 45
= 40
76.27%
s m 99 59
Hence dry substance in molasses = 23.73% of dry substance in syrup, and lhe yield of sugar
from a massecuile:
j m
B (39.4)
s m
B = brix of massecuite.
Winter - Carp formula

Formula (39.1) assumes lhal there exists an ideal purily of molasses, mo, which would
represent a perfect perrormance in lhe boiling house. The ideal boiling-house recovery is
lhen: -.
sU mol
eo =
j (s
In Java, a value of 28.57 had been adopted ror this ideal molasses purity. The sucrose
recoverable in percentage then becomes:
eo = 100 -,-
1O
j (100
,::-'_~2-:-
-,-,0-:cU 8 ._57-,-)
28.57)
100 (14 _ ~O) (39.5)
This is lhe simple Winter - Carp rormula.

We may comment that if we use a standard value or 85 for j in this formula, it becomes:
100 (85 - 28.57)

= 93%
85 (100 - 28.57)
Influence of molasses purity on recovery

It is interesting tO know what gain coul d be expected by illl imlxovemenl (111ill is 10 sa \' , il
decrease) of 1 poinl in Ihe purily of Ihe molasses, or inversely whal loss 1V0uld be sufrered
by an increa se 01" I poinl in Ihe molasses purity.
INVERSION LOSSES 841
In eqn. (39.1), substituting s 1, we have:
d¡¿ 1 - j
(39,6)
dm j (1 - m)2
Taking for j the standard value of 85, we have:
d¡¿ 0.1765
dm (1 - m)2
For m 40: d¡¿/dm 0.49

For m 30: d¡¿/dm 0.36
In olher words, one point in molasses purilY (passing from 36 lO 35, for example, or con-
versely) corresponds to a gain or a los s of about 0.36 - 0.500/0 in the recovery, or
0.34 - 0.46% of the sugar made; say, of the order of 0.4%.
Inversion losses
In the course of the crystallisation process in the factory, that is, between the syrup and the
finished sugar, there are inevitably losses by inversion. These depend mainly on the pH and
the temperature of ¡he mOlher liquor. The pH of the massecuites, for example, is of the order
of:
A massecuite: 5.8 - 6.8

B massecuite: 5.6-6.5
e massecuite: 5.5-6.4
,Honig' considers that these losses, by the nature of the crystallisation processes
themselves, cannot be less than 0.4% of the sucrose present in the syrup. This is an inevitable
loss, which is included in the "undetermined losses".
e massecuite per tonne non-sucrose. Jt appears that the quantity·of e massecuite per tonne
of non-sugar in mixed juice should be approximately 1,650 1 (non-sucrose being calculated
as refractometric brix minus sucrose).
Tbeoretical recovery
It is interesting to compare the a ct'u a 1 recov,ery obtained by the factory with the theoretical
recovery which it should be able to obtain. In order to calculate this, losses in filter cake and
undetermined losses are assumed as zero, since they are low and could theoretically be reduc-
ed to zero. Onthe other hand, the loss in molasses is substantial (it is generally the highest
of the four losses) and unavoidable. Since the purity of the primary material, the mixed juice
(say j) is known, and the purities of the two final materials, sugar (s) and molasses (m) are
also known, the theoretical recovery is immediately obtained by the formula. of Deerr:
842 BOILING-HOUSE CONTROL Ch. 39
s~U _ _m...:..) x 100 (39.7)

j (s m)
lf the control is well conducted and the weights are accurate, the theoretical recovery r,
wil! obviously be greater than the acrual recovery r. The differenee be[\Veen these [\VO figures
expresses the losses incurred apart from that in molasses.
Basic recovery
It is, ho\Vever, equally valuable ro compare the loss occurring in molasses \Vith [hat which
would ha ve occurred if it had been possible to pursue rhe exhaustion of molasses [O [he lowest
purity figure obtainable. To express this we assume a molasses purity m of 28.57 and a sugar
of purity s = lOO, which leads us 10 the Winter- Carp formula:
(39.8)
j gravity purity of the mixed juice.
Equivalent Standard Granulated

However, two fac[ories making two qualities of sugar 01' different polarisations would nól
have the same efficieney, even in rerms of sucrose, sinee ir is l11ueh easiel [O a[rain a given
exhaustion in raw sugar rhan in refined sugar, for example. Deerr has aeeordingly crea[ed
the idea of "Equivalent Standard Granulaled" (E.S.G.l. This is Ihe quanlilY 01' sucrose
which could rheorerically be obtained from a sugar of purity s, assuming always an ideal puri-
ry of final molasses of 28.57. It thus has rhe value:
G = 100 (1.4 _ :0) (39.9)
G = E.S.G.
s = purity of the raw sugar made.
If s = 99, for example, G = 99.60.
'By substituring the E.S.G. for the sugar actually made, or, in orher "'ords, by multiplying
the quan[ity of sugar made by G, factories making sugars of different qualilY are Ihus put
on an equal footing.
If a factory making sugar of puriry 99 has a yield of 12, irs yield in E.S.G. will rherefore be:
12 x 0.9960 = 11.952
Recovery E.S.G,
Hence we have rhe concept of "recovery E.S.G. ", which has rhe object of eliminating Ihe
disturbing influence of the sugar quality, and does this by replacing the yield of sucrose in
the numerator of the expression for recovery r, by the yield in E.S.G.:
REDUCED RECOVERY E.S.G. 843
r = r X G
•
Reduced recovery E.S.C.
When a faetory is handlingjuiee of higher purity, it obtains a higher reeovery, as lhe formula
of Deerr shows immedialely. The effeet of juiee purity on recovery is analogous to that of
fibre on extraetion. The figure "redueed reeovery" has aeeordingly been established,
analogous to reduced extraetion, ehoosing as standard purity the Clerget figure of ) = 85.
This has been applied as follows:
To avoid the eomplication of handling the three losses in the boiling house, the loss in filter
eaks and undetermined losses have been grouped with the molasses 1055, by calculating ilJic-
titious molasses purity under the term "virtual purity" (v), which itself would give lhe
recovery E.S .G. obtained (r,) if the other losses were ni!. In this case we would have:
= 100 U v) x 100 (39.10)

r, )(100 - v)
whence:
100) (100 - r)
v I (39.11)
10,000 - )r
•
The recovery which would have been obtained with this virtual moJa sses purity v and a
juice purity at the standard value of 85 would be:
100 x 100(85 v)
(39.12)
85 (100 v)
or;;r~placing v by it s value (eqn. (39./1»:
3) (100 - r)
r = 100 - , (39.13)
8SND 17 (100 - ))
This is the expression which the ISSCT had adopted as international comparison for
recovery figures.
COl71ments. The concept of virtual purity is not usefuJ for deriving thi s formula (39. /3).
It is simpler to work as follows: Let: '
r . = recovery of cane obtained with purity)
1
r" = recovery of cane obtained with purity 85.
In order that these two reco very figures should agree, we write that they should give the
same yield of sucrose lost "70 non-sucrose in mixed juice:
QB) (1 ~ r) ) (l - r)
-=-_,..,..-_-,'-1 = 1
QB (l -)) ,' I -)
844 BOlUNG-HOUSE CONTROL Ch. 39
Q = weight of mixed juice % cane

B = brix of mixed j uice
j purity of mixed juice.
We have then:
j (1 - r) 85 (1 - r )
ss
1 - j
}
- ----
15
-
Hence:
3j(l-r)
T 1 _ }
S5
17 (1 - j)
Reduced recovery E.S.G. Gundu Rao
The formula of Noel Deerr has be en criticized beca use the correction takes intü consideration
aH clarification and boiJing house losses, while the loss in final molasses is the only one in-
fluenced by the juice purity. Gundu Rao, desirous of correcting this deficiency, separated
the loss in final molasses from the other losses and stated that only the former had to be cor-
rected and brought down to the value it should have been if the juice purity had been 85.
Let T" GR be the reduced recovery so required. The total boiling house lesses are:
T = lOO - r
E
TE = actual boiling house recovery, ESG.

They inc[ude:
(a) The los s in final molasses:
a lOO _ 100 lOO (J - M)

J (lOO - M)
(b) The other los ses (in filter cake, undetermined etc.):
b = T - a = lOO - T _ (100 _ lOO 100 (J - M))

E
J--e- CC(lC-;OO-O:-O-_---:-M-;cc)
We will reduce the first formula to the value a' which it would have had if the juice purity
had been 85. We have then:
T"GR lOO - (b + a')
100(J-Ml) 100(85-Ml]
100 - [100 - TE ( lOO - 100 J (lOO _ M) + lOO - lOO 85 (100 - M)
REDUCED RECOVERY E.S.O. GUNDU RAO 845
whence:
100 100 (J - M) + 100 100 (85 M)

r,
J (100 - M) 85 (100 - M)
100 M 85 - J
r + (39.14)
, 100 - M 0.85 J
The Reduced Recovery ESO Oundu Rao is an improvement on the Reduced Rec overy ESO
Noel Deerr since it takes inco accounl only lhe final molasses loss, which is the only loss in-
f1uenced by lhe juice purity. lt has been criticized, however, for taking into account the whole
of lhe non-sucrose contained in the juice (100 - J), while only the non-sucrose remaining
in the molasses should be considered. Another shortcoming proceeds from using the gravity
purity M of these molasses which is very different from the true purity M'.
Let us try to find the proportion of non-sucrose left in the final molasses. The respective
amounts are:
In final molasses: NSm = yBm (lOO - M)
In juice: NS} = qB.} (lOO - 1)
On account of the difference between the refractometric Brix Bm and the actual dry solids
OSm of the molasses, it is advisable to replace Bm by OSm . If DSm has not been determined,
one can merely
.
use the close approximation OSm = 0.96 B m . Similarly the molasses gravity
purity M should be substituted for the true purity M', or, if M' is unknown, M should be
multiplied by 1.2: M' = 1. 2M. The proponion of non-sucrose is then:
yOSm (100 M') 0.96yBm (lOO - 1.2M)

Accurate: A Approximate: A =
qB.) (lOO J) , qBj (100 - J)
>- ratio of final molasses non-sucrose to mixed juice non-sucrose

y weight of final molasses aJo cane .
q weight of mixed juice aJo cane
Bm refractometric Brix of final molasses
OSm dry solids aJo final molasses
B. }
refractometric Brix of mixed juice
M = gravity purity of final molas ses
M' = true purity of final molas ses
J = gravity purity of mixed j uice.
846 BOILING-HOUSE ~CONTROL Ch. 39
Whence:
'S5 GR
,
g +
100M' •
85 - J •
Y DSIn (100 - M')
100 M' 0.85J qB (100 - J)
J
(39.15)
, g +
100M' (85 - J) yDSm
0.85J (100 - J) qB
J
120M 85 - J 0.96yB (lOO - 1.2 M)

'S5 GR 'g + ~~ ______
100 - 1.2M
.
0.85J
. ____~m~~__~~--
qB.J (100 - J)
(39.16)
115M(85 - J) yBm
, +
g 0.85 J (100 - J) qBj
As this is the boiling house efficiency which must be assessed, we must start from the mixed
juice and not from the clear juice, since the purity and dry solids of the lalter have already
benefited from the qualily of the clarification.
ISSCT rules imply the factor 100 instead of 120 in formula (39.16). The factor 115 is an
approximation, but leads to a more realistic resulto
Example. Let: , g = 90 , q = 100 , Y = 3 , M = 38 , B m 85, DSm 81.6, J = 88, Bj

14, M' = 45.
100 X 45 (88 - 85) 3 X81.6

rss GR 90 - 90 - 2.63 87.37
0.85 X 88 X 12 100 X 14
115 X 38 (88 - 85) 3 X 85

'S5 GR = 90 - 90 - 2.66 87.34
0.85 X 88 X 12 100 X 14
These figures show the error which would have been made in the correction if [he gravity
purity had been used instead of the true purity, since the 115 factor would be replaced by 100.
The nOn-sucrose fraction for the final molasses is around 0.8 in ordinary defecation. With
sulphitation and especially carbonatation, it would come down to 0.65, 0.60 or even 0.50"
General reduced recovery, E.S.G.

This has the value:
R = e12 .1 X 'SI GR (39.17) .
This expression takes into account al! the factors which are liable to affec[ [he true overa!1
recovery of a sugar factory: fibre in cane, purity of juice, quali[y of sugar. The only item
which it does no[ take into account in the panicular composilion 01 lhe impuri[ies, and this
must be taken into consideration as qualifying the remar k jusI maje.
REDUCED RECOVERY E.S.O. GUNDU RAO 847
Boiling-house performance
This figure as a crilerion of efficiency is obtained by expressing recovery E.S.O. (eqn.
(39.10)) as a fraclion of basic recovery (39.8). The laller figure depends on lhe purilY of juice,
and lhus on lhe proponion of non-Iugars. The boiling-house performance has been criticised
in Soulh Africa' as nOI taking inlo account the composition of this non-sugar, which can
ha ve a marked influence on the boiling-house result, and that country has accordingly decid-
ed lO disconlinue use of lhe expression.
Non-sucrose
In addilion lO checking lhe sucrose throughout lhe manufacture, it is interesting to follow
lhe non-sugar, from lhe quanlity inlroduced with lhe mixed juice.
In South Africa, for example, Douwes Dekker has inlroduced accounting of the non-sugar
in the mUlual conlrol of lhe various faclOries and draws interesting conclusions from it.'
Non-sucrose is defined as the difference between the brix and the sucrose (or the poI), per
100 Gf brix.
During the manufacture, the non-sucrose undergoes the following changes:
(a) Part is eliminated in the clarification.
(b) During the clarification, on the other hand, an excess of lime or other material in-
lroduced for trealing the juice or the syrup leads to an increase in the pro portian of non-
sugar.
(e) During the clarification and lhe concentration, inversion tends to increase the non-
sucrose al the expense of the sucrose. However, due to excess alkalinity, particularly during
the pre-liming, a cerrain pro portian of reducing sugars (and hence of non-sucrose) may be
destroyed, and par! of this may moreover be eliminated.
lf finally the quantity of non-sucrose leaving the factory in sugar and molasses is assessed,
Douwes Dekker considers that it would normally represent, in South Africa, 8J % of the non-
sucrase present in mixed juice. A lower value would generally indica te effective control of
manufacture. A higher figure would indicate excess lime, inversion, and, particularly, ex ces s
recirculation or remelting in lhe boiling system adopted.
Comparison of lhis ratio with losses in filter cake, molasses, and undetermined losses may
allow one lO detecI whelher bad work in the boiling house is due toinversion, or to a too
high purity of the molasses. It may be considered that the losses in molasses are proportional
to this ratio. By reducing this ratio from 90 to 81 %, for example, a loss of 9 in molasses
may be reduced to 8.1.
These values correspond to gravimetric brix; they would be different if the brix were deter-
mined by refraclOmeter.
It is found in South Africa' that, considering t~e ratio of tOlal non-sugars in molasses and
sugars to non-sugars in clarified juice, and considering only those factories utilising refrac-
tometric brix, the ratio is approximately 0.83.
Assessment of non-sucrose leaving is particularly useful when the weight of molasses is
known accurately. If the weight of molasses for example is too high, an exaggerated figure
will be found for non-sucrose leaving; from this an error in the vaJue of undetermined losses
may be detected: if these are low, it is because the figure for weight of molasses is too high.
We have here also a means of seeing whether excessive undetermined losses are due to en-
trainment or to inversion.
848 . BOlLINO,HOUSE CONTROL Ch. 39
Brix balance
In the same way, a brix balance may be made, from mixed juice to sugar and molasses.
Reducing-sugar balance
It is useful to work out a reducing-suga r balance, as for non-sucrose and brix balances.
I f the reducing sugars in mixed juice are taken as equal to lOO, Douwes Dekker l considers
that, since some is always decomposed in the course of lime addition, there will remain
90 - 95 in the c!arified juice. On the other hand,. some reducing sugars are formed during the
evaporation, and the figure will thus increase 10 92 or 97. During Ihe sugar boiling, reducing
sugars are both formed and destroyed. Finally , the quantity of reducing sllgars in molas ses
is generally higher than in c!arified juice, bUI Douwes Dekker considers Ihal il should nOI
be higher than in míxed juice.
High undetermined Josses, combined with high figures for non-sucrose leav ing and for
reducing sugars leaving, indi ca te high losses by inversion.
However, since 95 parts of sucrose give 100 of inven suga r, inversion increases Ihe undeter-
mined losses of sucrose but decreases the undetermined losses of bri x.
Standard control system for the sugar factory

We give below the method of calculation for factory control acco rding to the recommenda-
tians of the International Society af Sugar Cane Technologists.
Dala
Brix Poi Sucrose Apparen( Gravity MoiSlllre Suspended

purity purily malería!
Primary juice S, I '

2nd-mili juice S,
Residual juice p
Mixed juice B Sm j J'
Final molasses z 111
Final bagasse u h
Filler cake v
Raw sugar s
Weighl 0/0 on cane

Cane crushed e 100
Mixed jUlce ob¡ain ed Q q
Imbibition water used W w
Weight of filter cake x
W eight of final molasses y
Suerose 10sI in molasses a¡o cane E
Suerose recove red cr¡o cane Z
REDUCED RECOVERY E.S.C. GUNDU RAO 849
Calculation of material balance for week (or season) by weights of cane and products.
TOlal weight % on cane
Q 100 - l'
J. Corrected weighl or mixed juice: Q' = 100
2. Brix % bagasse: n J 00 :!.
p
3. fibre % bagasse: g 100 - h - n
4. Bagasse produced: P = C + w- Q
5. Bagasse % cane: b = 100 ~

C
bg Pg
6. Fibre in bagasse % cane: fa = 100
= -
C
Cfo Pg
7. Fibre leaving milis: Fb -
100 100
Qf'
8. Brix passing inlo mixed j uice: F'
100
9. Fibre in cane: F Fó + F'
10. Fibre % cane: f 100 ~

C
11. 1mbibition % ribre: 100 w
F
Pu
12, Sucrose in bagasse: U = 100
13. Brix losl in bagasse: N = P~
100
14. Sucrose in mixed juice: T = Q' t
100
·B
15. Bri x in mixed juice: M = Q' 100
16. Sucrose in cane: R T+ U
17 . Absolule juice: A = C-F

18. Sucrose % absolute juice: 1 100 R
A
100 M + N
19. Brix or absolute juice: a = A
20. Purily or absolule juice: 100 ~
, a
/
850 BOILING-HOWE CONTROL Ch. 39
21. Abso lute juice extracted: J = 100 M

a
22. Abso lute juice extracled % cane: k 100,{

e
23. M ixed juice (corrected) % ca ne: q' = 100 Q'
e
24 . Dilulion % cane: d q - k
25. Im bibi lion water in bagasse % caoe: IV - d
26. Sucrose % cane: r 100 ~

e
Xv
27. Sucrose (or poI) in cake:
100
yz Yz.
28. Sucrose in molasses: E ~
100 looe
Milis
29. Suerose extracted % cane: c = lOO!.

e
U
30. Sucrose in bagasse % cane: 100 _ .
e
T
31. Extraetion: e = lOO -
R
32. Reduced-ext ra clion Mitt al Rein: e I ~.~ . 1 2.~

100 _ 12.5 (100 - e) (_!...... )o.•
f 12.5
33. Milling loss (sucrose/fibre): 100 ~

g
34. Extrae tion coeffic ie nt: 100 100 - e

f
(S", - S,) S, e
35. First -mill extraction: el =
(S, - S,) S",
100E
36. Molasses ind ex:
100 ~ -c
j
Boiling hou se
37. Recovery: 100 ~

c
REFERENCES 851
38. Theoretieal reeovery:

sU m)
100
X
j (s m)
39. Basie reeovery: L = 100 ( 1.4 :0 )
40. Equivalent Standard Granulated: G 100 (1.4 :0)
41. Yield E.S.G.: H = GZ

100
42. Reeovery E.S.G.: K 100 H

e
K + 115 m (85 - j)
43. Redueed reeovery E.S.G.:
0.85 j (100 - j) qB
44. Boiling-house effieieney: 100 ~

L
Üverall performance
45. Overall-reeovery E.S.G.: 100 H

r
e J2 . 5, J2.5 X TS5
46. Redueed overall-reeovery E.S.G.:
100
N.B. The Rein eorreetion in the Mittal redueed extraetion (No. 32) and our eorreeted Gun-
du Rao formula (No. 43) are still not included in the ISSCT reeommendation, but appear
logieal and desirable.
REFERENCES
1 P. HONIO. Principies o/ Sugar Technology, Vol. If, Elsevier, Amslerdam, 1959, p. 193.
2 C. G. M. PERK, Proc. 43rd Conf. SASTA, 1969, p. 6.
2a H. S. YANO, T.S.J., 48 (April 1984) 12.
J K. DOUWES DEKKER, Proe. 37th Conf. SASTA, 1963, p. 20.
4 G. M. PERK, Proc. 44th Conf. SASTA, 1970, p. 6.
5 K. DOUWES DEKKER, Proc. 39th Conf. SASTA, 1965, p. 18.
40. Vacuum Equipment
The multiple effect and the pans in a sugar faclOry ope rate under vacuum. Suitable equip-
ment to produce this vacuum is therefore required.
The commonest arrangement of this equipm ent is as shown in Fig. 40.1. With the aid otO
an air pump, vacuum is produced in an enclosed vessel called a condenser, whi ch COIll-
muni ca tes with the vcssels 10 be main taincd under vacu um. Cold waler is pumped inlo Ihis
condenser to ensure condensation of the vapou r coming from the pans or from lhe multiple
effect. The condenser is pla ced al such a heighl that lhe water, after serving to condense Ih e
vapo ur, ca n fl ow out by gravily logelher wi th lhe co ndensed vapour. The condenser is t.hu s .
a barometric chamber, extended at the bollOm by a barometric column dipping into a w'en-"":~
open to a tm osphere . Since the vacuum approaches within lO or 20070 of perfect vacuu m, and
Conde nse,..
A-=-)¡ -~
,t i
To..._m_u l~t~;p~le~e=f=fe=c~t5~~~a~n=-d=-~p_a=-n=-=-=-~:1=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-~~i__'\~
L
2!
o
3
"O
o
U
r'---------;:--------:-------1~
Spray pond Air purnp
Fig .40.1 . VaCl1um SYSlern.

vAduUM SYSTEMS 853
since Ihe liquid in Ihe baromeler is waler (and nol mercury), Ihe heighl of Ihe column should
be of Ihe order of lO m (inslead of 76 cm):
0.76 !TI x 13.6 = 10.33 m
where 13.6 = densilY of mercury relalive to water.

When cold waler is not available in sufficient quanlity, lhe warm waler leaving lhe column
is pumped lO a cooling pond, from which il relurns at a lower lemperature, and is returned
lO lhe condenser as cooling waler, and so describes a dosed cyde.
V ACCUM SYSTEMS
The vacuum inslallation in a sugar faclory mal' be more or less complexo
(1) Central condenser and air pump

The simplesl syslem consisls of cenlralising lhe whole inslallation at one poinl or in one par!
of the faclorl'. We have then a single air pump, a single pump for cold waler, ancl a single
condenser for lhe \Vhole faclory. We have seen (p. 685) lhe drawbacks of Ihis syslem, bul
also have indicated (p. 686) lhal Ihere are cases where il may be advantageous.
(2) Individual condenser and air pump

Manl' faclories, wilh good reason, prefer to provide a vacuum inslallalion for each vessel
lO be served: one for lhe muItiple effect, anu one for each vacuum pan. Somelimes, however,
two or lhree pans may be served by lhe one inslallation.
(3) Individual condenser with cenlral air pump

Anolher method is lo provide as many individual condensers and baromelric columns as
desired, and lO connecl lhe several condensers lO a single cenlral air pump.
lll'~q¡s_~.qs", if il is necessary to regulate lhe vacuum in lhe several condensers separalely,
it is necessarj:
(a) That lhe air pump should work at a vacuum higher Ihan the highest vacuum soughl
in Ihe various condensers and other vessels concerned.
(b) Thal the various condensers should be connected lo lhe punip by air piping of cross-
section no larger than necessary.
(e) That each of these connecling pipes should be provided with a val ve lhe seclion of
which should advantageousll' be somewhat smaller lhan thal of lhe pipe and which will serve
10 regulate lhe vacuum in the condenser concerned. For a fine and more slable control, a
by-pass may al so be installed around Ihis val ve, with an auxiliary valve of even smaller sec-
lion.
(á) JI is also wise lO install a conneclion with a valve belween lhe air pipe from lhe con-
densers which normally operale al lower vacua anAhe vapour enlry from lhe condensers
operaling under higher vacuum, which are served by air píping of larger cross-seclion.
Allhough normally dosed, lhis conneclion can be very useful in lhe case of abnormal enlry
of air inlo lhe former condensers (Fig. 40.2).
854 VA CUU M EQUIPMENT Ch . 40
6 in. diorn. 4 in. diom .
(2) Valve does not open unless

A ~ hlgh vacuum ~
v acuum falls when valve
15 w lde open
®
o Norm a!ly closed
B -= adju stabl e vacuum
r------'
Water
I ~
= o Valve tor fine control
® Double- seated a tr ~actuo{ed

valve
B
I -
,
.1
I
I
11 G';) I Relay I
I,-,L----} ~mJl
Ajr
I
LJ
I ON.80
Purge pot
Ajr pump
Fig . 40.2. Conneclion or individual cOlld enser s.
General values of the vacuum

lt is possibJe to oblain induslri ally very high vacu a, exceeding 75 cm (29; in.) for a barometric
pressure of 76 cm (30 in.). H oweve r, in lhe sugar factory, the vacuum soughl or found in
practi ce va ries belween 60 and 68 cm, and generally between 63 and 66 cm.
If Ihe factory is located al an appreciable allitude, lhe foregoing valu es should be
multiplied by lhe ratio H/76 of the lo ca l baromelric heighl 10 the normal height.
Evacuation of air
Vacuum ean onl y be maintained by eonlinual rem ova l of [he air mixed with Ihe vapour and
due particularly to the inevitable leaks exist ing in the vesse ls and the piping . If evacua lion
of this air ceas ed, lhe air wouJd accumulale, and the vacuum would fall rapidly in spire of
(he cond ensalion of lhe vapour.
To this air, originating from leakages a nd va ri ous other so urces whi ch \Ve shall see laler
(p. 868), is adcled moreover oth er inconclensable gases originaling in the juice. We speak of
THE CONDENSER 855
the mi xture (air + other incondensables gases) by designating it sometimes "inconden-

sables", sometimes "air". We shall emplo y th e latter term, on the under standin g that it ap -
pljes to aH the incondensable gases acco mpan ying the vapour reaching the co nd ens er. Thjs
moreo ver is more legitimate in the ca ne sugar factory, since air supplies practica Hy the whoJe
of the incondensable gases, gene rally 98 - 990/0.
We shall study in turn:
(1) The condenser, or the apparatus for effecti ng condensation of the vapour.
(2) The air pump, which ellsures remo val of th e airo
(3) Th e barometric column, by whi ch the cooling water, together with the condensed vapour,
is discharged.
(4) Th e water pumps inj ecting cold water into the condenser, or returning warm water to the
coo ling sys tem.
(5) The cooling system whi ch com pletes the water cycle by removin g from it the hea t which
it has picked up in the condense r.
THE CONDENSER
The condenser is th e closed vessel in which the co ntact between the vapour ro be co ndensed
and the cooling water is effected.
Several types of condenser a re distinguished:
(1) From the point of view of rh e mean s of extraction of the air:
(a) Wet air condensers, where rh e mixed air and water are extracted togerher.
(b) Dr y air condensers, where rhe wa ter and the air are removed separa tel y (Figs. 40.4 - 6,
40.8).
('~v
-
Water Water
~
Vopour
--
Air
~-
¡
Fig. 40 .3. Dry air para!lel-currem condenser. Fig. 40.4. Dr y air counler· curren ( co ndenser.
,.
..
856 V ACUUM EQU!PMEN-T Ch. 40
~~ ter
.
VO pOUi
.
Vapour
Pump
Wor m water
Fig. 40.5. Sh o r! counl er-current con denser. Fig . 40.6. Baro meHic CO lllller-curren[ condenser.
Water
•
Vopour' Vapour
~
•
Air
Fig. 40.7. We\ aír [)arallel-currenl co nde ns er (je t co nde nse-r) . Fig. ~O .R. Dr y air p<l ra llel-nlrren! conden ser.
THE CONDENSER 857
(2) From Ihe point of view of the means o f extraction of the water:
(a) Short condensers, with extraetion by a pump (Fig. 40.5).
(b) Long or barometric cond ensers, with removal of water by gravity (Fig. 40.6) .
(3) From the point of view of the method of air circulali on :
(a) Co-current condensers, som etim es wrongl y called paralIel cu rrent condensers, in which
water and air circul a te in the sa me direct ion (Fi gs . 40.3, 40.7 and 40.8).
(b) Counter-current co nden se rs, in which water and air circulate in opposite dir ect io ns
(Figs. 40.4 - 6). A counter-curre nt co ndenser is obviously a dr y air condenser.
The types enco untered almost exclus ively at the present da y in the sugar factory are the
folJowing:
(a) Dry ai r, cou nter-cu rrent , barometric condensers
(b) Dry air, co-cur renl , barometric condensers
(e) Wet ' ai r, co-cu rrent , barometric condensers without air pump (jet condensers).
We shalI pay attention more particularly to the dry air co unter- currenl barometric con-
denser, which is the general Iype. We shalJ compare it with the co-c urrent condenser, and
shall exam ine separately jet condensers, whic h are wet air co-current, baro metr ic conde nsers.
We shall mention briefly certain interesting spec ial types, and shall omit co nsiderat ion of ob-
solele types or those which are not o f praclical interest.
Height of the condenser

The condenser is a device for exchange of hea t bet ween vapour and cold wa ter. The exc hange
will be Ihe more complete as contact between these two fluids is more intimate. Thus the
result will depend on the surface offered by the wa ter and on the time of contac!. The area
o f co nt ac t depends on the course of the wa ter, a nd on its degree of subdivisio n. The time
of co ntact depends mainl y on the height of the co nden ser and the number of stages or of
baffles provided to break up Ih e fall of the wa ler in 10 numerous small streams. At eac h such
baffle, the molecules al the surface are replaced, and heat exchange is thu s impro ved.
':H:6we\ier, the int erva l between baffles is limited by the necessi ly of alJowing an adequa te a rea
for the passage of vapour. Hence, for a given method of breaking up th e water, the height
of the body of the co nden ser must exceed a certain minimum, lO obtain a n adeq uate efficien-
cy of heat exc ha nge. Deerr' gives:
H = 4.50 m (15 fl.) for a co ndenser without baffles.

H = 3.65 m (12 fL) for a co nden ser with 4 baffles, this number of baffles being considered
sufficient and optimum .
Hausbrand' gives the fi gures reproduc ed' in Tab le 40.1.

rhe figures for the last line of Ihis Table are giv en for S or 6 ba ffles, and are measured
from Ihe 10p plale I'or dislribution o f Ihe descending water, in Ihe interio r o f the co ndenser.
We mav estimate, in a co unter-current conde nse r, for lotal height of the body, between
Ihe cold water entry and the top o f the barometric column, for 4 to 6 baffles, th e heights
S5S YACUUM EQUIPMENT Ch. 40
TÁBLE 40.1
HEIGHT OF BODY OF CONDENSERS
Counler-current wet air condensers lO handle 300 - 3,000 kg (650 - 6,500 lb.) vapour per hour:
Withoul barnes H = 1 - 1.8 m ( 3 - 6 rt.)
With 1 barrle H = 1 - 1.8 m ( 3 - 6 rt.)
Wilh 2 barrles H = 1.25- 2.25 m'( 4- 7.5 n.)
Co unter -curren l dry air cOlldensers 10 handle 300 - 12,000 kg/h (650 - 26,500 lb.) vapo ur per hOIlr:
Without barnes H = 3 m (10 · rt.) at least
With barnes H = 2.4 - 3.6 m (8 -12 rt.)
TABLE 40.2
liEIGHT OF CONDENSER DODlES FQR NORMAL COUNTER- CURRENT CONOENSE RS
Capacity, kg vapo ur / h 500 5,000 20,000 100.000

44,000 ···~·~ ~S:;..;~~ :.
lb. vapou r / h 1,100 11,000 220,000
H(m) 1.5 2.5 3 6
(rt. ) 5 8 10 20
or approximatel y 2.5 - 3 m (S -10 fr.) for the normal capac ities in rhe sugar factor)'.
Cross-seclion of Ihe condenser

Whereas Ihe heighr 01' the condenser varies onl y slighrl y wirh rhe capacirl' in terms or vapour
ro be co nd ensed (approximarell' as rhe cube roor, if we choose rhe last rigures given), rhe
cross-seclion will depend directly on lhe quanlily 01' vapour 10 be condensed.
Deerr' indicares: S = 0.16 m'/tonne (1.7 sq.ft./ton) vapour 10 be condensed per hour,
where S = horizonlal cross-secrion or Ihe body or lhe conde nser.
H ausbrand J gives rhe figures or Table 40.3.
TABLE 40.3
C ROSS-S EcnON OF CONDENSE R BODY fOR SMALL CAPACITIES
Vapour lO be Diameler of body

condensed
(kg 11r) (Ib .lh) Wirhou! baffles Wi¡h baffles
(171m) (in.) (mm) (ill.)
300 650 400 16 500 20

1,000 2,200 550 22 600 24
2,000 4,400 700 28 775 30
Condenser volume
Condenser capac ir l' has also been relared 10 vol um e, rhe la rler being reckoned as rhar or rhe
cl'lindrical porrion onll' , neglecling rhe upper and lo wer conical porr ions.
Srrauss J' recommends a volume or 0.75 mJ/ I,OOO kg (12 cu.fr. per 1,000 lb.) 01' vapo ur
per hour . Slewarr lb , however, has derermined experimenta lll' rhar 0.6 ml / I,OOO kg (10
THE CONDENSER 859
cU.ft./l,OOO lb.) per h was sufficienr in most cases and that, in two design s, 0.4 and 0.3
mJ/1,OOO kg (6.3 and 4.4 cU.fr./I,OOO lb.) per h was adequate. The mosr efficient designs
are lhose of "rain" type, e.g. with water falling from the top from a plale pierced with 3,308
I .3-cm ({-in.) holes and a 38-cm (1 5- in.) central hole, aboye a small plate, for a condenser
2.4 m (8 ft.) in diameter; or alternalively an ordinary condenser with holes in il s plales and
annular baffles.
A "barrel volume" has accordingly been recommended in Australia" of 0.5 mJ / 1,OOO kg
(8 cu. ft.l 1,000 lb.) of vapour 10 be condensed per hour for the rain type, and 0.6 mJ/1,OOO
kg (10 cu.ft./l,OOO lb.) per h for Ihe design with baffles.
II is slated Jd Ihat Ihe condensalion lakes place mainly on Ihe wall of the condenser, and
Ihus il is of advanlage for part of Ihe waler f10w 10 be discharged dow n lhe wall of the con-
denser . Tlle oUllel pipe rOl' lhe air should be pla ced in I.he axis of Ihe condenser.
The cone al the bOltom of the barrel should have a slope of 70° 10 the horizontal. Accor-
ding to ZieglerJ ' , this arrangemenl discharges Iwice as much waler as a 30° slope.
Size of vapour pipe

Slriclly speaking, Ihe cross -seclion of the vapour pipe which carries the vapour from Ihe
vessel or vessels ser ved 10 Ihe condenser depends on Ihe absolule pressure of the vapour, that
is on Ihe vac uum.
However:
(1) The vacuum, in the sugar faclory, varies only between rather narrow limits.
(2) lf we allow for a certain pres sure drop, expressed as percentage of Ihe vapour pressure,
thi s will givc vapour vclocitics which are grcalcr at lower absolute pressures (cI p. 513). Con-
seq uenlly, when rhe vacuum varies, if it increases for example, rhe decrease in densil y of the
vapour is compensared, ro a cenain exrent, by lhe increase in the velocity. Ir follows rhar
rhe Ihroughpur of rhe pipe in weight of vapour decreases only slowly as rhe vacuum increases.
For example, we could use the velociries given in Table 40.4.
TABLE 40.4
VARIATlON OF VAPOUR YELOCITY WITH PRESSURE
Vacuum H Normal vapour DensiIY 'o/ Product

velocity V vapour d
(cm) (in .) (m is) (fUs) (kglm ' ) (Ib .lcu.ft.) V x d
60 24 45 l50 0.140 0.0087 6.3 1.3

65 26 50 165 0./00 0.0062 5 1
70 28 65 210 0.056 0.0035 3.6 0.74
It would therefore gene rally be sufficienl to design the vapour pipe for a velocity of 50
mis (165 ft. /s) at a vacuum of 65 cm (26 in .). The specific weight is then 0.1, and it may
be readily calculated rhar rhe pipe wi1l sri1l s uppl y lhe same weight of vapour al a vacuum
o r 70 cm (28 in.) and al the velocity, still permissible, of 90 mis (300 fLls).
The velocities given in Table 40.5 may in ract be approached withoul great di sadvantage.
860 VACUUM EQUlPMENT Ch. 40
TABLE 40.5
MAXIMUM VELOCITIES PERMISSIBLE FOR VAPOUR UNDER VACUUM
Vacuum Max. velocity

(cm) (In .) (mis) (fI./5)
55 21.7 70 230
60 23.6 80 262
62 24.4 85 279
63 24.8 88 289
64 25.2 92 302
65 25.6 95 312
66 26 100 328
68 26.8 110 361
70 27.6 120 394
In Australia, it is recommended tha! the vapour pipe cross-section should be designed Id'?--',y,
give a vapour velocity of 60 m/s (200 ft./s) or lower. It is considered thar [he diamerer or
rhe condenser need not be greater than that of the vapour entry.
Example. lt is required to provide, with a vacuum of 65 cm (25.6 in.), for a Oow of 14,400
kg (28,800 lb.) of vapour per hour. It is required to determine the diameter of the vapour
pipe passing lo the condenser.
We have:
Flow or vapour:
14,400
Q 4 kg/s (8.0 Ib./s)
3,600
Volume of vapour (specific weight = 0.10 kg/m 3 (0.0062 Ib./cu.ft.)):
4
40 mJ/s 0,290 cu.ft./s)
O. I
Cross-section of pipe for a velocity of 500 dm/s (165 ft./s):
40
s = 0.8 m' (7.8 sq.ft.)
50
Diameter of pipe:
D = J(4s
-;;:- = 1 m (3.2 ft.)
Basing Ihe figures on the values sllggested aboye we may then write as a first approxima-
lion:
WEIGHT OF VAPOUR TO BE CONDENSED 861
D=-
-JQ (40. 1)
120
D diameter of the vapour pipe serving the vessel or vessels, in dm (ft.)
Q now of vapour from such vessels, in kg/h (lb./h)
Diameter of cooling waler pipe

The cooling water mal' be supplied by gravity or mal' be supplied by a pump. Its effective
head, h, will be equal to the geometrical head al the entry to the condenser, increased by the
vacuum in head of water. We have then:
v= a -J 2gh (40.2)
V water velocity in the inlet pipe, in dm/s (fr.ls)

a coefficient depending on the length of the pipe, its bends, val ves and other obslruclions
ro now. In general, a is of the order of 0.5
g = 98 dm/s' (32.16 ft.!s')
h = head of cold water, at entry to condenser, in dm (fr.).
If lhe waler is supplied by gravity, and if the lank from which it comes is al a lower level
than the condenser, it wi!l be necessary first to raise vacuum by means of the air pump in
order that the water mal' be drawn into lhe condenser.
The supply lank should not be at more lhan 6 m (20 fr.) below lhe inlel lO lhe condenser,
if a minimum head of lhe order of 3 m (JO fl.) is lO be oblained in normal operalion (a
vacuum of 66 cm (26 in.) of mercury is equal lO 9 m (29.5 fl.) of waler).
From lhe velocilY V of lhe waler in lhe pipe, lhe diameler of lhe laller mal' be readily
calculaled:
D j4
=
lI'V
Q¡
(40.3)
D diameter of cooling water pipe, in dm (ft.)

Q¡ f10w of cooling waler, in kg/s or l/s (cu. fl./s)
V velocity of waler, in dm/s (fl./s), given by eqn. (40,2),
Water separalor
Where lhe air pump is of reciprocating lype, il is absolulely necessary lO avoid lhe risk of
waler reaching the pump, which would cause serious damage ("waler hammer"). Since en-
trainment 01' formal ion of scum mal' occur, a separator is inlerposed for safety belween lhe
air oullel from Ihe condenser and Ihe air plImp (Fig. 40.9). In a design projecl, whal quanlily
of vapour lO be condensed should be assumed as a basis for delermining Ihe capacity of Ihe
condenser?
WEIGHT OF v APOUR TO BE CONDENSED
Evaporalion. The quanlily of vapour lo be condensed is equal to Ihat leaving Ihe last vessel
of Ihe rqultiple effecI, which is r~adily calculated (cf. p. 566).
"
•
862 VACUUM EQUIPMENT Ch. 40
l o ai,.. pump
water'
Fig. 40 .9. Wa ter sepa ra tor .
We may estimate in general, in kg vapou r/ Le. h., the figures given in Tab le 40.6.
If a he ate r eondenser is inlerposed be tween lhe last vessel and lhe eondenser, lh e quanlities
indieated in th e table should be deereased by rh e quantity eo ndensed in this he ater.
Wirh evapo ralion under press ure, we may use figures below lhe weig hl of vapou r given
by rhe las! line of T ab le 40.6, but this quantity th en beeomes ve ry va riable, and ir is desirabl e
to determine it aeeurately.
TABLE 40.6
WEIGHT OF VAPOUR FRO M THE MUlTIPLE EFFE CT TO BE CQNDEN SED (kg/l.c. h.)
Triple eJJecI Q/ladruple Qllin(upfe
Wilhoul bleeding 225 - 250 180 - 200 150 - 160

Wi,h bleeding 200 - 225 160-175 125 - 150
·' Wilh bleeding and lh erm o-co mpressor 110-175 100-150 75-120
Pans. (a) Cenlral condenser. Wirh ce ntral conde nsation, ir will be advisable lO all ow fo r
a total quantity of vapour from th e pans of:
125-150 kg (280-336 lb.) vapour lO be eo nden sed per Le.h. (40.4 )

WEIGHT Of VAPOUR TO BE CONDENSED 863
the eXaC[ value depending on the amount of water returned to the pans (ef. p. 665).
This value, moreover, is not uniform: it varies greally, and shows a marked maximum
when a large pan commences a strike.
(b) Individual condenser. If lhe condenser serves a single pan, the great variation in
evaporalion rale during lhe cOurse of each slrike (e/. p. 662) completely alters the problem.
It is necessary 10 design lhe condenser, and similarIy the pumps, fOI the maximum evapora-
lion, which corresponds lo Ihe beginning of lhe strike; and lO provide a means of regulating
lhe input of cooling water during the remainder of lhe strike in proportion to the quantity
of vapour to be condensed, which decreases rapidly until the end of the strike:
The dimensions of the condenser will be determined as a function of the maximum
evaporalion rates given in Table 40.7.
TABLE 40.7
MAXIMUM EVAPORATION AT PANS AT START OF STRIKE
(kg/m' H.S./h) (Ib./sq.fl. H.S./h)
FOQ[ing 80 16
A massecuite 60 12
B massecuite 50 10
e massecuite 40 8
If the condenser serves several pans, we may estimate:

(a) The maximum rate for the largest pan
(b) The mean rate for the others.
TABLE 40.8
MAXIMUM AND MEAN EVAPORATION RATES FOR PANS
Mean raie (kg/m'/h)

Max. rate
Mechanical Natural
circula/ion circu/atian
Footing 85 50 25
A masseculte 70 40 20
B massecuite 50 30 15
e massecuite 40 20 10
For Ib./sq.ft./h, divide these figures by 5.
For Ihis calculation it will be necessary lO take more accurate figures for maximum rates
than those of Table 40.7. Calculations may be based on the evaporalion rales of Table 40.8,
expressed in weight of vapour to be condensed per hour and per unit of heating surface (see
also Table 33. 7). ~
WEIGHT OF COOLING WATER
The quantity of cooling water necessary for condensation of the vapour is readily found by
equating the heat given up by the vapour in condensing to the heat absorbed by the cold
water.
Let:
W = weight of cooling water necessary per unit weight of vapour to be condensed
ti = temperature of cooling water available, in OC (OF)
t, permissibJe temperature of warm water, in oC (OF)
t, vapour temperature corresponding to the vacuum obtained li1 the condenser, li1 oC
(OF).
Then:
1 [607 - 0.7 (t) + t" - t,l
whence:
607 + 0.3 t, - t,
W= (40 5)
Since the difference t, - t, is small, especially in a counter-current condenser (of ¡he

order of 5°C, for example), and since t, varies between 62°C (H = 60 cm) and 47"C (H =
68 cm), and generally lies in the immediate vicinity of 55°e, we see that the numerator of
the second member of the expression for W scarcely varies. No great error will be made in
adopting a mean value and writing:
572 1,030 )
W= ( t, - ti
(40.6)
Variation of W as a function of t, - ti. Returning to the complete formula (40.5): the

value of W depends on t, - ti, but is little affected by t,. or ti. Hence we shall choose a
mean value for the temperatures of vacuum and of cold water, and study the variation of
Was a function of t, - ti. For example:
H = vacuum = 64 cm whence: t , 30° e

We have then:
623 - t, 1, I 54 -._~~)
W= (
t, - ti t, - ti
Hence we obtain the curve of Fig. 40.10 giving the variation in Was (t, - ti) varies from
zero to a maximum of 25°C (we shall see later that t, cannot exceed 1). We have extended
the curve beyond that figure for the case where ti is very low, or t, very high.
WEIGHT OF COOLING WATER 865
140 -
1201-- --1 Water '"
1001-- --1\ ~
"" .
~
k
BO
60
Vopour
•
40 f-- -l
2Of---j----f--
o 5'
Fig. 40.10. Variation of Was function of (1, - 1,). Fig. 40.11. Temperatures in condenser.
It is seen that the quantity of water necessary increases rapidly as 1, - 1, decreases. On

the other hand, it de creases only very slowly when 1, - 1, is very high. It is of advantage,
therefore, to keep to a moderate figure, and especially not to descend below a value of looe
for (1, - 1,).
Considerations on temperatures
Let us consider for example a counler-current barometric con den ser (Fig. 40.11). Let :
1, lemperature of vapour ro be condensed, co rresponding to the vacuum
1, temperature of cold injection water
1, temperature of hot water leaving the condenser
la = tempe~~rure of ¡he airat exit from the condenser.
We may make the following commerJts:
(1) f, is lower than or at mos'l equal lo f,. The temperat ure of the water cannot exceed
thal of Ihe vapour; otherwise, since the vapour pressure in the condenser co rresponds only
101,., Ihe water which would then be at a higher temperalure would va porise instantly and
would give up heat instead of absorbing heat. Thi s is exactly what happens when water (or
juice) heated to 105 or llOoe is relea sed from a heater to the atmosphere; it immediately
flashes into vapour arld drops to ¡OOOe, the maximum temperature at which it can exist
under atmospheric pressure.
866 VACU UM EQUIPMENT Ch. 40
Since lhe eondenser is a hea! exc hanger (he objec! of which is 10 absorb wilh a minimum
of water all lhe heal conle nl corresponding to the latenl heal o f Ihe va pour, ils efficiency
will be Ihe belller as 1, a("J rxoac hes 1,., Ihe ideal being represenlect by 1, = 1, ..
The differe nee 1, - 1, lherel"ore represenls Ihe margin separaling Ihe conde nser under
consideral ion from Ih e maximum efficiency, or Ihe degree ,
to wh ich il approaches Ihat effi-
ciency . We shall call it Ihe " app roac h":
App = Approach = 1" - 1, (40 7)
(a) In a eounler-eurrenl eondenser, Ihe approach varies belween 3 and 10°C (5 - 1gO F).
As a mean value, we may re cko n 5°C (9°F). More acc ura lely , we may take:
App = I - 1, = (0.1
" + 0.020) (t
, - 1,) (40.8)
a = proportion of air in Ihe vapour = we ighl of air <lfo on we ighl o f lhe air - va pou r mi xlure
(ef. Table 40.16).
a ge nera ll y varies from 0.5 lO 2<lfo (ef. Badger'; H ausbrand 5). Hence the approach is of
l he order of 10 - 15 <lfo of I, - 1,. We sha ll relain th e mos! frequenl value:
(40.9)
being ca reful to note thal we musl use a figure of 2°C (5°F) in Ihe e8Se where Ihi s formula
would furnish a va lu e lower 1han lhis minimum.
(b) In a eo-currenl condenser, the approa ch is obviously nOI as good. Hau sbra nd 6 gives:
App = 1, - 1, "" 0.66 (1 ,. - 1,) (40. 10)
which signifies tha! Ih e efficiency of a co-currenl co nd enser is only abou l 1/3. H owever,
Webre and Robinson ' slal e Ihal cer lain ly("Jcs 01· co-curren l condenser allai n an approach of
4-4YC (9- II O F) .
Tromp' indicales 5 - 11 °C (12 - 27°F) , wilh a mean of 8.S o C (20° F), for jet condensers,
according 10 the flu ct uali o ns in the qu a ntity of vapo ur lO be co ndensed.
(2) 1, lies between 1, and 1,. The leln("Je ra lur e al w"ie h Ih e a ir Jeaves Ihe eOllclellser, 1" ob-
viou sly li es belwee n Ihe lemperalurc al which il enlers , whieh is eq uall o thal of Ihe va("Jour
whic h carries il, t , (or c10se 10 il ), and lhe temperalure of lhe eold injeClion water, which
is the fluid of lowesl tempera ture withi n lhe condenser.
H oweve r, lhe coo ling produ ced by this water makes the oUlgoing wa ler Ihe hOltesl fluid ,
and the air can be no hOlter. 115 temperalure will then lie belween 1, and 1,.
It is found in pra ct ice lhal cont acl belween air and water in Ihe co nd enser is sufficienr 10
ensure complete equalisalion of temperalure, according to the syslem employed. Hence we
have:
(a) Co unler- curre nt condenser: 1, 1, (40 .11 )

(b) Co-c urren t condenser : 1, 1, (40.12)
WEIGHT OF COOLING WATER 867
Comparison between co-curren! and coun!er-curren! condensers

In condenser problems, the data, from the poinl of view of lemperatures, are generally 1,
and 1,.: cooling waler is available al a certain lemperalure, and a certain vacuum, which one
wishes 10 maintain, is specified.
Under rhese condirions, the comparison between the results to be expected from ,lhe two
types of condenser shows little bul advanrages in favour of counter-current condensers:
(1) Ils efficiency is higher: il permits the cold water to be healed to a higher temperature 1,.
(2) for a given duty, it therefore allows smalJer quanlities of water. The quantity of heal
exc~anged M is equal (see eqn. 40.5) lO:
M=QW(I,-I,) (40.13)
Q = weight of vapour to be condensed.

If (1, - 1,) decreases, W must increase.
(3) Now, lhe cooling water brings wilh il dissolved air, which is released and assumes lhe
gaseous form when exposed 10 the vacuum in lhe condenser. Consequently, lhe duly of lhe
air pump will likell'ise be increased wilh a co-currenl condenser.
(4) However, ",hal especially increases the duty of the air pump in this case is the fact that
lhe co-current condenser supplies air at 1, 0, whereas the counter-currenl condenser supplies
air at 1,°, that is, at a lower temperature. It follows: (a) that its specific volume is lower; (b)
that the quantity of water vapour which it will carry with il (the air leaving the condenser
is obviously saturated) wiU similarly be smaUer.
Finally, the air pump serving a co-current condenser will require a capacity roughly double
that of the air pump serving a counter-currenl condenser receiving the same cooling waler
and maintaining lhe same vacuum.
These considerations, however, are theoretical rather than practical and it is appropriate
on the olher hand to mention the following points:
(1) lf we adopt in the co-current condenser a barometric column of sufficiently smalJ cross-
"';';\st(:lion lo oblain a high velocity of now, 21 dm/s (7 f1./s) or more, part of lhe air will be
entrained wilh the water, and the duty of the air pump wiJ[ be correspondingJy reduced. This
phenornenon, rnoreover, is the basis of jet condensers.
(2) If the cooling water is supplied from a spray pond, and if the latter is fairly generously
designed, the cooJing water temperature will be slightly lower in the case of the co-current
condenser, since the cooling (1, - 1,) oblained in the spray pond will decrease only slightly
with 1,. The decrease in 1, due to co-currenls (cf. par. I aboye) will be reflected to a great
extent in the value of 1,.
Air and vapour pressures in ¡he condenser

The curtains of water somelimes offer a slighl resislance lO the passage of lhe vapour and
lhe air. Adding the loss of head due to lhe now of these gases, we rnay estimate the pressure
drop in the condenser at approximately 3 mm (O. I in.).
If we neglect lhis slight difference, we may say thal lhe pressure pis the same lhroughout
lhe body of lhe condenser.
Now, this pressure p is made up of lhe sum of lhe parlial pressures of vapour and air:
868 V ACUUM EQUIPMENl'o Ch. 40
P = P, + Pa (40.14)
P, = partial pressure of vapour

Pa = partial presslIre of airo
The partial pressure of the air, P , is very low al Ihe vnpour enlry. If, for example, lhe
absolute pressurep is 100 mm and if" the air fOn!lS J OJo of Ihe VolUllle of Ihe mixlure, we may
consider that J ,000 volumes of mixture contain':
990 vol. of vapour at 100 mm

10 vol. of air at 100 mm
or:
1,000 vol. of mixlure at 100 mm
or this may preferably be expressed:
1,000 vol. of vapour al 99 mm

1,000 vol. of air at I mm
or:
1,000 vol. of mixture al 100 mm
However, the vapour condenses: its pressure decreases, and Ihat of Ihe nir increases (Fig.
40.12). Atlhe outlet, that is, at the point where the air is extracled by ¡he pump, \Ve have
air simply saturated with vapour. Its pressure is then:
Pa = P - P, (40.15)
pressure of the air al outlet from lhe condenser

pressure in the condenser corresponding to the vacuum
P, vapour tension corresponding to the temperature Ia given by Table 32.1.
AIR PUMPS
Two main types of air pump exist. The oldeSI and beSI known al prcscnl is lhe
reciprocaling pump, analogous in construction and appearance to the Sleam engine. It is
scarcely encountered in new installations and has been abandoned in mosl sugar countries.
It has been studied exhaustively in the second edition of this book (English edilion, pp.
81 1- 830) and we refer any interested readers to that description. Here we Ireal only lhe pre-
sen!, type, which is much more practical and economic: lhe air pump with liquid annulus.
Volume of air lo be exlracled

The air introduced into the condenser comes from four sources:
(1) Air contained in Ihe healing steam
(2) Air and incondensible gases coming from Ihe juice
AIR PUMPS 869
(3) Air introduced witl1 rhe injection water

(4) Air entering by leakage.
Th ese have already been stud ied in detail in the second edition. We now summarise these
concl usions .
Water
Pa Pv
Vopour
Fig. 40. [2. Pressure in condenser.
(1) Air contained in heating steam. This origina tes in the air dissolved in the feed wa ter
going to the boilers, wh ich naturally escapes with the steam. Where the incondensibles are
. ' . rejected into the atmosphere, none of this goes into the co ndenser. In other cases, where
~ .'~ ....~:éL
. ···the gases are passed to the vapour space, we may reckon:
al = 5 - 10 p.p.m. of steam emitte9 to the calandria
(2) Air and incondensibles from fhe juice. Dissolved air in the juice has escaped at the nash
tank before the c1arifier. We have only to take into accou nt the small quantity which has been
di ssolved in the juice between c1arification and evaporation. We may reckon:
(a) Evaporation: al = 200 - 250 p.p.m. of juice entering the multiple effects
(b) A and B vacuum pans: a, =.100 p.p.m. of syrup entering the pan
(e) C pans: al = 50 p.p.m. of syrup enteri ng .
(3) Air introduced with injection water. Water at atmospheric pressure con lains dissolved
air which is released when it arrives in the condenser under vacuum. We may reckon, as the
proponion of the weigh t of injection water, depending on the source of the water:
(a) Cal m rivers or ponds: a, = 20 - 30 p.p.m. I
(b) From mountain streams or cascades : 50 - 150 p.p.m. i
I
.1
870 VACUUM EQUlPMENT Ch. 40
(e) Prom sea waler: 10 - 20 p. p. m.

(d) From a cooling pond or lower: 30-40 p.p.m.
(4) Entry from leakages. Thi s is the most important quantity, especia ll y in installa¡ions not
well m<¡intained, but it is very variable and depends on the ca re taken in making the joints,
and on the total surface of eq uipm ent under vacuum alld the number of joints alld sturfillg
boxes. We ma y rec kon:
(a) Multiple effects: a = 3500 p.p. m. of stea m condensed within th e last vessel.
(b) Vacuum pans: a = 500 p.p.m. per hour for the working volume of the massecuite.
Total figures. The foregoing data on the origin of air in the vapour are useful, but it would
be very misleading lO use them' for desigll requiremenls or air pUfllpS. Thi s illror J11 ~(ion is
obtained from simple data such as the following, caJcu lated on different bases.
ROTARY LIQUID-ANNULUS A1R PUMPS
As already discussed (p. 868), reciprocating air pumps are cumbersome and expensive.
They are now replaced by an ingenious and elegant machin e: th e rotar)' air pump with an
annulus of wa ter . Thi s pump cons ists ol' a shaft ca rrying radi al vanes, rotaling in a drum
(Fi g. 40.13). By means of eccentr ic placing of the s haft relative to Ihe drul11, or by giving
the drum an elliptical or oval form, il" is arra nged thal Ihe vanes enclose a space al rirs l in-
creas ing, co nnecled lo Ihe suclion, and Ihen decreasing t'or compression of Itle air and s ubse-
Suction
..
Deliver y ~~¡¡il!l~;
De' , ve"v 00'- t
Fig. 40.13. PrincipIe or Iiqllid~anllulus air pump.

. ROTAR Y LIQUID ANNULUS AIR PUMPS 871
quenl conneclion lO lhe delivery. This .'pace is limited on Ihe oulside by an annulus of waler
lining I he drum and held againsl Ihe walls by cenlrifugal force. Par[ 01' lhe waler lea ves wilh
lhe compressed air, but can be recovered and re-cycled. II also serves 10 rell10ve rhe heal of
cornpression and so cool the drum.
These pumps run, according to Iheir dimensions, ar speeds between 250 and 1,500 r.p.m.
They are driven by an electric motor, eilher directly coupled or by Vee-bells. Their volumelric
clllciency is of lhe order of 0.65 - 0.75. They ",ere originally buill in lwo slages, bul al lhe
presenl day single-slage pumps are made which can give a vacuum grealer Ihan 70 cm (27.5
in .).
Thesc pumps lake up lillle space, consume very lillle lubricanl and require only lillle allen-
lion. They cause scarcely any vibralian and so do nOI require foundalions; they may be in-
,lallee! on lhe pan floor, and lhus lhe vacuum piping can be subslanlially shorlened. Fnlry
01' walCl' wilh Ihe air is no disadvanlage, thus lhe waler separator may be omilted.
Compared wilh jel condensers, lhey require only very little waler, and Ihis quantilY 01'
warer can be proporlioned ro the weiglll of vapour to be condensed, ana thus can be substan"
lially deCl'cased I'rom lhe beginning lO lhe end of a slrike, when used wilh a vacuum pan.
They are consequently adaplable for aUlornatic vacuum control and give an excellent solution
for individual vacuum. They lhus offer al Ihe same lime economy in rirst cost, mainlenancc
cost ancl power consumplion.
Rcl'llivc 10 Slcarn ejeclor condensers, lhey consume only abOlll one-eighlh of lhe equivalenl
cllcrgy. giyillg al Ihe oulsel much bCIICr clTíciency, and Ihe vacuum prouuceu is much ll10re
indcpelluenl 01' lhe quanlity of waler and 01' vapour supplied. They are greally superior where
air leaks are subsranlial, and where lhere is a sharlage of waler ar of sleam.
They may be used lo,supply vacuum for rolary fillers of lhe Oliver lype, using a special,
lower-priced model. ' ."
r
¡-: '{"I' '
',,'V"
TABLE 40.9
VOLUME OF AiR TO BE REMOVED PER UNIT OF VAPOUR, IN IIkg (cu.rL/lb.) OF VAPOUR
For central condenser: v= 100-110 (V = 1.6-2 )

For muHiple effeCl: V = 80-100 (V = 1.3 -1.6)
For vacuum pan: V = 20- 25 (V = 1 -1.3)
For vacuum pan, lhe figures are for maximum rale al commence-
ment of (he strike.
TABLE 40,10
. WEIGHT OF VAPOUR FROM A MULTIPLE EFFECT
Triple Quadruple Quintuple
kgll.c,h. Ib./I.c.h, kgll.c,h, Ib,I/,c.h, kgll,c.h. lb. 1I ,c.h.

._._---- ,-- - - - - - - - - '-- ' - - - .. - - - - - ---,-
Wilhoul bleeding , 225 - 250 500 - 550 180 - 200 400 - 450 150 - 160 336 - 360
Wilh bleeclillg 200 - 225 450 - 500 /60-175 360-400 125-150 280 - 336
8leetlillg and vapour comp. 110-175 250-400 100-150 225-336 75-120 170-270
TABLE 40.11
MAXIMUM ANO MEAN EVAPORATlQN RATE FOR PANS
Maximum rale . :: Mean rafe
Author's Nash figures Mechanical No(ural

figures circu/alion circlllo/ion
Footing 85 ( 17) 83 ( 17) 50 (10) 25 (5)

A m.c. 70 (14) 68 ( r 4) 40 ( 8) 20 (4)
S m.c. 60 (12) 68 (14) 35 ( 7) 15 (3 )
C m .C. 40 ( 8) 39 ( 8) 20 .(, 4): " . 10 (2)
More accurale rigures would be obtained by allowing for temper31ure of (he condenser waler, which is
. 1 ;'
importan!.
Calculalions for liquid-annulus air pumps

Calculations al' ¡hese pumps are based on lhe volume V lo be eXlracted, oblained by mean s
01' Tables 40.9 or 40.10, with Ihe aid 01' Table 40 . 11 for vacuum pans.
A simplified and rapid calculalion may also be made in lhe following manner.
A very high vacuum is generally nOI desi red, due to lhe disadvanlages which have been
discussed : danger 01' enlrainmenls in lhe evaporalors, difficult y in ensuring salisfaclor y per-
formance wilh vacuum pans, The aulhor would recommend lhal il is advisable lO keep lo
66 cm (26 in,); even if il is not inlended lo work aboye 62 or 64 cm (24 or 25 in.), Ihi s value
ensures a useful safelY margin:
p = 66 cm (26 in.) 01' vacuum = 10 cm (4. in.) absolule pressure

= 0,136 kg/c m' (1,93 p.s. i,a.) (ef. Table 32,1).
The air lell1peralUre 10 be considered here is 110 longer Ihal 01' Ihe air leaving Ihe eo nd e'l.se r
(eqn. 40 , 11 l, blll Ihal 01' Ihe waler used for forming the liquid annulus. Actuall y, the con·
lact of the air wilh the annulu s is sufficiently intimale to reduce the air lO a temperalure
very c10se to thal of ¡he liquid. Therein lies one 01' Ihe advantages 01' lhese pumps; Ihe coldeSl
waler in lhe factory may be used for Ihem, sin ce lhey consume very lillle 2-4 lis (25 - 50
Imp,gal./min), lhus profiling by a specific vo lume al' lhe air subslanlially lower than lhal
corresponding lo lhe lemperalure 01' Ihe cold waler from lhe condenser, which often rises
to 30 - 36°C (86 - 97°F).
Example. Ir only an order 01' magnilude is required for a preliminary calculalion, wilh a
good margin of safety, we may be content with using Tables 40,9 and 40.10. For example,
a vacllum pump is required to serve a quadruple effecl wilh vapour bleeding , for a faclory
of 200 Le,h, Table 40,10 gives: 170 kg al' vapour per Lc,h., Table 40.9: 90 I al' air per kg
al' vapour.
Hence: 170 x 90 = 15,300 IILc,h, (550 cu,ft.lLc,h,), and for 200 LC.h,:
200 x 15,300 = 3,060,000 IIh = 51 mJ / min (1,830 cu,ft./min)

ROTARY LIQUlD ANNULUS AIR PUMPS 873
However, generalIy we have more complete data. Assuming:
TABLE40. 12
VOLUME OF ALR TO EXTRACT FOR 66 cm (26 io.) VACUUM ABS. PRESS. 10 cm (4 in.)
Temperature 01 condenser water

20'C 25'C 30'C 35 'C
Mulliple effeel 123 136 178 236 Il min per I/h juiee
A and B pan s 16.2 18.7 24.5 32.8 I/ min per m 2
e pan s 11.5 13.5 17.8 22.4 I/ min per m 2
For vaeu um olher Ihan 66 cm. Nash gives Ihe eoeffieienlS shown in Table 40.13 as applieable
ID (he volumes of air in Ihis table.
Fig. 40.14. "Hydro BIS" liquid-annulus air pump .

" ./
..
.Ice
,
1 .
O •. ,
~
. .
t .
,,
':
" , . ~.
Fig. 40.15. Nash Iiquid-anl1ulu s air [)lI111p .
TABLE 40.13
COEFFICIENTS APPLlCABLE TO YQLUMES OF TABLE 40.12 fOR VACUUM OTHER THAN 66 CIll
Temperal ure (oC) Vacuum (cm)
64 66 68 70
20 0.80 1.31 1.94

25 0.79 1.34 2.08
30 0.77 1.40 2.26
Nash also takes int o account (he dirrerence d bel\\'een

{he condenser water and [he water forming [he ¡iquid
annulus, for which (h e coldesl waler available is used
(see Table 40.14),
Crushing rate: 200 Le.h.

Mixed juiee % eane: 100%
Vapour from last vessel: 22,000 kg/h
Vaeuum required: 66 cm
Wa ter temperature to eondenser: 30°C
Wat er supply to pump annulus: 25°C
ROTAR Y LIQUlD ANNULUS AIR PUMPS 875
We require a "Hydro" or Nash pump.

Calculation: Volume of air to be extracted (Table 40.12),178 l/min x 200 t.c.h. = 35.6
mJ/min (1,284 cu. ft. / min).
TABLE 40.14
COEFFICIENT ro APPLY ro VOLUMES OF TABL[ 40.12 AS FUNCTJQN OF TEMPERATURE DlFFERENCE d BETWEEN CONDENSER
COOLlNG WATER AND ANNULUS CQOL WATER
Vacuum (cm) d ('C)
3 5 6 8 JO /2
64 [ .OSO [ .088 [ .097 1.1 [ [ 1. [26 [40

66 1.067 1.104 1.112 1.1 27 1. 141 .156
68 1.084 1.120 1. 128 1.14 3 1.157 ·1 172
For contilluOU5 prll)S. ¡he quantity of va pour va ries greatly depending

on whether agilaling steam ("jigger sleam") is used. Table 40.15 gives
appropriale figures.
Taking into account the 5° gained due to th e annulus water, a B.13 pump (Tables 40.14
and 40 . 17) could extract 32 x 1.104 = 35.3 m'/ min (1.130 x 1.104 = 1.250 cu.fL / min).
Th is could Ihus suffice if need be, but a B.15 would be advisable 10 allai'n a good margin
or securily. Similarly, a Nash 2000 (lOO h. p.) would be suilable (Table 40.18).
Central condenser. Figures for a central vac uum system have been included in the forego-
ing (ables. This ¡s, in fact, still an exceptional case at present (1982), but it is probable that
il will become more and more frequenl in the fulure. This is the case where lhe factory is
TABLE 40.15
WEIGHT O F VAPOUR FROM A CONTlNUOUS PAN
kg / r .c.h. kg 1m 2 heating surfaceb
Wilhoul Wi'h Withoul Wirh

agitO/ion agitofiof1 agifarion ogita/ion
A m.c. 60 90 14 20
a m.e. 30 45 12 18
C m.c. 20 JO 8 12
, Far Ib .ll.e. h. mullipl y by 2.2 b Far Ib.lsq.fl. mulliply by 0.2.
TABLE 40.16
WE1GHT OF AIR ro EXTRAer IN g PER kg OF VAPOUR ro BE CONDENSED
Cen[ral vacuum 8 - 10
Mulliple effeclS 6- 8
Vacuum pans 5- 6
876 V ACUUM EQUIPMENT \. Ch. 40
enlirely equi [)ped rOr continllolls operation , i.e. where all the vacuum [)ans (ín c ludíng high
grades) are con linuou s pans. There is [hen noth ing to disturb the regularity of lile vacuum,
and the motiv es of econo m y and simplicity ac t in favour of a ce nlral vacuum sySle m.
For reasons previou sly discussed (pp. 506, 610, 649), in thi s case a s lighl difference will be
maintained betwee n the vacuum for the evaporators, which would be fixed at about 64 cm, and
thal for (he vacuum pans, which would be for example 66 c m, with an aUlomatic valve in Ihe
vacuum line lO mainlain Ihis difference in vacuum be lween Ihe two .
From weighl of air lo exlrae!. It is in fa ct more accurale lO base ca lculations on the weigh[
rather Ihan the volume of air to be hand led, s ince Ihis volume varies with the vac uum for
a given weight. Taking Ihe weight as a basis, we avoid the approximations made in Ihe
preceding tables, depending on the vacuum (assumed in the tables as 66 c m) and [he
lempe ra ture (Table 40.16).
TA6LE 40.17 ~'\~ ";-::~;r'~:,

CAPACJTY AND PD WER Of HHYORO" NEYRPIC PUMPS TYPE B
Model R .p.m. Malar Water 150 100 80 60 Abs. press mm Hg

power (m'/h) 610 660 680 700 Vacuum mm Hg
(kW) (cu.ft./h) 24 26 26.8 27.6 Vacuum in . Hg
6.20 6.20 6. 10 5.45 mJ/min

2
6 .7 740 9 220 220 215 190 eu. rt. /mi n
70
8.25 8 7.50 6.95 kW
8.25 8.10 7.90 7.60 m)/ min
4
6 .7' 740 15 290 285 275 270 cu. n ./min
140
11 .20 10 9.40 8.75 kW
10.30 10.30 10.20 9.10 m1/min
2.5
6.9 580 15 365 365 360 320 cU . rl. / min
90
13.80 13.50 13 12 kW
15.20 15. JO 14.50 13.70 mJ / min
3
6.10 500 23 535 535 5 10 485 cu. rt .l min
100
20.20 20 19 . 10 17.80 kW
21 19 .30 17.75 16 m1/min
3.5
6 . 12 406 30 740 680 625 565 eu. rt./min
125
26.50 25 .25 24.40 22.10 kW
32 32 30.50 26 m) / min
5
B. 13 340 45 1, 130 1, 130 1,090 920 ell . fL / min
175
41.20 38.20 35 32 kW
51 51 51 45.50 m1 / min
10
B.15 270 75 1,800 1,800 1, 800 1.600 cu. rl. / min
350
63.50 61 59 .50 54.50 kW
75 70 66 57 .50 mJ / min
13
6.15 b 280 120 2.650 2,470 2,330 2,030 eu. fl./min
460
101.5 97 92 .50 88 kW
The quanlilY of wa ler forming ¡he liquid annulus is approximalely 2.5 - 4 l/ m J of air asp ir a!ed (2.5 -4
cu. rL per 1000 cu. rL l.
ROTARY LIQUlD ANNULUS AIR PUMPS 877
TABI.E 40 . IR
PQWER ANO C APA C ITY OF NASH VAC UUM PUMPS (TYPE Gl)
----
No. H.p. Capacily in m l (cu/t.) pe,. min
51 cm (20 in.) 61 cm (24 in.) 66 cm (26 in.)
7.5 4 ( 140) 3 (100) 3 (100)

200 ( 175) 4 ( 140) 4 ( 140)
10 5
20 10 (350) 9 (320) 8 (280)

400 25 12 (425) 1I (390) 9 (320)
30 13 (460) 12 (425) 10 (350)
30 16 (565) 15 (5JO) 13 (460)

700 40 19 (670) 17 (600) 15 (530)
50 21 (740) 19 (670) 17 (600)
50 27 (950) 2J (810) 21 (740)

1. 000 25 (880)
60 30 (1,060) 26 (920)
75 42 (1.480) 40 (1,400) 26 (920)

2.000 100 53 (1,870) 50 (1,765) 45 (1,590)
125 60 (2, 120) 57 (2,010) 52 (1,835)
125 70 (2,4 70) 64 . (2,260) 58 (2,050)

3.000 (2,825) (2,825) 68 (2 ,400)
15 0 80 80
150 90 (J, I 80) 80 (2,825) 67 (2,365)

4.000 (J,J20)
200 110 (3.880) 106 (3,740) 94
250 147 (5.190) 125 (4,430) 130 (4,590)

6 .000 (5,650) 150 (5,Joo)
300 164 (5,790) 160
400 226 (7,780) 215 (7,590) 210 (7 ,415)

9 .000 450 250 (8 ,8JO) 240 (8,475) 230 (8,120)
500 266 (9,400)
The valume a f· water far the liQuid annulus should be approximalely 2 - 2.5 l/ m' of air pumped.
Knowing the weight o f air , it co nverts lo volume by applying Mariotte's Law:
RTa
v =
v = specific v61ume of th e air un der abso lut e pressure Pa and temperature Ta, in l/g
R constant for perfecl gases = 0.002927 for melric units (0.3697 in British units).
Ta = air temperature in degrees Kelvin = 273 + Ia
ta lemperalure of air lea ving the condenser, given by formulae (40.11) and (40.12), in oC
Pa = partial pressure of the air, in kg/cm 2 by formula (40. 15) and Table 32.1
Th e spec ifi c volume valso gives the total volume V = Av
A = total weight o f air to extract = aQ
Q = weight o f va pou r lO be condensed, in kg/h.
Th e vo lumetri c efficiency of lhe pump mUSl be taken into accounl (this is taken into ac-
counl in the ta bles for capacities of Neyrpic Hydro and Nash pumps (Table 40. J 8)) .
'\
Examp/e. Required to determine capacity of air pump [O serve a vacuum pan under the
following conditions (discontinuous pan):
Pan for a m.c. at 60 m J (1700 cu.ft.) and 360 m' (3.875 sq.ft.)
Vacuum desired, 66 cm (26 in.)
Temperature of water [O the eondenser, 30°C
Temperalure of water to the pump, 27°C,
Ca/cu/ation. At the beginning of lhe strike, the pan gives (Table 40.8) 70 kg of vapour per
m' of heating surfaee, or:
360 x 70 25,200 kg/h
Weight of air to extract (Table 40.16):
25,200 x 6 g/kg 151,200 g/h
Temperature of air at entry to the pump:
Pressure of air at that poinl (formula 40.15, Table 32.1):
pu = p - P, = 0.136 - 0.0435 = 0.0925 kg/cm'
Specific volume of this air:
v 0.002927 x 273 + 30 = 9.6 l/g 0.3697 x 459 + 95 = 161 CU.ft./lb)

0.0925 1.273
Volume of air to exlrael:
v = 151,200 x 9.6 = 1,451,520 J/hr. = 24.2 mJ/min.
A B.13 pump at 66 cm handles 32 mJ/min (1.130 cu.ft./min). With the 3° lower temperature
of waler lo lhe pump, (Table 40.14): 32 x 1.067 = 34 mJ/min (1.200 cu.fl./min).
Similarly, a Nash 2000 (75 h.p.) which handles: 26 x 1.067 = 27.7 Ill J/min (982 cu.ft.!min).
Measurement of air leakages

The value of leakages of air into vessels under vacuum may readily be ascenained, by work-
ing in the following manner.
The tolal volume of vessels under vaeuum is calculaled, down lo lhe level of the water in lhe
baromelric column, and including the total interior volume of any pans which are eonnecred.
The incondensable gas valves on lhe pipe lines are careflllly closed. VaClllll1l is raised, Ihen
ROTARY LlQUID ANNULUS AIR PUMPS 879
the air pump is shul down. The time is lhen determined for Ihe vacuum lO falJ by 5 - lO cm
(2 - 4 in.), for example.
Knowing the total volume, and the absolule pressure at the beginning and end of Ihis
period, the weight of air al the start and finish is readily deduced, and hence the weight of
air entering per minute.
II is known that the weight of air enlering is independent of the pressure in the vessel, pro-
vided that this pressure does nol reach:
P, = 0.528P (40.16)
P, = crilical downstream pressure

P = upstream pressure = atmospheric pressure.
Or:
P , = 0.528 x 76 = 40 cm (16 in .) ( 40.17)
In olher words, lhe quantily of air passing lhrough any leak or orifice is independent of
rhe downsrream pressure P and depends only on the upslream pressure P, provided the
downstream pressure remains lower lhan P, = 0.528P. In the case which concerns us here,
so long as the vacuum remains grealer than:
H, = 76 - 40 = 36 cm (14 in.) (40.18)
Example. Assuming a vessel of capacily V = 50 m l (2,000 cu.ft.), in which the vacuum

lakes 36 min to drop from 60 to 50 cm (24 - 20 in.).
The pressure (Table 32.1) corresponding to a vacuum of:
60 cm (24 in.) is p , 0.218 kg/cm' (2.91 p.s.i.)

50 cm (20 in.) is p , = 0.354 kg/cm 2 (4.87 p.s,i.)
If the temperature of the air has been read with a thermomeler at the beginning and of
this 36-min period, and has been found to be equal to 20 and 25°C (70 and 80°F), respective-
, of this period:
Iy, the specific volume of the air at lhe beginning' (v ,) and at the end (v)
v, = 0.002927 27~.2~820 = 3.93 mJ / kg (67.2 cu.fUlb.)
v, 0.0029' 27 273 + 25 = 2 . 46 m l / k g (O
4 . 9 cu. f t. Ilb)
.
0.354
Hence the weight of air contained in the vessel at the beginning and end of the 36-min period:
V 50
P, = = -- = 12.7 kg (29.8 lb.)
vo 3.93
/
'.
880 V ACUUM EQUIPMENT Ch,40
p,
v 50
20,3 kg (48,9 lb,)
v, 2.46
7,6 kg (19, I lb,)
The leakage lhen amounls lo:
7,6 x 60 12,7 kg/h (32 Ib./h)

36
THE BAROMETRIC COLUMN
There are two dimensions of importance in the barometric column (Fig, 40,16), ·';"$c)'r,:;
(a) Its height
(b) Its cross·section,
Height of the barornetric colurnn. The heighl 01' [he barometric coJumn shouJd be reckoned
from the level of the Torricellian well al lhe foot of the coJumn up 10 the junclion with Ihe
body of the condenser.
To facilitate the entry of the water into the column, Hausbrand 'o recommends that it be
connected to the condenser by a conical junction-piece of 30° angJe, that is, making an angle
of 60° wilh the horizontal; we have seen (p, 859) that Ziegler recommencls at least 700. This
cone is not necessary if the condenser body itself terminates in a definite conical section.
I I
'\ /
5
.. 7
=
Fig. 40.16. Heighl oi Ihe barome¡ric calumn.
THE BAROMETRIC COLUMN 881
Th e heigilt of Ihe CO[UI1111 represenl s Ih e sum of 3 lerms:

(a)Ha = head of water co rresponding 10 Ihe maximum vacuum in Ihe condenser
(b) h = head neeessary 10 give lhe desired downward veloe ity of Ihe water
(e) s = margin of safe lY as provision for abrupt variations in level of the water in the co l-
umn.
H = Ha + h + s (40.19)
(1) Ha. We may lake as lower limil for lhe temperature of the oUlgoing water a minimum
of 30°C (86°F). The corresponding vacuum is 73 cm (28.7 in.), whieh is thus a ma xi mum
in Ihe Iropies. Taking into aeeounl lhe speeifie volume of the water al that temperature
(1 .004) and Ihe l11argin necessary 10 allow for a possible rise in baromelric pressure to 78 cm
(30.7 in.), we shall havc:
Ha 10.33 X 73 X 1.004 X 78 10.20 m (33.3 fl.)

76 76
(2) h. The head is given by
V' (40 .20)

h (1 + a) -
2g
h = head of water, in m (fl.), necessary to maintain now in the column, at velocit y V

V = velocity of now in the eolum n, in mi s (ft.ls)
g 9.8 mis' (32.16 ft.ls')
a = coeffieient, vaJues of which, after Hausbrand 11 , are given in Table 40.19.
TABLE 40.19
VALUE OF COEFFICIENT Q'
Diameter 01 cQlumn, mm (in.)

Column
50 (2) 100 (4) 200 (8) 400 (16) 800 (32)
$I raighl 6. 1 2.6 1.2 0.6 0.4

Wilh doub!e 90° bend al base 6.7 3.2 1.8 1.2
(3) s. This is a simple margin of safety as provision for sudden variations in vacuum or
in now of waler. We may take in general:
s = 0.5 m (1.5 fl.) (40.21 )
Example. To calc ula te Ihe height of a barol11elric column foro

V veloeity of f10w of water 1 mis (3.0 ft./s)
D = interior diameter of the eolumn 25 cm (lO in .)
",
...
882 VACUUM EQUIPMliN T Ch. 40
assuming that there is no curve at the botlom of thi s col umn .

We have
(1) Ho 10.20 m 33.3 fL

(2) h = 0.10 m 0.3 ft.
(3) s = 0.50 m 1.5 ft.
When ce: H = 10 .80 m 35.1 ft.
[t is obviously permissible to modify th e margin s in the case where the lower portion of
the co nden ser may be 'aIlowed to fill with water without any disadvantage.
Cross-section of the co[umn. The cross-section of the barometric column requires simply
to have suffi cie nt cross -sec tion to assure discharge of the wa ter.
The water to be discharged consists of:
(a) The coo ling water supplied to lhe condenser
(b) The vapour which il has co ndensed
or:
(W + 1) kg / kg (lb ./ lb .) vapour co ndens ed
Previously, a velocity of approximatel y 1 mis (3 fL / s) was general, and rates grea ter Ih an
1.5 -1.8 mi s (5 - 6 ft./s) were avoided . However, Webre and Robinson" co nsidered that
barometri c co lumns were generall y much too large , and saw no advantage in choosing
velocities of flow lower than 2 - 3 mis (7 - 9 ft./ s). By adopting such values , there is obtained
in ' effect lh e enlrainmenl 01' a ce rlain propon ion o f ai r, so decrea5ing Ihe IVo rk requi red of
the air pump in a propon ion which is quile appreciable.
Moreover, air sometimes accumulates al lhe botlom of rhe co ndenser , forming a po cker
which is detrimentaJ to exchange of heat belween vapou r a nd wa ter. The higher veJociry,
which entrains part of the air, a voids this drawba ck.
The diameler of th e co lumn is given by:
71'D 2 Q (W + 1) 7rD 2 Q(W+I))

V= ( -4- V (40.22)
4 3,600 = 62.4 x 3,600
D diameter of the co lumn, in dm (fL)

V velocity of f10w of wate r in lhe column, in dm / s (ft./s)
Q weight of vapour to be cond ensed, in kg/ h (Ib. / h)
W = rario of weight of injecli on water to weight of vapour condensed, given by eqn . (40.5).
Hen ce:
D
J Q(W+l)
2827 V (J Q(W+ 1))
1226 V
(40.23)
WATER PUMPS 883
The wel! al lhe fOOI of lhe column should have a minimum volume of l j limes lhe volume
of the column.
WATER PUMPS
In general, to serve lhe condenser, two water pumps are required:

(a) The injeclion waler pump, delivering waler from lhe cooling system to lhe top of lhe
condenser
(b) The hOI waler pump, laking water from Ihe Torricellian well below the con den ser lO
lhe cooling syslelll .
Capacily
We already know the capacily necessary for lhese pumps:
(a) Injeclion waler pump:
Q, QW (40.24)
(b) Warm water pump:
Q, = Q (W + 1) (40.25)
Q, = !low of injection water, in I/h (Ib ./h)

Q, = !low of warm water, in I/h (Ib ./ h)
. Q = weight of vapour lO be condensed, in kg/ h (lb./h)
W = ratio of weight of cold waler to weight of vapour to be condensed, given by eqn. (40.5)
or (40.6).
D'Mv.e~·bead
The delivery head of which the pump musl be capable in normal operation at full discharge
is readily calculated.
Example. (a) Injection water pump.

Gravity head at delivery, ror example: 15 m 50 fl.
DeduCl: Vacuum of 66 cm x 13.6: 9 m 30 fl.
6 m 20 fl.
Add: Maximum suction, for example: 1.5 m 5 ft.
Losses of head (lo be calculated), for example: 1.5 m 5 ft.
Margin of 20%: 2 m 6 fl.
11 m 36 fl.
.
The losses of head are calculated by eqn. (45.3) .
,
884 V ACUUM EQUIPMENT Ch. 40
The injeclion water pump should be able lO deliver waler when firsl started up, whe n
vacuum has nol been established. In the preceding examplc:
Gravity head: 15 m 50ft.

Add: Maximum s uction : t.5 m 5 1'1.
Losses o( head: 0.5 m 1 ft.
17 m 56 1'1.
The cilaracteristic for the pump H = f(Q,) should then in this case begin al: H = 18 m
(60ft.) for Q, = O and silould give H = I1 - t 2 m (36 - 40 1'1.) for tile no rmal outpU[ Q,
given by eqn. (40.24).
(b) Warm water pump. The operation 01' lhe sprays requires a certain head at the nozzles,
generally 5 - 6 m (16 - 20ft.). For example:
Head required: 6 m 20 1'1.

Add: Vertical height 01' th e nozzles aboye lile pump, for example: 4 m 13 1'1.
Suction from Ihe condenser wel! lO lile pu mp, for example: 1 m 3 1'1.
Loss 01' head belween pump and nozzle (10 be calculaled),
for example: 2 m 6 1'1.
13 m 42 1'1.
Margin 01' 20070: 2.5 m 8 1'1.
15.5 m 50 fl.
The characlerislic curves for such pumps, giving H as a funclion 01' capacilY Q" generally
show a distinct drop in head as discharge increases (Fig. 40.17)
o Q
fig. 40.17. Graph of operalion of co ndense r wa ler pump.
Erriciency
Th ese large pumps generally ha ve an efficiency 01' Ihe order 01' 75 - 80%.
Tileir power requiremenl is given by:
SPRAY PONDS
885
p = HQ, HQI) (40.26)

75 º (
550 º
P power consumed by the pump, in h.p.
H delivery head, in m (ft.) of waler
Q, OUlput, in lis (lb./s)
º efficiency of Ihe pump.
SPRAY PONDS
Factories which have an ample supply of water can allow the warm water from the cond~nser
lO mn lO waste. Accordingly, tbey reguire only one pump for Ihe condenser: the injection
waler pump. Again, certain factories receive the cooling water al a sufficient head to feed
the condenser directly, or have a reservoir at sufficient head aboye the condensers. These are
particularly fortunate conditions, but infrequent.
Quantity of water required for condensers

The minimum quantity Q, of cold water required for condensation amounts to:
Q, = QW (40.27)
Q, = minimum quantity of cold water required for condensers, In 1/h (lb./h)

Q = weight of vapour to be condensed in lhe factory, in kg/h (lb./h)
W = ratio of weight of cooling water to weight of vapour to be condensed.
Or, from eqns. (40.6) and (40.9), and assuming counler-current condensers are used:
Q,
572Q 572Q 650Q ~170Q) (40.28)
0.88 (t , - 1,) ( 1, - 1,
1, temperature corresponding to the vacuum, in oC (OF)

ti = temperature of cooling water available, in oC (OF).
In general a vacuum of 65 cm (25.5 in.) is considered sufficient, hence:
1, = 54°C (I29°F); and in the commOI1 case where lhe water comes from mountain streams
or from deep f10wing rivers, we have frequenlly, in tropical countries: ti = 21°C (70°F). We
have then:
650Q
Q, 20Q (40.29)
54 '- 21
Table 40.6 and eqn. (40.4) then allow for a ready determination of the minimum quantity
of water required per lonne of caneo With 300 kg (672 lb.) of vapour to be condensed per
tonne 01' cane, it will be, for example:
Q, = 20 x 300 6,000 liLe. (40.30)

To allow a comfonable margin and 10 provide for momenlary varialions, ir IVould be

necessa ry lO allow:
(a) wilh central vacuum syslem:
Q, 30Q (40.31)
or in rhe case chosen:
Q, = 10,000 l/Le. (20,000 Ib./LC.) (40.32)
(b) with individu al condensers:
Q, 60Q (40.33)
or in the case chosen:
Q, = 20,000 I/LC. (40,000 Ib ./ t.c.) (40.34)
Cooling systems
Ir lhe required quanlil y or water is nOl available rrom spr in g or ri ver water (or rrom the sea,
in lhe case or faclories sil ualed on the coaSI), il is necessary 10 reson 10 a cooling svs lem
10 which lhe warm water leaving lhe conden se r is pumped, Hnd which cools il for re-u se.
Types or cooling system

Th ere are Ihree principal lypes or cooling syslem:
(a) Th e spray pond, in which lhe warm waler is broken up in 10 ,1 spray by means of
no zz les.
(b) Th e coo ling rower, generally packed wi lh brushwood or wooden lalh s. This is a ve r)'
large lower in which lhe hOI water enCounlers anal ural draughl which promoles cooling 01"
lhe waler by conveclion and evaporalion. Roughly, we may reckon thal 10-15 070 or Ih e heal
removed is by conveclion, and 85-90070 by evapora lion. Generall)', lllere ",ill be aboul I kg
or waler evaporated per 600 kcal remo ved (1 lb or water/1080 B.T.U.). This sysle m is lillle
ulilised in lhe sugar factor y.
(e) Forced draughl cooling lo wer, which follow5 Ih e same prineirle, bUI wilh draughr pro-
vided by rans.
The spray pond (Fig. 40.18) consislS simp ly of a large flal basin above which the ",¡¡rm
water is dislributed by pipes on which lhe spray nozzles are arranged al regular inlervals.
Wh en the waler is thus broughl inlo intimate conlaCl wilh Ihe almosphere, a small pon ion
01' it is evaporated. The evaporalion Rnd lhe conlaCI or lhe ambi enl air \\'ilh Ihe fine drops
01' waler produce lhe required degree 01' cooling.
Limit of cooling possible

Th e lowest lemperature 10 which Ihe water can be coo led by conlaCI \\'ilh th e air is Ihe
temperalure indical ed by the wet-bulb lhermomeler.
SPRAY PONDS 887
Fig. 40.18 . Spray pondo
If lhis lemperalure were reached, we should have an efflciency of 100"70 in lhe cooling.
Thus lhe efficiency º
of lhe cooling syslem ma y be defined as:
1, 1,
º= 1, lo
(40.35)
1, lemperature of the warm water enlering lhe sp ray pond

1, lemperalure of the cold water leaving the spray pond
lo wet-bulb lemperature.
Generally, efficiencies range from 50 lO 700/0, averaging 60%.
Since lhe use of the wet-bulb thermometer is not widespread, it wiU be remembered more
simply [hat a good spray pond should cool the water within J or 2°C of the temperature of
rhe ambient air, provided ¡hat it has been very generousJy designed.
Spray pond
Depth. The spray pond itself should have a depth of approximately J m (3 fL), as recom-
mended, for example, in Australia '3
There is no advantage in exceeding a depth of J. J m (3 ft. 6 in.), since the increase in the
mass of water in the circuit has only a negligible influence on the cooling. The surface area
only is importanL
Area of lhe pondo The area of the pond is important on account of the necessity of arrang-
,
888 v ACUUM EQUIPMENT ' Ch. 40
ing the nozzles so Ihal the curtains of water formed by lhern do not overlap or ¡nterfere wilh
each other, and so that air may circulate between !he sp rays.
The area of the pond is deduced from the quan!ity of water which it ca n treat per hOllr
per unit area of the pondo Trom p J4 sugges ts 120 Ib ./sq. rt ./h , Webre and Robinson" 150
Ib./sq.ft./h. Other figures given are in kg/m'/h (l b. / sq. ft ./h) :
Minimum Maxjmum Mean
Hawaii l6 700 (145) 820 (168) 760 (156)

Queensland' ) 650 (133) 825 (170) 740 ( 152)
Am ong French manufacturing firm s, Fi ves Lille bases its calculati o ns o n 800kg/m'/h (164
Ib./sq . ft./h).
We conside r that the best va lue to adopt is:
Q,
750 kg/ m'/ h (154 Ib ./sq .ft. /h) (40.36)
S
Q, = weight of hot water to be treated, in kg/ h (Ib '/ h), given by eqn. (40.25)
S = area of the pond, in m' (sq.fL ), no t inc\uding !he excess of the margins of sa feIY
(40.38) over the half interva ls a and b (40.37).
There is no advantage in adoPling an excessive surface area for Ihe pond 17 ,. The \Va ler in
the pond is heat ed by the sun , especial!y in regions where it is not protecled by t he cones 0 1"
the sprays, and thi s so lar heating is proportiona! to lhe exposed surface.
Disposition of the nozzles. A sys tem of piping is generally arranged aboye the pond, with
diam eters cons tan ! or progressively decreasing; on these pipes are placed Ihe nozzles in a sIag '
gered arrangement (Fig. 40.19).
['
----
Ho t waler __
Co Id wat er
e
~
fig. 40 . 19 . Spra y po nd o Arrallgement or nozzles.
The spacing between pip es , and distance between nozzles on each pipe, will depend on lhe
s ize of the co ne of w<lter given by each nozz le. Wilh ordinary lypes, we Illay I<lke appro.\·
imately:
SPRAY PONDS 889
a = 2.5 - 4 m (8 - 13 ft.) belween pipes

and (40.37)
b = 2 - 2.5 m (7 - 8 ft.) belween nozzles on ea eh pipe
The curbslone of·lh e low wall enclosing lhe pond should be sloped towards lhe inner side.
A sufficienl distance between the peripheral nozzles and the outer edge o f the wall will be
arranged as follows:
Windward side 3 - 4 m (10- 13 ft.)

(40.38)
Leeward side 6 - 8 m (20 - 25 ft.)
11 is rele va nt 10 remark that the efficiency of lhe spray pond is much lower in lhe centre
lhan al lhe sides. For lhi s reason , it is advanlageous to make the pond long and narrow; thi s
obviously illcreases lhe cost.
Nozzles. Types. There are many types of nozzle. Mosr of rhem aim to give a water spray
the form of a hollow co ne, either by forming rhis cone at the start by the shape of the nozzl e,
or by giving lO the water a centrifugal or rurbulent movement.
ln Queensland l1b , compar iso ns have been made between three types of nozzle: conical
jer, vortex and evolule types, a nd rhe canical jet nozzles have been found supe rio r, as regards
capacity and efficiency.
Figure 40.20 shows a good design of nozzle.
A good spray nozzle should be of si mple design, readily dismanll ed, and should not ha ve
any port ion with a cross-section smaller than thar of the out let orifice, which mighr catch
foreign bodies in th e water and block lhe nozzle . Allernatively, suc h a portio n should be plac-
Fig. 40.20. Nozzle for spray pond (A. Gauthier).

0. .
ed in such a way lll al lhe foreign body can be readily removed by quickly dislllalllling rhe
nozzle.
Pressure. The pressure generally urilised at the nozzles varies from 400 to 700 g/cm' (6 - !O
p.s.i.), say 4-7 m (13-23 ft.) of waler. In Q~eenslandJ7b a press ure o f 10 p.s.i. has been
recommended; Tromp" estimates that the optimum pressure is 500 g/cm' (7 p.s.i.) or S m
(16 ft.) of water, and such a figure is generally favoured.
Capacity. The quanrity of water delivered by a nozzle is given by:
q
= 3,600 . es
10,000
...rTiii
g (
3.600 es flgii)
144
or:
q = 0.36es"¡ 2gH (25 es ..¡ 2gH) (40.39)
q capaciry of rhe nozzle. in mJ/h (cu.ft./h)

e = contraction coeffi cient
s cross-sec tion of the delivery orifice of the nozzle , in cm' (sq.in.)
g = 9.8 mi s' (32.16 ft.ls')
H pressure of water at the nozzle, in m (ft.) of water.
Or again:
q = 1.6 es"¡ H (200 es .ffj) (4040)
in lhe same unils.

Th e coefficient e varies according to the type of nozzle. We may take:
(a) Nozzles giving jets of water normal lO lhe section of rhe orifice e = 0.5 - 0.7
(b) Nozzles of vortex lype e = 04 - 0.5.
Nózzles wilh unil ca pacity of the order of S m' / h (170 cu.fl. / h) under a head oi' S Jl1 ( 16
ft.) are generally used.
We ma y co mmenl rhat the area of the spra y pond corresponding ro one nozzle should be
proportional ro its capac ily, if the ratio Q, / S determined by eqn. (40.36) is used, say:
q = 750 kg/ m 2 / h (154 Ib./sq. ft./h) (4041)

ab
Hence:
q
ab = (4042)
750
a = spacing between the pipes carrying lhe nozzles, in m (fl.)

SPRAY PONDS 891
b = distan ce between nozzles on each pipe, in m (fl.)

q output of each nozzle, in kg/h (Ib./h).
Number 01 nozzles. The number N of nozzles is obtained immediately:
Q,
N (40.43)
q
N number of nozzles for the spray pond

Q, quantilY of warm waler to be cooled, in mJ/h (cu.ft./h or Ib./h), given by eqn. (40.25)
q capacity of warm water of each nozzle, in mJ/h (cu.fl./h or Ib./h).
Loss of water. A small proportion of the water is evaporated due to lhe breakil1g up 01"
lhe waler il1to drops by lhe sprays. Further, lhe wind carries away sorne of the fine drops
thrown up.
Leading authors attribute to these losses (he values given in Table 40.20.
TABLE 40.20
LOSS OF WATER FROM SPRAY PONO (OJo)
Evaporatíon Enlrainment Total
Deerr 18 3-5
Webre and Robinson\9 3
TromplO 2.6 3 5.6
The total loss should be of the order of 3 - 507o, according to the strength of (he wind.
Now, if 3 - 5% of the water lea ves the circuit, during the cooling, there returns to the con-
denser:
since W kg of cold water condense kg of vapour from the juice.

The nett loss is then:
lOO
é ~ cp - (40.44)
W
é nell loss of water, % of water in circuit Q2

cp approximate total loss by evaporation and entrainment, % of Q,
W = ratio between weight of cold water and weighl of vapour lO be condensed.
Since the quantity of water in circuit must not diminish, it is therefore necessary (o add
to the circuit a make-up quantilj equal lO the nell loss é (Fig. 40.21).
.. .
Condense r
Vopour
2
MOke-up €
2
Cold waler
1
98 Cooler
spray pond
lOO
Hol water
Loss 'P
Fig. 40.21. Condenser water cyele.
We may commenl rhar if il were possible lo redu ce rhe gross 1055 in Ihe cooling syslem 10
Ihe value 11 W, rhe mak e-up would become unnecessa ry; say:
100 (40.45)
<po =
W
Unfortunalely, il is difficult lO achieve this, even with a good spray po nd and a low
vaeuum. For sorne factories ar which the supply of cold water fall s ro very low levels during
Ihe dry season , ir is necessarylo make every effort to approach this goal. Th e best merhod
is ro increase the safety margin al Ihe wall of the pond on rhe leeward side (40.38) and lO
block up carefully all leaks which ma y appear. It is also necessary ro tak e care rhar other
waters in the facrory (cooling waler at mili bearings, or water used in lhe oil coo ler of [he
turbo set ; condensale from later effects, etc.) shou ld llOt be sent to Ihe drain or wasred.
The guantilY of make-up water necessary will be:
QWE
E (40.46)
100
Example. With:
Q = 300 kg (672 pounds) of vapour lO be condensed per ronne of cane
W = 50
E = 2070
we shall have:
E = 300 l/Le. (672 Ib./t.c.)
If, as in this case, WdlOO = 1, we shall have E = Q. That is, the make-up waler would
be approximale ly egual lO rhe weig hl of vapour lO be co ndensed .
SPRAY PONDS 893
Forced-draught cooling towers

These take the form of a large rectangular concrete struclure. The waler is pumped to Ihe
rop and broken up into sprays; il falls as rain on to successive stages of boards in lhe form
of louvres of wood, polystyrene or metal, with notches and ribs lo break up the flow. The
waler flows from one slage lo the next and finally arrives at the pond which torms the base
of the structure, from which il is taken by the cold water pump.
The efficiency of this device depends essentially on climatic conditions, in particular the
wet-bulb temperature and lhe relali ve humidity of the ambient airo The quantity of water re-
quired is calculated as indicated on p. 864, formulae (40.S) and (40.6). JI is of the order of
10- IS m 3 /t.c.h.
The wet-bulb lhermomeler indicates, according to atmospheric humidit)/; 3 - SOC lower
lhan Ihe dry-bulb temperature. Calculations are made on the assumption of7S - 800/0 relative
humidity. The drop in temperalure of the water is approximately 12 - IS°C.
The fans are ofaxial f10w type of large diameter (3 - 8 m in general: 10 - 26 ft.). The cool-
ing assembly is divided inlO several sections (2 - 6 generally). Power consumption is approx-
imately 75 -110 kW/IOOO m 3 /h (2-3 kW/cu.ft.) according to the heat quantities involved,
or S -6 kW/miIlion kcal (1.2S -1.50 kW/million B.T.U.).
Losses of waler are approximately O.S kg/tonne of circulated water by entrainmenl, and
2 - 3.5% by evaporation. The approach (difference between Ihe temperature of the cold
waler and lhe wet-bulb lemperalure) may be as low as 2.5°C. French makers of this equip-
menl are Hamon, Scam, and Jacir.
The advantage of this cooling equipment is its relatively low space requirement, compared
with spray ponds. The disadvanlage is [he power consumption, roughly lriple lhat of spray
ponds, when waler pumps are included.
Water requirements of the factory

Since lhe condenser water is one of the large water requirements of Ihe sugar faclory, this
is a convenient point 10 discu ss lhe water requirements in general"'.
(/) Boilers. Taking the total steam requirement s as 4S0 kg/t.c. and expressing
th e capacity of the faetory in Le. h. as A. Water for the boiler plant must be assum-
ed as 10- IS%, 110rmally 10%. We have lhen O.OSA
(2) Washing 01 caneo Depends on conditions
(3) Cooling milI bearings; assuming 5 milis, say 0.20A
(4) Imbibition. Assuming 30% 0.30A
(5) Filtration. Assuming water 1000)'0 011 cake (p. 482) 0.04A
(6) Cooling A massecuites:·with a Werkspoor, we may reckon 1.5111 of m.c.
and 130 l1I of m.c./t.c. = 0.130 x 1.5 0.20A
Cooling B m.e. Similarly: 0.060 x 1.S 0.09A
Cooling C m.C. Similarly: 0.040 x 1.5 0.06A
Movement water for pans O.02A
(7) Water 101' ca o las: See aboye 0.30A
(8) Washing al centriluga/s O.OIA
l.nA
,
894 VACUT.TM EQU IPME NT Ch . 40
RAIN TYPE CONDENSCRS
Th ese are co ndensers llb ., in which rhe waler enl ers al Ihe lop on 10 a perfo raled piare which
is furni shed wilh a f1anged edge. The size 0 1' Ihe hales is nOI 0 1' greal importance: a di81lleter
01' 15 mm may be adopted. The wa ler Ihen falls as rain Ih ro llgh Ihe whole heighl 01' Ihe co n-
dense r. The vapour lo be condensed a~rives al Ihe bOl 10m. II is necessary Iha l lile laleral
f1 a nge on Ihe plate, which forms a bowl, shou ld also be perforaled so Ihal Ihe waler Il ows
in lale ra l jets which strike Ihe wa ll 01' Ihe condenser. A good propon io n o f Ihe con densa li o n
is aClually effecled on lhe wall. The openings in the plale should indeed be calculated so [h a[ ,
when the co nden ser is wo rking al full capacilY, there remain s an excess ofwaler over fl ow ing
Ihe f1 a nge o f Ihe .plale.
The annular spac.e be[ween lh e empl y plnle nlld [he wnll oC [h e .:o nd en'c r SllOldd be slICI'i-
cienl 10 allow Ihe fuli fl ow 0 1' water [O pass, in case Ihe holes beco llle 10lally obslrllcled.
Olherwise, water wo uld enler inl o the vapour pipe.
It is very imp ortanl to allow suffici ent heiglll belween Ihe enlry plale and Ihe 10p of Ihe
vapour-entry pipe . A minimum of L 8 m is recommended, though 1.5 m may somelimes be
sufficienl; howeve r, a heigh t 01' 2.40 m is generally adop led.
The water should en ter ax ially ar rhe rop 01' rhe co nden se r. The ce nlral pan 01' Ihe plale
should relllain unperforaled, for a di a meler 10 cm grea ler than Iha[ 0 1' [he \Va[er pipe. II is
eqllally importanl to arrange Ihe incond ensible-gas pipe a l Ihe [OP o f Ihe condenser.
The 10lal area of Ihe holes should be Ihree lim es Ihal of Ihe \Va [er inle[ pipe. The pipe
should be placed near the centre of the condenser, and il s area sho uld be equa l to 0. 16 "70 01'
[he cross-sec[i o n of [he condenser, [hus i[s diame[ er so me 6"70 Ih81 01" Ihe conde nse r. Thi s
Iype o f co nd enser permils of an approach o f rhe o rder of 2 - 5°C, generally j0c.
A number o f IlIbes will be placed passing lhro llgh Ihe plale, 8nd sen'ing fo r Ih e p8ssage
01' inco nden sab les. Their lolal cross-seclion should exceed Ihal 01' Ih e incondensable oUl lel
pipe , The cross -sec li on 0 1' Ih e co ndense r shollld be 0.1 - 0.2 m'/I/h of "apour 10 be co nden s-
ed ,
CO NDEN SER-HEATERS
The rainlype of condens er may be used fo r he81ing jllices ane! so replacing Ihe lu bul ar healers
previously described (Chapler 30) , II is essenlially a maller 01' Ceeding jllice 10 lhe condensers
illSlead of cold waler; lhe jllice mu sl be scree ne e! very Ih oroug hl y so lh al part icles 01' solid
matler do nol obstruct the perfo rali o ns 01' lhe co nden ser plale. This s)'s lem has several 3d-
vantages :
(a) [t eliminates the tubular heaters, \Vhich are much more e.\ pen sil'e lh an Ihe cvlindric81
conde nse r bodies.
(b) [1 elimin ales Ihe c1eaning of healer Illbes, \l'hich is e.\pensive bO lh in 18bour and 1001.1.
(e) [1 reduces th e quanlities of hOI waler 10 be senl lO lhe coolers , \V hi ch involve I\VO large
pumps, large pip ing a nd a large coo ler.
On rhe other hand, il ha s a disadvanlage: il greally increa ses Ihe vol ume o f juke 10 be
evaporaled, whi ch is increased by Ihe quanlily of'v8pollrcondensed in Ihe L'ondenser-healcrs,
CONDENSER-HE ATERS 895
Il is appropriale in lhis COllllcCl io n, lo note lhat thei r cfficicncy is 100 1ll0, as against 9 5"70 for
tubular hea te rs.
We give an in teresting examp le of calc ula tion s for evaporation with heating of the juices
by co nden ser-heaters. eonsider a fac lo ry lo be eonslrueted, very modero, 'of 100 I.c.h.
capacil)' wilh mixed juice 100 % on cane, ca rr ying OUI al! its heating Wilh vapo ur from the
ju ice, including vacuum pans, and eq uipped with an evaporator set eomposed of:
1st vessel wilh downward f1 ow: giving vapour o f: 130 D e

2nd vessel ordinary: giving vapour o f: 118 D e
3rd vessel: giving vapour of: J05 D e
4th vessel: giving vapour of: 85 D e
wilh lhe following sca le of heating by condenser-heaters:
No. 1 on 4th vessel: 30 - 60 0 e

No. 2 on 3rd vessel: 60 - 80 0 e
N o. 3 on 2nd vessel: 80-100 e D
No . 4 on 1st vessel: iOO-J20 oe
The massecuites being heated as fol!ows:
A m .c. 140 i/t.c. x 1.47 x 0.275 x 1.2 = 68 kg/l.c. 6,800 kg /h from 2nd V.
B m.c. 54 I/t.e. X 1.47 x 0.275 x 1.2 = 26 kg/t.c. 2,600 kg /h fro m 3rd V.
e m.e. 37 l/t.c. x 1.47 x 0.36 x 1.2 = 23 kg/t.c. 2,300 kg / h from 3rd V.
or:
6,800 kg of va pour from 2nd vessel (15,232 Ib ./ h)

4,900 kg/ h of va pour from 3rd vessel (10,976 Ib./ h)
Th e quantities of vapour required for condensatíon in the fo ur co ndenser-heate rs wil! be:
No. l. q, = .:..:
10:..::
0-,-"
, O",- O,-,:-9c::'-(-"6,,,-0_-_.:..:30,-,-) =
OO,,---,-x,----,,:: 4.927 kg/ h
548
100,000 x 0.9 ( 80 - 60)

No. 2. q, = 3.358 kg/h
536
100,000 x 0.9 (100 - 80)

No. 3. q, = 3.415 kg/h
527
100,000 x 0.9 (120 - 100)

No. 4. q, 3.468 kg/h
519
,
15,168 kg / h (33,977 Ib ./ h)
00
'D
a-
CUI TE A CUITE B+C
6800 000
lJ OO ( JO OS 7 118' < 1 S 8 81 '05 0<. 11624 85 Q e 6,697 <

~
l>
(1
J 3 ) 5 65 30 ,OS7 19,882 11,&2 i. - e
e
3,1. 68 J , L15 3,368 ',927 :;::
1356 S In
4 '-+ ~ D
Q
'3S C 11
e
~
:;::
81603
t
51~0 6 31 621.
+
20,0 0 0
.. In
Z
..;
12'0 c< 100 0
( 80°(; 60°(. 30° (:
115,16,8 111,700 108,2'15 lOL ,92 7 100,000
Fig.40.22. Quadruple efrCC l r< lrll ~' ull uer r ressure wil h blccd ing ro r p¡] ns anu <.Ji r('<.:l CO lll ac l hcale rs (1 00 I.c.h. fa clory, melric uni\s) .
n
::;-
o-""
JET CONDENSERS 897
This quantity of water must be evaporated completely.

Designating by x (Fig. 40.22) the quantity of vapourleaving the lasl vessel to the general
condenser, we have the following disposition of the evaporation:
4th vessel: x + 4,927

3rd vesseJ: x + 4,927 + 4,900 + 3,358
2nd vessel: x + 4,927 + 4,900 + 3,358 + 6,800 + 3,415
1st vessel: x + 4,927 + 4,900 + 3,358 + 6,800 + 3,415 + 3,468
80,000 + 15,168 = 4x + 19,708 + 14,700 + 10,074 + 13,600 + 6,830 + 3,468
95,168 68,380 26,788

x 6,697 kg/h (15,000 Ib./h)
4 4
Hence the individual evaporations:
4th vessel: 6,697 + 4,927 = 11,624

3rd vessel: 11,624 + 4,900 + 3,358 = 19,882
2nd vessel: 19,882 + 6,800 + 3,415 = 30,097
1st vessel: 30,097 + 3,468 = 33,565
95,168 kg/ h (213,176 lb./h)
The healing by condenser-heaters thus involves the factory in a 190/0 additional evapora-
tion load, and consequently it requires a multiple effect 19% larger; but it consumes on1y
a total of 336 kg steam per I.c.h., heating and pans inc1uded, if a complete solution is
adopred such as described aboye.
JET CONDENSERS
PrincipIe
Jer condensers were firsl placed on Ihe market by Schutre-Koerting aboul 1930. They are bas-
ed on rhe dynamic effeCI of jelS of water whi ch, penetrating into the body of water in the
barometric column, enrrain with them, by friction, the air contained in the condenser. lf the
cross-section of lhe barometric column is smaJl enough to ensure a suilable velocity, the bub-
bIes of air do not rise into the'condenser and are evacuated to the well at the foot of the col-
umn.
lt is rhus possible to operare a condenser syslem wirhout an air pump. This eliminates an
expensive and cumbersome machine, wirh irs operating maintenance costs.
The design orthe condenser is similar in all points 10 that of an ordinary co-current con-
denser (Fig. 40 .23). It is even simpler, due 10 the elimination of baffles, which would impair
the velocity of Ihe jels.
Only Ihe design of the nozzjes and the direclion of the jets require so me care, in order lO
o"
Q
_
6 spr<:!y n ozz les ~~===*====~~~~C~O'~d~w~a~\e~,
entry
Deflector cone - - ---,,-h..
Manhole ------1r~t~i¡~~t~~c;,O~'d~w~at~e~
~
r e nt ry
Central inJ€'c to rs - - -/ InJec tor box
fig. 40.23. Mull i-jel co nd ense .. (Fi ve s Ca il - Bnb¡;oc K) .
obtain c1ean and smooth jets of water, to ensure lhe correct direction o f Ihe jel s, lO achieve
the necess ary entrainment of the air and an effective penetrati o n int o Ihe waler in {he
co/umn.
Ca/cu/ations
Ca/(u/ations for jet co nden sers are made exacr/y as for or dinar y co nd ensers (eJ. p. 857 el
seq.). The only points uf difference are lhe following:
(a) Approach. The appr oach i s no t given by eqn. (40./0). !I depends on:
(1) The magnitude o f air /eakages. The greater th ese are, the worse will be lhe approach.
(2) The vacuum desired . The hi g her the vacuum , lh e more difficull the approach.
(3) The dimen sion s of rhe cond ens er. The larger lhe co nd enser, lhe bCller lhe approach .
W e ma y lake as approach Ihe figur e gi ve n by lhe ro ll o wing empirical formula:
79 H 4, 000 - Q,
App = 0.3 (10 + R) =-:---:-:
76 H 4,000
(40.47 )
R) 31.2- H
( 025 (22 + )0 _ H
JET CONDENSERS 899
App approach = /" - /, difference berween rhe temperature of the hot water leaving
lhe co nden ser and rhat of rhe vapour entering, in oC (OF)
R = leakages of air into the vessel served by the condenser, in kg (lb,) air/h
H = vacuum 10 be maintained in the conden ser , in cm (in,) of mercury
Q, quantity ofcooling wa ler given by eqn, (40,24), but expressed in m 3 /h (cu.fl./h) (the
formula is valid olll y for Q, ,;;; 2,000 m 3/h (70,000 cu . fl. / h),
The t'igures for air leakage will be delermined by the procedure exp lained on p. 878, for
a normal installation, the follo wing figures may be used:
R JO kg/ h (22 lb .Ih) as normal minimum

R = 15 kg/ h (33 lb./h) as an average value
R = 20 kg/ h (44 lb .lh) as a high value
Ho \\'ever, le akages appreciably grealer are sometimes encountered.

Tromp" quotes an app roach of 4 - 5°C (8°F) for a jet condenser; more generally8, a range
of7-15°e (12-27°f), wilh a mean of ¡¡ OC (20°f) is reported, according to th e f1u c-
tuations in the quantity of vapour 10 be condensed.
(b) Water pressure. Jet condensers operate under a relatively low water pressure, Thjs
pressure , so mew hat higher in older designs, ha s been reduced 10 a very low I'igure in more
rece11l designs. In fact, certain condensers operate with lhe water reaching the nozzles under
a slighr vacuum; but this is exceptionaJ.
The water pressure s hould be a function of t he air leakage. It will be prudent to base
estimales on the minimum values given in Table 40,21, i,e. approximately 0.1 m water/kg/ h
(0.15 fl./lb .lh) of air leakages. These figures are gauge pressures, i.e, pressures aboye at-
mospheric,
11 follows thal, when a vac uum exists in lhe condenser, rhe water enlers lhe condenser with
a pressure for example of:
1.5 + 9 = 10,5 m (35. ft.)
9 m (30 fl.) being the pressure corresponding to 66 cm (26 in.) of mercur y.
TABLE 40,21
PRESSURE OF WATER AT NOZZLES OF JET CONDENSERS
Air feakages Pressure al nO'lzles

• kg / h kg / cm 2 m water
Lo\\' 10 0.10 l.0

Modera¡e 15 0.15 1.5
High 20 0,20 2.0
However, it is necessary lO assure lhe required pressure at starting up, when the vacuum
has nOl yel been eS lab lis hed . A value of 400 g/cm' = 4 m (6 p.s.i. = 14 n.) of water would
be sufficient. The characteristic curve of the injection water pump should Iherefore permit
of a small discharge with a pressure of 4 m (14 ft.) at the top of the condenser. This is lhe
pressure head which should be adopted for specificalions of the pump, and which should be
added to the geometric height of the nozzles, without allowing for vaCllllnl (ef. p. 883).
It will be advisable to provide the suction of the pump with an efficient screen, so thal
pieces of bagasse or otiler foreign bodies will not be hable to block the nozzles.
Table 40.21 is applicable for normal temperat~res of cooling water. If it is nec essary to
use cooling water at a temperatllre of ti greater than 01' equal to 35°C (95°F), it will be ad-
visable to increase the pressure at the nozzles substantially.
(e) Baromelrie eolllmn_ For ease of conslruction, the barometric colllmn is generally
designed so as to obtain a constant loss of head. According lO Ihe formula of Darcy:
J = 4b V' (40.48)
D
J loss of head in a noz zle, e.g. in m/m (ft. / ft.)

b coefficient varying slightly with the diameter
V velocity of water in the nozzle, in mis (ft. / s)
D diameter of the pipe, in m (ft.).
Neglect ing Ihe varialions in the coefficient b, and in using for il a mean value of 0.0004
(0.00012), we have:
J 0.0016 V'
D
( 0.0005 ~2) (40.49)
For jel condensers, we generally take:
V'
J 0.064 01' 40 (130) (40.50)
D
01' expressing V in mis (ft./s) and D in dm (in.):
(3 .3 ..JD) (4051)
V apparent velocity, in mi s (fl. / s), of the water f1oll'ing dOll'n the column, neglecling Ihe
air entrained with it.
D = interior diameter of the column, tn dm (in.).
Thevelocity will thus reach 2 mi s (6.6 ft./s) in a column of 10 cm (4 in.) diam., and 4
mis (13.2 fl./s) in one of 40 cm (16 in.) diam. These velocilies are sufficienl (O promol~ en-
Irainmen( of Ihe air bubbles, bul (hey should not be allowecl lO fall belol\' hall' or IlVo-lhird s
of (hese vallles, olhcrwise entrainmenl 01' lile air \ViII nOI be ensured.
STEAM-JET EJECTOR CONDENSERS 901
Use of jet condensers

Jet condensers require vessels welJ protected against air leakages, to which they are much
more sensitive than condensers fitted with an air pump. However, when this condition is
fulfilled, they function very well, and the elimination of the air pump constitules an
economy.
They will not be employed for a central condensing system on account of the greater extent
of air leakages in this case. However, they conslitute a good solution with individual con-
densers.
They are less flexible than condensers with air pumps, as regards the quantity of injection
waler, which can vary only between appreciably narrower limits. The vacuum which they give
is similarly less uniform, and varies slightly with rhe temperature of the hol water, which in
turn depends on the quantity of vapour to be condensed. Howcver, this drawback has no
great importance in the case of individual vacuum. They have a high water consumption and
require more powerful pumps with consequent high eleclric power demando
STEAM-JET EJECTOR CONDENSERS
Apart from jet condensers, there is another method of eliminating the air pump: this consists
of evacuaring the .air by means of an ejector condenser aclualed by steam.
Air
l
Ú .
r--
~~~er
Vop. H.P. +
y opou r
t-
)
= G~
H
c--J
1'....--=--= ---:-.. ::.c _ ~ _ . .~

_~~~_ '==_···c - I "--·---1
-- :~
-- - -. --. -- . , -
Fig. 40.24. Ejector-condenser.

902 V ACUUM EQUlPMENT Ch. 40
This device is connecled 10 lhe air oullel of the condenser (Fig. 40.24). Medium-pressure
sleam, 5 -10 kg/m' (70-140 p.s.i.), is admitled lO a nozzle and enlrains Ihe air by friclion
lowards lhe well at the rOO l of Ihe column, direclly lO almosphere, 01' lO a seco nd sl11all con-
denser which condenses lhe Sleam .
The advantages of this system over the air pump are":
(1) Space occupied is less and practically negligible.
(2) No foundations are required.
(3) There are no moving parts. Hence no lubrication, no stuffing boxes, no wea r, no pans
lO replace (other than lhe nozzle, which is insignificanl and lasls several years).
(4) Cost is much lower, aboul half.
Moreo ver , the volumelric efficiency 01' an air pump decreases rapidly as lhe VaCUlll11 il1 -
crea ses, whereas an ejeclor condenser is designed for a given vacuum, ror which ilS efliciency
will be an optimum.
On the other hand, it follows lhat , al starling up, its efficiency will be low since it has nOl
yet attained lh e desired vacuurn. Hence a long delay before Ihe desired vacuum is allained,
at starting up.
This disadvantage is sometimes overcome by the installalion of a spec ial ejector for star-
ting up, which is used only for raising vacuum in the pan and which is shu t down when Ihe
vacuum reaches about 50 cm (20 in.), afler starting up lhe ejeclor for normal service.
The steam ejeclor condenser has another disadvanlage: when lhe condenser waler is se nl
lo a spray pond or cooling tower, ilS temperarure is increased due to lhe heat of conde nsar ion
of the injected steam.
Number of slages
The air may be extracted in two stages: (1) from the large con den ser to the small one; (2)
from lhe sma ll condenser lo another slill smaller. In lhe lalter case il is termed a lwo-stage
ejector.
General practice employs:
(a) Single-stage ejectors for vacua up lO 66 cm (26 in.), llsed ror v¡¡c uum fillers or as
starting-up ejectors.
(b) Two-slage ejectors for vacua up to 75 cm (29.5 in.). These are generally used for mulli-
pie effects and vacuum pans.
The normal inSlallalion Ihu s co nsisls of Ihe firsl-slage ejeclor, drawing vapour from Ihe
condenser and discharging into a second small condense r, or "inter-condenser"; lhen lhe
second-stage ejeclor drawing from Ihe inter-condense r and discharging to almosphere,
preferably by a pipe discharging into the well at the base of lhe barometric column which
thus receives wa ter from the three columns: those of lhe two condensers and thal of Ihe last
)1·
ej ector.
Steam consumption
The Sleam consumplion is proportional 10 Ihe quantity of air extracted. In order lO Oblain
a suitable stea m consumption, it is necessary to use actuating sleam at a pressure bel\\'een
5 and 10 kg/cm' (70 and 140 p.s.i.). Sleam consumption decreases as the pressure of Ihe ac-
tualing sleam is increased. Abo ve JO kg/cm' (140 p.s.i.), the saving becomes smaller and
STEAM-lET ElECTOR CONDENSERS 903
smaller. Below 5 kg/cm' (70 p.s.i.), lhe co nsumplion increases very rapidly.
The heat conlenl of lhe expanded aClualing steam may be recovered by co llecting it for
use in a heal exchanger. However, lhe Sleam consumplion of Ihe ejeclor in creases very rapid-
1)' wilh back pressure (see Table 40.22).
TABLE 40.22
RELATIVE STEAM CONSUMPTION OF ElECTOR CONDENSERS WITH DlffERENT

RACK PRESSURES (arter Hellmer 24 )
Back pressure (g/cm') Re/al/ve Sleam consumplion
o lOO
200 106
300 125
400 140
500 160
600 200
700 400
The sleam consumplion of an ejector increases with the vacuu m sought. Acco rding 10 the
vacuum, Ihe pressure and lhe number of slages, it va ries from 2 lO JO kg/kg (lb. l ib .) air ex-
lracled. Wilh a vacuum of 66 cm (26 in.), steam al 6 kg /c m' (85 p.s.i.), a back pressure of
50 g/ cm' (0.7 p.s.i.), and a two-stage ejector, we may reckon approximatel y:
For ¡he firsl ejcclor: 2.5 kg of vapour

For the second: 6 kg of vapo ur per kg of dry air extracled
Or 101al: 8.5 kg of vapou r
Ihi s air moreover being salUraled with waler al lhe temperature 1,.
Appro.\illlalely, calculaliolls ma y be based on a lotal sleam co nsumption al 6 -10 kg/cm'
(85-140 p.s.i.), of the order of200 kg / h (450 lb./h) for a vac uum pan, and 300-400 kg/h
(650 - 900 Ib ./ h) for a multiple effect. This consumption obviously depend s nol only on the
vacuum, on Ihe Sleam pressure employed and the number of slages, bUI also on the dimen-
sions 01' lhe pan, on lhe nunlber of effecls and the temperature 01' the cold waler used in lhe
condenser. It also depends on lhe malerial of conslruction of the vessels, all leakages being
grealer in lhe cas I iron vessel, generaJly estimated al double those with a corresponding vessel
of sleel.
Application
Slealll ejeclor condensers are of inleresl:
(a) When air leakages are small
(b) When the vacuum is nol loo high
(e) When il is difficult to find space for an air pump
(d) When an excess of sleam is available.
1I is recomme nded that ejeclors of generous capacilY should be provided. The increase in
cos t is only slight, and they are nOI likely 10 become rapid ly under capacily wilh increa si ng
rates.
It is advisable to provide effici en t insulalion for Ihe pipe carrying Ihe aClualing Sleam, and
10 in sert 8n efficient water separat o r jusI befare Ih e en try of thi s steam into Ihe injeclor. In
th e same way the actuating steam should 'pass through a filler or a sc reen a rranged 10 re tai n
possible foreign bodies, and in particular particles of ru st cOl11ing fro lll Ih e piping .
It is des ir ab le that this actuating Sleam sho uld be sli ghtl y super hea led, so as to avoid Ihe
ri sk of being wet and saturated at the nozz le. The ideal would be 10 ha ve dry sa lurated Sl eam,
but Ihis cond ition is obvious ly difficult lo maintain and a slight superhea l wi Jl mainlain a
safety margino An excess o f superheal wou ld be harmful as il wo uld decrease th e densilY and
consequen lly the entra ining effeet of the steam. Wet steam, on th e other hand , is also
undesirab le, sin ce Ihe droplels of water will cause erosion 01' Ihe nozz le.
As wilh th ermo-eomp ressors, 3n ejeetor funetions efficientl y only al th e Sleam pressure for
whieh it ha s been designed. Care should Iherefore be la ken 10 maintain ils pressure at Ihe
design figure, and for thai pu rpose to install a pressure gauge upslream 01' the ejeelOr.
To avoid in creas ing Ihe baek pre ss ure to no purpose, ea re wiJl be taken !O see Ihal Ihe
diseharge pipe into th e. well at the foo l of the co lumn is as sho rt an d as direct as possible,
and thal il is not conrinued to o fa r be low Ihe safety leve l of the wel!.
Jet condensers for external extraction of air

In slead al' stea m, exlraetion of air may be effee ted by means of a jet 01' water. Thi s is indeed
Vopour
~
/
(
rF---'----J
·.·
Am
(old wo t er ,~~ ~:_u. .

Hot woler
Fi g. 40.25. Je! condenser wi¡h eXlernal eX lraclion or air.

REFERENCES 905
exaclly Ihe principie of the jet condenser, the only difference being that the air is extracted
outside of the co ndenser.
The nozzle may be placed al such a height thal Ihe wa ler discharged by il can be aspirated
inlo Ihe condenser. Since lhe quanlily of air is very small, the waler leaves Ihe nozzle at a
temperature practically equal to that at which it enters. The difference is not detectable on
Ihe thermometer.
Consequentlya pump of rather low head will su ffice (Fig. 40.25), and it may be arranged
so that it is not necessa ry to pump Ihe water leav ing lhe water-actuated ejector condenser
which is used to ensure co ndensa lion in Ihe barometric column. For this, it is sufficient thal
lile waler level in Ihe intermediale well below the ejector should be about 4 m (13 ft.) aboye
the level in the well al the foot of the barometric column. The water in this intermedi ate well
is thus aspirated inl o the condenser as soon as Ihe vacuum approaches its normal value.
REFERENCES
N. DEERR, Cane Sugar, Norman Rodger, Lo ndon, 1921, p. 362.

2 E . HAUSBRANO, Evaporaling, Condensing and Coo/ing Apparalus, 51h Engl. edn., Benn, Lo ndon , t 933, pp.
281-284.
3 E. H AUSBRANO, op. cil., pp. 274 - 283.
3a D. S. STRAUSS, S. Afr. Sugar J., 50 (1966) 467.
3b P . N. STE WAR T, Proc. 361h Conf. QSSCT, /969, p. 95.
le Bur. Sugar Expl. SIG . Queensland, 691h Ann. RepI., /969, p. 74.
3d P. N. STEWART, Proc. 381h Conf. QSSCT, /97/, p. 155 .
le J. G. ZIEOLER, T.S.J., l (April 1976) 40.
4 W. L. BAOGER, Heal Transfer and EvapOralion, C hemical Catalog CO., New York, 1926, p. 224.
5 E. HAUSBRANO, op. cil., pp. 372 - 397.
6 E. HAUSBRAND, op. cil., p. 273.
7 A. L. WEBRE ANO C. S. ROBINSON, Evaporalion, The Chemical Calalog Ca., New York, 1926, p, 152.
8 L. A. TROMP, Inl. Sugar J., 50 (1948) 10.
9 W. L. BAOGER, op. Cil., p. 220.
10 E. HAUSBRANO, op. cil., p. 251.
11 E. HAUSBRANO, op. eil., pp. 208 - 250.
12 A. L. WEBRE ANO C. S. ROBINSON, op. Cil., p. 221.
13 S. V. FEBRE, Inl . Sugar J., 43 (1941) 351.
14 L. A. TROMP, op. Cil., p. 492.
15 A. L. WEBRE ANO C. S. ROBrNSON, op, dI., p . 156. ' ~ . '. :'
16 R. H. LLOYO, Facls Sugar, 26 (1931) 529.
173 F. A. JORGENSEN, Inl. Sugar J., 54 (1952) 73.
17b J. B. CORVEN, Inl. Sugar J., 45 (1943) t09.
18 N. DEERR, op. Cil., p. 371.
19 A. L. WEBRE AND C. S. ROBINSON, op. cil., p. 159.
20 L . A. TR OMP, op. cil., p. 491.
21a L. R. COOMBES, Rev. Agrie. SUCT. Jle Mauriee, (1976) 227.
21b J. M. MOULT AND J. H. SMUTS, Proc. 52rd Conf. SASTA , 1979, p: 98.
21e P. N. STEWART, op. eil., 301, p. 151.
22 L. A . TROMP, Inl . Sugar J., 48 (1946) 120.
23 R. E. HELLMER, 1nl. Sugar J., 43 (1941) 147.
24 R. E. HELLMER, Inl . Sugar J., 43 (1941) 14 8.
/
41. Steam Production and Usage
The fibre in the cane is generally sufficient to enable the bagas se produced by [he mili s [O
supply all the steam necessary for power production and for manufacture, when utilised as
fuel in the boiler furnaces.
With a normal fibre content (12 -14070) and a well-balanced and well-designed factory, an
excess of bagasse also remains (or of steam) which may be used for other purposes: irrigation
pumping, manufacture of by-products, steam for the distillery, supply of e1ectric energy to
the regional network, etc.
We may comment in passing that the cane, which produces the sugar, supplies at the same
time the fuel necessary for the factory which handles it; and also lea ves, as by-products or
waste-products:
(a) Molasses, from which is made rum, alcohol and sometimes mOlor fuel, for tractors and
lorries.
(b) Muds, which form an excellent manure for the field, and from which wax is sometimes
extracted.
(e) Ashes, produced by combustion of bagas se in the furnaces, which supplement the
muds in a mos~ convenient fashion, to supply a complete fertiliser.
Finally, it should not be forgotten that the cane itself pro vides the water necessary for
steam production, which is very valuable for factories which do not have access to an
unJimited supply of fresh water.
We shall study successively:
(a) Ste.am
(b) Bagasse
(e) The combustion of bagasse
(el) Theboilers and their accessories
(e) The general conditions for steam production in the sugar factory.
STEAM
Tables
The principal properties of steam are given (in both British and metric units on account of
their importance) in the following tables (to be found at the end of the chapter).
(a) Table 41.1. This gives the properties of dry saturated steam. A definite relationship ex-
ists between the pressure and the temperature of dry saturated water vapour: if one of these
properties is known the other is immediately fixed.
However, lhe liquid phase ceases at the critical pojnt, whjch corresponds to a temperature
STEAM 907
of 374°C (705°F) and a pressure of 225 kg/cm' (3,200 p.s.i.); abo ve this temperature, water
can exist only in the gaseous formo
It will be noted that the total heat necessary to form a unit weight of steam by no means
increases proportionately to the pressure. It increases at first, though slowly, pass es through
a maximum in the neighbourhood of 30 kg/cm' (450 p.s.i.), and then decreases:
For a pressure of
p' O kg/cm' O p.s.i.g. ).. 639 kcal/kg USO B.T.U./lb.

p' = 6 lOO ).. = 660 1,190
p' 30 400 ).. 670 1,205
p' 60 800 ).. 665 1,198 •
Now the possibililies of transformation and utilisation of the energy contained in tlÍls unit
weight of steam in crease very rapidly with pressure. Hence the interest of high pressures: .it
costs hardly any more in the way of heat content to produce steam at 30 (400) than at 6
kg/cm' (100 p.s.i.).
(b) Table 41.2. This table is applicable to superheated steam, and gives the mean specific
heat of the steam, at different pressures, between the temperature corresponding to satura-
tion and various temperatures of superheat. This table is useful for calculations relating to
superheaters, and permits the calculation of the following table. "
(e) Table 41.3. This table gives the total heat contained in unit weight of superheated
steam, at various pressures and temperatures.
(d) Table 41.4. This gives the specific volume of superheated steam, at various pressures
and temperatures. This table is useful for calculations relating to steam piping.
Formulae
The formulae (32.5), (32.6) and (32.7), while valid for low pressures; are only approximate
abo ve about 21 kg/cm' (300 p.s.i.), and should not be used beyond 30 kg/cm' (425 p.s.i.).
For high pressures, they may be replaced by the folJowing formulae:
).. = 667 _ (231 - 1)' 1205.5 _ (447.6 - 1)') (41.2)*

1100 ( , 1,980
r = 92.8 (374 - 1)0315 (138.8 (705- 1)0315) (41.3)
)..total heat content of saturated steam at {o expressed in kcal/kg (B.T.U.llb.) for ab-
solute pressures aboye 30 kg/cm' (425 p.s.i.)
r = latent heat of vaporisation of the steam at pressures aboye 30 kg/cm' (425 p.s.i.)
= saturation temperature of the steam, in oC (OF) .
• For eqn. (41.1) see p. 1042. , ::

/
908 STEAM PRODUCTlON AND USAGE Ch. 41
Dryness fraction
Steam produced in boilers not equipped with superhealers is generally not dry, since it carries
with it droplets of water. The dryness fraction x of a wet steam is the quantity of dry steam
contained in unit weight of that steam. Steam of a dryness fraction x = 0.95 contains 950/0
vapour and 5% water entrained as dro¡:llets.
Tromp' gives as mean values in the sugar factory, when there are no superheaters:
High-pressure steam: x 0.95 -0.97

Exhau st steam: x 0.80 - 0.90
However, many designers assume 0.95 for the exhaust steam from engines.
A calorimeter for determining dryness fraction is fully specified by Tromp' and moreover
is readily installed; in the absence of such an apparatus, we may adopt as a first approxima-
tion:
Live steam: x 0.95

(41.4)
Exhaust steam: x = 0.90
Entropy diagrams
The engineer who is studying plans for in stallat ion s of boilers, turbines or steam engines can-
not do without a steam diagram. This is a graph on which are set out the most important
properties of steam. T,he most valuable diagrams are:
(a) The Molfier diagram (Fig. 41.1), which plots as abscissa the entropy of the steam and
as ordinate ¡ts wtal heat A.
(b) The enlropy diagram (Fig. 41.2), which plots as abscissa the entropy and as ordinate
the tempe~alUre l.
Wet steom one
o L-----------------~~---------
Entropy
Fig. 4 t. t. Mollier diagram. Signi ricance of graphs.

STEAM .. .. ' _('i ./,',. 909
~r---------'~='~s-~
o"
L
~ B'
"-
E
f----r-------\~
~ Wet steam zone
Ar-----------------~~-----
~,,, '
OL-----~E~~--------~d,----
ntropy
fig. 41.2. Enlropy diagram. Significance of graphs.
.: : " " ;", . '"! '::-;,
The entropy of steam is the quantity: :" . : ' i
Q
.( d ) (41.5)
J Jl T
t steam temperature
T absolute temperature of the steam = (273 + t) oC ((459.4 + t) °F)
Q quantity of heat involved in the transformation under considetation.
This somewhat unfamiliar cOrlcept of entropy presents great advantages:
(1) The diagram may be drawn at a suitable scale for giving the properties of steam under
aJl conditions encountered in practice.
(2) Isothermal transformations are represented on the entropy diagram by horizontal lines.
(3) Adiabatic changes are represented by vertical lines.
(4) Changes which involve no external work are represented by lines of equal total heat.
It is therefore easy to trace the properties of steam before and after a given change of con-
ditions. We may consider:
(a) Changes at constant total heat:

Throttling in steam engiries.
Expansion without external work (in a pressure reducer, for example).
The variation in internal energy of the steam, corresponding to the drop in pressure, is
utilised to evaporate the water' contained in the steam (wet steam) or to superheat it (dry
steam).
(b) Isothermal changes:

Evaporation at constant pressure .. " i •• 1~ -' "
910 STEAM PROOUCTION ANO USAGE Ch. 41
(e) Adiabatie ehanges:

Compression.
Expansion in a turbine or steam engine, with producrion of external work. This is Ihe most
importanl and Ihe most interesting case in rhe present discussion.
The external work is obtained from the heat given up by Ihe s~eam. The lotal heal of a
unit mass of steam, Ihe slale of which is represente,d by Ihe point D (Fig. 41.2) by rea so n
of the choice of coo rdinales, is equal lO Ihe area OABCDd. In Ihe same way, rhe 10lal heal
relalive lO the poinl D ' wiII be equal lO Ihe area OAB' D' d. 11 is nOI necessary 10 measure
these areas, however, since A is given by curves placed on the diagramand may be read off
by interpolation.
Example. Assume a sleam turbine receiving sleam al 23 kg/cm' (327 p.s.i.a.) and 350°C
(662°F). This condition is represented on the diagram by the point D, inlersection of Ihe
isobar 23 kg/ cm' with the horizontal 350°. The corresponding total heat is read off from Ihe
diagram: = 748 kcallkg (1,347 B. T. U .l Ib.). The expansion in the turbine will be adiabaric,
i.e. it wiII lake place along a verlical line on Ihe diagram. If the back pressure is 0.5 kg / cm'
= 1.533 kg/ cm' abs. (21.8 p.s.i.a.) the final slale of Ihe steam will be represenled by Ihe
poinl D', al Ihe inlerseclion of Ihe vertical through D and the horizontal of 1.533 kg /cm'
(21.8 p.s.i.a.) or 111°C (232.5°F). II is readily seen on Ihe diagram Ihal Ihis poinl D' cor-
responds 10 wel sleam of dryness fraclion x = 0.935 and of tOlal heat A = 605 kcal/kg (1 ,090
B.T.U. / lb.). The external work accomplished per kg (lb.) of sleam is Ihen:
T = (A .- A') 427 kgm/kg (778 fl. lb .l lb.) . (41.6)
or here:
T = (748 - 605) 427 = 61,000 kgm/kg (200,000 ft.lb.l lb.)
427 (778) = mechanical equivalent of the kcal (B.T.U.) = number of kgm (foot pounds) cor-
responding to I B. T. U.
In practice, it is obviously necessa ry to lake into accounl Ihe efficiency of the operation.
Moreover, the change is nOI exactly adiabatic; instead of foJlowing a vertical line DD'
(Fig. 41.3), it folIows a curve DD' ': Ihere is a sl ight degradation of energy leading to a slight
superheat (or to an increase in dryness fraction).
.8 e
QL-________________
Fig. 41.3. Adiabatic expansiono

STEAM 911
We shall have several occasions lo return ' 10 the enlropy diagram.

Figures 41.4 (metric units) and 4.15 (British units) give Mollier diagrams, which will allow
consideration of problems concerned with the use of steam in the factory .
Equiva1ents
Table 41.5 will serve to recall Ihe equivalent figures for heal and mechanical work.
TABLE 41.5
THERMO-,MECHANICAL EQUIV A.LEf'lTS
E. lhe work corresponding lO 1 kcal = 427 kg m

E. lhe work corresponding to I B.T.U. = 778.3 rl.lb .
. '
hence : I h .p .h. requlres
75 x427'
3 600 = 632 kcal
x 33 600
( 550 778. = 2 ,5 44 B.T. \1. )
I kWh requíres 06~~5 = 860 kcal I ~:~~ = 3,413 B.T.U.)
BAGASSE
Final bagasse, or simply bagasse, is Ihe solid fibrous material which leaves the delivery open-
ing of Ihe last mili of the tandem, after extraction of the juice.
lt is the residue from the milling of caneo
Physical composition
In spite of the diversity of milling plants and machines employed , Ihe physical composition
of bagasse varies between ralher narrow limits. Its most important properly, from the point
of view of sleam production, is ils moisture contento Poor work at Ihe milis will give a
bagasse of 500/0 moisture, while very good work wil.1 give a bagasse o f 45% moisture. Certain
factories in Hawaii and Formosa have reported moislures of lhe order of 38%, bul these are
exceptional figures. It is slill difficull, even in a modern mili, lO obtain figures as low as 44%.
The mosl freq u enl values are:
. : "
w = 45 - 50% . (41.7)
w = moislure in bagasse
and generally we shal¡ nol involve a)ly greal error in adopting for practically aIl cases the
standard value:
. .. (41.8)
,. '
. In addition lO water, the bagasse contain s:

(a) Insoluble material, consisting mainly of cellulose , and comprising the fibre content of
Ihe bagasse
/
912 STEAM PRODUCTION AND USAGE Ch. 41
o
O
,.
", .
a:i - .
.
u u
o
u
o
.t:
O
O
O
O
g
.... ", .
g~~~~~~~~~~4d~~~~~~~~~Hb~~~~~hH~~~
.~
.,. _ ' ro . '
g
~ ( 6)1 / r)f )
Fig . 41.4. Mollier diagram for calculation of projecls (metric units).

STEAM
"-
.0) :::J
Octl
-l"
~~
O) "-
"O :::J
E E
ctI ctI
O) "- O)
O)
a. 0>-
E ctl .-"O
ctI CI)
.-:::::o -~
E > "-
O)
(tl ctl "-
"- O)
0)"-
(tl:::J
.- o "- ~
Da. ~ .E ::.:
Entropy
A MOLLIER CHART FOR $TEAM .' 1'000
M<><I11Icd on<l IT ... II~ r<d,,"'~ 110m I( .... n.~ Oft d
Xer~·.
R,""TO<lU~
Thcrmodynlml, Pro_oJeo
publlihe<l (9)5> by 101>" WI~y ond h"" . I~
per~on
"
....."
Slnm,
"
DubUIM:f1,.
,
,
,,,.
p,..,.. .•
SI'.
,o"'p .•
"
..
=. ~
~c
,eD1p ••
,.-
,..., 1lf
"
PI_·. h.
" i¡"
,
~"'. ~" .
..
Iq. In.
,i I~!:M
ÚS ~.U
, ,~
0.30
O.l!
O.~
0.0
...,
O~
O.H
u.O<
49 .06
S2.600
SS .IT
SI.IO
6l.4.
·,
,• '"
'lO
,
,• ,no. "'"
141.~
1J~91
16:!.:W
170.06
IJ6.81
..
~
161.U
31),06
111.19
189."
197.31
6000.41
,
0.6 1
6US
66. 26 10 '''' 1118.211
. '9J. U )OQ
'11 .0'
4P .lI
0.10
1)." ...~ I 14
10.4) " ~,." I ~ m '""
lO9 . ~
461 .01
..,.",ro..
I
n .u , 4 ._ ' 111.00 600 ' "6.11
O..,
H ·.·I'R
J,.u 16 1 16.1]
1112.4'
100
lOO
~J,JO
1ISI5"",61
I.lI -r
0.9'
,..
1. 10
77.01
¡:.:~ I~n I~~r, I:!:: .1:1¡;

10 nl.% 1000 ,
1.)0
,.U
,...
1. '0
..... .U
."
n .u"
'1 .11)(1
I~ ",,, ,11200"" l·"·,,
ll9.lJ
114,« I 2000
1649.46
lal.OI
1600 _.90
OH.SI
....
, .~
U .to
;U¡
I~::~
60
~
, 291.71
I m:~
1,: ! m::r I :~.l· ~:~
1-'00
~~ Im.~
666.12
)
'"
,ro
!I
000
~
..;
t 1
~ .. .
ID
~
,¡; '"
.s"
•
1
11
, ;
~."
. ;
ti J/
;0
DOO
'.'
--
~9 í~r.o
~f~~~' ,
.
,
'.""
II
'.0 1.1 :,- --, [. --, --,
b
Entr-opy
Fig. 41.5. MolJier diagram (British units) .

BAGASSE 915
(b) Subslances in Solulion in the water (this water obviously originating in the juice and
lhe imbibilion), consisting of sugar and impurities.
These dissolved substances are presenl in small quantities, ranging from 2 to 4 OJo . Ir we
designate lheir proporlion by weight as DOJo, there remains of fibre:
l' = 100 - w - D = 46-53OJo. (41.9)
a fairly frequent value being:
l' 50 OJo (41.10)
l' = fi bre OJo bagasse.
Quantity of bagasse
The extreme values of the mean fibre content of cane are c10se to: 1 = JO and 16OJo; but it
generally lies in the region 12- 15OJo.
We obtain the quantilY B of bagasse obtained from 100 parts of cane, by equating the
weight of fibre entering the milis lO that leaving:
1001 = BI'
hence:
B = lOO 1 (41.11)
l'
Jt will be seen that the quantity of the bagasse varies between 24 and 30OJo by weight of
cane, or approximately one-quarter.
We shall have available then about 275 kg (616 lb.) of bagasse per Lc.
Bulk density
TrompJ gives as bulk density of bagasse:
160-240 g/dm' (10-15 Ib.lcu.ft.) when stacked
80-120 g/dm' (5-7.5Ib.lcu.fL) in a loose condition.
This density depends mainly on ilS moisture content, thus bagasse is lighter when it con-
tains less waler. For a mean value w = 48OJo, we may rake:
d = 200 g/dm J (12.5 lb. /c u.ft.) for bagasse in a srack
d = 120 g/dm J (7.5 Ib.lcu.ft.) for loose bagasse.
We may take 160-170 g/dm J (lO-lllb.lcu.ft.) for loose bagasse loaded on a lorry ro a
height of 5 - 7 feet. Belt conveyors are calculated on a bulk density of 130 kg/m 3 (8Ib.lcu. ft.).
Storage of bagasse
The bulk densiry of bagasse makes ir a very bulky material. Storage of excess bagasse from
rheJactory presenrs a difficulr probJem for this reason.
/
E xce pl in very dry 10ca1ilies, baga sse ca nnot be le fl Oul in Ihe open, since il fermenls,
decays and loses a large proporlion of il s va1ue even for use as fu e!.
However, il may, if necessary, be slored in Ihe open, on condilion Ihal il is placed in lhe
form of a conical or pyramidal slack, wilh Ih e lop al a s lope 01' al leasl 30° (Fig. 41.6), and
Ih a l a roof is formed by mean s of ca ne le aves over lap ping like roofi ng slal es, running
le nglhwise in lhe direclion of the slope, as in' Ihe thalched roofs of native coll ages.
Generally, it will be of advanlage [O store lhe bagasse under a roof.
The ang le of repose of bagas se is rather va riable, bu[ generally in Ihe range of 45 - 50 ° .
H owever, Ihe edges of a stack ma y be [rimmed (o verlical wall s, ",i lhou[ risk of co llapse ;
Ihey ho ld very wel!.
Fig. 41.6 . Bagasse pite in open airo Fig. 41.7 . "Dra ughlboar d" slack ing of baled bagasse .
T o avo id Ihe necessi[y for 1arge and expensive bllildings, stored bagasse s hould be com-
pressed, in order [O reduce lIs volume.
Penelralion of rain in a stack of bagasse is given by:
IOw
h (41.12) .
d (0.056 - ~)
h penetration, in cm
w rainfall, in c m
d - specific weighl of bagasse , In kg/ m J (d = 74 for fresh bagasse, 110 fo r wet
malerial)
k consislency of lhe bagasse a[ [he surface, in 070, befare [he rain (k 50 if dry, 20 if
wel)
Bagasse presses
There are two principal Iypes of bagasse press:
(1) BaJing press. Bal es of 30 x 30 x 60 cm (12 x 12 x 24 in .), or 45 x 45 x 60.cm

(18 x 18 x 24 in.) a re fo rmed, and are lied wilh Iwo o r [hr ee wires, 10 prevenl Ihem from
re-expanding. A h yd ra ulic press is employed ror this pllrpose, simil ar [O a press ¡'or hay.
The bales of fres h bagasse ha ve a densily of 400 - 600 kg/ m J (25 - 40 Ib./cu. fl.), according
10 [he p ressu re employed. They are Ihen slacked in "draughlboard" fashion (Fig. 41.7) so
BAGASSE 917
as to allow air to circulate between the bales. In this way they dry more rapidly. However,
this practice is discouraged in certain countries, such as the Philippines, where it is considered
that it allows fire to spread more rapidly. On the other hand, it decreases the risk of spon-
taneous combustion.
In two or three months, the bagasse loses part of its moisture, which decreases from
45 - 50<l7o to about 25<l7o, a value at which it becomes stable. The bagasse bales then weigh
only about 300 - 400 kg / m 3 (20 - 25 lb.lcu.ft.).
Bagasse baled while moist, as it leaves the mills, can give rise to spontaneous combustion
when stacked in a large pile.
Bagasse baled and stacked in "draughtboard" fashion and sheltered from .the weather may
be stored for a long time. When a long period of storage is foreseen, it is ad va ntageous to
sprinkle powdered boric acid on the stack proportionately as the stack is built up.
Fig. 41.8., Bagasse briquetting press (Pawert).
(2) Briquetting press. Bagasse in its original state cannot be made to remain compressed;
whatever pressure be employed, it does not retain any cohesion. If, on the contrary, it is
dried, it is possible to obtain briquettes:
(a) On condition that the moisture content has been reduced beJow 15<l7o. Best resuIts are
obtained with bagasse of 7 - 8<l7o water. If the drying is taken further the briquettes would
re-absorb moisture from the air and would expando
918 STEAM PRODUCTION AND USAGE Ch . 41
(b) Provided pressures of the order of 350 kg/ cm' (5,000 p.s.i.) are used, or preferably
1,000 kg/ cm' (15,000 p.s.i.)
Bagasse briquettes are made in two forms:
(a) Briquettes proper, small plates of 20 x lO x 2 cm (8 x 4 x 1 in.), which can be stack-
ed at a bulk density of 720-880 kg/ m' (45-55 Ib·./ cu.ft.).
Tromp' specifies a press of 70 h.p. for 5 -'ID tonnes of bagasse per hour.
Briquetting is facilitated and cohesive properties of the briquettes are improved by adding
a binder, molasses for example, in the ratio of one par! per four of bagasse.
In Cuba', a pressure of 8.5 kg/ cm' (120 p.s.i.) is considered sufficient, when a binder is
i ncorporat ed.
(b) As "Iogs", cylindricaJ agglomerates of 6,9 or 13 cm (2.5, 3.5 or 5 in.) diameter. The
be::;l-known presses fU flli shi ng pieces of lhis lype are liJe "Glomera" 01' Pawen in Basle. The
bagasse is dried tO about 10% moisture by hot flue gas, in vertical dr y tubes , through which
it is blown by fans. It then pass es into a very powerful press (Fig. 41.8), where it is pressed
into a tu be; the simple friction against the tube walls generates a pressure in ¡he
neighbourhood of 1,400 kg/ cm 2 (20,000 p.s.i.). The compressed bagasse leaves the cylinder
in the form of a continuous "sausage" which can be broken into pieces 13 - 20 cm (5 - 8 in.)
in length. It then has a density of about 1,100 kg/ m J (70 Ib./cu.ft.) and, even when stored in
bulk, may still havea density of 400 - 480 kg/ m' (25 - 30 Ib ./cu.ft.). Thus it forms a fuel which
can be readily and cIeanly handled.
Breaking up bales. When bagasse stored in bales is to be re-used, the bales are broken up
by passing them through a light crusher. lt has been reported' that this operfition may cause
fibrosis of ¡he lungs in the workers handling this operation. It is therefore necessary to pro-
vide adequate ventilation.
Use of bagasse
In addition to its use as fuel, excess bagas se may find very profitable use as:
(a) Raw material for the manufacture of fireproofed insulating boards, used for building
purposes.
(b) Raw material for the fabrication of paper pulp.
(e) Raw material for the manufacture of various solvenls utilised in industry.
TABLE 41.6
CHEMrCAL COMPOSrTION OF BAGASSE
Deerr 7 Tromp' Kelly' M.R . '00 Daviesl I Gregoryl Z
Carbon C 46.5 44 48.2 47 .5 47 .9 49 48.1

Hydrogen H 6.5 6 6 6. t 6.7 7.4 6. t
Oxygen o 46 48 43. t 44 .4 45.4 41.8 43.3
Ash , t 2 2.7 2 1.8 2.5
100 100 tOO 100 100 100 100

--------
• M. H. , meall 0 1' resull.s 01' Kerslcn. Prinscn GCt'rligs, Bolk. v.d. Krekc a!1d Spellcer.
BAGASSE 919
Chemical composHion of bagasse

The chemical composition of dry bagasse varies slightly according to different authors (see
Table 41.6).
The results given in the fourth column, originally reported as "lo fibre, have been converted
to a basis of 2% ash.
Since these variations are not large, we shall use the following mean standard composition
in our calculations:
C 47 %
H - 6.5% (41.13)
O 44 %
E 2.5%
100 %
Calorific value of bagasse

The calorific value (e. V.) is the quantity of heat which will be released by combustion of
unit weight of the fuel under consideration.
We distinguish two different calorifi c values:
(a) The gross calorific value, or higher calorific value (G.e.V.): this is the heat liberated
by the combustion of one kg (lb.) of fuel, taken at O°C (32°F) and under 760 mm (29.92 in.)
of mercury, all the products of combustion being reduced to the same conditions. The water
present in the fuel, as well as the water formed by combustion of the hydrogen enlering into
its composition, is consequently condensed.
The gross calorific value is readily measured in the laboratory with the aid of the Mahler
bom b calorimeter.
(b) The nett calorific value, or lower calorific value (N.C. V.), which assumes on the con-
trary that the water formed by combustion, and the water of conslitution of the fuel, remains
in the vapour state.
The G.C.V. gives a good measure of the heat theoretically available from the fuel, but
since, in industrial practice, il has not yet been found practicable to reduce the temperature
of the combustion products below the dew point, the N.e. V. gives a more accurate indication
of the heat practically oblainable.
It is the N. e. V. which therefore should be used in practice; but there is no means of deter-
mining it directly. It is therefore necessary to calculate this value.
In this calculation, there is a certain contradiction between the condition that the combus-
tion gases should be reduced to O°C (32°F) and 760 mm (29.92 in.), and the condition that
lhe waler should not be condensed. The convention is adopted of subtracting from the
G.C .V. the weight of hydrogen in 1 kg (lIb.) of fuel , multiplied by 600 kcal (1,080 B.T.U.).
This amounts to assuming that for the G .C. V., condensation takes place in the
neighbourhood of IOoC (50°F), in the course of cooling to O°C (32°F), since (eqn. 32.6):
r = 607 - (0.7 x 10°) = 600 kcal (1,093 -(0.7 X 18°) = 1,080B.T.U)

920 STEAM PRODUCnON AND USAGE Ch. 41
It is moreover easy to verify, from lhe lalen! heal a nd the specific heats of water and warer
va pour, rhar rhe temperature at which rhe condensation (or in the inverse sense, evaporation)
is cünsidered to take place, has no greal int"luence o n the total hear liberaled. A remperature
in the neighbourh ood of O°C (32°F) is therefore ad opted while laking inro account, in rhe
calculation, only vapour and nor liquid water; lhis simplifies mallers.
The N.C. V. of a fuel is Iherefore given by Ihe formula:
N.C. V. = O.C. v. - 600E (O .C.v. - I,OBOE) (41.14)
E = weighl of waler vapour presenl in lhe gases produced by co mbuslion of 1 kg (1 lb .)

of fuel , expressed in kg (lb.).
Furrhermore, combustion of hydrogen lakes place according to lhe reaetion:
2H, + O, 2H,O (41.15)

4 32 36
The weighl of water formed is rhus equal ro nine times theweighl of hydrogen. We then
have for a dry fuel:
E = 9H (41.16)
H = weighl of h ydrogen eontained in l kg (1 lb.) of fue!.

Hence:
N.C.v. = O.v.C. - 5,400H (O.C.v. - 9,720H) (41.17)
This equarion applies only 10 a dry fue!. For a wet fuel, il is also necessary 10 rake into
account rhe original water presenl, which is rhen added to the waler formed by eombustion.
Gross calorific value or dry bagasse. In spite of considerable differences in appearanee bel-
ween differenl varielies of cane, the O.C.v. 01' dry bagasse is remarkably eonstanl in al!
. counlries and for all varieties of cane. Table 41.7, for example, gives several values selecled
ar rand om.
TABLE 41.7
O.C.V, OF DRY SA GASSE
AUlhor Counfry e.e. v. oJ dry bagasse
kcal/kg B.T.U./lb.
Behne lJ Queensland 4,542 " 8,177

Hedley" S. Arrica 4,585 8,253
Rer. 15 Hawaii 4,622 8,320
Oregory'll Cuba 4,691 8, 444
Gregoryl2 PlIerlo Rico 4,594 8,270
Rer. 15a S. Arrica 4,700 8,460
Me an 4,622 8,320
BAGASSE 921
1l \Vil! scarcely involve an error of more than 2"70, thcreforc, we adopt as a universal value
for the G.C.V. of dry bagasse:
G.c.v. 8,280 B.T.U./lb. 4,600 kcal/kg (41.18)
Nett calorific value of dry bagasse. We have seen (eqn. 41.13) that dry bagasse contains
6 -70/0 hydrogen, and have taken the mean figure as 6.5%.
Equation (41.17) then gives: .
N.C.V. O.c.v. - (0.065 x 9,720) 8,280 - 630 7,650 B.T.U./lb.
I N.C.V. 7,650 B.TU./lb. 4,250 kcallkg I (41.19)
Calorific value of wel bagasse. We now know the calorific value of dry bagasse. How are
we to deduce the value for the \Vet bagasse with which we have to deal in practice?
Theore/ical calcula/ion. We may first base our figures on the percentage composition of
wet bagasse, which is given in Table 41.8.
TABLE 41.8
CALORlF1C v ALUE OF CONSTlTUENTS OF BAGASSE
Consti(uent 'lo c.v.

kcal/kg B. T.U./lb.
Fibre f 4,600 8,280

Sugar s 3,955 (= 4,000) 7,120
Impurities 4,tOO 7,380
Water w O O
For the separare sugars: sucrose, 3,939 kcal/kg; glucose and fruc-
tose, 3,719 kcal/kg" b
Not only has waler no calorific value, but on the other hand it absorbs heat in being
vaporised during the combustion (N.C.V.).
G.c.v. 4,600 L + 3,955 ~ + 4,100 _1_'

lOO lOO lOO
N.C.V. 4,600 f'

_/+ 3,955 ~ 4,100 3-50 100 - w 600 ~
lOO
+ _1_'
lOO 100 lOO lOO
1
( G.C.V. 8,280 l' + 7, 120..!....- + 7,380 - -' )
100 100 100
= 8,280 l' + 7,120 ..!....- + 7,380 _1_' _ 630 100 - w - I 080 --w- )
100 100 100 100 . 100
or:
G.c.v. = 461' + 39.55s + 41i

kcal / kg
N.C.V. '" 461' + 39 .55s +41i - 2.5w - 350
or:
G.C.V. '" 82.81' + 71.2s + 7.38i

B.T.U./lb.
N.C.V. 82.81' + 71.2s + 7,38 i - 4.5 w - 630
Sinee the C.V. of sugar and of the impurities differ only s lightly, no great error will be
involved by laking for Ihese Iwo quanlities Ihe mean values, whieh moreover vary only slighl-
Iy. To simplify Ihe caleulalion, Ihey will be expressed in lerms of sugar. We thus have:
l' = 100 - s - i - w
The purilY of Ihe residual juiee is generally of Ihe order of 45 - 50. If we ad o pl Ihis value:
52.5
--s l.ls
47.5
Henee:
Bri/ish units Me/ric uni/s

G:C.V. 8,280 21.6s 82.8w G.C.V. 4,600 12s 46w
(41.20)
N.C.V. 7,650 2l.6s 87.3w N.C.V, = 4,250 12s 48.5 w
G.C.V. gross ealorifie value of lhe bagasse, in B.T.U ./lb. (or keal / kg)
N.C.V. net ealorifie value of the bagasse, in B.T.U ./lb. (or keal / kg)
s' '" suerose rIlo bagasse

w = moislure rIlo bagasse.
Analogous formulae, though slightly different, have been ulili sed.
In particular in India'6:
G .C.V . = 4,600 - 8s - 53 w (8,280 - 14.4s - 95.4 w) (41.21)

BAGASSE 923
In Java lhe formula of von Prilzelwilz van der Horsl') was used:
G.c.v. 4,550 - lOs - 45 w (8,190 - 18s - 81 w)

(41.22)
N.C.V. 4,250 10s-48w (7,650 - 18s - 86.4 w)
In Mauritius":
N.C.V. = 4,150 - 7.5s - 47.5w (7,470 - 13.5s - 85.5 w) (41.23)
Hessey" in Queensland gave:
G.c.v. 4,636 12.3s 46.36 w (8,345 22s 83.45 w)

(41.24)
N.C.V. 4,324 12.3s 49.04 w (7,783 22s - 88.27 w)
the figures being determined experimentally and verified fairly well in praclice.
Sourh Africa gives:
N.C.V. = 18,309 - 31.148 - 207.63 w - 196.Q9c kJ/kg
which, in kcallkg, becomes:
N.C. v. = 4.375 - 7.44B - 49.62 w - 46.86c kcallkg
B = Brix '10 bagasse

e =ash % bagasse.
lf we express s and w not in per cent bul per unit of bagasse, we would have:
G.c.v. = 4,600 (1 - w) - 1,200s (8,280 (l - w) - 2,160s)

(41.25)
N.C.V. = 4,250 - 4,850w - 1,200s (7,650 - 8,730 w - 2,160s)
We may comment that, in this formula, we have already taken inlO accounl lhe following
heat losses, from rhe poinl of view of sleam produclion in the factory:
(o) Latent hear of vaporisation of rhe water formed by combustion of the hydrogen con-
tained in the bagasse, which is losl in the flue gases with this water vapour if the lalter is
not condensed.
(b) Latent heal of vaporisation of the water conten! of bagasse, which in the same way
is lost with the flue gases.
We have then to take into account only the following losses:
(o) Sensible heat lost in theflue gases
(b) Losses by radiation
(e) Losses in unburnt soJids
(ri) Loss by incomplete combustion of carbon giving CO instead of CO,.
/
COMBUSTION OF BAGASSE
As this section is rather complex, it would be over-Ioaded ir calculations were given in borh
systems of units. They will be given in metric units, witil the comments:
(a) That they are given in British units in the second edition, in identical fashion
(b) Al! values given as kg/kg are the same in lb./lb.
(e) Volumes only are changed, and I m 3 /kg = 16.02 cU.ft./lb.
(d) Numbers of formulae and Tables which are identical in both sysrems are underlined.
(e) Both systems are retained where it does not interfere \Vith lhe clarilY of the discussion.
Composition of air
The composition of dry air is given in Table 41.9.
TABLE 41.9
COMPOSITION OF DRY AIR
% By weighl % By volume
Oxygen 23.15 20.84

Nitrogen and inens 76.85 79.16
Reactions of combustion
The combustible elemel1lS il1 bagasse are carbon and hydrogen. In burning rhey give:
e + o, = eo, H, + o = H,O
By weighl
12 g + 32 g 44 g 2 g + 16 g 18 g (41.26)
Or:
1 + 2.67 = 3.67 1 + 8 9
Properties of gaseous products of combustion

Table 41.10 gives the principal properties which we shall use in Ihe study of rhe combusrion,
for Ihe principal componenls of lhe flue gases.
(A) Combustion of dry bagasse without excess air

The composilion (41.13) of bagas se and the proporlions given by lhe reactions (41.26) allow
us to calculate the quanlity of oxygen necessary for combustion.
BAGAS SE 925
TABLE 41.10
PROPERTJES OF GASEOUS PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION
Mol WI ConSlanl R Densily Specific vol.

(kg / m') (kg/m' (p.s.i. al O'C and 760 mm al Q'C and 760 mm
and and (kg / m') (lb./cu,JI.) (m' /kg) (cu,Jl.llb .)
m' /kg) cu,Jl.llb.)
CO, 44 19.27 0.2434 1. 977 0.1234 0.506 8. 10

H,O 18 47.06 0.5944 0.804 0.0502 1.244 19.92
N.
(al mospheric) 28 30.26 0.3822 1.25 6 0.0784 0.796 12.75
O. 32 " 26.50 0.3347 1.429 0.0892 O.lOO 11.21
CO 28 30.29 0.3826 1.250 0.0780 0.800 12.81
A ir 29 29.27 0.3697 1.293 0.0807 0.773 12.39
(a) Oxygen. In orderto burn I kg of dry bagas se, we require .
e 0.470 kg x 2.67 = 1.253 kg O, 0.877 m l of oxygen

H, 0.065 kg x 8 = 0.520 kg O, 0.364 m l of oxygen
or a total of 1.773 kg O, 1.241 ml' of oxygen
But the bagasse a lready contains 0.440 kg O, 0.308 m l of oxygen
Hence the air must supply 1.333 kg O, = 0.933 m J of oxygen
(b) Nitrogen. This oxygen brings with it (cf. Table 41.9):
1.333 x 76.85 4.425 kg N, = 3.522 m l nitrogen

23.15
Hence the total weight of air required is: 5.758 kg air = 4.455 m l , all these volumes of
oxygen, nitrogen or air being reckoned at O°C and 760 mm.
Since the composition of bagasse is not strictly constant, it is futile lo retain decimal s which
have no real significance. We shall say then:
Total weight of air necessary 5.76 kg

(41.27)
Total volume of air pecessary 4.45 m l (al O°C and 760 mm)
and the quantity of water formed is: . ..
0.065 + 0.520 = 0.585 kg water ' 0:728 m l water vapour (41.28)
(B) Combustion of wet bagasse with excess air

We can now pass on to the general case .
./
926 STEAM PRODUCTION AND USAG E eh,41
11 is nOI flossiblc il1 flra Clice la bUril a fuel in induslria l condilions by supph'in g olll \' Ihé
quanlily 01' ail lilcorclic"lly l1eccssar y: cOlllbu.SliOI1 wou ld be pOOl' ilnd in colllple le , 111 arde r
lo ob lain cOIll('lIcIC COlllbusli on, wilh olll unbul'Ill , .ll1d SL) 111 ,11 ,111 Ih<' carL1u lI hu r ns 10 Ihe
I'orm al' eo" il is neccssary 10 slIflply a cerlain excess al' .lir, A largc proJlonion 01' Ihe
ava il able heal would be 1051 if pan 01' lhe carbon is allowed 10 bu rn 00 11' 10 Ihe form of eo,
The reaet io n:
e + o = eo
liberMes on ly 2,415 kcal/ kg carbon, wherea s Ihe 110 I'IllCl I combuslion:
e + o, = eo,
releases S,OOO kca l/ kg
We shall wri l e:
Moislure 01' bagasse relalivc 10 unily fV
Ralio 01' we ighl of air used 10 weighl Iheorelically ncceSS8rv 111
and we sha ll designale by:
p weig hl "nel V volUI1l l' l) r a ir lI scd pe ¡- kg 01' b¿lg . iSSC

P,"
"
we iglll and V, VOIUlllC or
Ihe' gaseo us pl'OtlUCIS 0 1" comllllSli o n
P = weigh l and V ,., volume a l' I he gases (assumcd dI)')
"
all Ih ese vo lumes being redueed 10 Qoe and 760 mm,
In comb usli on calcula li o ns, 10 spccifv Ih.1I Ihe vo lumc s ale rcckoned al O"C and 7AO 111111 ,
il is cusl olTI my 10 inscrI lil e ICI ICI N Ilreccding Ih e I"ig ule 1"01 yulul1le: e.g . 5 NIll ) nl t'allS 5
111 3Ill cas lIrcd ;11 O°C.' alll l 760 111111 <I111l<1Spheric ple,SUll'.
(a) P" Wc have:
Po 5,76 (1 - \\') /11 (41,29)
(b) , Ami in cOl1scqucl1 ce:

p,
P, = 5, 7(, (1 - w) 111 + (41,3 0)
si /l ce l il e producls al' combuslion consisls a l': (1) lil e unil IVeig hl 01' fud Ihc COl11buSlio n 01"
which we are sludyillg; (2) Ihe air I'or comb uslioll \\'ilich sen'es 10 bllrll Ihi s 1'lIel,
(e) P,,' Wc shall ob l nin lili s quanlil )' by dcclucling I"r olTl p. lil ~ \Valer I"o rlll ed b ~' l'lllllhus'
lioll 01' lile il ycllOgCIl al1d Ih l' wale r or comrosilion 01" Ihe bag" " e (e/. ~1 . 1~):
p .I;' .~
= P .~
,- 0,585 (1 - w) - IV (413 1)
BAGASSE 927
or
(1 - w) (5.76m + 0.415) (41.32)
(d) V" We have similarly:
V, = 4.45 (1 - w)m NmJ/kg (41.33)
(el v.g To caJculate , we must note:

V,
(1) Th at \Ve llave more oxygen than that strictly necessary to burn all the carbon and
hydrogen in the bagasse
(2) That:
volume of CO, = vo lume of oxygen from which it is formed, and
volume of H,O = vo lum e of oxygen from which it is formed, multiplied by 2.
The combustion thus gives, per kg of dry combustible (see aboye), the quantities given in
Table 41.11, for a quantity (1 - wj of dry substance .
Jt is also necessary to add the volume of water vapour originat ing in [he moisture contained
in the bagasse. We have finally:
Vg = 4.45 (l - w)m + 0.672 (l - w) + 1.244 w (Nm'/kg) (41.34)
or:
V
E
4.45 (1 - w)m + 0.572 w + 0.672 (NmJ/kg) (41.35)
TA8LE41.11
VOLUME OF GASEOUS PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTIQN
Vg = voJum e or air inlroduced Air

+ volume of oxygen originaling in [he bagasse + 0.308
- volume of Ol u~ed to rorm water - 0.364
- volul1le of O 2 ust'U lO (orl11 CO? - 0.877
+ volullle o ( waler forOled + 0.728
+ volul1le of COl formeJ + 0.877
giving as tolal: volume or air inlroduced + 0.672
(j) Vg,' To obtain this quantity, it is sufficient to subtract from expression (31.34) the
water of composition, 1.244 w, and the water formed by combustion, 0.728 (1 - w). Th ere
remalns:
V
E'
4.45 (1 - w)m + 0.672 (1 - w) - 0.728 (1 - w)
or:
V 4.45 (1 - w)m - 0.056 (J - w) (Nm'/kg) (4J.36)

g'
928 STEAM PRODUCTION AND USAOE Ch. 41
Camm enl. AII Ihe volumes given aboye have been calculaled al O°C and 760 mm of mer-
cury. To obl~i t1 Ihe vo lumes ill any l emper,lIure 1, il lI'ill be necessary 10 apply ¡v!<Hi ollC',
[aw: pv = RT(where T = 273 + 1). SinL'e R is a coefficielll ~Ild pis conSlanl (almospll eric
pressure) , we have:
273' + VD 459.4 + I )
v, (41.37)
VD 273 (
459.4 + 32
V, = volume
al lemperalure ,
Vo = vo[ume al O°C.
Compusilion uf Flue gases

W e know Ihe lolal weighl ot' gases:
P ,= 5.76 (1 - IV) m + [ (4130)
The weighl of Ihe individual gases is gi ven by:
(a) Nitrogen:
N, = 1.333 x 76.85 (1 - w)m or N, 4.43 (1 - \\')11/

23.15
(b) Oxygen:
O, deri ved from Ihe air: 1.333 (1 - 11')111

+ O, derived from Ihe bagass e: 0.440 (1 - w)
- O, used lO form \Valer: - 0.520 (1 - w)
- O, used 10 form CO,: -1 .253(1 - \1' )
or: O, = 1.33 (1 - 11') (m - 1)
(e) Water:
Waler formed: 0.585 (1 - w)

+ waler 01' cOll slilulion: w
H,O = 0,585 (1 - 11') + 11'
(d) Carbon dioxide:
CO, = 0.47 x 3.67 (1 - w) CO, = [.72 ([ - w)
Subsli luling Ihe valucs 0 1' ni a lld w, ~Ilcl dividillg by P" \Ve mal' rcad il y cil[culille Ihe pro-
portion by weighl of each 01' Ihese consliluellls in lhe t'luc gases.
BAGASSE 929
Example. 1f w 0.48 and m 1. 5:
p (5.76 X 0.52 X 1.5) + I 5.49 kg

g
and:
N, 4.42 X 0.52 X 1.5 3.455 kg or 63.1070

0, 1.33 X 0.52 X 0.5 0.346 kg or 6.3%
H,O (0.585 X 0.52) + 0.48 0.784 kg or 14.3%
eo, 1.72 X 0.52 = 0.894 kg or 16.3%
_ ... _-
5.479 kg 100 "70
The slight difference belween the lotal and Pg is due to Ihe ash conlenl, as the sum of Ihe
componenls e + H + ° of Ihe bagasse which we have assumed (41.13) does nOI amount
to I kg, while \Ve have laken I kg in eqn. (41.39). To be absolulely accurale, il would have
been necessary lo lake 1 ~~ f.
CO, content of flue gas

We llave jusI seen Ihe composition of lhe combuslion gases by weighl. Their composilion
by volume is equally inleresling, since lheir eo, conlenl gives informalion on Ihe excess air
used.
The quanlity of eo, formed by combuSlion of I kg of dry bagasse is constant, since the
carbon conlenl of the bagasse is assumed lO be COnSlanl(e = 47% approximalely). Ir onJy
lhe lheoretical quantilY of air were used, lhe eo, conlenr of lhe I'Jue gas wouJd be at a max-
imum; if thereis excess air, Ihe quantily of eo, will remain conSlanl in a voJume of air which
becomes greater as the excess air becomes higher. The proportion of eo, will lherefore
decrease as lhe ex ces s air increases.
Simple lypes of apparalus are used wllich give a delerminalion of lhe percentage of eo,
in ,he l"Iue gases. We seek Ihe relalion belween lhis percenlage and lhc quanlily of excess airo
\Ve silall assume lllal \VC are dealing wilh an apparalus giving lhe eo, as percenlage of lhe
dry gases, i.e. thal il condenses or fixes lhe waler vapour contained in lhe gases before analys-
ing lhem (if we use an apparatus giving Ihe percenlage of eo, in Ihe wel gas, Ihis percenlage
\ViII be appreciably lower).
The 10lal volume of lhe dry gases V" is given by eqn. (41.36). The voJume of eo, which
lhese gases conlain is oblained immedialely by means of lhe weighl of eo, found aboye:
Volunle 01" eo, in f1ue gas = 1.72 (1 - Iv) X 0.506 = 0.87 (1 - w)
Since Ihe coefficienl of expansion is lhe same for all gases, Ihe proportion calcuJaled from
volumes at ooe \Viii remain Ihe same al any lemperal ure of Ihe measurement.
Tlle eo, conlent of Ihe flue gas by volume is lllerefore:
0.87 (l - w) 0.87 (1 - w)
(41.38)
V 4.45 (1 - w)m - 0.056 (1 - w)
"
Hence we may derive m:
m 0.196 + 0.0126 (41.39)

Y
m = ratio of weight of air used to weight of air theoretically necessary

y = CO, contenl per unil volume of dry gases.
Table 41.12 gives several values of y for the corresponding values of m.
TABLE 41.12
RELI\TION Bl:.TWEJ:.N COl CONTENT Of FLUI:: GASES (l') .\ND EXCESS AIR (1/1)
-._-- - - - --
"1 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.1 J 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.17
m 3.27 2.81 2.46 2.18 1.97 1.79 1.64 1.52 1.41 1.32 1.23 1.16
Optimum proporlion of CO,. The theoretical maximum CO, content of the flue gases is
19.8070, according to eqn. (41.39). If il is desired 10 obtain complele combustion, wilhout ap·
preciable formation of CO, it is necessary to work wilh a minimum of excess airo
Eigenhuis'o considers, following his experience in Java and in Queensland, thal it is possi·
bIe to maintain an average of 15% CO, without solid or gaseous unburnt. Later tests with
modern boiler furnaces in Queensland have reported up 10 16% CO, withoul unburnl.
Shillinglon 21 considers Ihat good combuslion can be obtained onl)' wilh a CO, content
mainlained belween 10 and 14%. Above 14%, Ihc proportion 01" CO \\'ould become much
too high.
In south Africa, Hayes" considers that heat losses due lo excess air are not serious so long
as the CO, content is maintained aboye 12%; but below Ihal figure the loss in efficiency
becomes considerable. Conversely, aboye 14%, he confirms having found Ihe presence of
CO in Ihe gas. He considers then that good combustion corresponds lo a CO, conlenl Iying
between 12 and 14%.
In Java 2l , the mean excess air was 63%.
In Jamaica, Davies" considers thal the oplimum excess air in practice corresponds 10
50%.
If in addition to these authorilative opinions we consider results of tests carried out in
various sugar counlries, and take particular no le of modern furnaces and boilers, ",here Ihe
air supply is beller regulaled, we may slale Ihal Ihe besl boiler efficiencies are obtained I"or:
a CO, contenl of 12 - 16%

(41.40)
an excess air of 25 - 60%
Loss in efficiency due lo eo. It is considered in Soulh Africa" that each per cent of CO
in Ihe gases of combuslion corresponds to a loss of heat al" 4.5%. In Cuba", il is indicJled
with more precision: 4.36% of Ihe calorific value of the bagasse.
BAGASSE 931
Calculation of combustion temperature

The combustion lemperature T prevailing in rhe bagasse fumace is readily calculared from
lhe fact thar the Ileal developed in lhe combustion is recovered in lhe gases passing from the
furnace la the boiler.
Since the calorific value and all the heat quantities are expressed with reference to a basic
temperature of DOC, it is necessary to take into account the heat already stored in the fuel
and in the combustion air, at an ambient temperature lo.
We llave rhen, for 1 kg of combustible:
(' 1 e, di +
Jo )
10
O
Pa ea di + N , = l: r
o
Pe di (41.41)
lo ambient temperature at which the air and rhe fu el arrive in the furnace
T combusrion temperature sOllght
Pa weight of air used/kg fllel
P weight of each of the gaseo LIS products of combustion/kg combustible
C, specific reat of combustible
ea specific heat of the airo,
e specific Ileal of each of the gaseous products
N, lower calorific value of the combustible.
The nett calorific value is employed, since in practice the water vapour cóntained in the
gases is not condensed.
The expression l: r u
gases conslituting the flue gas.
Pe di represents the sum of the heal capacilies of lhe di fferent
11 is necessary to use lhe integral since lhe specific heal is a funclion of lemperature. We
may avoid inlegrals by using Table 41. J 3, which gives lhe mean specific heat of the various
substances wilh which we have to deal, between DOC and any temperature I or T. With the
aid of Ihis table we can readily read off the mean specific heat between any lwo temperatures
r and T, al all110spheric pressure.
Equation (41.41) then becomes:
(1 ee + Pe
a a
)10 + N I
(41.42)
But:
J+P=l:P=P
" K
and, since these specific heats of air and'the gases do not differ greally, we may take:
Ce• + Pe
a a
= l: Pe (41.43)
Finally, laking losses into account:
T lo + (41.44)
TABLE 41.13
COMBUSTlQN GASES (Habif 16 )
Temp. Specific hea! al TO Mean sp. heol be! ween TOfO! heal 10 heol from
oc O and ro O (o ro al consf. press.
(kcall kgJ'
co, H ,O N" CO 0, CO, H,O N" CO 0, CO, H,O N" CO 0,
o 0.199 0.468 0.246 0.214 0.199 0.468 0.246 0.214 o o o o

50 0.207 0.483 0.248 0.216 0.203 0.476 0.247 0.215 10 23 12 10
100 0.215 0.499 0.250 0.218 0.207 0.484 0.248 0 .216 20 48 24 21
150 0.224 0.515 0.252 0.220 0 .211 0.492 0.249 0 .217 31 73 l7 l2
20{) 0.232 0.530 0.254 0.222 0.215 0.499 0.250 0.218 43 100 511 43
250 0.240 0.546 0.256 0.223 0 .219 0.507 0.251 0.2 19 55 126 1i2 54
300 0.248 0.562 0.258 0.225 0.224 0.515 0.252 0.220 67 154 75 66
350 0.256 0.577 0.260 0.227 0.228 0.523 0.253 0.221 79 183 88 77
400 0.264 0.593 0.262 0.229 0.232 0.530 0.254 0.222 92 212 101 88
450 0.272 0.608 0.264 0.231 0.236 0.538 0.255 0.223 106 242 114 100
500 0.28 I 0.624 0.266 0.232 0.240 0.546 0.256 0.223 120 273 128 111
550 0.289 0.639 0.268 0.234 0.244 0.554 0.257 0.224 134 304 141 123
600 0.297 0.655 0.270 0.236 0.248 0.562 0.258 0.225 149 337 154 135
650 0.305 0.670 0.272 0.238 0.252 0.569 0.259 0.226 164 370 168 147
700 0.313 0.686 0.274 0.240 0.256 0.577 0.260 0.227 179 404 182 159
750 0 .321 0.701 0.276 0.24 I 0.260 0.585 0.261 0.228 195 439 195 171
800 0.330 0.717 0.278 0.243 0.264 0.593 0.262 0.229 21 I 475 209 183
850 0.338 0.732 0.280 0.245 0.268 0.600 0.263 0.230 228 510 223 195
900 .0.346 0.748 0.282 0.247 0.272 0.608 0.264 0.231 245 547 237 208
950 0.354 0.764 0.284 0.248 0.277 0.616 0.265 0.232 263 5R5 25 1 220
1,000 0.362 0.779 0.286 0.250 0.28 I 0.624 0.266 0.232 281 624 266 232
1,050 0.370 0.795 0.288 0.252 0.285 0.63 I 0.267 0.233 299 663 280 245
1,100 0.378 0.810 0.290 0.254 0.289 0.639 0.268 0.234 318 703 294 258
1,150 0.387 0.826 0.292 0.256 0.293 0.647 0.269 0.235 337 744 309 270
1,200 0.395 0.841 0.294 0.258 0 .297 0.655 0.270 0.236 356 786 324 283
1,250 0.403 0.857 0.296 0.259 0.301 0.663 0.27 I 0.237 376 828 338 296
1,300 0.41 I 0.872 0.298 0.261 0.305 0.670 0.272 0.238 397 872 353 309
1,350 0.419 0.8R8 0.300 0.263 0.309 0.678 0.273 0.239 417 9 16 368 322
1,400 0.427 0.903 0.302 0.265 0.313 0.686 0.274 (J. 2411 439 960 lB3 336
'1,450 0.435 0.919 0.304 0.26 7 0.317 0.694 0.275 0.241 460 1,006 398 349
1,500 0.444 0.935 0.306 0.268 0.321 0.701 0.276 0 .241 482 1,052 414 362
1,550 0.452 O.Y50 0.308 0.270 0.325 0.709 0.277 0. 242 505 1,099 429 376
1,600 0.460 0.966 0.310 0.272 0.330 0.717 0.278 0.243 528 1,147 444 389
1,650 0.468 0.981 0.3 I 2 0.274 0.334 0.725 0.279 0.244 55 1 1, 196 460 403
1,700 0.476 0.997 0.314 0.276 0.338 0.732 0.280 0245 574 1,246 476 417
1,750 0.484 1.012 0.316 0 .277 0.342 0.740 0.281 0.246 598 1,296 491 431
• To converl lo B. T.U./lb., mulliply by 1.8.
c> = coe rri cienl laking into accounl unburnl so lids

!3o = coe rricienl taking in lo aCCOUi11 losses by rad iation in ¡he rurnace.
We may lake ror bagasse rurnaces:
BAGASSE 933
a = 0.98 - 0.99, according to draught, for step-gate, hearth or spreader-stoker furnaces

a = 0.94-0.95 for Ward furnaces
(30 0.98-0.99.
We may comment that:

(1) The combustion temperature increases as lo increases
(2) It decreases as r;Pe increases. In other words excess air has a marked influence on lhe
ternpera-ture of combustiol1.
In the same \Val', lhe moislure of the bagasse will similarly lower this lemperature greatly,
on accounl of the additional water vapour present, and all the more so since the specific heat
of water vapour is nearly double Ihat of lhe other gases. Further, it must still not be forgolten
(eI eqn. 41.20) that the moisture also reduced Ni' and consequently has a double effect on
Ihe temperalure of combustion.
Example. We shall take again the example on p. 929 and calculale r;Pe for the composi-
lion of flue gases found. We shall assume:
lo 30 0 e
a = 0.98
a(3oN¡ = 1,843 kcal/kg
(30 0.99
N, 1,900 kcal
We oblain r;Pe by determining, for each of the products of combustion, fhe correspon-
ding term (T - lo) Pe. The sirnplest method is to operate by interpolation, which is very
quickly done when we already have sorne idea of the temperature sought (Table 41.14).
TABLE 41.14
T = I,050'C T = I,IOO'C
N, 3.455 kg (280 - 7) = 943 kcal 3.455 kg (294 - 7) = 992 kcat

O, 0.346 (245 - 6) = 83 0.346 (258 - 6) = 87
H,O 0.784 (663 - 14) = 509 0.784 (703 - (4) = 540
ca, 0.894 (299 - 6) = 262 0.894 (318 - 6) = 279
Ash 0.025 x 0.2 x 1,050= 5 0.025 x 0.2 x 1,100= 6
[[PeJT (T - lo) = 1,802 [[PeJ,: (T - lo) = 1,904

"
Equation (41.44) may be written:
(T - lo) [r;Pe]T = a(3oN (4L45)

'. '
The first term of this equation is the heat required lO raise the flue gases frorn lo to T. We
require 10 know for whal value of T Ihe heat required is equal to the heat produced, which
forms Ihe second term in Ihe equation. If it is considered for example Ihat the temperature
934 STEAM PRODUCTION AND USAGE Ch.41
T requirec1 li es be(ween 1,050 and 1, 100°C, (he calclda(ion will be made for (h ese (\Va
lemperalures wilh subsequent interpolation. As the ash content is ver y low, ilS specit'ic heal
may be assumed as 0.2 (Table 41.14). Interpolating for 1,843 keal, we find:
T = 1,070 + 30 = 1,l00°C (2,012°F)
will be seen that a change 01' one poinl in exeess a ir (e.g ., 1.50 replaeed by 1.49) involves
[1
an inerease in temperature 01' 4 - 5°C.
Mean specific hea!. We may di spense wilh Table 41.13 by utilising lhe formulae given in
Table 41.15.
TABLE 41.15
MEAN SPE CIFIC HEAT OF C ~MBUSTlON GASES BET W EEN O°C (or 30°C) AND Toe
Nitrogen 0.246 + 0.000020 T

Oxygen 0.214 + 0.000018 T
Water vapour 0.468 + 0.0001 55 T
CO, 0.199 + 0.000082 T
I1 willthen be neeessary to multiply by T the mean speeifie heat found in order in obtain
Ihe heat necessary 10 raise the temperature of the gas under eonsideration from O°C (or 30°C)
lo T O.
No appreciable error is in vol ved if Ihe mean speei fi e heat belween O°C and TO is used in
pla ce of Ihat between 30 0e and T O.
Since the composition 01' Ihe flue gases va ries only between relati vely narro\\' limils, we
may speak of the mean specific heal of the mi xed gases. We may thus lake approximately:
For mixed combustion gases from bagasse:
h (' 0.27 + 0.00006 T (T in OC) )

Mean sp. eat = 0.27 + 0.00003 T (T in 0F) , (41.46)
or, roughl y:
M.S,H. 0.3 (41.47)
Measurement of furnace temperature

Th e fum ace temperature is measured with the aid of pyrometer s or Seger eones, It may also
be estim a led by eye with a cerlain degree of accura cy , parlieularl y if Ihe observer has trained
himself lo compare hi s estimates wilh pyromeler re adings.
Temperatures obtained in practice

The most inefficienl old fumaees give 800 - [,OOO°C (l ,500 - 1,800°F). The highest
lemperatures recorded are [,290 0e (2,3S0°F) for a few minules, and 1,250°C (2,27S 0F) con-
BAGASSE 935
tinllously. The commonest temperatures are approximately 1, 1000e (2,000°F). Table 41.17
summarises approximately the inflllence of excess air and bagasse moisturc on fllrnace
temperature. The table assllmes an ambient temperature of 30 0 e (86°F) and a product cx{3o
ofO.96.
TABLE 41.16
COLOUR SCALE OF TEMPERA TU RE
Dazzling white 1,500 2,700

Welding heal t ,400 2,500
While 1,300 2,400
SIra\.\' yellow 1.200 2.200
Pale yellow 1, I SO 2,100
Golden yellow 1,100 2,000
Orange 1,050 1,900
Light cherry red 1,000 1,800
Cherry red 900 1,650
I(icipient cherry red 800 1,500
Dark red 650 1,200
The colour of the furnaces is more brilliant as the temperature increases (see Table 41.16).
TABLE 41.17
COMBUSTION TEMPERATURE IN BAGASSE FURNACÉS oC (0F)
Excess air
Mois(ure in
bagasse 1.5) 1.75)
('F) ('F)
45% (w = 0.45) 1,185 2,165 1,100 2,000 1,000 1,830

50% (w = 0.50) 1,120 2,050 1,040 1,900 950 1,740
Heat losses in flue gases

Our formula (41.25), giving the nett calorific value of the bagasse, already takes into account
the los s of heat of the water vapour passing with the gases to the chimney.
The most important of the losses which remain to be accounted for is that corresponding
to the sensible heat lost in these fIue gases, and we shall seek to evaluate this loss.
We know the composition of the flu~ gases, and the specific heat of its component gases.
We thus have immcdiately the corresponding hcat loss.
The mean specificheat of the fIue gases between ooe and the flue gas temperature varies
only slightly because this temperature itself is limited. In a modern installation, with
economiser"or air heater, it is easy lo oblain flue gas temperalures below 200 o e, for example
175'e; but, although it is possible to reach l30'e, there is little interest in going below
150'e, which may be considered as the lower economic limil.
936 STEAM PRODUCTlON AND USAGE Ch.41
Conversely, il would be only a very old or inadeqllale inSlallalion whicil wou ld alioli' Ihe
gases 10 leav e al more Ihan 300°C.
We sha ll Iherefore not involve any appreciable error if we take Ihe mean specific heal bel-
weell O°C and Ih e flue gas lemperalure, as eqllal 10 lile specific hea l at 100°C.
(We may com menl that our reference temperature should be O°C, and not the ambie nl air
temperature, since the calorific vallle is calculateá as from O°C, and he nce it is necessary to
refer Ihe whole ilcal balance 10 thi s same basic temperalllre.)
Calculalion. Slarling from lhe we ight s found for Ihe co mpollellls 01' Ihe flue gases (ef. p.
928), the sensible heal q carried by each of Ihese gases will be, per pound of bagasse burm:
N, q, 4.43 (1 - w)m X 0.2501

O, q, = 1.33 (1 - w) (m - 1) X 0.21S1
H,O q¡ [0 .585 (1 - w) + w] 0.4991
CO, q, = 1.72 (1 - w) X 0.2151
Addin g, simp lifying, and approximating lO avoid relammg figures wilhoul pra ctical
significance, we obtain the total sen~;rble heat los! (reckoned 'ils from O°C):
m. unils
q [(1 - w) (1.4m - 0.13) + 0.5JI
(41.48)
Sr. unils
q = [(1 - w)(1.4m - 0.13) + 0.5JI - 32)
q sensib le heal lost in flue gases, in kcal/kg (B.T.U./lb.) of bagas se

temperalure of lhe flue gases, in oC (OF)
w moisture per unit bagasse
m ratio of weight of air used for combus ti on to weighl Iheorelically necessary.
Example, For: m = 1.4, w = O.4S, I = 200°C, we shall have:
q = [0.52 (1.4 X 1.4 - 0.13) + 0.5] 200 = 290 kcal/kg of bagasse (534 BT.U./lb.)
or approximately 15OJo of N,C.V. of lhe bagasse 1,900 kcal/kg (3,400 B.T.U./lb.)

11 wil! be seen Ihat wit h the values chosen for m and w in thi s example, which are good
lypi ca l va lues, we have to a c10se approximation:
m. unilS Sr. unilS

(41.49)
q = 1.51 q = 1. 5 (t - 32)
Quantity of steam obtainable

We may now calcula le the quantity of sleam which we can oblain from unil weighl of
bagasse. The losses of heat in the furna ce and at Ihe boiler cons isl of Ihe following:
BAGASSE 937
(a) Lalenl heal 01' Ihe waler formed by combuslion 01' hydrogen in Ihe bagas se
(b) Lalenl heal 01' Ihe waler conlained in Ihe bagasse
(e) Sensible heal 01' Ihe flue gas leaving the boiler
(d) Losses in unburnt solids
(e) Losses by radiation from the furnace and especialIy from lhe boiler
en Losses due lO bad combuslioll of carbon giving CO instead of CO,.
No\.\' Ihe use of Ihe netl calorific value (I'ormula 41.25) has already laken inlo accounl
losses (a) and (b).
The loss (e) is given by eqn. (41.48).
The lhree olher losses are laken inlo accounl by means of coefficienls applied lO lhe lolal
quanlity of heal which is still available afler the firsl lhree losses:
a = coefficient taking into accOunl losses by unburnl solids
(3 = coefficienl taking into accounl losses due 10 radiation
1) = cocfficient laking into account losses due to incomplele combustion.
The quantilv 01' heat relllaining 10 be transferred lO Ihe steam is lherefore given by lhe ex-
pression:
m. units
M, (4,250 - 1,200s - 4,850 w - q) a{3r¡
(41.50)
Br. units
M, = (7,650 - 2,160s - 8,730w - q) a{3r¡
M,= heal transferred to the Sleam per kg (lb.) 01' bagasse burnt, in kcal (B.T.U.)
w = moisture 01' bagasse"
s = sucrose per unit bagas se
q = sensible heat 01' flue gases (eqn. 41.48).
a (solid unburnl) is 01' Ihe order of 0.98 for ordinary furnaces. II rarely descends below
0.97, unless a high draught is used, carrying away to lhe chimney relatively large pieces 01'
bagasse. For Ward furnaces, Fives Cail- Babcock estimates the los ses at 5.5 (normal opera-
tion) to 6070 (forced rating), or: a = 0.940-0.945. For spreader-stoker furnaces, a figure 01'
2.5% may be used, or a = 0.975.
{3 (radiation and convection) varies From 0.97 lO 0.995 according to lhe more or less effi-
cient lagging 01' lhe boiler. Fives Cail- Babcock reckon: {3 = 0.99 (normal rating) lo 0.995
(forced rating). For a well-Iagged boiler, a value 01' 0.995 may be used.
r¡ (imperfect combustion)may vary from 0.99 down lo 0.80. This coefficient will be better
with:
(1) Lower bagasse moisture
(2) Lower excess air
(3) Higher furnace temperature (lhis condition moreover is a consequence 01' the two
preceding ones).
This coefficienl falls rapidly when the moislure in bagasse exceeds 50%, or similarly when
lhe furnace temperature faJls below 900°C (l,650°F). In a good modern furnace, it easily ex-
ceeds 0.96. For a well-conducted combustion, we may use a figure of 0.98 - 0.99.
Overall efficiency. The ratio:
M, Heat units lransferred to the steam

e (41.51)
Ns G.C.V. of the bagasse
is ca!led the overa!1 efficiency of the boiler. .

This efficiency generally varies between 50 and 65070. Tromp" gives lhe figures shown in
Table 41.18.
TABLE 41.18
BOILER EFFICIENCIES (TROMp17)
Type oJ boiler Type oJ grale Overa/I eJfiClency
Elephant boiler Slep-grale 50%

Water-(ube Horseshoe 60%
Water-tu be Ward rurnace 66%
Tromp reported that this value of 66% was the highest which he had encountered. Jt cor-
responds to a va!ue of lhe coefficient r¡ of about 0.99.
Al lhe time of the Second World War, il was cOllsidered in Cuba" lhat lhe overa!1 efficien-
cy never exceeded 61.3% and atlained thal va!ue on!y in lhe besl inslal!¡¡tions. Modern
spreader-stoker furnaces give an efficiency of 83 - 88% on NCV when operaled on bagasse,
and 92 -94% on fuel oil.
In Queensland, tests reported by Behne" gave the figures shown in Tab!e 41.19.
TABLE 41.19
BOfLER EFFlCJENCiES (QUEENSLAN0 18 )
Type oJ bailer kg sleamlkg bagasse Overall eJJiciency
Thompson 2.3 53.1

B. & W. 2.4 56.2
Semi-tubular 1.8 42.2
- -- ' - - '- ._-._- ---- -- - -
TABLE 41.20
BalLER EFFICIENCJES (QUEENSLAND 1961)
Overall eJficiency (%)
On G.e.v. On N. e. v.
Typical mean value in Auslralia 50 60

Modern installations 63 78
Modern well-operated insrallation 65 80
Bes! test figures 68 83
BAGAS SE 939
More recent tests in Queensland, reported by J enkins". give figures of 2.9 kg steam/kg
bagasse and overalI efficiency of 68070 on G.c. V. for a boiler with a Jarge combustion
chamber and large air heater.
Jenkins JO summarised performance in 1961 as in Table 41.20.
Weight of steam per unit weight of bagasse. Table 41.21 gives figures for the total heat
required to produce unit weight of steam, for dil'ferent steam conditions obtaining in the fac-
tory.
TABLE 4L21
HEAT REQUIRED TO PRODUCE UNIT WEIOHT OF STEAM
(Temperature of feed water 90°C)
Steam pressure Sleam temperal ure Heat required
kg/cm' p.s.i. 'c 'F kcal!kg B. T. U./lb.
6 l 85 Saluraled 569 1,025

8 114 Salurated 572 1,030
lO 142 Saturated 574 1,033
10 142 225 437 599 1,078
15 213 300 572 635 1,143
20 284 325 617 645 1,163
25 355 350 662 656 1,181
30 425 400 752 681 1,226
45 640 425 793 690 1,242
We have assumed in all cases a feed-water temperature of 90°C (l94°F), which is a com-
mon temperature, within a few degrees, al the feed-waler lank, before lhe waler is pumped
to the boiler or 10 the economiser; but operation at 105°C (22l °F) is now common with boiler
pressures aboye 18 kg/cm 2 (250 p.s.i.).
The total quantity of heat from the bagasse which is effectively utilised and is recovered
In the steam depends on four principal factors:
wm r¡ t (temperature of flue gases)
Adopting the following figures as average or readily obtainable values:

\
w = 0.48
m 1.4
ex 0.975
{3 0.975
r¡ 0.96
we shall have for M , and for the weight of vapour obtainable per unit weight of bagasse the
corresponding values given in Table 41.22.
TABLE 41.22
HEAT TRAN$MITTED TO STEAM PER PQUND OF BAGASSE, AND WEIGHT QF STEAM PRQDUCED PER UNIT
WEIGHT OF BAGASSE, FOR DlFFERENT TEMPERATURES [ OF FLUE GASES
(w = 0.48; m = 1.4; a = 0.975; (3 = 0.975; ry = 0.96)
I ('C) 150 180 200 250 300

I ('F) 302 356 392 482 572
M, (B. T. U./lb.) 2,772 2,700 2,653 2,534 2,416
Steam produced al:

6 kg/cm' saldo 85 p.s.i. saldo 2.71 2.64 2.59 2.47 2.36
8 kg/cm 2 saldo 114 p.s.i. saldo 2.69 2.62 2.58 2.46 2.35
10 kg/cm' saldo 142 p.s.i. saldo 2.68 2.61 2.57 2.45 2.34
10 kg/cm' 250'C 142 p.s.i. 482'F 2.52 2.45 2.41 2.30 2.19
15 kg/cm' 300'C 213 p.s.i. S72°F 2.41 2.36 2.32 2.22 1.11
20 kg/cn¡' 3500C 284 p.s.i. 662'F 2.34 2.28 2.24 2.14 2.04
25 kg/clll' 375'C 355 p.s.i. 707'F 2.30 2.24 2.20 2.10 2.00
3U kg/clIl' 400'C 427 p.s.i. 752'F 2.26 2.20 2.16 2.07 1.97
45 kg/cm' 425'C 640 p.s.i. 797'F 2.23 2.17 2.14 2.64 1.94
These figures for steam próduction naturally vary according ro the conditions, and par-
ticularly with Ihe four factors indicated. In most cases, however, the weight of vapour pro-
duced per unit weight of bagasse lies within the range 2 - 2.7 and is ofren in rhe
neighbourhood of 2.25:
According to Ihe fibre content of lhe cane and lhe conditions of operalion otO the boiler
slalion, [he steam prouuction available will thus be 45 -75"1001" cane, anu oflen 60- 65"10.
Calorific value of bagasse pith. Bordenave J O' gives as G.C.V. of bagasse at 12"10
moisture: 4056 kcal/kg, and for moist pith: 3778 kcallkg. He gives the value for pirh as 93"10
of rhat of lhe whole bagasse.
In Taiwan, Chou JOh reckons for dry pith: G.C.V. = 4400 kcal/kg and for pirh ar 6"10
hydrogen: N.C.V. 4400 - (0.06 X 5400) = 4076 kcal/kg (dry pith); N.C.V. = 4076 -
46.8w (wer pith). For dry bagasse in srorage rhe moisrure of rhe pirh would be 15 -22"10.
FUELS OTHER THAN BAGASSE
Owing to insul"ficienl fibre conlenl in cane, excess moislure in lhe bagasse, a low elliciency
allhe boiler sIal ion, or'wastage of steam, certain faclories have nOl sufficienl bagas se to pro-
duce all lhe steam which they require. They ha ve therefore 10 use some supplementary fuel:
firewood, coal, fuel oil, etc.
Wood
The N.C.V. of cellulose is fairly constanl al aboul 4,250 kcal/kg (7,650 B.T.U./lb.).
However, lhe waler conlenl of dit"ferent woods varies greally, according 10 lhe species (and
even Ihe varielY) and Ihe lime which has elapsed since il \Vas CUlo
According la Izarl J' , a very dry wood conlains 20"10 waler, a dry wood 30"10 and a green
wood 40 - 50"10.
FVELS OTHER THAN BAGASSE 941
Firewoods generaJly used have between JO and 40"70 water, Equation (41,20) with s = O.
may be applied to firewood without great error,
Certain woods are very superior to others for fuel purposes, The tree Casuarina
equisetifolia would have, at a given age, 5 - 10% less water than most other woods.
We may take approximately:
Ordinary wood moderately dry: N,C.V. 2,500 kcal/kg (4,500 B.T.U,/lb.)

Casuarina moderately dry: N.C. V, 3,250 kcal/kg (5,850 B,T,U,/lb.)
In South Africa J2 a value of 2,000 kcal/kg (J,600 B,T.U./lb,) only is taken for firewood.
In Australia, Jenkins JJ gives J,333 kcal/kg (6,000 B,T,U./lb.).
Coal and fuel oil

The calorific value of these two fuels is:
Coal: N,C.V 6,000- 8,000 kcal/kg (11,000-14,000 B.T,U./lb.)

Fueloil: N,C.V, = 9,500-10,700 kcal/kg (17,000-19,000 B.T,U./lb.)
the difference between G ,c. V. and N ,c. v. being moreover rather small, except for coal ha v-
ing a high hydrogen content,
Fuel oil presents the advantage that it can be burnt in bagasse furnaces, by means of special
burners, The width of the furnace in the direction of the name, and the quality of the refrac-
[ories should accordingly be designed with this in view.
Figures quoted are:
In South Africa J2 : 10,300 kcal/kg (18,500 B.T.U,/lb.) for fuel oil, and
6,600 (12,000) for Natal coal
In Australia JJ : 10,550 kcal/kg (19,000 B,T.U,/lb,) for fuel oil, and
6,100(11,000) forcoal
Molasses
The calorific value of molasses, per unit weight of dry substance, is:
(N,C.V,) 3,400-3,800 kcal/kg (6,000-7,000 B,T.U,/lb.), according to Deerr J4
(G,C.V,) = 3,800 kcal/ kg (6,840 B,T,U./lb,) (Prinsen Geerligs")
(G,C.V,) = 4,250 kcal/kg (7,650 B,T.U./lb.) (Naus Bey J6),
The latter value would correspond to an N.C.V. of 3,900 kcal/kg (7,020 B,T.U,/lb,) We
may reckon approximately, for an average molasses as fired:
N,C.V. = (:37 B - 500) kcal/kg (67B - 900B.T.U,/lb.) (41.52)
where B = brix of the molasses,

Provided it is heated and diluted (the lalter practice, however, being most unfortunate
t'rom the point of view of fuel value), molasses may be burnt in burners similar to those used
for fuel oil. Jt has the disadvantage of giving such quantities of ashes that their remo val
942 S:rEAM PR ODUCTION AND USAGE Ch. 41
somelimes poses a problem difficult to sol ve. Tak ing inlo account rhe efficiency , which is
by no means the same as wilh bagasse, we may reckon approximately tha t one tonne of
molasses is Ihe equi valent of 150 kg of fuel oi l, 260 kg of co al or 6.35 m 3 of natural gas.
FURN ACES
Bagasse feed
Older bagasse furnaces were provided with a rectangular hopper, a simple opening rhrough
lhe arch of the furnac e. Thr ough thi s wide open passage, air was drawn in with lhe bagasse.
It encountered practically no resislance, unlike the combustion air, which was forced to pass
lh ro ugh lhe grale 3nd lraverse the bed o f bagasse. This air, passíng rhrou gh lhe IOp l1[1c nin g,
entered lh e furna ce direct ly, co ntribuled practically nothing !O rh e co mbu Slíon, and ser ved
only lO in crease lhe excess air greatly.
To avoíd Ihi s drawback, bagas se furnaces are fitled wilh a hopper and a rotary bagasse
feeder (Fig. 41.9).
Fig. 41. 9. ROIar y feede r for grale- or Cook-lype bagasse furna ce .
Types of furnace
There are four principal types of bagasse furnace:
(a) The step-grate furnace
(b) The Cook or horses hoe furn ace
(e) The Ward furnace
(d) The spreade r- stoker furna ce.
(a) Slep-grale furnace (Fig. 41.10).

The grale co nsists of sm all pi ates of caSI ir on , arranged in sleps.
Ils incl inalion 10 Ihe horizontal should be 52 °, the value recommended by the Java expe ri-
ment slat ion , and by T romp 37, and adopled by mOSl manu facturirg firm s.
PUEiS OTHER THAN BAGASSE 943
~
~
~ ,
~ "..p
/ ~ '··"ó'0
~\\~
~
Fig, 4L10, Step grate,
The grate consists of three parts:

(1) The upper part, or dead plate, without steps or openings for passage of air, and on which
the bagasse is dried before passing on to the grate proper.
(2) The grate proper, corresponding lO the steps or grate bars. Certain manufacturers pro-
gressively increase the space between bars, SO as to proportion the quantity of air passing
lhrough lhe bagasse lO lhe degree of combustion required. Generally lhe bagasse igniles al
lhe first bars of the grate, and burns from the firsl bars along the whole length of lhe grille
proper.
(3) The portion of slight slope, or ash grate, at the lower end of the grate, on which combus-
tion of the bagasse is completed, leaving ashes, which fall between the bars of the grate, into
lhe ashpil.
Certain manufacturers make this ash grate horizontal, but it is of advantage to give it a
slight slope. T romp J7 recommends 20°. French firms generally adopt 15°.
Figure 41.10 shows a sectional eleva,ion of the step-grate furnace, with typical dimensions
(in metric units); these of course wiU vary somewhat.
(b) Cook fumace (Fig. 41.11). This type of furnace i,s also described as the horseshoe fur-
nace. It is more recent, and was more widely adopted at the expense of the step-grate.
The bagasse falls directly from the feed chute inlO the furnace, which lakes the form of
a lank in the shape of a horseshoe, and forms a conical heap (Fig. 41.12). By means of
luyeres placed al! around the horseshoe, and more numerous near the bottom, air, which may
¡r ' l[) ¡¡ovsn aNV NOI.L:Jn aOlld wvns rj76
FUElS OTHER THAN BAGASSE 945
Fig. 4J.12. Canical pi le of bagasse in rurnace.
be ca Id but is preferably preheated, is blown into the pile of bagasse, which burns away and
collapses on ilself. The ashes accumulale al lhe bOllOIll of Ihe furnace, lhe heighl 01' which
should be designed accordingly.
The horseshoe furnace requires slightly more heighl lhan does the slep-grale furnace, bul
has lhe advantage of dispensing with the grale bars and bearer bars. Jt permits of higher
combustion rates and gives better resulls from the point of view of efficiency.
(e) Ward fumaee. This type (Fig. 41.13), of American origin, c10sely resembles' Ihe
/
/
-¡;f-"---------{'
/r "
/
/,'/ ----
fig. 41.13. Ward furnace. Straight-tube boiler (Babcock & Wilcox).

, " .a. ..L .a.
'--
-
I l ..
Fig. 41.14. Ward rUfllrtCC. Benl-lUbc boiler (Babcocl\ Allantique).
horseshoe furnace. Tlle hearth is very similar; it sometimes has a casl-iron plale with provi-
sion for circulation of a small proportion of Ihe air, surmounted by an oblong furnace carry-
ing three rows of tuyeres. The bagasse burns in a canical heap in Ihe middle of Ihe hearlh.
FUELS OTH ER THAN BAGASSE 947
The original fea lUre 01' Ihi s furnacc lies in ils upper porrion, and ils advantage is its
simpli cilY. Th e disadva nl age 01' bagasse I'urnaces in general lies in lhe necessily to inslall a
separale furn ace in such a way th at the heal of the furnace is co ncentrated on lhe burning
bagasse, while Ihe hOl gases are made to follow a circuitous palh before reaching rhe relative-
Iy cold hea ting surface o f the boiler, which is placed out of "sight" of the furnace. With th e
Ward design, the furnace is placed sq llarely below Ihe heating surface; and so that combus-
lion will nOl suffer in co nsequence, a small inclined arch is interposed ove r the greater part
of lhe vertical space immedialely aboye lhe furnace, so as lO re rlecl heat on the burning
bagasse while screening Ihe furnace from the cold tubes.
In boilers wilh slraight lubes of Babcock or Steinmuller types, Iwo such arches slop ing in
Opposile directions are provided (Fig. 41.13), with a space between them about 50 cm widc
across lhe width of lhe rUlna ce. A small part of Ihe heating surface is Ihu s in sight of lhe
fuel bed.
Wilh benl-tllbe boilers, 01' Ihe Stirling type, lhe ¡'i rsl pass for Ihe .g¡Ises isplaced ahead of
Ihe boiler itself (Fig, 41,14) ; since Ihe healing surface is nOI in sight of the furn ace, a single
small arch is sufficienl. The space le fr between it an d the opposite wall is then of Ihe order
01' 100 cm,
This reslr icl ion in the gas palh, espec iall y in the former case, obviously causes a high gas
veloc ity al Ihi s poin l, <lnd a n apfJreciable drau ghl 10.15. In spile 01' the simplifi ca tion 01' Ihe
gas circuit, the Warcl rUlnilce requires a high er drau ght Ihan other types 01' furna ce, and sur-
feró a greater unburnt gas loss, 01' the order 01' 5 - 60/0.
Like lhe Cook furnace, it is particularly well suited for use with an air-heater.
A height of about 4 m is allowed between the hearth and the arch.
In the sa me way, at least 4.3 m will be allowed betweén the top of the furnace and the
lubes nea rest the fire (forstraight-tube boilers, as Fig. 41.13). This recommendation applies
mainl y to Ward furnaces but al so to those of horseshoe (Cook) type l1 ',
When il appeared, the Ward furnace inv olved a slight increase in the height required, bUI
presenled a reduction in space and lenglh of Ihe furn ace , and a saving in the amount of
refractories. Al present (1982) lhe Ward furnace and th e Cook furnace have been comp lel ely
replaced by the de ve lopment of the spreader-stoker furna ce; their efficiency is lim ited by the
excess air requirements, they st ill require an excess ive quantity of refractories, th eir upkeep
is expensive and Ihey are not suilable for aUloma ti c operation,
(d) Spreader-stoker furnace. This is lhe mosl recent type o f furnace. Jt has no enclosing
wall as has Ihe Coo k or Ward fu rn ace, and co nsists si mpl y of the space situated belween I he
boiler lu bes and a specia l flal grate,
The lalte r may be: (a) fixed; (b) c¡f hand-rocking type for remo val of ashes (Fig. 41.15);
(e) mechani cal, wi lh co nlinu ous discharge of ashes. This third type is lo be recommended
fo r ca pacities of 35 tonnes of steam per hour or higher H At presenl ( 1982) Ihis can well be
recOlllmended ror aboye 20 t/ h,
1I is Ihe Illelhod of feedin g the bagasse which constilules the mOSI o riginal fealure of Ihe
spreader-stoker furnace. Jt is effected as in a Ward fumace, by means of a steep ly sloping
ch ute; but al the moment this chute discharges the bagas se into the furnace, air und er
pressure, supplied by a pipe located just behind the chule, is blown in through a longitudinal
slol running Ihe whole lenglh 01' Ihe bollom end 01' Ihe chule, and Ihrows Ihe bagasóe violent-
Iy inl o Ih e furnace. The bagasse ió Ihu s dried and burnl as il rall s in 10 Ihe furna re , <tnd Ihe
la rgesl pieces complele Iheir combuslion on Ihe grale. The proporlion 01' bagasse burned in
suspension ranges from 80 lO 90070 according lO Ihe s ize 01' Ihe parlicles.
The quanlily 01' unburnl solids remaining in Ih~ ash pil is Ihus grealer Ihan Ihal evacualed
by Ih e ch imney. JI is eSlimaled Ihat a 10lal unburnl loss of 2.5% is normal (e. = 0 .975).
Whalever Iype 01' grale is used, Ihe air spaces Ihrough Ihe grale are generally made 3 - 5%
of Ihe grate area, instead of 25 - 40% fo r step grales. A cerlain parl of Ihe comb us lion
air is supplied by Ihe air under pressure which serves la Ihrow Ihe bagas se inlO Ihe furnace.
/[ is considered Ihal Ihe spreader-sloker furnace permils 01' reducing Ihe normal excess air
1030% (instead of 40-50%) and consequenlly of improving lhe efficiency subsrant ially.
Mo reover , Ihis Iype of furnace permits a comb ust ion rale very óuperior 10 Ihnl of olher
Iypes . For example, an evaporalion rale of 35-40 kg/ h/ m' (7-8 Ib ./ h/sq.l'l.) 0 1' healing
wrface ma y be oblained compared wi lh 25 - 30 (5 - 6) for ftlrnaees of Cook or Ward Iype.
Of course , Ihe dimensions of Ihe combuólion c hamber musI be planned la suil Ihe Iype 01'
boiler chosen; il will be advisable lO keep la combu sl ion rales of aboul 220,000 kral / mJ / h
(25,000 B.T.U ./cu.ft./h) , and nol to go above 260,000 (40,000), values reckoned on G.C.V.
Fig . 41.15. Spreader-slOker rurnace with rocking grate type BRl (Fives Caí! - Babcock) ,
FUELS OTHER THAN BAGASSE 949
finally, lhe spreader-SlOker makes ash remo val easy, is easy lO c/ean, and, having no ar -
ches or separale furnace, is econom ica l in brickwork.
Each fuel dislribulor can ensure a good dislribulion of bagasse on a maximum widlh of
approximalely 1.2 - 1.5 m (4 - 5 fl.). In Ihe ser ies of sizes, when a change is made from a
unil wilh n fuel dislribulors 10 o ne wilh (n + 1) diSlribulors, lhe cOSl per lonne of steam
per hour is appreciabIy increased. 1I is Iherefore advisable lO choose lhe largesl model
availab le for a given number of fuel dislribUlors.
The lotal weighl of air suppli ed to lhe furnace is approximalely five times lhe weight of
bagas se (eqn. 41.30). 11 is di slribuled in lhe following proporliolls:
Air supplied below lhe grate: 86 OJo

Air for fuel distributors: 6.5%
Air for providing lurbulence aboye lhe grale: 7.5%
Combustion chamber
The furnace is the space included belween lhe grale (or lhe hearth, for a hearlh type of fur-
nace), lhe side walls of lhe furnace, lhe arch, lhe front wa ll and lhe bridge wall.
The combus lion chamber includes lhe furnace plus lhe free space lraversed by Ihe gases
belween lea ving lhe furnace and reaching lhe boiler tubes. The ashpils are not includ ed, if
such are provided.
Combustion chamber volume. The vo lum e of lhe combusl ion chamber shou ld be propor-
li oned lo lhe volume of gases necessary for combustion. This volume is Iherefore generally
fi xed in relalion 10 lhe quantit y of heal liberated per hour by the fuel used (N). ,
Since a certa in ratio exisls between lh e heating surface of lh e boiler and the quantilY of
Sleam which it can produce (cf. p. 955), the combustion chamber volu me may also be related
10 Ihe healing surface of lhe boiler.
Deerr '9 recommends 30-90 dm ' of combuslion chamber vo lume per m' (10-30
cu. fl./lOO sq. ft.) of heating surface, and this, according lO his figures, wou ld correspo nd lO
100,000-300,000 kcal / h/ m (10,000-30,000 B.T.U./h /cu.rI.).
'
Tromp'o suggests 20 - 100 dm'/m' (7 - 33 cu. ft.1 100 sq. ft.) of healing surface, the highesl
figures corresponding to the hi ghest rale of combuslion. However, as a funclion of lhe
evaporalion rales which he indicates, this would correspond to about 300,000 -700,000
kcal/h/m ' (30,000 -70,000 8.TU./h/cu.ft.).
InCuba , figures of 40 - 50 dm 31m 2 (13 - 16 cu. ft.! I 00 sq. ft.) of heating surface are used;
in Hawaii, aboul 75 (25 cu. ft.). These values are not applicable 10 furnaces of Ihe Ward lype.
In Louisiana" values of 180,000 kcal/ml / h (20,000 B.T.U.lcu.ft./h) for bagasse are
laken, 220,000 for fuel oil, and a maximum, even wilh water-walled furnaces, of 270,000
kcal / m'/ h.
For spreader-stoker furnaces of Riley Iype, Miller'2 gives a maximum of 350,000
kca l/ m' / h (40,000 B.T.U.lcu.fUh), bUl recommends keeping in lhe region of 220,000
kcal/ m'/h as al1 oplimum value, in order lo improve Ihe el'l'iciency and minimize lhe forma-
lion of fl y ash.
French manufacluring firms desig n for 170,000 - 250,000 kcal / h/ m (19,000 - 28,000
'
950 'STEAM PRODUCTION AN D USAGE Ch.41
B.T.U ./h/cu.fL) 01' combuslion cha mber vo lume. Relaling Ihis 10 Ihe healing surface 01' Ihe
boiler, and expressing combu slion volumes in vo lume relacive 10 healing surface area, Ihi s
corresponds 10 aboul 140- 160 dmJ / m' (46-52 cu.fL/IOO sq.fl.) 01' boiler tube surface, in-
creased where appropriate by the area 01' water walls.
The best result s, to ¡he author's knowledge, are oblained wilh Ihe laller values, bUI Ihe
comb uslio n chamber volume is a relali vely elaslic figure which may va ry belween fairly wide
limits.
The volume Vol' th e combustion chamber is then given by:
BN, BN ) (41.53)
V= ( 28,5¿O
200,000
v = combu.\lion chamber vo lum e, in m J (eu.I·I.)

B = weighl 01' bagasse burned, in kg/ h (Ib ./ h)
Ni N.C.v. 01' (h e bagasse, in kcal/kg (B.T.U./lb.) .
Fig . 41 . 16. Sp reader~s l oker rurnace wi¡h travell i ng grate (Babcock & Wikox).
FUELS OTHER THAN BAGASSE 951
Dimensions of Ihe furnoce

AII the furnace dimensions are rixed by the necessity to obser ve the following conditions:
(a) Lenglh oF f1ame. The length of passage for lhe burning gases, between the grate anc1
boiler tubes, sh oulc1 be at leasl 5 m, and preferably 7 - 8 m. JI should not exceed 10m.
Belo\\' 7 111 and panicularl y below 5 111, the ga ses would nOI be complelely burnt on
reaching Ihe cold·water tubes , a nd Ihe sud den cooling caused by their passage between the
tubes would lO a great extent arrest the combustion, thus increasing the proportion of ca,
and decreasing the efficiency.Furthermore, below 5111, the ash enrrained with the gases will
not be complelely burnl, and \\'ill Ihus lend 10 adhere lO Ihe tubes, thu s becoming harmful
and dangerous (see Fig. 41.17).
On Ihe otlJer hanc1, ir lhe lellgth 01' path ro r Ihe ga s e ~ is unneccssarily in crea sec1, there will
be increased losses by radial ion and by air leakage, as wel1 as an increase in Ihe space required
and in the COSI of Ihe inslallation.
Fi g. 41.17 . Length o r nome.
(b) Widlh oF Ihe boiler. The various types of walcr-Iube boilers generally have a given
heating surface per unit widlh of furnace . For e .~am[lle:
Cail-Steinmuller boilers with headers: 110 m'/m (360 sq.ft. / f!.) width
Fives - Stirling boilers with 3 drums: 135 m'/m (443 sq. ft./f!.) width
With recent in slallations, where the capacity is expressed in tonnes of steam per hour
rather than in heating surface area, we haye:
Fives Cail- Babcock boilers wilh BCI type furnace: 5 I/ h/ m (1.5 t/ h/ fl.) of width
Fives Cail - Babcock boilers with spreader-stokers,
type BRl: 6 t/ h/ m (1.8 t/ h/ ft.) of width
Fives Cail- Babcock boilers wiih spreader-stokers,
Iype BR2: 7 t/ h/ m (2.3 tlh / ft.) of width
BR3: 9 tl h/ m (2 .7 tlh/fl.) of width
BR22D: 12 .5 t/ h/ m (3.7 t/ h/Ft.) oF width
To avoid Ihe drawbacks 01' a comp li cated sllape. Ihe comhmlion chamher should ha ve Ih e
same inlerior widlh as Ihe boiler, and Ihe lowl widlh 0 1' Ihe furnace or furnac es shoulcl be
al lea sl equal to Ihe lafler.
(e) Volume of eombustion ehamber. Fina" y, the total vo lume 01' the combustion chamber
should observe the conditions given o n' p. 949.
It will be see n Ihal Ihe lenglh, widlh and volume 01' Ihe comb usli o n chamber musl conrorm
10 ce rtain cond ilions, leaving litlle liben y lo the designer 01' Ihe furnace. The lea sl imperatil'e
condilion and Ihe most elas¡ic 01' Ihe ¡hree is, however, Ih al 01' Ihe vo lume, which can,
with o ul great in eo nveni enee, differ appreeiably from Ih e values given.
Secondary airo [n all modern furnaces, Ihere is provided, in addition 10 Ih e normal air or
"prim ary air", enlering direell y Ihrough Ihe grale or by Ihe lU ye res 0 1' Ihe hearlh fumace,
a cornplementory a ir supp ly ro r " second ary air", behind Ihe bridge \l'a ll , and conseque nll)'
afler Ihe fum ace proper. Thi s a ir is inlroduced by a small ducl buiit in lo Ih e bridge lI'all (Figs.
41.11 and 41.12).
The inlrodu clion 0 1' Ihis supplem en lary air ror eombustion ha s Ihe objeel 01' ens uring com -
plete combusti on by changing 10 CO, Ih e CO which may remain afler cornbusrion in Ihe fur-
nace.
Secondar y air is' genera"y made 5 -15 OJo 01' Ihe tOlal air supplied , al'eraging 10%. T here
is no advanlage in exeeeding Ihis a mounl; if co rnbu sli on is good in lile rurnace, i.e. if Ihe
combuslion temperature is high, il form s ver y lillle CO, a nd Ihere would be risk 01' ca usin g
a useless inc rease in excess airo
Suspended arch furnaces

The roors o r older boiler furnaces were made as Iru e arc hes, formed rrom curved bricks.
Then fl a l suspended arehes were adopted, 01' Ihe Fama Iype, which cOSI so rn ew hal mo re , bUI
lasled much longer a nd were much Illor e eeonomical in upkeep. 1I is eonside red in
Lo ui sia na" Ihal aboye 3.5 m (12 1'1.) in heighl, ir is similarly advanlageo us lO use walls 0 1'
suspend ed brieks, Ihe weighl 01' whi ch does !lot illcrease Ihe press ur e on ¡he bricks al Ihe bas.e
01' ¡he furnaee.
Today, furnaces are designed prae¡ically wilhou¡ horizonlal portions a nd ¡hus witholl l ar -
ches, and these are the most eeonom ical.
T HE GRATE
Grate area
In slep grales, co mbu stion takes place on Ih e Sleps. The dead plale which precedes ¡hem
serves 10 remove Ihe exeess moisture from Ih e bagasse befo re il comes 10 Ihe grale. The ash
grale which rolJ ows the step grate serves lO comp lele Ih e combllSlion and 10 ulilise lhe hea¡
Iransmilled by radialion from Ihe incandescenl ba gasSt' bdore lhe as hes are dropped inlo l he
ashpil. The grille a rea proper is Ihal oblainccl by ll1ulli plyin g Ihe widlh Di" Ih e Slep grille b,'
il S length measllred along lhe slope, belween Ihe f'ir sl and Ihe las l slep.
THE ORATE 953
In horseshoe or Wa rd furnaces , Ihe grale area is Ihal of the hearlh plate inside lhe
horseshoe or Ihe wa ll s surrounding Ihe furnace.
In spreader-sloker furnaces, lhe grate are a is obvious ly si mpl y Ihe flat surface which
rece ives the bagasse, of Ihe rocking grate, or th e upper po rti on of lhe travell ing grate.
Weight of bagasse burnt per unít grate area per hour

The ra le of work in g of a fur nace grate is expressed by the quantit y of bagasse burnt on this
gral e per unil area of the grale. We shall designale Ihi s rate by:
weighl of bagasse burnl per hour 011 lhe grale

{3 = (41.54)
area of the grale
This "combusti on rate" is interesting, since, to oblai n sufficient combustion, it is

necessary 10 proportion the gra le area 10 Ihe quanlil y o f bagasse lo be burnt per hour. lf
Ihe draught we re cons tant, Ihe op lil1'lum value 01" Ihe we igh l of bagasse burnt per unit area
of Ihe gral e per hour would be ea sily fixed. However, I'lis value illCreases rapidly wilh Ihe
role 01' operaliol1 adop lecl , whereas Ih e efficiency of lhe combuSliol1 varies lilll e wilh the ra teo
In ol her words, Ihe gra ph 01' COl1lbUSliol1 efficie ncy as a funcliol1 of rale 01' working is very
flal, and we may obtain a very good comb usl ion:
(a) Al low draught and low combu stio n rale
(b) At hi gh draughl and high com busti on rate o
For lhi s reaSOI1 , great clil"ferences are found in th e figures give n by differe nt aulhors on
op til1l<ll comb US lion rales.
Habif" quotes arate correspondin g lo 425 kg / m' / h (87 Ib./sq.ft./h), while Deerr 39 gives
a figure 01' 500 (100), and Tromp" gives 1,200 - 1,460 (250 - 300); Shillinglon '6 gives a figure
01' 1,460 (300) in the sa me units.
We shall accepl as opl im al rales Ihe figures in Table 41.23.
TABLE 41.23
OPTIMAL COMB VSTION RATE S PER UNIT GRATE AREA FOR BAGASSE
kg / m'/h Ib ./sq.fr./h
Low 500 - 700 100 - 140

Moderate 700 - 800 140 - 160
High 800 - 1.000 160 - 200
Co ntrary lo whal might be imagined, these combuSlion ra les sca rcel y vary with the type
of furnace. At cO l1tinu o us high ratings, spreader-sloker furnace s so metimes reach
1,100-1,200 kg / m 2 / h (225-245 Ib ./sq.ft./h).
Rocking grale and Iravefling grale. The rocking grale is becoming wide ly used. lt ha s been
adopled by Babcock and Wilcox, Thompson, Fosrer Wheeler, Takum a and Yoshimine. Fives
Cail- Babcock sugges l it for capacili es up lo 160 I/h 01' steam. Jt is virtualJy static and for
954 STEAM PR ODUCTION AND USAGE Ch.41
Ihis reason gi ves Iess trouble, its upkeep is practicall y nil whereas the travelling gral e requires
checking and atten tion at each weekly shut-down; it allows less bagasse 1055. The total cost of
a boiler witha rocking grate is about 7070 lower Ihan that of a boiler with a Ira velling grale.
The trayelling grale is required onl y in lhe case of fuel of high ash conlenl, s~ y ~b o ve 8070.
This is, for ex~mple, Ihe case ",ilh bagassc pellel s in Hawaii. 1I is Ihen ad visable 10 cOlllrol
il s speed so as lO obl ain all ash la yer as low as poss ible, bUI sullicielll lO prolecl Ihe grale
from direct radial ion from the furnace.
The travelling grale generally does not accept combuslion airat a lemperalure abo ye
200°e.
Evaporation rate
The "evaporalion rate" or "raling" 0 1' a boiler is lhe weighl 01' dry sleam which il produces
per unit heating surface per hour.
We shall designate it by lhe Gree k lelter T.
Standard evaporation rateo We ha ve already seen (Table 41.21) th a t Ihe quanlily 01' heat
unils required for Ihe produclion of unit weighl 01' stealll varies according lO lh e lemper~lure
of the feed waler for Ihe boilers, and according to Ihe pressure and also lh e superheal 01' lhe
steam.
To render evaporation rales comparable with one another , Ihe British and American prac-
lice is to relate Ihe quantity of stealll produced to that which would be produced if the feed
waler were al 100°C (212°P) and if evaporalion were carried out at atmospheric pressure
(from and at 100cC (212 C F)). [n other words. rhe quanlily of heal transferred [O one kg (lb.)
of Ihe steam produced is taken, divided by 539 (970) (I alenl heal al 100cC (212°F)) and lhe
weighl of steam generated per unit area of heating surfac e is lhen mulliplied by Ihe coeffi-
ci enl so obtained.
The slandard condilions in French praclice, on the olher hand, are: feed waler al O°C,
steam at 100°e. In other word s, French engineers replace the divisor by t he figure 639
(1,150). This yalue has the advant age 01' approaching more c10sel y lO Ihe order Df magnitude
of the quantit y of heat supplied per unit weight of steam in modern induslrial praclice (ef.
Tabl e 41.21).
Example. Consider a boiler receiving feed water at 90°C and producing 36 kg steam / m'
healing surfa ce/ h at 30 kg/cm' (427 p. s.i.), superheated to 400°e.
Each kg of steam has thus received 681 kcal (ef. Table 41.21) The standard evaporation
rate wi 11 then be:
681
(a) English rating: TÓ 36 x 45.5 kg/ m' / h (8 .85Ib .lsq.ft./h)
539
(b) French raling: To 36 x 681 38.4 kg/ m'/ h (7.46Ib.lsq.ft./h)

639
We ma y comment that the English rating, lO be rendered comparable wil h Ihe French
raling, should be mulliplied by:
THE ORATE 955
539
0.8435 (41.55)
639
and figures according lo lhe French rating, to convert to English rating, should be multiplied
by the reciprocal of this or 1.186.
If the sleam produced is wet, it will obviously be necessary to take into account the lower
quantity of heat which has been supplied to each kg of steam.
In lhe following discussion, the evaporalion rales indicaled will be eilher slandard English
ralings (fl"Om and al JOO°C (212°F), 70) or actual praclical ratings obtained (7).
Average evaporation rates. Older semi-tubular boilers gave an evaporation rale of áboul
12 kg/m'/h (3.0 Ib./sq. fl./h).
AII water-tube boilers are capable of a normal rate of 18 (4.4), but those with two circuIa-
tions cannot be forced to the same ratings as lhose with lhree circulations. We may reekon
for a c011linuous operalion when pushed, lhe figures of Tabie 41.24.
TABLE 4t.24
EVAPORATIQN RATES kg/m'/h (lb./sq.rt./h)
Boilers Accessory heating Furnace Evaporaf ion

surfaces rate 1"0
SLraighl lubes Economiser or o.ir-heater Step-gro.le 22 (5.3)

2 circulations
Straight tubes Economiser or air-heater Horseshoe J2 (7.8)
3 drculalions or Ward
Venicai bem Economiser and/or Spreader-stoker 36 (8.7)
lubes air-healer
With an economiser and air-heater of generous dimensions, it is possible lo achieve a raling

of 40 kg/m'/h (lO Ib./sq.ft.lh).
In all these diseussions, when speaking of the heating surface of boilers, we take into ac-
count the heating surface of the boiler tubes and of the water walls, but not those of the
superheater, econol11iser and air-healer,which conlribute to the tolal evaporation, but to a
smaller extent.
When the evaporation rate is raised by modifying the draught, it may be eslimated approx-
imalely thal lhe evaporation rates will vary,in proportion to lhe square root of the draught
expressed in cm (in.) of water.
Ratio of heating surface lO grate area

We shall designate this ratio by
heating surface S of the boiler

a - (4156)
area s of lhe grate
Let:
B = weight of bagas se burnt per hour
Q = weight of steam generated per hour
We shall have:
BM, =' 970Q (41.57)
M, = fraetion of the C. V. of the bagasse whieh is reeovered In the steam, given by eqn.
(41.30), in keallkg (B.T.U./lb.).
But:
B (3s
and:
Whence:
a -
s M,,{3 (M,{3) (41.58)
s 639r¿ 970r¿
Ir we take mean values: {3 = 750 kg/m'/h (150 Ib./sq.I·Uh), M,. = 1,475 I<l',ll/l<g (2,650
B. T. U. 1 lb.), r¿ = 30 kgl m' 1 h (7 - 7.5 1b. Ise¡. fl. Ih), Wé .Ice Ilw I a is o 1" lile orel er 01" 50 - 75.
Por a spreader-stoker furnace, it is in Ihe neighbourhood 01" 50.
However, there is no need to attribule lO a an exaggeraled imporlance. The importanl and
interesling values are those of r~ and {3. To produce the quantity of steam which Ihe factory
requires, a cenain boiler healing surface will be necessary, corresponding 10 a suilable value
of the evaporalion rale r~. To oblain Ihis quanlily 01" Sleam, wilh Ihe norrnal efficiencv oi"
Ihe boilers, il is necessary lo burn a cerlain weighl 01' bagasse, anel consequénlly la inslall
Il1e.desired grale area, afler having chosen <In appropri,lIe combuslion-rale rigure {3. [1
follows thal we shall have a cerlain boiler healing surl"<lce S and a cerlain grate area s.
However, if the heating surface S is altered for any reason, wilhoul altering Ihe weighl oi"
bagasse burnt, there will be no need to alter lhe grale area s for Ihis reason, in Ihe same ralio,
with the object 01" maintaining a certain value of a. Hence, if lhe area s has Ihe correct value,
it is necessary on Ihe conlrary to retain il.
[n other worels there is ~o elefinite inlerelependence or proponíonalil\' bClween s and S:
these two areas should each fulfil certain indepenclenl conelilions.
PERFORMANCE OF DlFFERENT FURNACES
We shall now discuss particular poinls of the principal Iypes Di" l\m13cc.
PERFORMANCE OF DIFFERENT FURNACES 957
Horseshoe fumaee
Bagasse bumt per unit grate area. In laking as area of lhe furnace lile plane surface al lile
bOllom, comprising lhe inlerior of lile horseshoe, Ihis furnace permils a combuslion rale ap-
preciably higher lhan lhe step grale. Tromp" reports 2,200-3,200 kg bagass/m'/h (450-
650 Ib./sq.fl./h). French manufacluring firms prefer 10 base their designs on 1,300-1,800
(270-360), or an average of 1,500 (300), and consider rales of 2,000-2,200 (400-450) as
maxima. The cOlllbuslion rale of lhe fumace is a funclion of ils perimeler and nol of ils area.
Thls is one reason I'or Ihe large varialion in Ihe weighl of bagasse burnt per unit area"".
As will be "een from lhe two groups of limils indicaled, this raling may be modified, by
allering Ihe draughl or lhe arrangemenl of luyeres, lO a greater eXlent than wilh an ordinary
grale. 11 is lhus a more flexible design of furnace.
Efficíency. This is also a fumace in which lhe highesl lemperalures and efficiencies have
been recorded"
JI oflers Illoreover a furtller advanlage, wllich is by no means negligible, in lhal il gives
asiles which are very rich in pOlash, and nicely pulverised.
Heighl. Sillce it has no ashpil, the horseshoe furnace requires a greater height. A total height
of4.5-5 m (15- 17 fl.), belween heaJ'lh and arch, is nOl excessive. This heighl should not
be less Ihan 3 m (10 fl.).
The I"urnace proper, Ihal is lhe portion enclosed in Ihe horseshoe, should have a heighl
of aboul 2.5 m (8 fl.), or 2 m (6.5 ft.) as a minimum.
Draughl. Ample draught should be provided so that, when high ratings are required, lhe
air jets from the tuyeres may penelrale deeply into the burning pile of bagasse. Otherwise,
some bagasse would remain unburnt, or al leasl combuslion would be incomplete, wilil for-
malion 01' CO, since lile air has no oliler means of reaching lile fuel, in Ihis lype of furnace.
Air velocilY in Ihe luyeres. The lo[al cross-seclion 01' lhe luyeres wilI be calculaled so lhal
lhe mean velocilY of lile air will lie belween 15 and 20 mis (50- 65 fl./s). A value of less
Ihan 15 (SO) should nol be used, olherwise the lUyeres will become fouled and blocked. The
luyeres should be mainly located al the boltom of the furnace: 85 - 90"70 of Ihem in Ihe first
30-38 cm (12-15 in.) from the hearth, wilh lhe remainder in one rowO.6-1!TI (2-3 fl.)
higher"" .
Ward furnaee
Bagasse bumt perunit grate area.A value of 1,000-1,200 kg/m'/h (200-250 Ib.lsq.fl.1
h) is taken as a norrnal figure. In exceplional cases 1,500 kg (300 lb.) may be allained bUI,
al this raling, a large amounl of unburnl bagasse particles is carried Ihrough 10 Ihe chimney.
Spreader-stoker fumaee
Bagasse bumt per unit grate area. A figure of 2,500 - 3,000 kg/m'/h (500 - 600 lb.lsq. ft.1
h) ma y be allained, bUl most manufaclurers design for 800 (160); it is recommended lhal a
figure of 1,200 (175) should nOl be exceeded.
HEATING SURI'ACE
Tlle Ileuling surl'ace compriscs Illal 01' lhe boiler lubes and lhe lubes of waler walls, wllen
I hese are provided.
1I shou ld be nOled Ihal lhese Iwo seclions of Ihe healing surface are in no way comrarab le
as regards Ihe rrororlionof heal 'absorbed; if we exrress lhis heal absorrlion as weighl 01'
sleam produced, Ihe bo iler lubes would llave a caracilY 01' aboul 25 kg/ I1l' /h (6 Ib.lsq.II./h);
whereas lhe lubes 01' Ihe waler \\'a ll s, rlaced vertically llnd in single la yer, exrosed 10 Ihe full
radialion 01' Ihe furnace, would allain a I'igure 01' 65 ( 16) (relaling lhcir heal absorrlion 10
Iheir 10lal commercial'surface area). If lhere are no waler-walllubes, lhe full heal develored
by lhe furnace would arrive al lhe super healer and Ihe boiler lubes, and the evaporalion 01'
lile laller would obviously be grealer.
The healing surl'ace required in a suga r faclory rer I.c.h. depends on Ihree 1',1clorS:
(a) The "Ieam CO llsul1lplion 01' lhe faclory rer I.c. This may vary from a maximum of 750
kg (1,680 lb.) in a po orly cquirrcd I'aclory whic h is manufacluring while sugar, 10 a
minimulll of 360 kg (800 lb.) in a modern faclory making raw sugar, anel using rressurc
evaporalion or lhermo-compressors. Generall y, Sleam consump lion varies belween 450 al1(l
550 kg / l. c. (1,000-1,250 Ib.ll.c.).
(b) The lyre o f boiler used, Ihe normal evaroralion rate of which may be high or lo\\' .
(e) The grealer or lesser inlensily of boiler oreraljon.
Since ji is advisable 10 allow some reserve car3cjly, ji will be preferable 10 rrovjde a
hea ljng surface corresponding 10 a normal raljng.
11':
A = crus hing rale of lhe faclory, in I.C.h .
Q = steam requiremenls of Ihe faclory, in kglt.c. (Ib.lt.c.)
T' evaporalion rate of Ihe boilers, in kg/ m'/h (Ib.lsq. n./h)
S = healing surface of lhe boilers, in m' (sq.ft.).
we hnve:
AQ T' S (4 I .59)
hence:
S Q
s, (41.60)
A T'
Ss = specific healing surl'ace, in m'/I.c.h. (sq. ft./I.c.h.)
If we lake Q = 450 kg/ r.c. and T' = 30 kg/m'/h \Ve \Vi II ha ve:
Ss = 15" m'/l.c.h. (165 sq.fl.lt.c.h.)

HEATING SUR FACE 959
11 is advisable 10 keep in rese rve some older boilers, 10 avoid poss ible sloppage by some
mishap ",ilh one 01' Ihose in ser vice. AIso, many faclories work al a va lu e 01' Ss 01' 20
-' m'/l.c.h. (215 sq.fl. / l.c.h.), lO avoid lighring up lh e rese rve boile.r.
Radiation and convection

Wilh spreader-sloker boilers, when Ihe lubes 01' Ihe wa ler wa lls occupy aboul 40070 01' lhe
area 01' Ihe laleral \Valls (e.g. ve rlical lubes 01' 3 in. diam. al 7.5 in . pilch, in Ihe case 01' fi ves
Cail - Babc oc k boilers), il is considered lhat 27 - 2807001' lhe tOlal heat developed in the fur-
nace is absorbed by direcl radialion.
Distribution of hesl absorption

In a modern boiler, such as is illuslraled in Fig. 41.15 , lhe usable heat is distribuled as
follows:
Relative tube sur/ace Proporlion o/ heat

(%) absorbed (%)
Waler walls 01' furnace: 12 34
Superheater: 6 15
Boiler lubes: 37 38
Economiser: 45 13
100 100
Dislribution of heating surface

In modern boilers, rile tolal hearing surface has no greal significance, on accounl 01' lhe dif-
ference in rales 01' heallransfer existing belween lhe dil'ferenl componenl s 01' lhe boiler unit.
For Ihi s reaso n lhe figure quoled is Ihe evaporalio n per 110ur 01' which lhe unil is capable,
ralher Ih an lhe healing surfa ce .
By way 01' example, lhe following figure s give Ihe heating surfaces for a Fives
Cail- Babcock boiler lype BR2 43 / 68 01' 60 I/h steam capacity, tesled al 49 alm, producing
sleam al 42 alm al Ihe supe rhealer oUllel , lelllperalure 01' superhea l 420°C (788°F), feed
wat er lemperalure 105 °C (22 1°F), flue gas lelllperalure 200 °C (392°F) , efficiency 83070.
Waler-wall lubes: 359 m' 3,864 sq.ft. = 12% = 6 m' / t stea m/h
Plain tube assembl y: 1,340 m' 14,424 sq.ft. = 44% = 22.3 m'/ t steam/h
Superheater tubes: 140 m' 1,507 sq.fl. = 5% = 2.3 m 2/ t steam/h
Economiser: 1, 189 m' 12,798 sq.fl. 39% 20 m 2/ t steam/h
3,028 m' 32,593 sq.fl. 100% = 50 m 2/ t steam/h
The combuslíon chamber is 8.21 m in width, 4.51 m in depth and 8.50 m in mean heíghr,
giving 277 m) wh ich is 4.6 m) / t of stea m. Grate dimensions are 8.21 m in width and 4.26
m in deplh = 35 m' grale area.
960 S'TEAM PRODUCTlON AND USAGE Ch.41
d (mm) /hiekness (mm) pi/eh (mm)

Wa ler-w a ll lubes: 76 4 185
Fronl lub es 76 4
Middl e tub es: 63.5 3.2
Rear tubes: 63.5 3.2
Superheater: 38 3.2
The laleral waler-walllubes are welcled illlo lI[l[ler and lo wer headers. The fronl waler-wall
IlIbe s are welded in lO Ihe lower header and expanclecl inlo Ihe upper drum. The lubes on Ihe
bridge are expanded into Ihe upper and lower drum s, and Ihe lubes connecling Ihe IWO drulll s
are expanded into both drums.
The superhealer is tocated al Ihe delivery fr o m Ihe combuslion challlber immedialel y afler
Ih e direcI radial ion lubes. The boiler ha s six Riley-France s[lreader-stoke rs.
The grate area is calculaled on the basis 01' 1170 kg/m'/h; Ihis shollld correspond 10
2,700,000 kcal/m'/h reckoned on G.CV. 01' 2310 kcal/kg (slandard proposed by Detroit
Stoker Co.).
SUPERHEAT AND SUPERHEATERS
Use of superheated steam

Use of superhealed slea m is indispensable where power supply lO Ihe faclor)' is by a Slealll
lurbine. Table 41.25 gives steam condilions afien used.
TABLE 41.25
C HARACTERI sn cs OF STEAM FOR USE IN TURBINES
18 kg/ cm 2 gaugc: 325 - 350°C 250 p.s. i.g.: 620 - 660°F

25 kg/c m' ga uge: 350 - 375'e 350 p.s.i .g.: 660 - 700° F
30 kg/c m' gauge: 375 -400°C 425 p.s. i.g.: 700-750'F
45 kg/ cm' gauge: 400 -440'C 640 p.s.i.g.: 750 - 820' F
Limil of superheat. With carbon steel s, temperatures aboye 425°C (ROO°F) in Ihe
superheater lubes cannot be used. Wilh specia l sleels, lemperatures 01' 500°C (930°F) a re
reached and exceeded, but the latler limil is of lillle inleresl in Ihe cane .lugar factory .
Superheaters
Superheaters are heat exc hanger s placed in Ihe path 01' Ihe hot gases. They are generally
localed in any suilable free space in Ihe neighbourhood 01' Ihe boiler lubes (Figs. 41.14 and
41.15).
They receive the saluraled or slighl ly \Vel sleam cOllling from t he boiler c1rulll and deliver
il in a super healed Slale la Ihe general Slealll main 01' Ihe raclory.
They are generally formed from tubes of small diameler, all 01' the same shape ",ilh several
bends, interposed belween [wo head ers .
SUPERHEAT AND SUPERHEATERS 961
In Franee, lhe healing surrace al' superhealers is calculaled from lhe exlernal diameler al'
Ihe lubes. This is importanl as, due 10 Ihe small diallleler and Ihe Ihickness al' Ihe lubes, Ihere
is a subslanlial dirference belween lhe inlernal and exlernal surface areas.
Calculations for superheaters

We have lWO principal equalions:
M = aPC(T , - T,) = p (1 - x)r + pe (T - t) (41.61 )
M = qU8nlily of heal Iransmilled by lhe superhealer, in kcal/h (S.T.U./h)

DI = eoefficienl ,;; 1, generally 0.90
P = weighl 01' gas passing over lhe superhealer, in kg/h (Ib./h)
e = specific heal of lhese gases (Fig. 41.46)
T, lemperalure al' gases al enlry lo Ihe superhealer, in oC (OF)
T, = lemperalure al' gases leaving Ihe superhealer, in oC (OF)
p weighl al' sleam 10 be superhealed, in kg./h (Ib./h)
x = dryness fraclion al' Ihe saluraled sleam (0.80 - 0.98 in general)
r = lalenl heal al' vaporisation, at Ihe boiler pressure, in kcallkg (B.T.U.Ilb.) (e/. Table
41.1 )
e mean specific heal al' Ihe superhealed sleam, belween I and TO (e/. Table 41.2)
I lemperalure al' Ihe saluraled sleam, al Ihe boiler pressure
T lemperalure al' superheal desired or oblained.
_ (TI
M - kS
+ T, -
"T"'+
--
1). (41.62)
2 2
k = coefficienl al' heal transfer, in kcal/m'/h¡OC (S.T.U./sq.ft./h¡OF), which varies from

SO 10 65 (10 - 13) accorcling la lhe lemperalure and velocilY al' Ihe hol gases. Generally,
a vaJue al' 55 - 60 (1 - 12) may be used.
S = healillg surface al' Ihe superhealer, in m' (sq.fl.)
EliJl1inaling M belween eqns. (41.61) and (41.62), we have:
s (41.63)
Drynessfraelion. JI may be remarked Ihal the influence of dropJets of water entrained in

Ihe Sleam, p (1 - x)r afien conslitutes Ihe' greater parl of the heat to be supplied lo the sleam.
The dryness fraclion al' the Sleam for superheating is generally 0.96-0.98. In Ihe cane
sugar factorl', figures are somelimes quoled al' 18070 moislure in Sleam (x = 0.82). lt wiIl
be advisable lherefore lo measure Ihe dryness fraclion or lo make a generous allowance for
il.
Location of superheaters. In boilers wilh straighl inclined lubes, Ihe superheaters are plac-
ea in lhe gas circuil, arler Ihe rirsl pass across Ihe lllbes alld beCore ¡he second, above the
tubes. The gas lemp era l ure al t his point is l hen al' l he order al' 600 - 700°C (1,100 - 1,300° F).
[n boilers with vertical benl tubes and lwo drums, jt is afien placed before the lubes. li [hus
receives lhe hot gases, of temperature 800 - l,OOO°C (1,500 - 1,800° F); the gases t hen carry
lhe l'ull heat content apart from that radiated to the water walls al' Ihe furnac e.
Design of a superheater. We shall apply lhe preceding l'orlllulae to a concrete e.\ample.
Rated capacity al' boiler: 50 [/ h

Working press ure: 30 kg / cm' (427 p.s.i.) (t = 235°C (454°F))
Moisture in bagasse: 48070 (w = 0.48)
Sugar in bagasse: 2070 . (s = 0 .(2)
Excess air: 40070 (m = 1.4)
Feed-water temperature: 90°C (194°F)
Superheat temperature required: 400°C (752°F ) (T)
Dryness fraction of saturated sleam : 98070 (x = 0.98)
Gas temperature al the point where
superhealer will be [llaced: 900°C (1 ,650 ° F) (Td
Gas temperal ure leaving the boiler: 225 ° C ( 437°F) ( T,)
Coel'fi cient s al' heatl oss:
unburnt: a = 0.975
radjalion: {3 = 0.975
incomplete combustion: r¡ 0.97
11 is required to calculale the superh eater to be pla ced in this boiler.

Tolal heal lO be supplied per kg of sleam (Table 41.3)
Total heat in steam al 30 kg/cm' and 400°C: 77 1 kcaJlkg 1,388 BTU./lb.

Total heat in feed water: 90 162
Heat lo be sup[llied [ler kg 01' water: 681 1,226
Sensible heal losl in flue gases (eqn. 41.48)
q = [(1 - w) (1.4m - 0.13) + 0.5}1 =
[(0.52 x 1. 83) + 0.5} 225 = 327 kcal/kg (588 B.T .U ./lb)
Real available per kg of bagasse (eqn. 41.50)
M, = (4,250 - 1,200s - 4,850 w - q) a{3r¡ =
(4,250 - 24 - 2,328 - 327) 0.975 x 0.975 x 0.97 = 1,450 kcal/ kg (2,610 B.T.U./lb.)
SUPERHEAT AND SUPERHEATERS 963
Weighl al Sleal71 supplied per kg 01 bagasse burnl
1,450 = 2.13 k
68 1 g
Tola! weighl 01 bagasse 10 be burnl
B = 50,000 = 23,475 kg/h (52,580 lb .lh)

2.13
Weighl al gas. We ha ve (eqn. 41.30):
P, = 5.76 (1 - w)m + 1 5. 193 kg/ kg
Or total:
P = 5.193 x 23,475 = 121, 900 kg/ h (273,050 lb .l h)
Temperature al gases !eaving /he superheater . From eqn. (41.61), we ha ve:
T, = T, - ~ [(1 - x)r + e (T - 1») (41.64)

aPC
T, 900 - 50,000 [(0.02 x 428) + 0.567 (400 - 235)]

0.90 x 121,900 x 0 .32
T, = 900 - 145 = 755°C (l,385°F)
We have taken C from for mu la (41.46) and e from Table 41.13.

We m ay also, for e, apply the formula:
e = 0.468 + 0.000311 t (41.65)
e = specific hea t o f water vapo ur a t temperature t.
Ca!cu!ation al S. The heating surface·of the superheate r installed is thu s (eqn. 41.63):
s= 50,000 [0.02 x 42 8 + 0.615 (400 - 235)] = 196 m' (2,205 sq.fL)

900 + 755 400 + 235)
55 -
( 2 2
(cakulated on externa! dia. of tubes).

Area of sleam passage. The superheater should offer lo lhe sleam sufficient cross-sectional
area of passage la give a velocilY of steam, calculated at the mean temperature (T + 1)12,
of aboul 20 mIs (10 - 40 mIs) (30 - 130 ft./s).
In order to obtain this velocity, which it is desirable to realise, it is often necessary tO sub-
divide lhe superheater into a certain number of sections traversed by lhe Sleam in series.
Value of T,. If the temperature of the gases al entry to the superheater is nol known, it
may be measured, or an approximate value may be obrained by a calculalion analogous to
that for juice heaters (where lhe gases play lhe role of lhe heating Sleam in the healer, and
lhe waler in lhe boiler lhat of lhe juice), based on lhe fraclion of lhe healing surface of lhe
boiler already swepl by lhe gases befare reaching lhe posilion where rhe superhealer is to be
inslalled.
The value of T, should lie between 500 and 700°C (950 - 1300°F) for straight-tube boilers,
or between 800 and 1,OOO°C (1,500 - 1,800°F) for boilers with vertical bent lubes and water
walls; i.e. the posilion chosen for lhe superheater should be one where the temperature of
lhe combustion gases lies between those limits.
Empirical rule. If higher lemperalures of sllperheal are adopted for higher sleam preSSllres,
as is suggesled by lhe vallles indicated in Table 41.25 and which is a logical praclice, it is
salisfaclory, for slraight-Iube boilers, to dispense wilh lhe calculalions for the superheater
and lO apply the following empirical rule: the heating surface of lhe superheater should be
one-lhird of the boiler heating surface:
s
s
- (41.66)
3
s heating surface of lhe superhealer

S heating surface of lhe boiler.
Superheal lemperalure furnished by a superhealer
Problem. A superhealer is installed and it is desired 10 know whal lemperature it is capable

of giving to lhe Sleam in cerlain conditions of operalion.
We shall relain the nomenclature used previously. Here S IS glven, and the unknowns are
T, and T.
We eliminale M belween eqns. (41.61) and (41.62), replacing T, by ils value, eqn. (41.64),
and solve for T. We have:
kS (2 T, - 1) + p [el - r (1 - x)]
2
(2-.
2aPC
+ 1)
T= (41.67)
S
k + pe
2
(~_ +
2aPC
1)
which gives the temperature sought.
ECONOMISERS 965
De-superhealer. In order ro mainlain a uniform lemperarure of superhear, which does nol

vary abruplly according ro momenlary averloads in Ihe faclory, or due 10 unexpecled stops,
rhe Sleam leaving rhe superhealer is passed inlo a de-superhearer surface lraversing lhe lower
bailer drum, which evens oul Ihe lemperature due lO lhe fact fhat lhe temperature of lhe
water in the drum is praclically constan!. This procedure obviously does not alter the hear
balance of rhe unit.
This operation of de-superheating is often pracrised, not only at the superheater outler,
bur berween rhe primar)' and secondary superhealers, lhese lWO sections being distribured,
in series and in equal sections, across rhe widrh of lhe boiler. This arrangemenl avoids an
excessive drop in superheat.
Mainlenance of superhealers
011 accounl of lheir cOl11plicaled form, il is nOl possible lo clean lhe lubes of lhe superhealer.
Now, lhe droplels of waler enlrained \Vilh rhe \Vel Sleam are complelely evaporaled in lhe
superhealer. Ir is Iherdore in lhe superhealer lhal any dissolved malerials \Viii be ¡'ound
which mal' have been introduced inlo lhe boiler \Vith the feed water.
II is necessary lherefore lO take great ca re lhal no waler is alJowed to enter a boiler fitted
wirh a superhearer, which may conrain sugar or other material in solution.
If rhe superheater becomes fouled with a deposit of carbon or a sorl of tarry deposit of
burnt sugar due lO rhis cause, lhe cross-seclion of the tubes will be reduced, with consequenl
reslriction o)' sleam flow, while at the same time ilS heat lransfer coefficienl will be reduced.
There is then no alternative bUI lO replace the tubes, and ro take all precaulions 10 avoid
a recurrence of the incident.
ECONOMJSERS
In the sugar factory, rhe boiler feed waler is generally al a lemperature of aboul 90°C
(194°F). Now, Ihe saruration lemperature at which lhe waler should be fed into the boiler
to be transformed into steam varies, according to rhe pressure used, between 164°C at 6
kg/cm' (32rF/85 p.s.i.) and 236°C at 30 kg/cm' (45rF/440 p.s.i.). There is thus a large
margin of temperatUre to be made up in the boiler. This margin means that a substantial pro-
portion of the total heat has to be supplied to the waler before evaporalion proper com-
menees. Assuming the feed waler is at 90°C (194°F), Table 41.26 gives for three lypical cases,
lhe fl'aclion of Ihe 10lal heal represenlecl by Ihis sensible heat.
Now lhe combustion gases leave Ihe boiler al a temperature which is still relatively high,
and general/y aboye Ihe saluration temperatUre. This sensible heat content of the gases would
be losl in the stack. Hence the idea o[ ulilising their sensible heal contenr to raise the
temperatUre of the feed water, and so decrease the quanrity of heat to be supplied lo the
steam in the boiler.
This is rhe principie of lhe economiser. lt is a heal exchanger placed in lhe palh of rhe f1ue
gases leaving lhe boiler, and through which the feed water is circulaled belween the food
pump and the boiler. It generally lakes the form of tubes, in most cases with fins, through
which the water circulates in series (Fig. 41.18). They are arranged in groups, the water pass-
ing from one tUbe to the following by means of a 180 0 bend.
TABLE 41.26
FRACTION OF THE TOTAL HEAT REPRESENTED BY THE SENSIBLE HEAT TO BE SUPPLIED TO THE WATER
(lo = 90'C (194'F))
Steam press, Superheat Saluration Total heat Sensible heat Sensible hear
temp. 0/0 total heaf
(kg/cm') (p.s.i.g.) ('C) ('F) CC) ('F) (kcal( (B.T.U.! (kcal! (B.T.U.!
kg) lb.) kg) lb .)
6 85 Saturaled 164 327 569 1.026 76 136 13

10 142 Saluraled 183 362 574 1.033 96 172 17
25 356 375 707 225 437 670 1.206 141 254 21
30 427 400 752 235 455 681 1.226 154 277 23
45 640 450 842 256 493 704 1.299 176 317 25
Fig. 41.18. Finned tu be for economiser.
Two principal arrangements are adopted for economisers:
(á) General economiser. When a single economiser is installed for the whole boiler station,
it is placed in ¡he main flue (Fig. 41.19). A by-pass is sometimes provided for [he gases so
that they may pass through the economiser in normal operation or may go direct to the stack,
to permit of cIeaning the economiser.
(b) Individual economisers. It is now generaIly preferred to pro vide each boiler with ilS
separa te economiser. It is then placed in the last pass of the combustion gases leaving the
boiler (Figs. 41.15, 41.16 and 41.20).
Corrosion. To avoid corrosion 47 , the temperature of the metal shou Id not faIl below 125 oC
(257°F). If, instead of bagasse, a fuel containing sulphur is used, this limil should be increas-
ed (for example, to 143°C for a fuel containing 3"70 sulphur).
ECONOMISERS 967
í ~
1----
---
Water
. .
Gas
Fig. 41 . 19 . Group economiser installed in main nue .
Fig . 41. 20. Ba bcock Atlantique boile r type Bel with Ward furnace and economiser.
968 Sl'EAM PRODUCTION AND USAGE Ch.41
Calculalions for economiser

We ha ve Iwo main equalions:
M = CiPC (To - T) = pe (t - lo) (41.68)
T - lo = (To :- t) e - k (1 - ' ISlo p e (41.69)
M = quantilY of heal lransmilted by Ihe economiser, in kcal/h (B. T .U./h)

Ci = coefficienl .;;; 1, generally belween 0.92 and 0.96; frequently 0.95
P = weighl of gas passing Ihrough [he economiser, in kg/h (Ib ./ h)
C = specific heal of Ihe gases (eqn. 41.46)
T o = lemperat ure of gases entering the economiser, in oC (OF)
T lemperature of gases lea ving lhe economiser, in oC (OF)
p weight of waler to be heated, in kg/h (Ib./h)
e specific heat of lhe water = 1
lo temperalure of wa ter entering lhe economiser, in oC (OF)
1 temperature of waler leaving Ihe economiser, in oC (OF)
k heat Iransfer coefficient for th e economiser, in kcal / m 2 I h/ O C (B.T.U'/Sq.fI.lh/ O F),
generally belween 10 and 35 (2 -7), according to lhe degree of c j eanness of the exterior
of lhe tubes. Ihe veloc ity of Ihe wat er in the lubes and of the gases around lhe tubes,
and Ihe lemperalure of the gases. As a mean va lue, we may take 20 - 30 (4 - 6).
S = heating surface of lhe economiser, in m' (sq.ft.)
r ratio:
CiPC I - lo
r (41.70)
pe To - T
Equation (41.69) may again be wrilten:
CiPC To - I
S = ..,..--..,., ----:- . 1n =-- - (41.71 )
k (1 - r) T - lo
We may recall Ihal: In x = 2.3 log x

Eliminating CiPC belween eqns. (41 .6 8) and (41.71), we have a150:
(To - t) - (T - l o)
M = kS . ---::::---- - (41.72)
To - 1
In =-- -
T - lo
Firs( problem. Checking an existing installation. Delerminalion of lhe heal Ir8n sfer coeffi-
cient k.
Data: PC; pe; T o; T; lo; 1; S.
Unknown: k.
ECONOMlSERS 969
From eqn. (41.71), we have:
Cl PC To - I
k = In-- - (41.73)
S (1 - r) T - lo
Second problem. Design of an economiser. Determination of hea ting surface.

Dala : PC; pe; T o; lo and Ihe desired lemperalure l.
Unknowns: T; S.
From eqn. (41.68), \V e llave:
pe (1 - lo) I - lo
T = To To - (41.74)
Cl PC r
Hence S by eqn. (41.71), whe re we may la ke: k J5-25 kcal / m' / h¡OC (3-5 B.T.U .I
sq. fl./hPF).
Numerical example. 11 is required 10 add an economiser 10 a boiler work ing under Ihe sa me
condilions as Ihal in Ihe projec t for a superh eater on p. 962. The weighl of gases will be
calculaled in Ihe same way, and we proceed from Ihe value P found. We assume lh en Ihal
we ha ve:
Steam produc lion of th e boiJer: 50 t/h

Temperalure of gases leaving the boiler tubes: To =
Temperature of feed water: lo
Feed water temperalure required
(Iea ving economiser): / = 165°C 330 °F
Weigh l of co mbust ion gases (calculated p. 963) : P = 121,900 kg/h 273,050 Ib .lh
Calcula/ion oi T. We ha ve (eqn. 41.70):
Cl PC 0 .95 x 12J,900 x 0.285

r = = 0.66
pe 50,000
where C is calculated by eqn. (41.46); a nd:
T = 350 _ 165,- 90
0.66
Caleulalion oi S. We have Ihen (eqn. 41. 71):
0.95 x 121,900 x 0.285 x 2.3 lo 350 - 165 __

S g 918 m' (10,286 sq.ft.)
25 (l - 0.66) 236 - 90
970 STEAM PRODUCTlON AND USAGE eh.41
Variafion of (f fo) as function of S. Ir is of interest lO ascenain in whal proportion I

varies, Ihal is to say (t - (o), wh en S is varied.
If we adopt the fo llo wing conditions assumed as standa rd :
Moi st ure in bagasse: w = 048

Excess air: In = 1.4
Sleam consumption per ronn e cane: 45 0 kg/t.c. 1,000 Ib .l t. c.
Weight of bagass e per ronne cane: 252 kg/r.c. 560 Ib.l l.c.
Temperature of gases: T o = 320 0 e 608°F
Temperarure of waler in reed lank: lo = 90 0 e 194°F
and if we calculate Ihe healing surrn ce for Ih e eco nollliser correspondin g [O a crus hin g rale
or 100 t. c. h., we obtain the graph or Fi g. 41.21.
3 000
N
.s
.c
~
2000
o I
o
s =II\-t o ) /
ID
a. /
'"
u
.!'!
1000
.-/
5
(/)
--------- r- ---
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Te mp . ri SE!' (t - t o ' oC
Fig. 41.21. Tem perature rise of water as a function of economiser healing surface.
This i.\ obvio usly an exponenrial cu rve, and demonsrrares rhal ther e is no adva nl age in
seek in g 100 greal a ga in in lemperature; Ihis would require an enorll1 ous hea ling surrace,
whi ch would hardly be payable. Wilh 1,800 m' (20,000 sq.rl.), a lem peralure rise o r loooe
(J 80° F) is o btai ned; wilh ha lr this hearing surrace (900 m'; 10,000 sq.rr.) we ob la in 70 0 e or
70"10 of Ihi s lemperarure rise. Ir requires a pproximalel y 10 m' lO gain each or rhe firs l lOoe,
whereas il requires 35 m' ror a lemperarure rise o r l oe berwee n 90 and 100°C.
Safefy margin
On rhe orher ha nd , economisers are generall y made o r casr ir on, ro decrease Ihe corrosi ve
action of flue gases and as hes. Ir is necessary t hen ro avoid evapora tion or warer in rhe
eco nomiser, ror whi ch ir is nor designed . Ir is necessa ry Ihererore lO keep a sarely margin
between the re mperat.ure ( of rhe water lea vi ng rhe eco nomi se r and the boiling poinl cor-
resp onding 10 Ihe worki ng pressure or rhe boi ler.
Van Prilzelwilz 48 recomll1end s a Illargin or 40 0 e (72 °F), Eigc nl1uis 20 0 e (J6°F). Wc con-
sid er Ihat it is wi se nOI (O go belo\V JO oe (54°F).
ECONOMISERS 971
Certificate
1I is co nsid ered thal an economiser should be certified for a pressure 20"70 higher Ihan Ihal
of Ihe boiler". This margin is not imposed by la w; on the other hand, Ihe interior diameter
of the tubes is limited by law 10 a maximum 01' 10 cm (4 in.)
Ratio r
This is the ratio (t - to)/(To - T) bet ween the rise in temperature of the water and the drop
in tempe ralure of Ihe gases.
Ir varies belween 0.6 and 0.8; rhat is, the water lempera lure increases by 0.7° when the
gases drop by 1 0.
Maximum economy
Th e maximum economy which can be obtained with an economiser is represented by the frac-
tion of the total heat of the steam corresponding to the sensib le heat, such as is given for
example in Table 41.26 reduced by the heat quantity co rresponding 10 the safety margin
which mUsI be allowed.
TABLE 41.27
,
MAXIMUM ECQNQMY REALISABLE s,X'- EeONOMISER
Sarery margin 30°C (54°F) . Feed waler al 90°C (194°F)
Sleam pressure Superheal Salurarion T,,,ox TOlal heal Sensible heal Recov .
femp , erable
(kg l cm 1) (p. s .i.g) (OC) (0F) (OC) (0 F) (oC) (0F) (kcai! (R. TUI (kcal/ (B. T.U.! (%)
kg) lb) kg) lb.)
/0 142 Salurated 183 362 153 308 574 /033 65 1/8 11

25 356 375 707 225 437 /95 383 670 /205 1// 200 /7
30 427 400 750 235 454 205 400 68 1 1225 121 219 18
45 640 450 840 257 495 227 441 704 1263 148 266 21
It therefore depends on the steam pressure. With superheal as in Table 41.26 and keeping
a safety margin o f 12°C (54°F), it would be approxima tely as given in Table 41.27.
VeIocities
Economis ers are genera ll y designed for the following velocities:
(a) Waler: 0.5-1.0 mi s (1.5 -3 fl./s), preferably 0.5-0.6 mis (1.5-2 ft./s)
(b) Gases: 4 -7 mis (13 - 23 ft./s) , preferably 5 - 6 mi s (16 - 20 f1.ls).
These va lues are th ose which offer Ihe best comprom ise between Ihe optimum conditions
for heat transfer and permissible press ure dr ops.
Variation of heat transfer wHh gas velocily . The coefficient of heat transfer k of finned
lubes of cast iron varies with the interior diameter of the tube and the mean velocit y of the
gases (Fig. 41 .22).
The two principal types of economiser used in the sugar factory are:
(a) The "Coméconomiseur" (French) and "Air Industrie" with steel tubes 51 mm dia.
with cast ir on fins 122 x 122 mm, 5 -7 mm thick.
36
¿
34 ,/
./
32 I---~<:>
30
'/
~ 28
f
oC
~26
E
'::> 24
¿-J' 9
0(.'
e
ro
u
./7
~
22
~ 20 i
~ 18 \~e{
°u 16
¿c0o?
",'Y
L
"'e
~ 14 «<1> I
~ rvGO/ I
~ 12 I
~
I
10
/
I
8
I
6
;
4
,
2
o 2 J 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Gas vefocity (m/se~'>
Fig. 41.22. Varialion or heal IranSrer coerricienl Wilh nue gas \"clocil)'.
(b) The Green economiser, type ER 45, with rins in the shape 01' elongaled he.\agons; lllbes
are 01' 7 cm (2~ in.) inlerior dia., in slaggered arrangemenl; hearing surrace is 1.4 m' per m
(4.5 sq.rl./fl.) length 01' rinned lllbe. The bends are 01' slllalln cliamercr Ihan 01' lhe rllbes.
This economiser lakes up much more space bUI has a high coellicienl 01' heal Iransfer.
When an economiser has bends 01' smaller cliameler lhan lhe lubes, waler remains in rhe
lower portion 01' the tube when the economiser is emptied, and so causes rapid rusting. It
is thus preferable ro leave it full during the slack seaSO!1.
AIR - HEA TERS
In addition to the economiser, there is another Iype 01' equipment permitling 01' lhe partial
recovery of Ihe sensible heal of lhe combustion gases, whi'¡:h are still hOI as Ihey pass 10 lhe
chimney. Inslead 01' absorbing Ihis heat in boiler reed warer, it is absorbed by rhe air which
is to be used for combustion in the rurnace. The equipment is then called an "air-healer"
or a "pre-heater'J.
AIR -HEA TERS 973
Types of air-heater
There are three principal types of air-heater:
(a) Tubular air-heaters
(b) Plate type air-heaters (Fig. 41.23)
(e) Regenerative heaters.
The first lwo lypcs are ordinary heat exchangers. rhc difference belween them is simply
that the heat exchange surface consists in one case of tubes, and in the other case of plates
of sheet metaL
rhe third type is based on a different principie: flue gases and air are passed alternately
lhrough flues containing brick chequer-work. rhe brickwork is heated by the passage of the
gases, and gives up the heal Ihus storecl when lhe gases are replaced by aie. Aliernatively,
a suítable Illass t"or absorbing the heal mal' be made lO pass frolll lhe gas slream lO the air
streall1, and conversely.
These recuperative heaters have a rather low efficiency, but present Ihe advantage of nol
being subject to corrosion, and of not requiring any cleaning. rhey are not employed in sugar
factories to our knowledge.
The lerlll "pre-heater" is generally reserved for air-heaters of the first two types, with heat
transfer surfaces of melaL
Such healers cannot be used with flue gas lemperalures aboye about 500°C (930°F). At
higher telllperatures, lhe tubes or the plates, even if of cast iron, woulcl rapidly become unser-
viceable.
Tubular air-heaters are Illade with tubes of ordinary or chrome- copper steel, of 7 cm (2¡
in.) o.d. The gases pass through the tubes and the air around them.
The surface of the tubes or the plales is often increased by the use of fins. As there is
almost always corrosion at the cold end of the heater, tubular heaters have the advantage
that it is much easier to replace a tube Ihan a plate, since lhe plates are all welded together.
As lhe heat transfer coefficients are comparable, plate-type heaters have been almost entirely
replaced by tubular heaters.
As the fluids on both sides of the heat-exchange surface are gases, the heating surface is
Air
Fig. 41.23 .. Plate type air-heater.

974 STEAM PRODUCTION AND USAGE C h. 41
ca/culaled on Ihe mean diameler 01' the lubes in the case 01' tubular heaters, i.e. from the
mean 01' inlernal and external diameters.
Calculalions for air-healers

We have here exaclly the same equations as for economisers (4 J .68 - 41.72), wilere p, e, /
and /0 apply to lhe air instead 01' lo the waler.
Ratio r. In an air-heater:
(1) The weight 01' flue gases is greater than the weiglit 01' air (since Pg = P, + 1)
(2) The specific heat 01' the gases is higher Ihan that 01' the air (e > e).
It follows that, in spite 01' lhe coe rricient a, the ratio:
ape / - /0
r = = (41.75)
pe To - T
is generally greater than 1. It varies between 1.2 and 1.6, generallY' between 1.3 and 1.4. That
is, when the flue gases drop by 1°, the air rises in temperature by 1.3 or 1.4°.
We may comment that if:
/ - /0
r >
To - T
it folJows similarly that:
T - lo
>1
To - /
so thal the expression for S (eqn. 41.71) always has a plus sign o We may in fact write:
ape To - I ape T - lo
s= -;--;-;-----;- • 1n
k (1 - r)
=--
T - lo
.,-;- -:-:- . In =---
k (r - 1) To - I
(41.76)
since:
a b
In - In -
b a
It will be necessary to make the same changes 01' sign in eqns. (4 J. 72) and (41.73).
Value of a. For air-heaters 01' metal with effective circulation, a value 01' 0.92 - 0.95 may
be adopted for the coefficient a.
Value of k. The coefficient 01' heat transfer In the air-heater is 01' the same order 01'
magnitude as in an economiser.
AlR-HEATERS 975
Tro mp 50 gives: k 10 kcal/m'¡OC/h (2 B.T.U./sq. rt.¡OF/h).

Clal'ton 51 gives, as a function of gas velocitl':
Velocitl' of gases: 5 10 mis 16 33 n./s )

k: 9 16 kcallm'¡OC/h ( 1.84 3.28 B.T. U ./sq.nPF/h.
"Sciences and Technologl'''''' give the foIlowing values for the coefficient k, as function
of gas and air velocities:
Gas velocitl': 4 6 8 10 mis

13 20 26 33 ft/s
Air velocity: 6 8 10 12 mis
20 26 33 40 ft/s
Coefficient k: 8 10.5 11.5 12.5 kcal/m'¡OC/h
1.6 2.2 2.4 2.6 B. T. U .Isq. ftPF/h
Pressure drop gas side: 4 7 13 20 mm water
0.2 0.3 0.5 0.8 in. water
Pressure drop air side: 8 13 20 30 mm waler
0.3 0.5 0.8 1.2 in. water
In general we mal' use:
k = 15 -20 kcallm'¡OC/h (3 -4 B.T.U./sq.ft.¡OF/h), often a figure of 18 (3.7)
Velocities. The velocities generalll' used are as follows:

(a) Air: 3 - 8 mis (10 - 26 ft./s), in general 5 -7 mis (16 - 23 ft./s), calculated for the cold
airo A larger cross-section wiIl be taken for the hot air so as to give the same velocitl', or one
slightll' higher.
(b) Gases: 5-12 mis (16-40 ft./s), generaIll' 10-12 (33-40).
Design of air-heater. It is required to determine the heating surface of a metal air-heater

with sl'stematic circulation.
Data: pe; pe; T o; to and the desired temperature t.
Unknowns: T; S.
Numerica/ examp/e. We shall calculate the heating surface in the following case. An air-
heater is to be installed in a boiler working under the same conditions as that for the design
of the superheater and of the economiser, but not furnished with an economiser. The weight
of gases being calculated alwal's in the same wal', we commence the calculations here with
the value of B found (p. 963). We assume then that we have:
Sleam producl ion 01' lhe boiler: 50 [/h

Temperalure of gases leaving lhe boiler lubes: To = 350°C 662°P
Temperature of ambienl air: lo 30°C 86°P
Temperature of hot air required: I 200°C 392°P
Weight of combustion gases: P 121,900 kg/h 273,050 Ib./h
We require lO calculate lhe heal exchange surfáce.
So/ulion. We may assume thal lhe dala are lhose applying before inslallalion of the air
healer. It is logical to calculate the air heater on lhe assumplion lhat il will give a cerlain
improvement in operaling conditions:
(a) Reduclion of excess air from 40 lO 36"70: m = 1.36.
0
(b) Increase in temperalure of gases leaving lhe boiler from 350 to 360°C (662 - 680 P).
These two improvements reduce lhe weighl of bagasse to: B = 23,400 kg/h (52,400 Ib./h)
and the weight of gases lO: P = 118,700 kg/h (265,900 Ib./h).
Ca/cu/ation of p. The weight of air necessary, in the same way, is (eqn. 41.29):
P, = 5.76 (1 - w)m = 5.76 x 0.52 x 1.36 = 4,073 kg/kg (lb. lIb.) of bagasse
or a tOlal:
p 4,073 x 23,400 95,300 kg/h (213,425 Ib./h)
Ca/cu/ation of T. .We have:
0.93 x 118,700 x 0.287

r = 1.385
95,300 x 0.24
We ha ve calculated C by eqn. (41.46). Por e, the value varies only slightly with
tempera tu re, as will be seen readily from the columns for N, and O, in Table 41.13, and no
appreciable error will be involved, in calculations for the heater, if we take in all cases c =
0.24.
T = 360 _ 200 - 30
1.385
Ca/cu/ation of S. Taking the heat transfer coefficient as 18 kcallm'JOC/h (3.7 B.T.U.!

sq.ft.JOP/h) we have:.
s = 0.93 x 118,700 x 0.287 x 2.3 lo 237 - 30

1,176 m' (12,870 sq.ft.)
18 (1.385 - 1) g 360 - 200
AIR -HEA TERS 977
Variation of (t - (o) as a funclioD of S

We may now calculate, as for the economiser, the variation of the rise in temperature of the
air (t - (o) as function of the heating surface S employed.
Adopting the following conditions, which have been purposely chosen to correspond to
those adopted for the economiser:
Moisture in bagasse: w = 0.48

Excess air: m = 1.36 .
Steam consumption per ton cane: 450 kg 1,000 lb.
Temperature of flue gases leaving boiler tubes: T o = 330 0 e 626°F
Temperature of ambient ajr: fo = 30 0 e 86°F -
and plotting as ordinates the air-heater surface corresponding to a crushing rate of 100 I.c.h . ,
we obtain the graph of Fig. 41.24.
It exhibits exactly the same form as that found for the economiser, and prompts the same
comments.
~ 2000
i ;
E i ! 1
i I
,, I
'500
I
i ,i i I
o i,
I
I V
º~
o. i
I
1
i
,
i
I
¡ V 1
!
1000
~
~
u
i Is =,f(t-l O ) /
I /
,
L
,
'" 500 i
¡
I
/ i
Ii ,
I
/
V I iI
o
--+-t:
20 40 60
I
80
1
100
:¡
120 lOO '60 100 =
Te-mp. ri""", of air (t-t o ) oC
Fig. 41.24. TemperalUre rise of air as a funclion of air-heater surface . " ".,
Limit of temperature obtainable

Up to what point is it possible to pre-heat the combustion air?
Tromp" indicates 200 0 e (400°F) as a temperature obtained in practice. eJayton" sta tes
that pre-heating up to 250 0 e (482°F) may easily be obtained, but considers it wise not to ex-
ceed J80 0 e (356°F), otherwise damage wiJJ be caused to the grate bars and to refractories
in the furnace, on account of the increased temperature bf combustion.
However, speciaJ refractories are made for very high temperatures; but their cost would
appreciabJy reduce the advantage of the additional gain in temperature sought.
These remarks apply onJy to older types of furnace. With spreader-stoker furnaces and
water walls, the temperature is no Jonger the Jimiting factor. It is then the cost of the pre·
heater that must be balanced against the saving in bagas se realised; Fig. 41.24 shows that
each 10° of further gain in air temperature requires a greater and greater heating surface.
There will thus be, as for an economiser, an optimum rapidly reached as a function of the
respective magnitudes of the financial charges involved for the air-heater and the value of
the bagasse saved. The two corresponding graphs could be drawn and would establish the
point where they show the most attractive ,saving .
Increase in combustion temperature

What is the effect of the increase in the temperature of the combustion air on the temperature
of combustion?
Referring back to eqn. (41.44), we might consider that the combustion temperature would
increase by exactly the same amount as the increase in air temperature.
However, this formula contains an approximation which was justified when the tempera-
ture of the fuel was the same as that of the air and varied with il. This is not the case here,
so we shall repeat the calculation. We shall designate:
lo = the temperature of the bagasse and the ambient air
I the temperature of the heated air
To = the lemperature of combustion which would be obtained with the cold air
T = the lemperature of combustion obtained with the heated airo
Replacing T by T o in the second term, eqn. (41.41) gives the combuslion temperalure To
in the case of cold air.
Ir the air is heated, the supplementary terms 10 be added to the two sides of the equation
should themselves be equal. Hence:
S
,Pe Q Q
di
t, PC
T
di (41.77)
"
!'-' ,,- . .1
or, considefing the mean specific heat:
P o [eo J'lo (1 - lo) L: P (CJTT, (T - T o) (41.78)
l;Ience:
T - To P [eaJ'ID
Q
0.24P. 0.24 X 5.76 (1 - w)m
=
I - lo P[Cl T,
T 0.33Pg 0.33 [5.76 (1- w)m+ lJ + 0.33
or:
T - To
(41.79)
I - lo 1
1.375 +
4.19 (1 - w)m
Giving extreme values to w and to m, ir will be seen rhat the ratio:

AIR-HEATERS 979
T - To
e= I - lo
(41.80)
lies between:
0.S7 and 0.62
For mean vaJues: w 0.46-0.48; m = 1.4-I.S; we have:
e == 0.6
In other words, in a bagas se furnace, the in crease in the combuslion lempéralure due 10
pre-healing O/Ihe aír is 60% o/Ihe in crease in air lemperafure. , ( \
.' J \
.~ .:1-'
Corrosion
. Dew-point. Air-heaters are generaJly fabricated from steel. The dew-point of the combus-
lion gases lies in the region of 60-65°C (140- ISO°F), hence it may be supposed that the
danger of condensation on the walls of the heater, and consequently of corrosion, would be
ver)' Iimited, since the gases leave the air-heater at a temperature which is always greater than
100°C (2J2°F). In practice, points always exist where pockets of gas are formed, thé
temperature of which can then drop to the dew-point.
Recirculation. To avoid such risk of corrosion, it is arranged that the temperature of the
air itsel(does not fal! below 6SOC (lSO°F). This is obtained by using "recirculation" of part
of the hot airo
This consists simply of making a certain proportion of the hot air, leaving the heater,
describe a closed circuit: it is taken and returned to the air ¡nlet.
Calculalion o/ proporlion o/ air lO be recirculaled. Let x be the fraction of lhe air used
which is !O be recirculated (Fig. 41.2S). We have then:
1 fo + xl = (1 + x)ló (41.81)
..
(t) (lo)
(1)
L.L-'-L.L~ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Fig. 41.25. Proportion of air recircutated.
,/
whence:
I¿ - lo
x (41.82)
I - I¿
I¿ dew-point (approximately 65°C; 150°F)

lo = temperature of ambient air (generally 30°C; 86°F)
I = temperature of hot air leaving the heater, in oC (OF).
Or, in lhe general case:
65 - 30 35 150 - 86 = 64 )
x = ( I - 150 (41.83)
I - 65 ,1 - 65 I - 150,
It is seen that, for: I = 100°C (212°F), the quantity of air to be passed through the heater
wiIl be double that used for combustion.'
Consequences of recirculalion. When the hot air temperature I is sufficiently high, the
recirculation presents liUle difficulty: lhe efficiency of the heater is not appreciably modified,
since the increase in velocity partially compensates for the decrease in temperature difference
betwcen gas and airo Jt is the ,ross-section of air passage and air veIocity which must mainly
be taken into account with recircuIation.
Measures lo preven! corrosion. In spite of recirculation, premature corrosion of air-heaters

is often experienced, particularly at the gas exit. To avoid having to replace lhe whole heater
in this case, it Ii; preferable to fabricate it in two portions, the second comprising abolll one-
Ihird or one-quarter of Ihe whole; it is then sufficient lo replace lhis second sectiol1 when
il de'velops holes.
Lagging
It is necessary 10 insulale the hot air duct passing from the air-heater outlet 10 the furnace,
carefully otherwise a' large proportion of the heat recovered will be losl.
Maximal economy ... :' '

The maximal economy which an air-heater can give does not depend, as wiril an economiser,
on the steam pressure of lhe boilers, but only on the maximum temperature permissible for
the air (with oId furnaces) or on the optimum dimension of the heater (water-walled fur-
naces). Generally, the maximum improvement in efficiency is of the order of 12070.
H will be seen (ef. Table 41.27) that the maximum economy obtainable with a heal ex-
changer in lhe flue gases is greater:
(a) With an air heater, when the boilers are of low pressure
(b) With an economiser, when the boilers are of high pressure.
CHOICE BETWEEN ECONOMISER AND A1R-HEATER
The economy realised is determined by the temperature to which the flue gases can be reduc-
-CHOICE BETWEEN ECONOMISER AND AlR-HEATER 981
ed. Any comparison between the economiser and the air-heater should thus be made for
equal final lemperalures of the gases going lo the stack.
We may remark lhal, with good modern boilers, each of lhese lwo heat exchangers permits
rhe maximum economy practicable to be atlained, which corresponds to flue gases Jeaving
al about 200°C (400°F); a lemperature approaching 150°C (300°F) could be obrained if such
heat recovery could be financially or practically justified.
Consequently, lhe faclors which guide the choice to be made are the following:
A. 'Heating surface. (a) The heat lransfer coefficient should be much better in an
economiser (gas lo waler) than in an air-heater (gas lO gas). In practice, lhe difference is
smaJJ: approximately 25070 in favour of lhe economiser. .
(b) The mean difference in lemperalure belween ilealing fluid and healed fluid, whicll in-
, '
fIuences lhe 10garilhmic term in rhe formulae (41.71) and (41.76), is gene rally greater for lhe
air-heater, so reducing the healing surface required.
Taking lhese lwo factors into account; for equal lechnical economy, the heating surfaces
are approximately equivalent, that of the air heater being only 20 or 25070 greater lhan that
for the economiser.
B. Cosl. (a) The economiser operates under pressure, and is of casI iron. The air-heater
works at atmospheric pressure, hence is not subjecl lO pressure, and is of stee!. It should
therefore cost much less.
(b) However, it requires an additional fan, in the case where forced draughl is not already
used.
Finally, the purchase price is rather definitely in favour of the air-heater for equal heating
surface.
C. Maintenance and working Iife. Both types of equipment require little mainlenance.
Every two or three years, il is necessary ro dismantle lhe economiser to remove soot and par-
tieles of rust caught between the fins of the lubes; but, being made in thick cast iron, it lasls
much longer than the air-heater, which is made of thin sheet stee!. One may estimate approx-
imately 20 years Jife for an economiser and 10 years for an air-heater.
Furthermore, the furnace temperature being Jower with an economiser: (1) the grate bars
are kept cooler and thus will have a longer life; (2) as the fusion temperature of bagasse ash
is often rather low, there is les s risk of c1inker formation.
D. Associated advantages. The air-heater improves combustion and gene rally permits a
better regulation of excess airo This was its greatest advantage, bul it is much less marked
with modern boilers, where combustion is aIread y very efficient. Ir al so requires additional
ducts for air and fIue gases, as well as demanding refractories of better quality; these fac-
tors increase the cost of installation.
The economiser has in its favour the 10wer pressure drop in flue gas, as well as reduced
power for fans. The higher temperature of feed water favours stability of waler leve!.
Finally, while lhe cost of the air healer may be slighUy lower, the complete installation cost
remains much the same for both cases.
982 STEAM PRODUCTlON AND 'USAGE Ch. 41
Fuel OH. Mosl boilers are equipped wilh fuel-oil burners which are usel1 al lhe Slarl-Up
and in places where it is required to supply power for outside uses in [he slack seasoll. In
lhese cases, lhe air-healer has disadvan[ages:
(a) In operation with lhe gas and fuel oil logelher, it is necessary lO heal lhe combuslion
air to about 80°C before lhe air-healer, lO avoid,corrosion due to sulphuric acid produced
by combustion of lhe sulphur conrenl of the fuel oil. This pre-heating uses some Sleam.
(b) Hol air cannOl be used in the oil burners, since the primary ajr fan should supply a
pressure of 500 - 800 Pa al high raling, whereas lhe fud-oil fan should supply 2000 - 2500 Pa at
low output. These lWO pressures being incompatible means lhat lhe oil burners have to be
supplied wilh cold air.
(e) In operalion wilh oil only, the healer js nOl used and lhe efficiency is low.
Economic efficiency. In general, lhe objeclive is lO reduce lhe flue gas lemperarure lO
150-200°C al lhe base of the chimney. It is scarcely economic lO lake lhis any lower.
Conclusion. In the final counl, faulls and advanlages partially balance, but with some ad-
vantage in favour of lhe economiser. The choice will sometimes be guided by a malter of
delail, of convenience of installation or facility of insertion in a new unit. A horseshoe fur-
nace, requiring forced draught, will for example favour the air-heater.
However, from lhe fact of its performance and its life, and in the case of high-pressure
boilers (above 17.6 kg/cm'; 250 p.s.i.), lhe aulhor definilely prefers lhe economiser.
A neal solulion consisls of inslalling bOlh lypes of equipment in the path of lhe flue gases.
We may for'example place lhe economiser first, rollowed by the air-hea[er. This is the ar-
rangemenl which is theoretically most logical: it is of advall[age to stop [he heat exchange
in any heal exchanger when the temperature of lhe hol fluid approaches [00 c10se lO lhal
of lhe cold fluid, and rhen to transfer lo exchange of heal wilh a cooler fluid. However, by
placing lhe air-heater firsl in lhe gas circuit (Fig. 41.26), il may be possible lO dispense wilh
recirc ulalion; this is a great advantage and, for certain lypes of boiler, can be conducive to
a simpler inslallalion. , ,-
Such use of lhe lwo' heal exchangers presenls several advanlages:
(a) A large safely margin for lhe economiser, since only part of lhe possible temperalure
rise is' being sought.
(b) No risk of deterioration of refractories due lO lhe hjgh air temperature, for the same
reason.
(e) In the case of a breakdown of lhe firsl heal exchanger, lhere is a possibility lhal lhe
second exchanger will compensale for il lO a certain extenl, consequent on Ihe increase of
temperature in the gases enlering it.
Efficiency
When the efficiency of an economiser or air-healer is calculated, it is sometimes found lo
reachor exceed 1, inslead of Iying in rhe neighbourhood of the value expecled: a = 0.90.
This phenomenon is explained by rhe fact thar part of the unburnt solids and of lhe
hydrogen conlained in lhe gases conlinue to burn while passing through lhe air-heater. (There
would be no question of ca, which requires much higher temperatures.)
_ CHOICE BETWEEN ECONOMISER AND AIR-HEATER 983
kcol/t.e.
160.000 t::::;::"_oo::::::::::::::=~;:::-:Hc:.-=a-=t_i~n-,,glas~.~s~~~ ______________

I He-ot
fer d Heot left
rY1ng
e
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Dried bagosse mo¡stureo w
Fig. 41.25a. Bagasse drying. Heat avaiJabJe in flue gases and heal used for dryer as a function of final bagasse
moisture when drying 100"70 of lhe bagasse.
Fig. 41.25b. Bagasse dryer. 'i (

Fig. 41.26. Cail-SteinmulIer boi!er with horseshoe furnace, superh eater, air-healer and economiser.
DRYlNG OF BAGASSE
Apan from lhe eeonomiser and the air heater, there is a lhird means of improving eombus-
¡ion in the furnaees, that is to dry the bagasse leaving the milis befo re sending it to the boilers.
This procedure is mueh less used at present, but has every prospect of being employed more
and more in the future.
To consid ~i how drying can be realised, we assume typical or frequent conditions. Sup-
pose:
Fibre in cane: f = 0.15

Ambient air: t 30°C
Excess air to the furnaee: m 1.4
Bagasse at 50070 moisture per Le.: Bo = 300 kg
Moisture in bagasse leaving the mills: w = 0.5
Ash OJo in bagasse: e 2.5 OJo
Temperature of gas admitted to (he oUllel from the dryer: T = 120°C
Temperature of gases leaving the boiler tubes: To = 350°C
'DRYlNO OF BAOASSE 985
Bo and To are values before installation of the dryer. The temperature T o depends on
vari o us factors and in particular the moisture of the bagasse. Moisture content must thus be
taken into account and, taking a conserva ti ve figure, we assume: T o = (400 - 100w) oC.
Similar/y, the weight Bo of bagasse will obviously vary with moisture content to which it
is reduced starting from the 50070 assumed. For unit weight of bagasse of 50070 moisture, we
would have:
At 50070 moisture: 0.50 + 0.50 = héñce : 300 kg/t.c.

At 40070 moisture: 0.50 + 0.40 0.9 hence: 270 kg/t.c.
At 30070 moiSlure: 0.50 + 0.30 0.8 hence: 240 kg/ t.c.
At w moisture: 0.50 + w hence: 300 (0·.5 + w) kg/Lc.
11}
Water to be evaporated. To determine the quan.fIty X of water to be evaporated per kg
of bagasse to reduce it to any moisture con tentw)-slarting from a moisture of 0.5, this quan-
tity will be such that:
0.5 - X 0.5 - w
w = hence: x= kg/ kg of bagasse.
1 - X 1 - w
:.: ,.
Or:
- ;"
x= O for w 0.5
X= 0.167 for w = 0.4
X= 0.286 for w = 0.3
x= 0.375 for' w = 0.2
x= 0.444 for w = 0.1
X= 0.500 for w = O
Weight of gas. The weight of gas leaving the boiler has the value (formula 41.30 allowing
for ash content):
.' .
P = 5.76 (1 w) 1.4 + 1 = 9.06 - 8.06 w kg/kg of bagasse
hence the total weight of gases:
BP = 300 (0.5 + w) (9.06 - 8.06 w) = 1359 + 1509 w - 2418 w2 kg/ t.c.
Heat required. The bagasse must be heated to the final temperature at which it lea ves the
dryer. The specific heat of fibre has avalue: , "! " , ', ..
. , ,; .
, "
el = 0.266 + 0.00116t
Between 30 and 120°C, it varies between 0.301 to 0.405. Since this is a relatively insignificant
term, we assume a mean yalue at el = 0.36; lhe heat required lO heat the fibre is thus : 300
986 STEAM PRODUCTION ANO USAGE Ch. 41
. X 0.5 X0.36 (120 - 30) = 4,860 keal/t.e. We also require lo heal Ihe waler eonlained in
Ihe bagasse and evapora te iL The total heat of this vapour (table 41.1) at 120°C is 646. We
thus .have: .1 '
05 w 308 - 616w
(646 - 30) X = 616. . - = kg/ kg of fresh bagasse
1-w 1-w
or: : ¡ ,:
,.
300 308 - 616w 92,400 - 184,800w k II
ca Le.
1 - w I - w
The total heat ne eessa ry is thus:
<:
92,400 - 184,800w = 97,260 - 189,660w k JI
Ch . N =4, 860 + ca Le.
1-w 1-w
The hea¡ available (Ch.O) has the value , a ssuming an effieieney of 0.85 (ir lhe dryer is in-
sulated: otherwise 0.83):
BP (375 -120) 0.285 X 0.85 = 61.8 BP
or:
61.8 (1.359 + 1.509w - 2.418w') keal / Le.
or:
Ch. O = 83~,~_,~ 93.256w - 149.432w 2 keal/Le.
Hen ce the table of heat quantities neeessary (Ch.N) and disposable or available (Ch.O):
w w, Ch.N Ch.D Balance dispasable

(keal l l.e.) (kcal/I.c.) lar drying
(keal/r.e.)
0.5 1.25 4,860 93,156 93,156
0.4 0.16 35,660 97,379 61,719
0.3 0.09 57 ,660 98,514 40,854
0.2 0.04 74,160 96,660 22,500
0.1 0.01 86,993 91,817 - 4,824
O O 97,260 83,986 - 13,274 -
There is no advancage in drying ¡he bagasse below 10"10 moisture, as it would be liab le 10
increase 10 10OJo by abso rption of atmospherie humidily. The drying operalioll could, for ex-
DRYING OF BAGASSE- 987
ample, be taken to 15 or 20070, and the remaining available heat in the gases could be used
in another heat exchanger such as a small economiser. The operation could indeed well
commence with lhe economiser , lhe gases from which would go to lhe bagasse dryer. This
solution would indeed present the advantage that lhe economiser would show a very good
return (~dp_ 970).
The volume of the dryer is approximately 12 - 15 m' / t/ h of ,water to be evaporated.
The drying of bagasse is rather expensive, but it offers lhe g~eat advantage of being lhe
procedure which permilS the flue gases to be brought to the lowest temperature, and thus
giving lhe equipment lhe greatest recovery of heal from lhe flue gases. Whereas economisers
-and air heaters allow reduction of lhe gas temperature to 150 - 200°C, the bagasse dryer
allows cooling of lhe gasses to 90°C, the only limil being imposed by the necessity to avoid
cooling 10 lhe de w poinl of 60 -70°C. However, it is nbt~ecommended to attempt such cool-
ing, on account of the dimensions and costs of the-aiyer, which become excessive.
Another advantage of the dryer is that the bagasse introduced to the furnace is heated,
which facilitates combustion and rapid ignition. This is not taken into account in the calcula-
tions, bUI does contribute to improved combUSlion.
On lhe olher hand, dry bagasse is readily igniled and precautions should be taken in lhe
dryer and in lhe lransfer of bagasse lO lhe boilers. These consist especially in placing a steam
valve al the enlry to lhe dryer so as lO eXlinguish readily any fire which iTlay break out in
the dryer.
The velocity of gas in the dryer should not exceed 2.5 mis, to avoid entraining fine par-
tieles. It is generally kept between 2 and 2.5 mi s.
Thc main disadvantage of bagasse drying is its cost, which may atlain three times lhat of
economisers or air heaters. For this reason it is not often practised; bUl il is lhe solution
which should be considered when il is desired to conserve bagasse for slack-season use and
in particular for conversion lo pellels.
However, if the whole of lhe bagasse is dried, these velocities lead to dryers' of huge dimen-
sions, cumbersome and expensive. In t)iis case a compromise will be chosen where a dUSI
separalor is inlerposed before lhe chimney.
A logical solulion consisls of passing lhe gases firsl lO a heal exchanger, economiser or
air-heater, which forms parl of lhe boiler unil and reduces gas lemperatures to 280 - 300°C.
The gases are lhen senl lO Ihe dryer, which can be of rotaling-drum lype resembling lhe
"Roto-Louvre" lype of sugar dryer, furnished with vanes which movethe bagasse along the
lenglh of the rotating cylinder. On accounl of ils length, it can be divided in lo lwo sections,
lhe first taking the gas away from lhe boiler, the second returning it to the base of the
chimney.
It will obviously be desirable to pro vide a system of bagasse feeding and removal al entry
la lhe dryer and exit from il, which effeclively prevenls air and gas leakage, foJlowing, for
example, the principie indicaled in Fig. 41.9.
Comment: We have given the complete caIculation, for drying bagas se to zero moislure
contenl, since progress in lhe industry and in technique may one day render such lolal drying
desirable. However, for combustion of bagasse in lhe spreader-stoker furnaces used al pre-
senl, drying is generally nOl taken below 30% in lhe dried bagasse, since a drier fuel would
involve risk of higher combustion temperatures which could cause deposit of fused ash on
the boiler tubes .
On the other hand il would appear lhat drying by a combinalion of pneumatic conveying
and fluidised bed operation would reduce operating costs relalive to those of a drutll drier,
and lhat separalion of lhe dried bagasse into fine and coarse fractions would permit of handl-
ing and combustion better adapted lO lhe ditTerenl fractions. The dimension for separa tion
of lhe two fractions would correspond to a length of 1.5 - 2 mm.
r
BOILER SETTINGS
Bricks
Mo st factories use lhe standard European brick of 220 x 110 X 60 mm (9 X 4r X 2j in.).
Resislance lo lemperalure
It is now possible to oblain temperatures of 1,340°C (2,450 °F) in ordinary furnaces with cold
air, 1,450°C (2,650°F) in furnaces supplied with pre-heated air.
We should choose:
(a) In the former case, bricks of at leasl 20 - 25"10 of alumina
(b) In the lalter case, bricks of at leasl 30 - 35% alumina.
The prices of lhese two types of refractory are aboul 25 and 50% higher, respectively, at
lhe point of manufacture, than lhe price of ordinary bricks of 15 - 181110 of alumina.
However, when lhey are purchased at a greal distance from lhe sugar faclory, ¡his difference
in cosl price becomes less important, since expenses of handling, transport, and freight are
lhe same for al! types of brick, and consequenlly independent of the quality.
Expansion joinls G-.

In all brick walls of lhe furnace and lhe boilersetting,
. , . it is necessary to allow expansion joints
of 0.5 cm (3/16 in.) every 60 cm (2 ft.): They will not, however, be placed in the walls of
lhe horses hoe or a furnace of hearth type.
In the furnace arches, the bricks should be arranged in separate row s. The arch thus
becom~s a series of independenl small are hes in juxtaposition, of length equal to Ihal of one
arch brick. This has the advanlage of avoiding half-bricks. Thus, an expansion joinl of 0.5
cm (3/16 in.) can be arranged belween lhese small arches, every three are hes.
Bricklaying. In Europe, a bricklayer lays 700 firebricks in 8 hourSl2.n tropical counlries,

lhe figure sometimes falls to between 100 and 400.
Drying out new brickwork

When construclion of furnaces or nues is finished, they should be dried out very carefully,
by lighting a small fire, which will be increased progressively during al least lhree days.
Screen walls.
In modern boilers, lhe heavy brickwork side walls are replaced by "screen walls", in other
DRAUGHT 989
words, the walI is omitted, the outer rows of tubes are joined together by welded steel plates,
and the outer side is insulated. This simplifies the construction and effecls a substantial
economy.
Cross-section of f1ues
(A) Velocity 01 gases . A cross-section should be adopted for Oues such that the velocity
of the ~ is: .
(a) In the case of natural draught: 4-10 mis (13 - 33 ft./s); preferably 5 mis (15 fL/s)
(b) In the case of forced draught: 8 - 16 mis úf: -
50 ft./s); preferably 10- 12 mis (30 - 40
ft./s)
B Volume 01 gases. Equation (41.35) gives us:
vg 4.45 (1 - w)mé~ 0.572 w + 0.672 Nm'/kg of bagasse

(71.3 (1 - 1 <"' + 9.17w + 10.75 Ncu .fL/lb.)
w)m
With w 0.48 and m = 1.5:
vg = 4.42 Nm' / kg bagasse (70.8 Ncu.fL/lb.)
at N.T.P . Or at 250°C (480°F):
273 x 250
V 4.42 x 273 = 8.5 mJ / kg bagasse (135 cu. fL/lb. bagasse)
"
Say: 8 - 9 mJ / kg (130 - 140 w. ft./lb.) for mean values of w and m.
(e) Section 01 flues. In the general case of forced draught, and basing calculations on a
gas velocity of 11 mis (36 fL / s) and on a volume of 9 m J (140 cu. fL) of gases per kg (lb.)
of bagasse, lhe cr6ss-section of the flues should be:
9,000
s = 3,600 x 11 = 0.23 m'/ t bagasse/ h (2.42 sq.ft./t/h) (41.84)
.'! •
If it is desired 10 relate this cross-section, not to the weight of fu el burnt but lo the weight
of steam produced, it wi ll be necessary to multiply the value just found by the factor I in
Table 41.22. If for example we' adopt a factor of 2.17 , we would ha ve:
s = 0.50 m'l t steam/h (5.3 Sq.fL/t/h) (41.85)
DRAUGHT
In order to maintain the temperature and the rate of combustion, it is necessary lo pass the
required quanlity of air through rhe furnace and over the fuel bed. Since the palh of Ihe gases
is complex, with many resistances to overcome (passing through the fuel bed and belween
the boiler tubes, sudde n changes of direclion, elc.), and since il is necessary lO give Ihe gases
a rather high ve locity, as seen in the foregoing figures, maintaining this flow o f gas demands
a certain expenditure of energy which is normall y s upplied in lhe form of a molive pressure.
This actuating pressure mal' be obtained from two sources:
(a) From the th ermal energy produced by the combustion: this is natural draught
(b) From an ex ternal so urce, fan or sorne other means; this is forced draught.
We shall disregard natural draught, which is no longer found in the sugar factory and
which is discussed in Ihe firsl editioll of Ihis book (p. 730). Requiremenls of a chimney for
Ihe general case of mechanical draughl will be discussed.
Draught in the flues ~.
The draughl or suclion is the difference between Ihe oulside pressure and Ihe pressure in Ihe
interiorof the flue. It is expressed in mm or inches of water (1 in. of water ( = 1 in. w.g.) = 0.036
p.s.i.), and is easily measured in an existing installation, with the aid of a sma ll U-tube con-
taining water (Fig. 41.27).
Fig.41.27. Measure af draughL
The chimney
A. Velocity of gases leaving the chimney. The velocily v of gases leaving the chimney in-
vo lves a loss of energy. It is therefore undesirable to overdo il. With nalural draughl, it was
always necessary to have sufficient velocity to avoid disturbance to the operalion of lhe
chimney by the vertical component of the prevailing winds; for this purpose a value v, of
4.5-5 mis (15-16 ft./s) wasep,ployed. For mechanical draught, the exit velocit y, with
short chimneys, helps to disperse more effeclively lhe "ny ash", which is oflen a nui sance
-., .
to lhe factory and its neighbourhood . Generally a ve locilY of 12-16-J]1/s (40-50 ft. / s) IS
used.
B. Cross-section of the chimney. The choice of velocity of gases leaving the chimney in-
vol ves lhe delermination of its cross-section al lhe topo We know the oulpul of gas to be
allowed for:
B x Vgl
Q (41.86)
3,600
DRAUGHT 991
Q = volume of gases to be handled by (he chimney, in m1 /s (cu. ft .ls)

B weight of bagasse burnt in the furnaces served , in kg/h (lb .lh)
11" volume of combustion gases, given by eqn . (41.35), and con verted lO the temperature
and pressure ruling at the top of the chimney.
273 + t 459 + I )
v V X -,.......,-
273 ( V, x 459 + 32
" g
If the weight of s team produced is known moreGccurately than th at of bagasse burnt, the
term B in eqn. (41.86) ma y be replaced by plj:
p = weight of stea m produced by the boi!ers, in kg/ h (lb .lh)
f = fa ctor caJcula ted or given by Table 41.22.
The temperature of the gases at the top of the chimney may be taken equal to:
\~
t, ~ t, - a (te - 1) (41.87)
ts lemperature of (he gases at the top of the chimney

t, temperature of the gases at the base of the chimney
I a = ambient temperature
a = coe fficient having a value:
0.001 H (0.0003H) for brick or stone chimneys

0.002H (0.0006H) for c himneys of reinforced concrete
0.003H (0.0009H) for steel chimneys
H = hei ght of chimney, in m (f!.).
C. Height of the chimney. The height of the chimney is important only with natura l
draught (see first edition, p. 733). With mech anica l draught, it is determined mainly by the
necess ity of dispersing the ny ash suffi ciently far to avoid a nuisance to the fa c tory and places
nearby. Generally a height of 30-60 m (100-200 ft.) is adopted, or, better, 15-20 m
(50 - 65 ft.) aboye the ridge of the faclOry roofs ..
Mechanical draught systems

There are three principal systems of mechanicaJ draught:
A. Forced draught. The air may be fed under press ure below lhe grate with step grates,
or in lhe air distribution chamber of horseshoe or Wa rd furn aces o r spread er-stokers.
Thi s sys tem has the advantage of producing atmospheric pressure, or slig htJy aboy e, in the
combu stion cha mber, and consequentJy avoiding any entry of air by Jeakage , in spite of
cracks or lack o f lightness in the brickwork.
Forced draughl is used especiaJly in the cases where an air-heater is installed, as well as
in horseshoe and Wa rd furnaces, and with spreader-stokers.
/
B. Induced draught. This is the commonest system; the fan is placed aboye (he flues, bel-
ween the boiler and the chimney.
C. Ejector draught. This is another form of induced draught; the suction is produeed by
a steam nozzle discharging into the chimney and producing a Giffard effect on the gases, or
preferably by a fan placed outside the fIue circuito and producing the Giffard effeel, by
withdrawing part of the gases from the fIue and returning them by a nozzle diseharging into
a section of the chimney of reduced diameter.
Pressure or suction required. Calculation of pressure and suction along the gas path is
complex; it is a funclion of the rales of fIow, cross-sections, obslructions, ehanges of direc-
tion, lengths of various sections of passage, elc. The following figures. for example. give dala
for a straight-tube boiler with economiser and air-heater, with forced and induced draught:
(a) Porced draughl. The aim is to establish in the furnace 'V-
a pressure of: 30 mm I j in.
to this must be added pressure drops in:
air duct: 15 mm ! in.
ehanges of direetion: 30 mm 1~ in.
J .
across air heater (air side): 20 mm 4 In.
95 mm 3~ in.
(b) Induced draughl. At the top of the furnace there is required

a suction of: 3 mm 8I .In.
pressure drops are:
across the boiler tubes: 35 mm jli in.
across the economiser: 8 mm aJ ln.
I .
aeross air-heater (gas side): II .mm
, 2 In .
J .
flues: /9'mm ~ In.
\ "
66 mm 2'4 In.
For these two duties fans will be installed for safety with a 20070 margin, say lIS mm (4j
in.) for the foreed draught and 80 1'(1 m (3j in.) for indueed draught.
In South Afriea 14 it is reeommena~d that, to obtain flexible operation of the boiler, a fan
should be installed capable of furnishing, in continuous forced "' d¡¿eration, margins ap-
preciably greater than those indieated aboye:
(a) For foreed draught: an air output of 115% against a pressure of 132%
(b) For indueed draught: an air output of 120% against a pressure of 144%
of the normal values. Logieally, the draught should in faet vary as the square of the output
(1.32 = 1.15 2 ; 1.44 = 1.20 2 ).
FANS 993
FANS
Power requirements
If a fan has to supply a volume of gas VmJ/s (cu. ft./s) while maintaining a draught of d inches
of water, the power used will be:
T = Vd (T = 5.2 Vd) (41.88)

(
T = nett power lO be supplied.
The actual power required by the fan will ¡hen be:
T = v: kgm/s
~(~.\
(5.2 v: fLlb./s )
(~
Vd
- h.p. h.P.) (4189)
75 r;¡ lOOr;¡
r;¡= efficiency of the fan.

This efficiency is very low, and varies substa ntially with the power of the fan. We ma y
take:
Small fans 0.20 - 0.50, average: 0.30

Large fans 0.40 - 0.70, average: 0.50
lt must not be forgotten that the power T is only the power supplied to the shaft of the
fan. For the power supplied to the fan motor, it is necessary 10 allow for the efficiency of
the motor, and also that of the belt, where belt drive is used.
Influence of gas temperature. Jt will be noted that the power T indicated above depends
only on the volume Vof gases handled. Consequently, for a given output in term s of weight
of gas, more power is reqtiireó'when the gas is hot than when it is cold.
Practical formula for power. It is difficult to choose or to know a priori the efficiency of
the fan, which enters into eqn. (41.89). Furthermore, a small variation would be enough to
introduce a serious error, on account of the very low efficiencies under consideration.
Shillington" has published figures more particularly applicable to induced-draught fans
of the Prat type, from which [he following approximate formula for power may be derived:
T = Bd (273 '+ t) Bd (460 + t») (41.90)

8,400 (
600
T = power required at the fan shaft, in h.p.

B = quantity of bagasse consumed by the furnace or furnaces served by the fans, in ton-
nes/h
d draught at suction of fan, in mm (in.) of water (+ or -)
t = gas temperature at suction of the· fan, in oC (OF).
994 STEAM PRODUCnON AND USAGE Ch. 41
As previously, lhe weighl of bagasse 8 may be replaced by lhe weighl of sleam p produced
by lhe boiler, using lhe faclor f given by Table 41.22 for steam produced per unit of bagasse.
Example. We require the power necessary lO drive a general fan serving all lhe boilers in
a faclory crushing 100 I.C.h. and producing 280 kg (625 lb.) bagasse/ l.c. bul burning only
210 kg/t.c. (470 Ib ./l.c.)
Draughl required: d = 125 mm (5 in.) al suclion of fan.
Temperalure of gases enlering lh e fan: I = 225°C (440°F).
We have:
100 x 210
8 = 21 lih (100 x 470 47,000Ib. / h)
1,000
,--
and:
T = 21 X 125 (273 + 255) ( 21 x 5 (460 + 440)) 157 h.p.

8,400 600
which wi ll require a mOlor of al leasl 175 h.p.

Shillinglon recommends installing aran or ample capacilY, since, if lhere is need lO force
rhe boilers, rhe fan efficiency falls very rapidly when normal outpul is exceeded, whereas il
drops only slowly when OUlput is decreased below [hat corresponding [O lhe oplimum efri-
ciency. In olher words, a large fan, having a large margin of capacity, is preferable lO a
smaller one working al full capacily.
Regularion of draught. To save power and especially lO reduce wear of Ihe fan blades, il
is advi sable lo regulale lhe draughl by adju sling no[ lhe damper bul Ihe speed of Ihe motOr
or turbine driving rhe fan.
Abrasion. Induced-draughl fans are subjecr rO' marked wear due 10 lhe abrasion produced
by solid particles enlrained with the flue gasses: ' These fans generally run ar 700 - 800 r.p.m.
It is advisable lO use lhe lowest speed necessary, since [he wear is proponional [O rhe 2.5
power of lhe rorational speed. Replaceable fins may be atlached lO [he fan blades; lhese are
of very hard metal of high lensile strength and alloyed wilh lungslen carbide.
- ._ ,
,
Fly ash removal _. ' l .
The high draught used in modern installalions often leads lO a hlgh propon ion of unburn[
solid panicJes in lhe flue gases, which settle aboul lhe factory and ilS neighbourhood and
generaJly come under lhe conlrol of legal resrrictions.
Three types of equipmen[ are used for reduclion of fly ash comen! of lhe flue gases:
(a) Mechanical dusi removal. The equipment manufaclurers supply fly ash removers for
inSlalla¡ion in lhe flues, rhe aclion being based on changes of direc!ion or cenlrifugal force.
Such devices are generally effeclive, somerimes lO an efficiency aboye 96070, bur lhey involve
a subslanrial draughl loss (700 - 800 Pa or 3 in. w.g.).
BOlLER FEED WATER 995
(b) Electrostatic dust removers. This method consists of attracting the solid particJes by
passing them cIose to the surface of electrodes between which a potential difference has been
established. Power consumption is low, but the cost is high and the equipment rather
cumbersome, Very high efficiencies may be obtained,
(e) Removal by water. Generally it is considered satisfactory in the sugar factory to pass
the f1ue gases into a large chamber where their velocity is reduced and where they are sub-
jected to a water spray, The wetted particIes fall and are caught at the bottom in a stream
of water. The en¡ect may be accentuated byjnterposing baffles in the path of the gases, The
efficiency of separation may reach 95 OJo, the finer particIes which remain are carried well
away by the wind and the practical effect obtained is ver y superior to the theoretical efficien-
cy, This system substantially reduces the flue gas temperature, which partially compensates
for the excess power required by the fan,
Water requirements may be'reckoned as 3 - 4 kg of water per kg of steam, say 1,6 - 2 kg of
l' .
water per Nm 3 of gases, This water consumption may be reduced i f a slight Iy lower efficiency of
operation can be tolerated, ~}
Pneumatic conveying of bagasse. While it is not in tended lo discuss this matter, it may be
commented in passing that, to transport I kg of bagas se or bagacillo, approximately 2 kg
of air must be used, lf this bagasse is to be burnt at the delivery of the conveyor duct, it will
thus arrive with a weight of conveying air equal to approximately half the air necessary for
combustion,
BOILER FEED WATER
"
Returned condensa tes

The sugar factory has a large number of condensates available from the varibus heat ex~
changers: multiple effects, juice heaters, vacuum pans, etc,
These condensates are generally pure, since they have been boiled and condensed as distill-
ed water. It is necessary, however, to cIassify them according to their origin:
(a) Water derived from condensation ofthe steam coming directly (heat exchangers heated
by live steam) or indirectly (heat exchangers using exhaust steam) from the boilers,
(b) Condensates originating from vapour derived from the juice: condensate returned
from the second and subsequent vessels of the multiple effect, from juice heaters or other
heat exchangers heated by vapour bled from the multiple effects,
Condensates of the first type involve little risk of being contaminated, Since they originate
from steam under pressure, even' if a tube develops a leak in the first effect, for example,
it will be steam that will lea k into the juice, rather than the opposite, The greatest risk
originates in the juice heaters, where the possibility of a split tube may admit juice under
pressure into the steam space,
Condensa tes of the second type are moredangerous, They involve first the same risk of
direct contamination by juice, aggravated by the facr that the juice vapoursare most often
under vacuum and consequently more subject to entry of juice under pressure through leaks,
,/
However, the main risk is that these condensates may contain sugar originating from entrain-
ment in [he evaporators. Even if this is present only in imperceptible traces, these traces will
be returned to the boilers and will end up by accumulating on the boiler tubes a harmful and
dangerous carbonaceous deposit.
It is important then to separate the returned condensates carefully:
(a) From direct or exhaust steam
(b) From vapour derived from juice.
Utilisation of eondensates. Condensates of the first group only should be sent to ¡he feed-
water tank.
Those of the second group may be utilised for imbibition, washing of filter cakes, dilution
of molasses, etc. lf there is an excess of lhpn, il is preferable to discard the excess rather
than send it to the boilers.
Make-up water
The steam in the sugar factory describes a closed circuit: evaporated in the boilers, condensed
in calandrias, it returns to the boilers by way of the feed-water tank.
!t would therefore be possible to use the steam in this closed cycle, without addition of
water, if it were not for the following losses, which must be compensated:
(a) Steam lost to atmosphere:

Leakages at joints and stuffing-boxes
Operation of safery valves
Operatiori" of soot blowers
Engines exhausting to atmosphere: steam derrick, etc.
Steaming out of filter presses
Cleaning of mills and cush-cush plant with steam
Steam usedat centrifugals.
(b) Water lost to the drain:

Washing out of piping
Blowing down of boilers.
(e) Steam partially lost in the molasses:

Washing out of pans
Dilution of molasses.
The total of these losses of steam or condensa tes represents, according to circumstances,
from 10 to 20070 of the steam produced at the boilers.
In order to replace this quantity, it is necessary to return to the feed-water ¡ank either:
(a) Cold water, or
(b) Part of the coildensates of the second group aboye.
These condensa tes in effect originale from lhe juice, lhat is rhey enter into lhe factory with
the cane. They lhus consisl of waler from an oUlside source.
However, on account of lhe risks involved, lheir use is reduced lO a minimum, and lhey
BOILER FEED WATER 997
are taken from thepoint which presents lea st danger; that is the second vessel, the conden-
sates from which present the minimum risk of containing sugar due lO entrainment.
In order to keep the contribution of condensate fro m the second effect lO the minimum
strictly necessary, this condensate should be discharged into a tank alongside the feed-water
tank and arranged so as to deliver into the lalt er only by a float-operated val ve which opens
when the level in thefeed tank has dropped below a cerlain limil.
The additionof second-effect condensate should normally be sufficient to supply the
make-up necessa ry.
Sundry preca~ions. To guard agains.t.. entrainment of water in the steam, Fives

Cail- Babcock boilers are equipped with c'yclone separators in the steam wlti ch ensure the
produetion of steam of high dryness fraetion.
To alIow for variations in the steam load of the factory, the regulation of the leve! in the
feed water tank integrates the three factors: level of water in the supply tank, output of
steam, and output of water.
The boiler may be furnished with" salinometer indicating any abnormal salt cantent in
the boiler water; this figure should not exceed ¡ 800 - 2200 mg/ l, according to pressure.
The silica content of feed water should not exceed 75 p.p.m . for a pressure of 20 bar (290
p.s.i.g.), 40 p.p.m. for 35 bar, 30 p.p.m. for 45 bar or 20 p.p.m. for 50 bar.
De-aeralion. For boilers at high pressure (above 35 kg/cm'; 500 p.s.i.), the feed water
should be treated to remove dissolved gases, especialIy carbon dioxide and oxygen, which
would attack the tubes at the high temperatures involved.
For this purpose, the water is passed inlo a de-aerator where it is atomised in steam under
low pressure (0.3 kg/cm') or at a pressure rarely aboye atmospheric, where the injected steam
is raised to 1.4 kg/cm'. lt is then treated with a suitable reagent such as sodium su lphite ac-
tivated to work more rapidly, or hydrozine aluminium sulphate or other s uitable reagenls.
The de-gasser serves at the same time as storage for de-aerated water. The steam occupying
the free space in the tank prevents possible re-absorption of gases.
~
De-mineralisation. Unless the'available make-up water is exceptionalIy pure, high-pressure

boilers also require demineralisation of the feed water, i.e. salts of calcium, sodium,
magnesium, etc., must be removed. Thi s operation is carried out before the de-aerator in a
double ion-exchanger, one for cations, the other for anions. 1t may also be effected more
simply with sulphuric acid and soda.
0 ,, "
Capacity of feed-water tan k

To avoid the necessity.of supplemerÍting it with cold water, it is necessary to allow in the feed-
water tank a reserve capacity of water sufficient lO cope with the sud den demands of the boil-
ing house.
TrompS6 estimates that the fluctuations in instantaneous steam consumption in a sugar
factory amount to 25070 aboye and below the mean. These fluctuations gene rally do not last
fO( more than one hour and, if the peak represents ± 25070 oil normal consumption, the
mean increase or decrease in consumption during the hour in which it occurs represents only
/
998 STEAM PRODUCTION .AND USAGE Ch. 41
± 15070 of the average consumplion for the day or for lhe week. Assuming a high consump-
tion of 650 kg steam / I.c., we see then that the difference between maximum consumption
and minimum relurn of condensates represents approximately:
650 (1.15 - 0.85) '" .200 kg water/t.c.
However, the time elapsing between the Sleam leáving the boiler and the return of lhe cor-
responding condensa te to the feed tan k represents only j- - j- h.
It will be seen then that it will be amply sufficient to provide a feed tank of capacily equal
lO 100 kg/t.c.h. (225 Ib./t.c.h.), · in order lO cope with Ouctualions in steam consumplion
without having recourse lO an avoidable addition of cold water:
e = 100 A (22A) (41.91)
e capacity of the feed-water tank, in litres (Imp. gallons)"

A crushing rate of the factory, in t.c.h.
A factory of 100 t.c.h. should therefore have a feed lank of 10 m' (2,200 gallons) capacily.
We. may comment in passing lhat this reserve capacily does not depend on the steam
economy of the faclory: il should be as large for a factory using 450 kg (1,000 lb.) steam / t.c.
as for one using 650 kg/ t.c. (1,450 Ib./t.c.), since the variations in consumplion, due
predominanlly lO the pans, are lhe same in the two factories if they are expressed in weight
of steam per tonne of caneo
lt is of advanlage lO provide lhe feed lank wilh lwo fJoal-operaled val ves: lhe first conlroll-
ing the addition of water from the second vessel, the second the addition of cold water. JI
will then be necessary to allow a sufficienl margin between the different levels, say approx-
imately 1/ 3 of the height of the lank:
(a) Between the overOow level and the opening of the Ooat-operated valve controlling con-
densale from the second vessel
(b) Belween the opening of this condensate valve and the point of opening of the Ooat-
operated valve for cold water
(e) Belween the opening of the cold-waler valve and Ihe botlom of the tank.
Feed-water pumps
The law requircs Ihal Ihere should be at \cast two feed-water pumps. Generally lhe pump in
normal usage is lurbine driven and the stand-by pump is molor drrven.
At the delivery side of lhe pump, the stop valve should be suppleillenled by a non-rerurn
valve the purpose of which is to avoid the risk, when the pump is stopped, of lhe water runn-
ing back from the boiler lOwards lhe feed tank if the delivery valve does nOl c10se properly.
The feed pump should be capable of an output of at least 25% greater lhan lhe require-
ment in continuous [orced operalion of the boilers which it supplies, made up as follows:
10% [or emergency making up of water level

10% to allow for an exceptional load for one hour
5% to compensate for blowing down
BOILER FEED WATER 999
It should be albe to operate at a prcssurc at Icast 25"10 higher than the certified pressure
of the boilers; we shall calcula le this in detail. This pressure comprises :
(a) Certified pressure, for example: 30 kg / cm 2 425 p.s.i.
(b) An excess pressure lo free the safety valve and which
may be taken as about 3% of working pressure: kg / cm 2 15 p.s.i.
(e) Head losses in the piping, to be calculated as in
Chapo 45, for example: kg/cm 1 15 p.s.i.
(el) Gravity head ~orresponding to height of the boiler
aboye the purttp, say 10 -12 m (30 - 40 ft.): 1.2 kg / cm 2 15 p. s.i.
(e) fiad loss in the economiser to be calculat.e.d, say: I kg / cm 2 15 p .s.i.
(f) Head loss in the regulated val ve, of the order of: 2 kg / cm' 2~ p.s.i.
(g) A safety margin which is taken as about 5"10 of the
total preceding: 1.9 kg/cm' 30 p.s.i.
38.1 kg/cm' 540 p.s.i.

.,
'. ,
On account of the temperature (90 - 95 oC; 195 - 205°F) of the feed water, it is desirable
that the feed-water tank should be situated at least I - 2 m 3 - 6 fl. aboye the pump,
preferably 2.5 m (8 fl.) (see Chapo 44).
Feed-water pipes. The diameter of pipes should be choscn so as to obtain the following
velocities:
(a) Suction pipe, from [ank [o pump: I mis ( 3 ft./s)
(b) Delivery pipe, from pump to boiler: 3 mi s (10 fl.s).
However, a velocity of 4.5 mi s (15 ft. / s) is now used in modern high pressure boilers".
Influence of water temperature on fu el consumption

The last column of Table' '41.21 shows that an increase of 6°C (11 °F) in the feed-water
temperature corresponds approximately to a saving in fuel of 1%.
There is another advantage in maintaining the feed water at a high temperature: the water
dissolves correspondingly less oxygen when it is hotter. Thus the risk of corrosion is reduced.
Reaction of feed water

The corrosive properties of feed water depend on its pH. It is at a minimum, not for a pH
of 7, but for a slightly alkaline value.
A certain alkalinity is maintained in the feed water to prevent possible corrosion, and this
is done by introducing hydroxyl (OH) ions into the feed water.
When a pH of 9 is reached, a protective film of ferrous hydrate is formed on the metal.
On the basis of this fact, Brola" recommends that a pH of 9.5 be maintained.
An English recommendation" is pH 8.3 as the lower limit, and it is stated that it is mainly
in the economiser that corros ion is manifesl.
Leggett 60 , in India, recommends that a pH of 7.6 be maintained in the feed tank, which
corresponds to 8.6 - 9.0 in the boilers.
/
Gregory61, In Cuba, recommends a pH of 10.5 - 11.

The present author would recommend maintaining a pH of 8.5 in the feed lank. For lhe
waler in lhe boiler, lhe minimal pH, measured al 25°C, should be 11.0.
Alkalising agents. In order lo introduce hydroxyl ions into lhe feed lank, we may employ:
Causlic soda, NaOH
Sodium carbonale, Na,CO)
trisodium phosphate.
Neumann 6l , in Java, recommends trisodium phosphate, which offers certain advantages
over the others; but it is not suitable for high pH values, which would require excessive quan-
tities. The boiler water should have a ratio Na 2 P0 4 /NaOH > l.
STEAM ACCUMULATORS
The continual variations in momentary steam consumption, and the consequent fluctuations
in steam pressure, have led certain factories to install accumulators. These are vessels serving
to regulate the output of steam. Contrary lO lhe impression which the name would give, it
is not aClually steam which they store, but water; but it is indeed steam which they deliver.
Principie
A steam accumulator is a pressure vessel, a large cylindrical drum resembling a boiler drum,
filled witll water, and communicaling on one side with the boilers, on the olher side with the
low pressure or exhaust steam piping. The conneclions are made by means of val ves and
regulators localed in such a way as to permit circulalion of sleam only in Ihe sense which
we shall describe.
Let:
P = normal boiler pressure
P' = pressure slightly lower than P, to which ir is arranged ¡hat steam may drop in the
boilers
p normal pressure at which steam is used for manufacture; this is generally the exhausl
steam pressure
p' = pressure slightly higher lhan p
p" = pressure slightly lower than p.
The regulalors and valves are arranged so Ihat: '.,
(a) When the h.p. steam is at a pressure between P and P', lhe accumulator allows steam
lO enler from the boilers, but does not deliver any steam. lt lhus becomes charged.
(b) When lhe pressure falls below P', lhe conneclion wilh lhe boilers is closed.
(e) When lhe exhausl sleam pressure falls below p ", lhe accumulalor delivers sleam lo lhe
low-pressure line, and lhus discharges.
(d) When lhe pressure in lhe exhausl sysrem rises aboye p', rhe connecrion belween il and
lhe accumulalor is closed.
The two pressures p' and p "are eh osen relative lo p in such a way as la avoid lOO frequent
opening and closing of the valves and lo provide a margin of stable operalion.
STEAM ACCUMULATORS 1001
The principie of ¡he accumulalor is simple. It SI ores water al the temperature of saturated
steam corresponding to the boiler pressure. If the boilers produce superheated steam, it will
become salurated when it is forced into lhe water in the accumulator. In order to obtain an
effective and silent mixing of the steam with the water, the steam is introduced into the vessel
by conica! or beU-shaped nozz!es. When a drop in pressure occurs in the accumulator, a por-
tion of the water evaporales practically instantaneously: it is the sensible heat of the whole
mass of stored water which is transformed into latent heat and so furnishes the heat of
vaporisation 'rf the portion evaporated.
The accum~lator should obvious!y be very , carefully insu!ated.
\-
Calculations for a steam accumulator

Let:
P = normal boiler pressure
P' = pressure slightly lower than P to which the boiler pressure is allowed to drop
p = back pressure, or exhaust pressure (in the calculation, we shall assume for
simplification: p = p' = p-")
R' = latent heat of steam at pressure p'
r = latent heat of steam at pressure p
T'= temperature of saturated vapour at pressure P'
t = temperature of saturated vapour al pressure p
x any temperalure between T' and t
q the quantity of steam furnished by one kg (lb.) of water, when its temperature drops
from T' to t . .
Q the quantity of steam furnished by the accumulator, when its temperature drops
from T' to t
V = the volume of water contained by the accumulator
V' = gross total interior vo!ume of lhe accumulator.
When the accumulator delivers steam, and when the temperature of the water which it con-
tains drops from xto (x - dx), each pound of water will supply a quantity of steam dq such
that:
d q (607 - 0.7 x) 1.013 dx (dq [1,093 - 0.7 (x - 32)] - 1.013 dx)
whence:
- 1.013 . '1.013 . . )
dq = 607 _ 0.7x dx ( dq = - .1,115 _ 0.7x· dx
For a temperature drop from T' to t, each kg (lb.¡- of waler will give (metric units): .
q _ 1.013 r' dx 1~~~3 [In (607 - 0.7x]~,

) T' 607 - 0.7x
or: •. ,: '. ' !' i; ; (j. , ..

607 - 0.71 r
q 1.45 In = 3.33 log - (41.92)
607 - 0.7T' R'
However, during this time the accumulator has delivered º

kg(lb.) of water, and the total
quantity of Sleam which il can furnish al the moment it passes through lemperature x has
a value:
d º = V (1 - q) d q
whence:
º = V L, (1 - q) d q
or:
(41.93)
Numerica/ examp/e , In a faclory of lOO Lc.h" ¡he steam consumptio n of which is 500 kg
(1,120 lb,) per lonne cane, i¡ is desired 10 allow for periods of half an hour during which
sleam cons ump¡ion exceeds the mean consumplion by 20OJo = 100 kg/LC. (224 Ib .ll.c.).
We assume that the boilers are sufficienl lo supply the required Sleam for the remainder
of the time, wi thout fall in pressure ,
Olher conditions are as follows:
P' = 25 kg/cm 2 (350 p,s,i.)

P = 28 kg/cm 2 (400 p,s,i,) T' = 225°C (435°F)
R'= 439 kcallkg (791 B.T,U.llb,)
I kg /cm 2 (15 p,s,;,)

.. P
I 120° e (250° F)
r 526 kcal/kg (945 B.T,U .llb.)
So/ulion, The mean steam consumption amounts to:
100 x 500 = 50,000 kg/ h (112,000 Ib,/h)
and Ihe excess expecled during Ihe half-hour of peak demand to:
100 x 100 x } = 5,000 kg (11,200 lb,) .
The quantity of steam which each kg (lb,) of water slored in the accumulator can furnish
in d ropp ing from T ' to I will be:
STEAM-REDUCING VALVES 1003
526
q 3.33 lag 439 0.2615
We require then an accumulator Ihe contents of which, V, will be given by:
5,000 = V x 0.2615 ( 1 _ 0.2;15) 0.227 V
whence:
5,000
V 22,000 kg (50,000 lb.) water
0.227
At 225°C, the specific volume of water is 1.1991 I/ kg, hence:
v= 22,000 x 1.1991 = 26,380 I (960 cu. ft.)
The water contained by the accumulator represents only about 80070 of its tOlal volume,
on accounl of the necessilY of allowing a margin 10 avoid entrainment due to possible prim-
ing. The total volume of the ves se l will then be:
26,380
V' = 33,000 1 (1,200 cu.ft.)
0.8
say a cylinder of approximately 2 m (7 fL) in di amete r and 10.5 m (31 fL) in length designed
fOI a pressure of 28 kg/cm' (400 p. s. i.).
STEAM-REDUCING VALVES
In a wel1-balanced sugar factory, Ihe quantity of steam necessa ry for manufacture is much
grealer Ihan Ihal required for production of power. Since al1 the steam is gene rally produced
at high pressure, there is then normal1y a large excess of high-pressure steam to be passed
into the low-press ure sys tem.
This opel'ation is effected by means of pressure regulalors, which are actualed by Ihe low-
pressure-steam system: as soon as Ihe pressure, which is generally lhe exhaust or back
pressure, falls below a fixed value, the reg~lator opens and admits steam (Fig. 41.28).
These regulators generally consisl of a diaphragm, the underside of which is subjected lo
Ihe pressure to be regulated. The pressure exerted by the steam on rhis diaphragm is balanced
by an adjustable counterweight. When thi s counterweight overcomes the steam pressure, the
lever descends under the action of the weight and thus actuates a needle val ve. This admits
water under pressure to an aCluating piston, which controls the opening of the valve admil-
ling high-press ure steam.
Activaling air
Regulaled air
8Dminimum
Fig . 41. 28, Steam·pressure reducer.
In order that this valve shaJl wórk at a normal opening, it is essenlial thar it should be of
a diameter not only much smaJler than that of the downstream pipe for the expanded vapour
but also much smaller than that of the upstream high-pressure-steam line. Otherwise it would
operate in an almost closed posi¡ion, and would rapidly wear both Ihe valve and lile seal,
Reducing valves are manufactured by SEREG-Schlumberger in France, and Maisoneilan,
Fischer and Porter, and HoneyweJl in the U.s.A.
Temperature of the reduced steam

The final state of the reduced steam is given by the Mollier diagram (Fig. 41.5). The horizon-
tallines in this diagram correspond to changes withoul external work, at constant total heal,
and this is the case with pressure regulators of reducing val ve type.
If, for example, superheated steam at 25 kg/cm' (350 p.s.i.g.) and 370°C (700°F) is lO be
reduced to I kg/cm' (15 p.s.i.g.), the point is taken on the diagram corresponding 10 26
kg / cm' (364:7 p.s.i.a.) and 370°C (700°F), and the horizonlal line through this point will
be followed to the isobar 2 kg/cm' (29.7 p.s.i.a.). The isotherm lhrough this point is 355°C
(670°F), the temperature sought for the expanded vapour.
DE-SUPERHEATlNG
The high-pressure steam is superheated in all eleclrified factories possessing one or more
turbo-alternator sets.
We ha ve just seen that expansion through a valve reduces the steam lemperature only
slightly, since the isothermallines on the Mollier diagram are almost hOI·izonlal. The reduced
Sleam is therefore superhealed.
DE-SUPERHEATING 1005
Jf the quantity of make-up sleam necessary for manufacture is relati vely small, this
superheal will have no greal disad va nlage: it will serve mainly to reduce Ihe m oistu re contenl
of Ihe exhauSI steam, or to give it a slight superheat. We have already seen (p. 495) that this
superheal presenls no greal disadvanlage, a nd would even be advanlageous, pr ov ided il does
0
nOl exceed 10 - 30 e (50 - 90 °F).
Howeve r, Ihe make-up is generally much too greal for Ihe s uperheat to remain as low as
Ihis., and il Ü Ihus necessary 10'de-superheal Ihe reduced steam. H ence Ihe necess il Y, in this
case , 10 follow Ihe pressure regulator by a de-superhealer (Fig . 41.29).
~
->\t==~~_-t-lLJ.1[
"'----,,.. I
1
,
1 \ >--O-J.,-~,:_-'.__...
. ·t.-=-~,=-.~_,,-,_.'" \.---f---+l+- ---',1-
Orain
~~~ ____ D_e_su_p_e_rh_e_._tin_g_.w_a_,_~

_____
Regutated air Activ ating air
Fig. 41.29. Sleam desuperhealer.
Calculations for de-superheater

Suppose il is required 10 de-superhea( Ihe s team furnished by (he regulalor aboye, leaving
only sooe of superheat.
At the entry to Ihe de-superheater, t he s team at 1 kg/cm' and 355 °e cont ain s 760 kc aJ/kg
according 10 the diagram or the table (1 kg/cm' gauge = 2 kg/c m' abs.) .
Al Ihis pressure, the temperature of sat urated steam is approximately 120°C. lf we wish
10 leave 50°C of superheal, il will Ihen be necessary to reduce Ihe steam 10 170°C.
The diagram shows th at vapo ur al 2 kg/ cm' abs. and 170 0 e con lains 67 I kcallkg.
Per kg of vapour passing Ihrough Ihe de-superheater, it is th en necessary 10 remove:
760 - 671 = 89 kcal / kg (1 57 B.T.U ./lb.)
For Ihis purpose, we introduce into the de-superh ea ter water [rom the boiler, which is al
25 kg/c m' and 225°C, and possesses a latenl heat of vaporisat ion: r = 439 kcall kg. A s it
f1ashes inlo va pour al Ihe reduced pressure, it will absorb heat.
11 will be necessary Ihen lo introduce:
1006 STEAM PROOUCTION ANO USAGE C h.4 1
89
= 0.203 kg water
439
per kg of steam (0.203 Ib./lb.) to be de-superheated.

lf the quantity of vapour expanded per hour is 10,000 kg, rhis will requ ire:
10,000 x 0.2 = 2,000 kg wa ter/h
and we sha ll have 12,030 kg/ h steam whi ch is partially de-superheated.

The de-supe rheal ing water is finely alomised in the dt>-superh ea ler, the success ive opening
of lhe sev eral Rlomi sers in Ih e ballery being actualed by a long Ihermos lat elemenl immersed
in lhe ou ll el pipe carry in g the de-s uperheated steam.
TYP ES OF BOILER
Twenty years ago, there wou ld still be fo und , in older sugar factories, two old Iypes of steaOl
boiler:
(a) The "elephant" fire-tu be boiler (Fig. 41.30)
(b) The semi-tubular or multi-tubular boiler (Fig. 41.31).
These have no more Ih a n a historical interest.
Modern bo ilers are aJl of water-tu be type and are divided inlo IWO principal types:
(a) Boil ers with straighl lubes, set at a slig ht slope wi th head ers or co ll eclors (F ig. 41.26) .
(b) Boilers with benttubes, vertical or at high slope, fixed 10 Ihe boiler drums (Figs . 41 . 15
or 41.16); th ese boilers are sometimes fitted wil h waler-wall I'urnaces.
A. Slraighl-Iube boilers. These may have the tubes in square arrangement U.e. in horizon-
tal a nd ve rti cal rows) or in staggered formation , the latter arrangement giving a bener mixing
of Ih e combustion gases, better utili satio n of Ihe heatin g surface of the tubes, a nd less deposil
Fig. 41.30. "Elephanl" boiler wi lh fire-Iubes.

TYPES Of BOILER 1007
c:pI
-------_._._.----
Fig. 41.31. Semi-lubular boiler.
of soot on the front and back faces of the tubes. Replacement of tubes is easy, but requires
that space should be available in front of the boiler for a distance equal to the len·gth of the
tubes; Ihis is not always easy, on account of the bagasse conveyor and distributor.
B. Boilers with bent tubes. This type promOles more rapid circulation of the water, on ac-
counl of the steeper inclination of the tubes. Replacement of the tubes is more difficult; to
insen a tube of the back row, it will be necessary either that the pitch of the tubes is ap-
preciably greater Ihan twice their diameter, or that they should be arranged with a spacing
allernately wide and narrow.
Calculation of heating sur faces of the tube assemblies is made in the same way as indicated
for superheaters (cf. p. 961 l, the heal being transmitted being that necessary lO raise the sensi-
ble heal of [he water from the temperalure at the economiser outlet to the saturation
temperature, and to vaporise this water at that temperature to the dryness fraction required
for entry to the superheater.
The heat transfer coefficients of the two types of boiler do not differ greatly. They range
between 30 and 50 kcal/m 2 /hrC (6-10 B.T.U./sq.ft./h/oF).
Tubes
Boiler tubes are made in diameters of 2, 2L 21. 2t 3, 31. 3;' 3~ and 4 in., mainly of 2j and
3 in. Benl tubes are often made in diameters smaller than those for straight tubes. The
diameter has sorne importance, as it is possible to locate in the same general layout of boiler,
and in the same space, a greater heating surface wilh small tubes than with large tubes. Fives
Cail- Babcock, for example, make models BRl and BR3 with tubes of 2! in. exterior
diameler. However, if Ihey are specifying a boiler without economiser, they propose 2-in.
lubes. This permils of placing in the same available space a tube assembly with about 200/0
greater heating surface, which reduces the flue gas temperature by about 20°C and permits
of better results from the boiler without economiser.
Tubes are generally made of A37 ~teel.
Series of boiler sizes

The following e.xamp1e gives a series of boilers supplied by one organisation.
Fives Cail- Babcock boilers are normally made, for use with bagasse, up to 50 bar. There
are 4 types:
BCl with ilorseshoe furnace (Fig. 41.20)

BRl and BR2B with spreader-stokers and rocker-type grate (Fig. 4 1.15)
BR3 with spreader-stoker and trayelling grate (Fig. 41.32)
BR22 and 22D with spreader-stoker and rocking grale.
In the model number the first number, n, indicates the number of screen ¡ubes, seen from
the front; the second the number of boiler lubes proper, also yiewed from lile fro11l.
The lengths and widths refer 10 Ihe bailer ilself wilhoul economiser or ol her accessory
equipment. Heighls are measured from the f1 00r 01" lile boiler room. These boilers all have
lhe same longiludina l seclion . They cons ist of rows of tu bes side by side. Each row occupies
18.5 cm (7.28 in.), and it folJows lhat th e oye ra ll width L of lhe boiler is:
L = O.185n + 1.25 m (L = 7.2Rn + 50 in)
For lhe BC ! type, lhe capacily may be estimated as close to one lonne of steam per row:
Q = n
Q = eva poration capacity of lhe boiler, in t/h of steam

n = number of screen tubes as seen from lhe fron!.
Fig. 41.32 . Bo iler wilh sp reade r-sloke r and lnwel1ing gra le (Fi ves Cail - Babeoc!': lype BR).
CONSTRUCTION Of BOILERS 1009
,
For the BRI type Q = 1.25n, and lhe BR3B lype, abo ul 1. 36n.
Fo r the BR3 type, Q = 1.65 - 1.90n.
Tab le 41.28 gi ves an extracl from lhe manufacturer's table and includes nearly aH the
values of n, from 15 lO 73.
T AB LE 41.28
S PREAD ER-STOKE R BOILERS ( F¡ VES CAIL - BABCO CK)
Model Widlh (m) Sleam produclion (I / h)

BR ! BR2 BR3 BR22 BR22D
15/ 25 4.04 18
20/32 4.96 26
23/37 5.52 29
26/42 6.07 44
27/43 6.27 34
30/ 48 6 .8 1 50
31 / 50 7.00 39 48
33/ 53 7.37 50 55
36/ 54 7.92 89
34/ 55 7.55 42
36/ 58 7.92 55 60
39/ 62 8.48 60 66
40/60 8.67 98
43 / 68 9.22 65 71
44 / 66 9.40 108
46/ 73 9.77 70 81
49/73 10 .33 122
49/78 10.33 75 91
52/8 3 10.88 88
53/84 11.07 80 100
58/92 11.99 96
59/88 12. 18 13 7
64 / 101 13 . 10 107
7 1/ 112 14.40 120
Special 100 ;;' 160 ;;. 160
Len gl h (m) 7.00 7 .70 8.06 8.00 10.10

Hei ghl (m) 10.40 11.25 11. 80 12.40 14. 00
CONST RUCTION OF BOI LERS
Joinls in boiler drums

Trom p 6J rightly draws a llen tion lo ¡he compa ri so n 10 be made belween the long itudinal and
lra nsve rse Slresses in volved in the plales a nd joinls of boiler drums un der press ure.
(a) Circumferenlial joinls. Consider a vertica l sec tion of the drum (Fi g. 41 .3 3). The section
is subject to a bursting for ce of:
~ = 7rR'p
F, = bursting force, in kg (lb.)
1010 STEAM PRODUCTlON ANO USAGE Ch. 41
R = radius of cylinder, in cm (in.)

p = pressure inside lhe drum, in kg/ cm' (p.s.i.)
This force acts on an area Se of lhe metal concerned and Ihe slress in Ihe laller is:
f = 2F; = brR'-1! = Rp (41.94)

e Se 271" Re e
e = lhickness of lhe melal, in cm (in.)
Fig . 41.33. Circumferen lial jOi",s.
(b) Longitudinal joints. Imagine Ihe drum CUI by an axia l plan e (Fig. 41.34) The section
is Ihen subjecled lO a force:
F; = 2RLp
F; = force aClin g on a longiludinal seclion, in kg (lb.)

L = lenglh of lh e cylinde r, in mm (in.)
Th e longiludinal Slress is Ihen:
4RLp 2Rp
(41. 95)
2Le e
neglec ting lhe addit ional strength due to the lube plales (or Ihe ends), wll ich is negligibl e in
Ihe median portion of Ih e cy linder .
F,
F,
Fig. 4!.34. Longi[Lldin~! j oinlS .

CONSTRUCTl O N OF BOILERS 1011
Conclusion. W e see then th at the stress acting on the longitudinal j o int s is doub le th a t on
the transverse join ts:
1,I = 21, (41.96)
The boiler plates s ho uld thu s be calculated as a funct io n of 1;. In the pe riod w hen joints
we re riveted, this was the reason why longitudinal joinls had a doub le row o f ri ve ts w hereas
l he circumI erenti al joints had a single row.
Calculation of plate thíckness for steam drums

Following o n the preceding calculations, [he thickn ess of plate to be used for steam drums
may be ca lculated (French code AFNOR).
(1) Cylindrica l po rtion. We have:
pD
e = ----c'--- (41.97)
21z + p
e thickness of pI ate fo r cylind ricaI portion, in mm (in.)

p certifi ed pressure, in ba rs (p.s.i.g.)
D external di ametel' of drum, in mm (in.)
z coefficienl a ll ow in g for Ihe welding of the cylinder (0.7 or 0 .85)
1 limit applying a l temperature in vol ved , with safety factor of 1.5, in da N / mm '.
(2) Thickness of ends. lf the end is of basket-handle sha pe (Fig. 41 .35):
pDC
e= - - +c (41.98)
21
e = thickness o f pIate for ends of drum, in mm (in.)

p = pressure, in bars (p.s.i.g.)
C = shape coefficient = 0.25D/H (H = bulge of dished e nd)
e additive term for thi ckn ess , a ll owing for possible co rros ion
1 = limit applyin g at th e temperalure invo lved , in daN/mm'.
0,
o- ·+--t-
0,
r
Fig. 41.35 . Dished end of boíler d rum .

1012 STEAM PRODUCTION AND USAGE Ch.4[
MAlNTENAN CE OF BOILERS
S[ack season. The boi[ers oflen deleriorale as mllch dllring rhe slack se8 son as during r he
crushing season.
To avoid lhis it is necessar y, al lhe end of the season, lO emply lhe boi[ers carefuJJy, and
10 check Ihal no pockels of waler remain. The inlerior wi[[ be painted \V irh a rusl-prevenlive
painl (or given a coat of used oil), and lhe boilers wil[ be c10sed up ag8in on a very dry uay,
afler having inlrodllced a lra y of quicklime or calcium carbide, which \ViII absorb Ihe rem8in -
ing humidil Y.
Do nOI forgel 10 remove lhe lray before lhe nexl crushing season!
Inspeclion. Check wherher Ihe lubes \:OflntCling headers and drlllllS (slrnigl¡¡-rllbe b0i lers)
or lhe ordinary lubes (benl-tube boilers) are pilled. If pils are found, and il' Ihey are deep,
lhe tubes shou[d be repIaced.
These pilS are due 10 allack of Ihe mel a l by disso[ved oxygen, and are particularly 10 be
feared wilh acid water. Hence, in lhis case, check Ihe pH of Ihe waler.
Check whelher Ihe refractory barnes separaling lhe gas pass es are in good condilion. A
shorl circuil in Ihe palh of Ihe hol gases can diminish the efficiency very markedJy.
8001 blowers. Before using lhe sool blowers il should be checked Ihal Ihe piping 10 Ihe
bIowers has been we[1 drained. Olherwise, Ihe waler b[own among Ihe lubes \Vil[ pro voke
rapid oxidar ion in a[1 parls which il reaches.
Cosl. The cosl of boilers increases approximale[y proportional lO lhe square rOOl of
capacil Y in I/ h of sleam.
STEAM BALANCE
There is frequent[y need lO esrablish Ihe Sleam balance of lhe factory. We shall proceed 10
eSlab[ish one but, since, if we soug hl 10 work out general formulae, we should end up \Vilh
very long and complicated equalions, we propose ro take a concrete case and reduce all
-figures 10 a crushíng rate of [ tonne per hour. It wi[1 be easy ro repeat the calculalion in any
praclical case whatever which may arise, by rep lacing Ihe values adopted by lhe appropriaLe
figures, and calculating Ihe quanlilies of Sleam for Ihe hourly rale co ncerned.
Calculalion of steam balance
We shall assume lhe following conditions:
Cru shing rale af Ihe facI6ry 100 I.c .h.

STEAM BALANCE 1013
(a) Sleam production

Fibre in calle: 14%
Weighl of bagasse: 285 kg/l.c. (640 Ib.!!.c.)
Moisture in bagasse: 48%
Poi in bagasse: 2%
Excess air in nue gases: 40'10
Tem perature of gases al entry lo lhe chimney: 200"C (400"F)
Boiler pressure: 28 kg/cm' g (400 p.s.i .g.)
Temperature oC (he superh eated live steam: 380"C (7oo"F)
Temperature of water in feed rank; 90"C (I94"F)
CoeffieienlS characlerising Ihe efficiency of the combustion (ef p. 937): a = 0.97
{3 = 0.97
~ = 0.97
FaClory complelely electrified.
(b) Sleam consumplion

Quadruple crreer cvaporalion
Weight of mixed juice per IOnne oC cane: 1, 000 kg (2,240 lb.)
Brix of clarified juice: 13
Brix of syrup: 65
Temperature of primary juice arter mi xing: 122'F
Temperature of secondary juice arter mixing: 122'F
Vapour bled from Ihird effeel: p) = 52 kg/ l.c. (115 Ib.!l.c.)
Vapour bled from second cfrcee P, = 44 kg/ l.c. (100 Ib.!l.c.)
Vapour bled from first crrcet: P, = · 28 kg/ Lc. ( 63 Ib./l.c.)
Tcmperature of primary and seco ndary ju ices al (h e autle t from vapour
heating: 95"C (200"F)
Temperature of heating of primary and seconda ry ju ices by exhaust steam: 103"C (218"F)
Baek-pressure: I kg/ cm' g (15 p.s.i.g.)
Vacuum: 65 cm (26 in.)
Input. The N.C.V. of the bagasse wi ll be (eqn. 41.25):
N.C.V. = 4,250 - (4,850 X 0.48) - (1,200 X 0.02) = 1,900 kcallkg (3,416 B.T.U ./ lb.)
The loss of sensible heat In the fIue gases will be (eqn. 41.48):
q = [(1 - 0.48) (1.4 x 1.4 - 0.13) + 0.5] (200) = 290 kcal/kg (534 B.T.U./lb.)
The quantity of heat recovered in the steam will he (eqn. 41.50):
M ., = (1,900 - 290) 0.97 x 0.97 x 0.97 = 1,470 kcal/kg (2,630 B.T.U./lb.)
We may comment in passing tha!:.
M, 1,470
= -- = 77%
N.C.V. 1.900
Under favourable condi lions, a figure of 80"70 and even 82"70 may be attained 64
Now, evaporation of 1 kg of steam will require, at 29 kg/cm' abs. and 38°C (Tables 41.3
and 41.1):
1014 STEAM PRODUCTlON AND USAGE C h. 41
761 - 90 = 671 kcaJ/kg (1,199 B.T.U. /lb.)
and 1 kg of baga sse will thus give :
1,470
2.19 kg stea m at 78 kg /cm' and 380°C
671
and a tonne of cane ca n suppl y, if necessary:
285 x 2.19 = 624 kg (1,402 lb.) live Slea m
Üulpul. We shall first calculate the stea m consumption of rhe prime movers, and then the
stea m consumed in manufacture.
Prime movers. Pow er requirement s for lh e various sec li ons o f the factory are eSlimaled
as follows:
(a) Cane handling. this includ es power for unJoading cane from lhe deJivery lrucks,
transfer to cane carríer by cranes, lat eral tables, etc. P ower requirements ca n be very
va riable , for in sta nce , negligible in Australia, but high in cou ntries where the field s are stony
and where cane is stacked in apile loaded by va rious devices on to the carrier. Power required
may vary from 0.1 lO 1.5 kW/t .c .h. Say 0.5:
Eleelrie Turbine
mOlOr drive
drive
(kW) (kW)
(a) Cane handlin g: 0.50

(b) Cane carrier: 0.15
(e) 1st knife- set: va ries from 3 ro 15, say averag ing
6 kW/t.f.h.: 0.85
(d) 2nd knife-se t: varies from 10 to 70, say averaging
15 kW/Lf.h.: 2.10
(e) 3rd knife- set : now seldom used:
(j) Shredder: varies from 10 ro 50 kW/t.f.h., say 20 kW/Lf.h.: 2.80
(g) Mili s: varies from 10 to 20 kW/I.f.h. and per mili . say
15 kW/ t.f.h., assuming 5 milis, lurbine driv en: 10.50
(h) Olher machines in the factory drive n by el ec tri c molors:
10-20 kW/l.c.h., say 15 : 15.00
- --
18.60 13 .30
We assume lhe slea m consumplioll of [he doubJe-wheeled [UI'bines for shredcJer and mili
drive lO be 13.5 kg / kWh (30 Ib. /k Wh) and [h a l of [he [ur bo-allern ator al Ihe Po\\'er Slalion
STEAM BALANCE 1015
to be II kg/kWh (24.2 Ib./kWh). Allowing for rhe efficiency of the lurbo-alternators, lhe
power cOl1sumption for lhe electric motor drives listed aboye becomes:
1860
= 22.50 kW / t. c .; at II kg/ kWh sleam consumptioll
0.85 x 0.97
Steam requirement is: 247.5 kg / t.c.

For turbines fed directly: 13.30 x 13.5 179.5 kg / t.c.
427 kg / t.c .
Thi s steam is recovered as exhaust, and allowing for losses in turbines and piping, of about
5070, we have:
427 x 0.95 = 406 kg/ t.c.h. in exhaust steam
Manufacture. (a) Vapour bleeding. We assume lhat the vapour bleeding at lhe quadruple
effect for juice heating (ef. p. 589), al110unrs to 60,35 and 32 kg / t.c.h. for p" P, and P"
respectively.
(b) We assume that the juice after heating by first effect vapour is heated to l12°e (218°F)
by exhausr steam and that the steam is at 1 kg/cm' = 120 0 e (223°F). The heating before
evaporation thus requires:
1,000 x 0.9 (112 - 103)

16 kg of exhaust steal11 (36 lb) per I.c.h.
525 x 0 .95
The quantity of water to be evaporated frol11 the juice al110unts to:
E = 1,000 (1 - ~~) = 800 kg/ t.c.
(e) Vacullm Pans. Asslll11ing tbat tbe A pans are discontinu o us , and B and e are con-
tinuous pans, the steal11 consul11ption for the pans will be (ef. p. 666),
A m.C.: 140 x 1.47 x 0.275 x 1.5 = 85 kg / t. c. h.

B m.c.: 60 x 1.47 x 0.300 x 1.2 = 32 kg/t.c.h. 142 kg/ t.c.h.
e m.e.: 40 x 1.47 x 0.360 x 1.2 = 25 kg/t.c.h.
whi eh we suppose shared in Ihe ratio of: 98 kg of va pour frol11 1st vessel, 44 from exhaust
steam.
We [hus ha ve the to ta l vapour bleeding:
3 rd vessel: 60
2nd vessel: 35
1st vesset: 32 + 98 130
The dislribulion of evaporation belween Ihe vessels will be, designaring by X ¡ha[ from lhe
las[:
X 800 - 380 No. 4 105

X + 60
hence: X =
4
= N o. 3 165
X+ 60 + 35 105 kg/h, and evapora[ions NO.2 = 200
X+ 60 + 35 + 130 from Ihe 4 vessels: No. 1 = 330
4X + 180 + 70 + 130 = 800 800
The sleam consumption in [he manufaclure is Ihus:
Healing before evaporators: 16

Evaporal ion: 330 390 kg/h (874 Ib/h)
Pan s: 44
To Ihis Ihere should be added sleam required for cleaning, sleaming-out pans, soot blowing,
and loss in leakages, condensalion or in blow-off al sa felY va l ves, elc. Thi s ma)' be esrimated
at 60 kg/h, giving a lo[al of 390 + 60 = 450 kg/h. We already have 406 kg/ h from lhe rur-
bines , leaving a furrher qllantity of 44 kg/h required. The quantily of liv e Sleam required
willlhus be 427 + 44 = 471 kg/h (1,059 Ib ./ h.). Th e raClory would Ihus hav e an excess of
bagasse of:
624 - 471
= 24.5070
624
We shall see that il is possible 10 do much be[ter.
MAXIMUM ECONOMY - POWER FOR EXTERNAL USES
The- financial conditions in which sugar faclories operale are somelimes difficult. To ensure
s[ab il ity, [h e sugar factory should seek lO cap ilalise on prodllCI S olher Ihan sugar and
molasses. Now il has one product which j[ ulili ses ver y illcolllplelely: Ihe baga sse. Bagasse
can serve as raw malerial for fibre board or papel' pulp. Unforlunalely, Ihe economic condi-
lions for such manufacture are oflen unfa vourable. On the othe! hand , one use for excess
bagasse is generally profilable, parlicularly since Ihe crisis in perroleum supplies; Ihal is, il.,
conversion 10 eleclric energy for sale lo Ihe public nelwork.
There are also faclo ri es which grow Iheir OIVIl cane ill dr y, Iropical areas and which have
high neecl for irrigalioll ror Ihe calle in addilioll 10 Ihe requiremcllls 01' Ihe l'aclOrl'. They mav
find il profilable 10 pr.oduce Iheir OWIl power for pumping, ralher Ihan purchasing pOIVer.
To consider a definile cas e, we assume sale ro Ihe public nelwork. This solution assumes
. agreemelll and cooperalion wilh Ihe public power suppl y aUlhori ly. To be Irul)' profirable,
il req uires on Ihe par! of Ihe faclory: (a) ma ximal economy 01' bagasse; (b) insrallalion 01'
MAXIMUM ECONOMY - POWER FOR EXTERNAL USES 1017
a power plant for steam generation from the excess bagasse and production of electricity (this
should be of substantial size and high efficiency). This equipment eould be eommon to the
requirements of both the sugar faetory and the external supply; (e) doverailing of rhis power
plant with thal of lhe faelory, in such a way that the requiremenrs of rhe two systems do
not interfere wilh eaeh other, and so tilal bOlh obrain the maximum benefit of Ihe porenrial
of rhe syslem.
If the necessary finaneial arrangements are satisfaeror y, the general solution is straighlfor-
ward. For Ihe best eonditions, we assume the case of a new factor y. For an existing factory
il will nOI be diffieull lO approaeh rhe solution whieh will be proposed for a new faerory.
The maximal eeonomy in bagasse will be obtained by lhe following means:
(a) Adoplion of a very high pressure al the boilers: 45, 50, 55 or 60 atm; a value of 50 - 55
is generally su ffieient.
(b) Adoption of a maximal exhausl-steam temperature, that is, just below the safel Y limit
for the juiee (eJ. p. 506). We seleet 130°C (266°F), or 1.75 kg/em' (25 p.s.i.g.) so as to ensure
that the juiee does not exeeed 127 -128°C (261 - 262°F).
(e) Thi's temperalure suggesls the use of downward (falling-film) circulation for the first
evaporaror vessel, so that the juiee passes the zone very rapidly at this temperature.
(d) We make the maximum possible use of vapour bleeding, from the lowest possibJe
vessels of the sel, in order lo profil by rhe resulting eeonomies.
(e) We employ eonrinuous vaeuum pans, incJuding lh ose for lhe A m.e., since eontinuous
pans aeeepl the lowest pressure of heating vapours (p. 716) and consume less vapour if live
Sleam agilalion is not used. These eontinuous pans eontribute ro regul ar steam demand at
the boiling house, and this regularit y becomes highl y desirable with power supply 10 oUlside
uses (Fig. 41.36).
70B 6B2
1S
C 8
Fig . 41.36. Maximum economy. Diagram.

(j) We provide for a pass-out turbine at the exhaust-steam pressure, in arder to allo\V max-
imum flexibility fOI production of process steam for the factory and power for the supply
network. The use of a back-pressure turbine is nOI desirable in lhis case, lhough il involves
les s investment expenditure; an existing factory could relain its back-pressure tllrbines for use
in case of breakdowns. For a new factory in fact, it may be advisable to ha ve rwo groups
01' turbo-alternators to avoid trouble in case 01' an 'accidenl lO one 01' lhe groups in service.
We consider as an example the following case.
Maximum economy for sale of electric power

Factory 01' 250 t.c.h.
Fibre in cane = 0.15
Weighl 01' bagasse = 300 kg/t.c. (672 lb./t.c.) al 48070 moistllre and 1.8070 sugar
Boiler of 180 t/h 01' steam at 55 atm with economiser and air hearer
Superheat to 440°C (824°F)
Excess air 36%
Efficiency coefficient for combustion: a(3r¡ = 0.96
Flue gases leaving the boiler unit = 156°C (313°F)
Temperature of feed water = 105°C (221°F)
Back pressure = 1.75 kg/cm 2 (25 p.s.i.g.) = l30°C (266°F)
Turbo-alternator 01' 30 MW, admission 45 alm (46 kg/cm' = 654 p.s.i.g.) 435°C (815°F)
Passoul steam at 5 kg/cm 2 (71 p.s.i.g.) and 1.75 kg/cm' (25 p.s.i.g.)
Tandem of I'our milis wilh pressure feedels, 1067 x 2134 mm = 42" x 84"
Quinluple el'fecl wilh lhe following scale 01' lempcra[ures and vapour blceding:
Steam Laten! hea¡ Juice lemp. Vapour bleeding
T (oC) T (OF) (keal/kg) (B.T.U./[b.) I (oC) I (OF) lkg/I.e,h.) (lb./I.c.h.)

.~-----_.
Ex. steam [30 266 5[9 934 ) 25 257 24 54

[ 51 erfeel [22 252 524 943 [ [2 234 25 56
2nd effeel 113 235 530 954 98 208 29 65
3rd effeel [02 2[6 538 968 82 180 30 67
4th erfecl 87 189 547 985 65 [49 60 [34
51h erreCt 55 [ 31
Brix of clear juice = 14

Brrx or sjrup = 68
Massecui¡es in cOIHinuous pans: A = ) 40 I/I.e. = 5.02 eu.fl.lt.e.
B = 60 I/I.e. = 2.15 eu.fUu.
e = 40 I/I.e. = 1.44 clI.fL/t.C.
Calclllations are made in metric units; these are readily transposed in[o British unils wilh
the aid of rhe vallles aboye.
Heat input. The N.C.V. 01' the bagasse has a value (eqn. 4125):
N.C.V. = 4250 - (4850 x 0.48) - (1200 x 0.018) = 1900 kcal/kg

MAXlMUM ECONOMY - POWER FOR EXTERNAL USES 1019
The 1055 of sensible hea[ in the f1ue gas ses is (eqn. 41.48):
q= ((1 - 0.48) (1.4 x 1.36 - 0 . 13) + 0.5)156 222 keal/kg of bagasse
The quan[i[y of hea[ transferred [o Ihe steam will be:
M, = (1900 - 222) 0.96 = 1611 keal / kg of bagasse
The steam obtained by eombustion of 1 kg of bagasse will be (Tables 41.3 and 41.1):
1611
2.36 kg of steam at 46 kg/ cm 2 abs. and 440°C-
787.6 - 105.1
and 1 tonne of cane will furnish: 300 x 2.36 = 708 kg of live steam.
Steam usage. (1) Prime movers. Requirements are approximately:
Electric Turbine
drive drive
(a) Cane unloading and feed to cane earrier: 0 .5 kW/t.c.h.: 125
(b) Cane carrier and magnetic separator: 0.4 kW / t.e .h.: 100
(e) Isr knife·ser: 3-8 kW/t.f.h., say 4 : 4 x 37.5: 150
(d) 2nd knife-set: 5 -15 kW/Lf.h., say 4: 15 X 37.5: 560
(e) 3rd knife-set: not used:
(f) Shredder: 30-40 kW/t.f.h., say 32 x 37.5: 1200
(g) Milis: 10-20 kW/Lf.h. per mili: 4 x 18 x 37.5: 2700
(h) Other machines: 10-20 kW / t.c.h., say 12 x 250: 3000
6635 1200
The shredder wiJl be driven by a condensing turbine of nine stages; steam consumption for
this will be 5.5 kg/kWh, or 6600 kg/h = 26 kg/t.c.h.
The main turbine for the power station is of passout type, with 5, 6 or 8 high-pressure
srages and 4 low-pressure stages. The eondensor pressure is 0.09 atm abs., its steam eonsump-
tion is 5 kg/kWh condensing and 9 on passou[ operation; the latter figure is obtained after
deducting power absorbed by H.P. auxiliaries of the boiler not ineluded under "other
machines" above.
Allowing for a mean efficiency of electrie motors of 0.85 and efficiency of transmission
lines of 0.97, rhe power consumption of the turbo-alternalor al the Power House is:
6,635 = 8,050 kW = 32 kW/ t.c.h.

0.85 x 097
-- - ---
1020 STEAM PROOUCTION ANO USAGE Ch. 41
(2) Manufacture. Clarified jllice is heated from 112 to 125 °C before the first vesseJ; for this
healing, the stearn reqllired will be:
1000 x 0.9 125 - 112

p= x := 24 kg/t.c.h.
0.95 519
The water to be evaporaled in qllintuple effecl is:
64) .
1,000 ( l - 68 = 794 kg/l.c.h.
Sleam co nsumpci on for the pans, all con tinu ous, will be (kg/t.c.h.):
A m.c.: 140 x 1.47 x 0.275 x 1.2 = 68

B m. c.: 60 x 1.47 x 0.300 X 1.2 = 32 125
C m. c .: 40 x 1.47 X 0.360 x!.2 25
which will be laken from Ihe second effecl.

H ence che total vapour bleeding, for juice heating and pans, will be (kg/ I.c.h.):
41h effecl: 60
3rd effecl: 30
2nd effecl:. 29 + 125 154
1st effecl: 25
and the evaporation will be:
X
X+ 60
X+ 60 + 30
X+ 60+ 30 + 154
X-t 60 + 30 + 154 + 25
5X + 240 + 90 + 308 + 25 X = 794 - 663 26.2

794
5
Hence the evaporation for Ihe 5 effects (kg/I.c.h.):
51h effecl =26.2

41h effect 26.2 + 60 86.2
3rd effect 86.2 + 30 = 116.2
2nd effect 116 .2 + 154 270.2
1s t effect 270.2 + 25 295.2
794
MAXIMUM ECONOMY - POWER POR EXTERNAL USES 1021
The steam consumplion for manufaclure is thus (kg/t.c.h.):
J uice heating: 24
Evaporation: 295·
319
In addilion to juice heating and evaporalion, the factory requires an additional 40 kg of

medium-pressure steam, for c1eaning, for steaming out, soot blowers, etc. This steam is taken
flom the first stage of the turbine, al 5 kg/cm' or between 5 and 6 kg/cm' (70-85 p.s.i.g.),
according 10 the stage which can best supply it. The steam consumption of the turbine at this
stage is approximately II kg/kWh.
Recapitulating, we have the fol!owing steam consumption figures:
(a) The shredder, driven by its own turbine, consuming 5.5. kg/kWh or 1200 x 5.5:
6600 kg/il = 26 kg/t.c. h.
(b) The M.P. vapour from 1st. pass-out: 40 x 250 = 10000 kg/h = 40 kg/t.c.h.
(e) Heating and evaporation from 2nd pass-out stage, or: 319 x 250 = 79750 kg/h = 319
kg/t.c.h.
lf we supply all the bagasse to lhe boilers, and pass out the foregoing quantities, we shall
have:
H.P. sleam; 300 x 250 x 2.36: 177,000 kg/h 708 kg/t.c.h.

of which the shredder takes directly: 6,600 kg/h 26 kg/t.c.h.
There remains for the turbine: 170,400 kg/h 682 kg/t.c.h.

The 1st. pass-out station bleeds off: 10,000 kg/h 40 kg/t.c.h.
There remains: 160,400 kg/h 642 kg/t.c.h.

The 2nd. pass-out takes: 79,750 kg/h 319 kg/t.c.h.
There remains for sale outside: 80,650 kg/h 323 kg/t.c.h.
At full load, the power consumption wil! thus be (kW):
Shredder: 26/ 5.5 4.7

I sr pass-out: 40/11 3.6
2nd pass-out: 319/ 9 35.4
To condensor: 323/ 5 64.6
108.3 kW/p.t.c. x .250 27,075 kW

Of which the factory requires for its own uses: 9,250
Leaving for external uses: 17 ,825

1022 STEAM PRODUCTION AND US AGE Ch. 41
We ha ve nOl so ughllo economise in power requir emenls of the prime movers in Ihe faclOr )'
and ha ve allowed more than 36 kW/ LC.h. However, man y factories use only 25 - 30
kW/ t.c.h . for the to tal of rheir prime move rs, Ihus 25 x 250 = 6250 kWh. Requiremenls
for lhe manufacture remain the sa me, lhus avai la ble for ours ide purp oses: 27,025 - 6,250 =
20,825 kW .
The operation of this power produclion unit and il s adaplalion to possib le va ri a ri o ns in
condilions of lhe factory operati o n (lhough as liltl e as possible) can be assured aUl omatically
by a quick-acri o n valve of hydr aulic - electroni c control and of high sensilivilY whi ch
regulates the proportion of stea m bled off from lh e lurbine.
Where lh e suppl y aulhorit y requires il, il is possible lO add a melhod of regulalion and
stabilisalion of lhe power delivered lo lhe public net wo rk. This requ ires thal Ihe supply
should nOl be disturbed by sloppages or breakdowns in th e facto ry, which can cause an
abrupl drop in power produclion from 27,000 lO 18,000 kW, or by 33070. These are I he mOSl
severe conditions whic h can be encounlered for regulalion of supply.
200
,.
../ V
.. -- - V kI'
V V/
/'
o
VV /
V V ';7
,\"' / L.0
~
. 0° .../ Y /
\..{00.... ~ ~P ./
E
o ",: ' 1 .../
•
Ví 100 ~'~
IY
/ ' r7
or-
{..+....
" , /
,"
4"
v~ «.. +
'i:~\.5o"" \,,-oy
,/'
,./ '0<-
/ ' l. ••,<
0°';-
-
~.,-
"y .
50 •V
.
O 10 20 30 Power (MW)
fi g. 41.37. Sleam consumplíon and power as n func!ion of e:o:Iraclion.

We give a graph (Fig. 41.37) of the power and Sleam consumplion figures as a function
of lhe quantity of pass-out steam, in the conditions of the example given.
We may commenl lhal a faclory thus equipped can dispose for sale, or for irrigation of
its cane lands, 70- 80 kW/t.c.h.
SALE OF POWER BY TRE SUGAR FACTORY
The production of energy by the sugar factory for the public supply authorities poses certain
problems:
(a) The sugar factory is a seasonal industry, whereas the needs of the public supply are
necessarily for the whole year. The situation is similar with regard to irrigation needs for a
tropical factory which produces the can e which supplies it; with this difference: that the ir-
rigation demand is during the dry season and irrigation loses its importance during the rest
of the year. When the public supply is panly derived from a hydro-electric plant, the situa-
tion again is similar; the sugar factory then can supply power during the periods of low water
f10w and thus fill the gap in the supply of hydro-power. Again, the demand for electricity
coincides only partially with the period of power production from the factory.
Fig. 41.38. "Promill" pellel mili working.

(b) lt is thus necessary lO be ableto srore excess bagasse during twelve months or al least
during a longer period than the c'rushing sea son. Unfortunately, bagasse is a very light,
voluminous material, costly to compress or to store and handle, and presenting some fire
risk.
The bagasse may be pressed and stored in bales (ef p. 915), but the operation and labour
requirements are expensive. At present (19 82) attentiSJn is being directed to a solution which
seems more elegant: "pelletisation " of the baga sse. This consists of d rying, fibrating and
compressing the bagasse and extruding it in the form of fingers of the dimensions of a
cigarette or large pencil, several centimetres in length and described as "pellets", or
sometimes called granules. Equipment for this operation and extrusion is made in France by
Promill, in California by C.P.M. (California Pellet Mili), and in Germany by Kahl (Figs.
4l.38 and 41.39) .
Transformation of bagasse into pellets requires a previous moi , lUre content of 15070, and
heating to 80°C. The opera tion consumes 80 kWh / tonne of pellets.
The pellet s are delivered at 8 or 10'70 moisture; their N.C.V. is thus about 3.800 kca l/ kg
(6,840 B.T.U ./lb .). They cannot be used in boilers with spreader-stoker furnaces sin ce they
are too heavy ro burn in suspension and fall immediately onto the grate; thus they would
have to be broken up before feeding to (he furnace. It would seem that they could be burnt
Fig. 41.39 . "C.P.M . " pellel mili o pen fo r clea nillg .

Iv[AXIMUM ECONOMY - POWER FOR EXTERNAL USES 1025
in a Iravelling-grale furnace, as for fine coal, with oul previous disintegrat ion; but we have
no knowledge of tes ts of this type. They form an excellent fuel, but present difficulties on
account of the high ash content, which may be as high as 10- 12070. Hence the necessity for
a lravelling grate, rather than a rocking grate. We ma y comment that 1 kg of pellets at 10%
moisture wou ld give 4.8 kg of Sleam al 45 atm and 425°C, more than double thar from 1
kg of bagasse al 48% moislure. 1f we compare the sleam production per kg of bagasse be fore
and afler form ing into pellers, the 560 g of pellets derived from 1 kg of bagasse gives 2.7
kg of steam compared with 2.2, or 22% more; but Ihis does not say that it can be burnl in
the same furnace.
1I is probable that the devel opment of pelletisation willlead to the design oYa type of fur-
nace and combuslion chamber of a special design permilting efficien t combustion of this
fuel.
There are some bagasse feeders of Star type (Woodex System), which permit combustion
of bagasse pellets in a spreader-stoker type furn ace.
TABLE 41.29
STE AM CONSUMPTION OF TURBO- GEN ERATORS (kg/ k Wh)
Admission pressure Back-pressure Sleam consumplion (kg/kWh)'

and superheal
(kg / cm') (p.s.i.g.) (kg / cm') (p.s.i.g.) al l/oad af i toad al fuI! lood
18; 325'C 250; 620'F 0.5 7 12. 3 11.4 10.6

22; 350'C 300; 660' F 0.6 8 11.6 10.8 10. 0
25; 380'C 350; 700' F 1.0 15 11.7 10.9 10.1
25; 380'C 350 ; 700' F 1.5 20 12.7 11. 8 10.9
25; 380'C 350; 700' F 0.07 b lb 6.2 5.7 5.3
45; 440' C 640; 825'F 0.09 b 1.4 b 5.7 5.3 5.0
, For Ib./kWh, multipl y by 2.2.

b Absolule.
Sleam consumption of prime movers

Th e steam consumpti on of Sleam turbines will be calculated as indicated on p. 1063.
Example. Table 41.29 gives steam consumplion of a turbo-aJiernator, for several typical
cas es.
Losses. Two types of loss ha ve to be taken into accou nt:

(a) Losses in turbines: leak s occur predominantly around th e shaft, at Ihe labyrinth pack-
ing. We may recko n 3%. This loss is reckoned between admission and exhaust of steam.
(b) Piping: the 'steam pipes lose steam by leaks at the joint s, by condensati on and at sream
traps, etc. Deerr 69 est imates that a factory has about 5 m' (56 sq. ft. ) of pipe surface per
t.e. h., in high-pressure Slea m piping, and as much in exhaust steam piping. Saya tOlal 01"
10 m' / t.c.h . (112 sq. ft / t.c.h.)
1026 STEAM PRODUCTION AND USAGE Ch, 41
Jf these pipes are bare, Ihey would lose:

Exhausl steam: 1,200 keal/m 2 /h) (450 B,T.U./sq.ft./h) = lO kg (20 lb.) steam/t.e.
Live steam: ],600 keal/m 2 /h (1,350 B.T.U./sq.ft./h) = ]0 kg (60 lb.) steam/Le.
Properly lagged, these pipes would lose on an average ]00 keal/m'/h (110
B.T.U./sq.ft./h), say about 3,000 keal/Le. or approximately 5 kg (lO lb.) steam/t.c.
(e) Multiple effect. In estimating lhat an evaporator o'f n effects evaporates n kg of water
per kg of steam admitted to the first effeel, we ha ve taken into aeeoun! its losses by radiation
and eonveetion. However, this is the ease 01' a mulliple efreel which is correclly lagged, Jf
it is badly lagged, we ha ve seen elsewhere (ef p. 544) the 1055 whieh must then be ealeulated.
Steam consumption per tonne cane. The steam eonsumption per t.e. varies finally betlVeen
ralher wide limits, aeeording to the degree of stcam eeonomy rcalised in the manul'aclure,
i.e. aeeording as operation is in triple, quadruple, or quintuple effeet; aeeording to the extent
of vapour bleeding used; and also whelher or not thermo-eompression is employed, ete.
The highest steam eonsumptions are reaehed where while sugar is being manufaelured,
with evaporation in quadruple or, obviously, partieularly in triple effeet, without vapour
bleeding. Steam eonsumption may then reaeh 60 - 650/0 on eane.
Wi!h raw sugar, aeeording to the eeonomy sought at the evaporators and the quantity of
imbibition used, steam eonsumption will amount to 50 - 60% on eane.
[n well-equipped modern ractories with high-pressure boilers and superheaters, quadruple
cffecls and a Cull sequenee of vapour bleedillg, steam eonsumplion should be belween 4S <llld
50% on caneo
With quinruple effee[s, lhermo-eompression or pressure evaporation, it is püssible to go
as [ow as 36-45% on eane.
F[uctuations in steam consumption. The variations in momentary requirell1enls 01' Sleam

in lhe sugar faetory are due to many faetors, only one 01' whieh is unavoidable in praclice:
the f1uetuations in steam eonsumption at the vaeuum pans. We ha ve seen (p. 663) the tremen-
dous variations in evaporation rate from the beginning to 1he end of a strike. Since Ihe
number of pans is generally between 4 and 6, these individual variations have a very marked
effect on the 'general steam eonsumption of the factory.
For Ihe pans, we may estimate a total variation of approximately 50% (in Olher words,
from 50 to ISO, if the mean eonsumption is 100). Aeeording 10 the brix vallle acloPled for
the syrup, the quantities of dilution and washing water, etc., aclded at the pan stalion, Ihe
total Sleam eonsumption of this station will vary from Sto 10% on eane (1 12-224 Ib./I.e.),
We may eomment that it is preferable to express this variation as a pereentage on eane
rather than to reekon it as a percentage on the total steam eonsumption, since in praeliee
only lhe varialion in sleam consumplion at the pans is eoncemed. As a percenlage 01' Ihe total
steam consumption, this variation will generally represent between ± 10 and ±20%,
A big factor in the variations in steam demand is the relative dimensions of the individual
vacuum pans. A faetory having very large pans relative to its capaeity, partieularly in A
masseeuile, will show mueh greater variations in ils steam eonsumption than a faelory having
a larger number of smaller pans.
Heal balance. If, instead of calculating in weight of steam, the balance is expressed in heat
units, a somewhat different table is obtained. The following is an example given by three
Taiwan technologists"" for three defecation factories:
kcal/I.c. B.T.U./I.c. %
Turbo-genera tors: 17 ,200 69,300 5

Mills: 12,600 50,900 4
Pumps: 4,300 17,200 1
Total for power: 34,100 137.,400 lO
c_:
Evaporation: 151,800 612,200 47
Pans: 90,000 362,900 28
Total for boiling house: 241,800 975, lOO 75
Other requirements: 470 1,900 0.1

Losses: 10,600 42,600 2.7
Total heat consumption: 287,000 1,157,000 87.8
Heat lost in condenser water: 40,000 160,000 12.2
Total heat output: 327,000 1,317,000 100
Carbonatation factories require 200/0 more heat, due mostly to requirements at the pans,
on account of the low brix of syrup. The three defecation factories in the previous example
had a syrup brix of 65 and crushed 2,325 t.c. per day (weighted average).
As general figures, heat consumption in sugar factories is:
Power: 10 -12 %
Boiling house: 70 -78 % (40% being for evaporation)
Other uses: 0.1- 7 %
Losses: 0.1- 7.3%
Lost in condenser water: 9.7-13 %
lnfluence Di rale.
Héat requirements per t.c. vary when hourly crushing rate increases or
decreases. In Taiwan, this has been expressed by:
M = 340,000 - 3,400 (A' - A) kcallLc. (1,350,000 - 13,500 (A' - A) B.T.U./Lc.)
M = total heat requirements for the factory, in kcal/t.c. (B.T.U./t.c.)

A = nominal crushing rate, in I.c.h.
A' = actual crushing rate, in I.c.h.
I.t is also estimated thal a 10 070 increase in crushing rale leads lO an 8% decrease in heat
co nsumption per t.e.
Anolher report from Taiwan"'" slal es lhnl a 2% increase in crus hing rale permils of n
saving of approximalely 1% in Sleam consumplion per l.c. I'or eleclrilied faclories.
Tolal power. Similarl y, Ihe average loral power consumed in a sugar faclory is rarher
variable: Deerr 70 eslimates 18 i.h.p ./!.c.h.; T romp 71 eslimales 25 i.h .p./I.c.h., but rhe latter
aUlhor commenls Ihat it is necessar y to calcula te this value in eac h case, since it varies greatly
in different installali o ns.
In India 72 , a figure of 32 i.h.p./t.e.h. is given.
Webre 13 gives as an upper limit 26 kW = 35 i.h.p./I.e.h.
The high power cons umplion used in reeenr years by rhe South African industry, for calle
preparation and the long milling trains, has led to a total figure of 36-40 kW/t.c.h.
lnfluence of electrificalion. It is appropriate 10 eo mment rhat electrifiealion irself effecrs

no eeonomy in s team . lt involves a triple transformation of energy (thermal energy imo
meehani ea l, mec hani cal energy into electrica l, eleclrical energy inlo meehanical energy),
whieh affects the steam eonsumption in each case, and ¡hus loses Ihe benefit of Ihe high ther-
modynamic efficiency of lhe Sleam turbine.
For example, the ealculation of Sleam ba la nce (p. 1012) carried out for a faetory wi th sleam-
driven milis, steam engine for eenlral vacuum syste m, and a generating set for pumps and
small isola ted un i ts on Iy, w here I he steam engi nes were d ro p-va Ive engi nes worki ng al 15
kg / cm 2 (215 p.S. i.), with Sleam slighll y supe rheated to 250°C (480°F), gave a loml stealll con -
sump tion hardly higher than for lhe electrilied factory: (470 kg/I.c. (1,050 Ib ./Lc.).
However, il is eleelrifieation that has effected the main progress in Sleam economy, since
it has permitted the elimination of direc t-acting pumps and small isolared unir s by repl acing
them with motor-driven units.
Effect of brix. In a ll the preceding co ns iderations, the Sleam consllmplion has be en relared
to tonnage of caneo This is normal practice, since the crushing rale in rerms 0 1' cane is Ihe
essential figure for Ihe faclory. In realilY, however, Ihe steam consllmplion depends more
closely on the to tal quanlily of brix Irealed Ihan on the aclual quantity 01' caneo For accura le
comparisons between factories, o r wilhin the sa me faelory, il may be valuable to relare rh e
weight of steam consllmed not to the weight of cane handled but lO the weight of brix enter-
ing the faetory, whieh is of the order of 15% on eane. II may be co mmenred rhat, for a given
faetory, an inerease in brix may ha ve a positive or a negalive effecI on sleam eonsumplion.
In Taiwan 69b it is eslimated that a 1% in crease in brix of mixed juice leads ro a 1% deerease
in steam eonsumption per tonne of caneo
In Java an average s team consumption was reported as:
3,200 kca l/ kg (5,760 B.T.U./lb.) of brix, for defecation factories (raw sugar)
3,500 kcal/ kg (6,300 B.T.U./lb.) of brix, for su lphitati o n factories (while sugar)
3,300 kcal / kg (5,940 B.T.U./lb.) of brix, for car bonatar ion factories (whire sugar)
reckoned in lerm s of fuel burn!.

GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE STEAM CYCLE 1029
In Soulh Africa", Ihe average consumption on the same basis was given as 4,170 kcal/kg
of brix, of which 3,817 was obtained from lhe bagasse and the remainder from supplemen-
tary f uel.
GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE STEAM CYCLE
The simp.lesl steam cycle in a modern faclory consists of producing lhe steam in high-pressure
boilers and expanding it to lhe pressure necessary for manufacture, in turbo-alternators
(T.A., Fig. 41.40), which produce al! lhe eleclric power necessary for lhe factory. When the
milis are driven by steam turbines, these are supplied by a branch taken directly from the
high-pressure sleam piping.
H.P. 80ilers
H.P. Sleom
Condensates
Fig. 41.40. Sleam circuil No. 1.
Since Ihe quantily of exhausl steam supplied by these lurbo sets is insufficient, the high-
pressure circuil is connecled lO Ihe low-pressure circuit Ihrough a sleam reducer-de-
superhealer (Desup.) which supplies Ihe make-up sleam necessary. Finally, lhe high-pressure
circuil will be completed by a connection lO lhe thermo-compressor (T.C).
Where the milis are driven by reciprocating engines, a medium-pressure (M.P.) circuit is
provided serving these engines(Fig. 41.41).
A partial reducer- de-superhealer (Desup.) should be installed between the H.P. and M.P.
circuits, bul a simple pressure reducer (R.Y.) will be sufficient between the M.P. and L.P.
circuits.
Choice of steam pressure

In the sugarfactory we have three principal steam pressures:
(a) The H.P. steam for the turbo sets
(b) The M.P. steam for reciprocating engines
(e) The L.P. sleam for manufaclure.
M,R Steam
H.P 80iler
M.P. Boiler
Desup . H.P Stearn
T.A.
r----"" R v.
L.p. Steo m
Conde n so tes
Fig. 41.41. S!eam eireui! No. 2.
(a) Choice of high pressure. T o achieve a suilably economical operal ion of .Ihe Sle am lur-
bin es , it is necessary 10 ha ve a high pressure between 16 and 45 kg/ em' (225-640 p.s.i .).
Bel ow 16 kg/c m', the steam cons umpli o n of th e lurbines increases rapidly. AIso, lhe do-
ma in of the reciproca ting engine readily extend s to 15 kg/cm'. Ir [his lim i[ were nOI exceeded,
lhere would be every advanlage, as much from the point of view of first casi of lhe insta ll a -
tio n as from th at o f Slea m consumplion, in retaining the drop-valve engine, ope ra tin g al 15
kg / cm' , with a slighl superheal 10 250°C.
Above 45 kg/ cm', the expense of Ihe in stallali o n , duelO Ihe rapid in erease in CaS I o f th e
boilers, w ith inc rea sing pressure, reduces lhe va lue 01' th e s team-economy oblai ned.
Furthermore, aboye 30 kg/cm' (425 p.s.i.), it is generally necessa ry to treal Ihe bo il e r reed
water, sin ce it s quality and purity become more and m ore cr ili cal as th e pressure is increased .
Such water treatment involves a compli cat ion and further expense ..
Sleam conditions are generally,kept within the ranges shown in T ab le 41.30.
TA BLE 41.30
OPTlM AL CONDITION$ FOR h,p. STEAM IN THE SUGAR FACTORY
kg / cm' p .s. i. oC 'F
18 250 300 - 350 575 - 650

20 280 325 - 375 625 -700
25 350 350 - 400 650 - 750
30 425 375 - 425 700 - 800
45 . 640 420 - 450 790 - 840
REFERENCES 1031
Within these various values, the advantages and disadvantages compensare each other and
the choice may depend on seconda ry considerations such as space required.
(b) Choice of medium pressure. The M.P. is more especially of interesl with regare! lO
reciprocaling engines. To obtain economical operation with these, il is necessary to use a
pressure belween 6 and 15 kg/cm 2 (85 - 215 p.s.i.).
The highesl pressures, 12-1 5 kg/ cm 2 (170.,...215 p.s.i.), should be adopted for factories
withoul lurbines, bul wilh an eleclric generating se!. Their steam engines will Ihen funclion
under particularly economical condilions.
However, factories ha vi ng lhe three levels of pressure wiJl ma'intain an M.P. level of 6
kg/cl11 (85 p.s.i .) 01" thereabouls, paniculal"ly if they do nor use reciprocating engines.
'
Where reciprocaling engines are used, lhe pressure should not go below 6 kg/cm' (85
p.s.i.), on accoulll of lhe rapid increase in steam consumplion of these eugines below thal
figure.
(e) Choice of low pressure. The low pressure is generally at the same time the upper limit
01' pressu re for lhe boiling house as weJl as Ihe back-pressure for the engines.
To avoid developmenr of colour in Ihe juices and to avoid destruction of sucrose, we have
seen (Table 32.4) Ihat ir is advisable not to exceed 1.5 kg/cm 2 (20 p.s.i.g.) in an ordinary
multiple effecI, or 2 kg/cm 2 (28 p.s.i.g.) in a Kestner.
I f pressure evaporalion is to be used, il will be necessary to work to these limits or lO ap-
proach Ihemclosely. Otherwise, pressure should be kept belween 0.5 and 1.2 kg / cm' (7 - 17
p.s. i.g.). If reciprocaling engines are used, lh e pressure will be kept belween 0.5 and 0.6
kg/ cm' (7-9 p,s.i.g.). If nor, it will be advisable lO increase 100.8-1.2 kg/ cm' (12-17
p.s.i.g.).
Somerimes rhe low-pressure system is divided into two: a higher pressure for coil pans (1.4
kg/ cm', for example) and a lower pressure for juice healers and mulliple effects (0.5 kg/cm',
for example). This has the disadvanlage of complicating rhe piping sys tem for steam distribu-
tion.
REFERENCES
I J, IZART, Aide-Mémoire de l'Ingénieur-Mécanicien, 5th edn" Dunod, Paris, t928.

2 L. A, TROMP, Machinery and Equipmenl o/Ihe Cane Sugor Foclory, Norman Rodger, London, 1936, p. 268.
3 L. A. TROMP, op. cit., p . 270,
4 L. A, TROMP, op cit ., p. J21.
5 J. L. PLANA, Inl. Sugor J., 46 (1944) 237.
6 Inl. Sugor J., 46 (1944) 301.
7 N. DHRR, Cane Sugar, Norman Rodger, London, 1921, p. 455.
8 L. A. TROMP, Inl. Sugor J., 40 (1938) 175.
9 F,H.C. KELLY , i.n G.H. JENKINS, Inlroduclion lO Cane Sugor Technology, EI,evier, AmSlerdam, 1966, p. 436.
10 F. H, C. KELLY , Int. Sugor J., 41 (1939) 69.
II J. G. DAVIES, Inl. Sugor J" 49 (1947) 103,
12 H . C . GREGORY, Sugor, 39 (12) (1944) 26.
13 E. R. BEHNE, 1m. Sugor J" 37 (1935) 160.
14 E. P. HEDLEY, Inl . Sugar J., 38 (1936) 349.

15 Inl. Sugar J ., 36 (1934) 126.
ISa Aan . Rep. Sugar Millin g Res. InSI ., S. A . f r., 1974, p. 11.
15b Sugar A zucar, (1 980) 44.
16 W. E. VAN GENDEREN, Inl. Sugar J., 40 (1 938) 78.
17 N. MAGASINER, Proc. 40lh Conf. SASTA, 1966, p. 30.
18 C. G. M. PERK, Proc. 39th Conf. SASTA, 1965, p. 14.
19 R. W. G. HESSEY, Proc. 391h Conf. SASTA , 1965, p. 14.
20 J . EIGENHUlS, Inl. Sugar J., 39 (1937) 477 .
21 A. F. SHJLLlNGTON, Int. Sugar J., 41 (1939) 259.
22 F. W. HAYES, Inl. Sugar J., 42 (1940) 349.
23 K . VAN GELDER, Inl. Sugar J., 44 (1942) 267.
24 J . G . DAvIEs, Inl. Sugar J., 49 (194 7) 102.
25 J . L. PLANA, Int. Sugar J., 46 (1944) 235.
26 N. HABIF, Co;"buslion de la Bagasse, Imprimerie P. Barbey, Cairo, 1933. pp. 23 - 26.
27 L. A. TROMP, Inl. Sugor J., 2 (1940) 90.
28 E. R. BEHN E, FaCls Sugar, 26 (1931) 540.
29 G. H. JENKTNS, Bur. Sugar Expl . 510., Brisbane, Tech. Commun., No . 1, 1938 .
30 G. H. JENKINS, Pro c. 281h Conf. QSSCT. 1961. p. 96.; J. InSI. Eng. AI/slralia, 33 (1961 ) 45.
30a BORDEN AVE , Indian Pulp Pap. , (19 53) 296.
30b CHOU, Taiwan SI/gar, (March-April 1973) 66.
31 J. lZART, op. cil., p . 824 .
32 C. G. M. PERK, Proc. 371h Conf. SASTA, 1963, p. 17.
33 G. H. JENKJNS, op. cil., p . 446.
34 N. DEERR, op cil., p . 471.
35 H. C. PRINSEN GEERUGS, Cane Sugar and lis Manufacture, Norman Rodger, London, 1924. p. 328.
36 H. NAUS BEY , In!. Sugar J., 40 (1 938) 326 .
37 L. A. TROMP, op. cit., p. 275.
37a V. BAILLET, Sugar J., 31 (10) (1969) 36 .
38 E. C. MILLER, Inl. SI/gar J., 56 (1954) 222.
39 N. DEERR, op cit., p. 469.
40 L. A. TROMP, op ei/., p. 295.
41 E_ L. DENNIS, Sugar J., 19 (10) (1957) 20 .
42 E. C. MILLER, Sugar, 49 (4) (1954) 46.
43 E _ L. DE NNls, Sugar J., 19 (10) (1957) 20.
44 N. HAB IF, op eil., p. 77.
45 L. A. TROMP, op. cil., p. 278.
46 A. F. SHILLlNGTON, Int. SI/gar J., 41 (1939) 260.
46a V. BAILLET, Sugar J., 31 (10) (1969) 37 .
47 N. MAGASIN ER, 15th Congr. ISSCT, 1974, p. 1658.
48 E . .C. VaN PRITZELWITZ VAN DER HORST, Int. Sugar J., 43 (1941) 143.
49 Teehniques de l'lngénieur, Techniques de l'lngénieur, Paris, B.125.2.
50 L. A. TROMP , op. eil ., p. 290 .
51 J. L. CLAYTON, InI . Sugar J ., 41 (1 93 9) 389.
51a Sci. Teehnol., 23 (1 975) 23.
52 L. A. TROMP, op . cil ., p. 293 .
53 J. L. CLA YTON , Inl . Sugar J., 41 ( 193 9) 387.
54 N. MAGASlNER , Proe. 40lh COllf. SASTA, 1966, p. 36.
55 A. F. SHJLLlNGTON, Inl . Sugar J., 41 (1939) 261.
56 L. A. TROMP, op. ci/., p. 308 .
57 R. N. NEVIN, Proe. 38/h Conf. SASTA, 1964, p. 62.
58 G. BROLA, Générateurs de Vapeur a Tres Haute Press;on, Dunod, Paris, 1941, p. 54.
59 Int. Sugar J ., 47 (1945) 188.
60 R. JA CKSON LEGGETT, Int. Sugnr J., 46 (1944) 39.
6 1 H. C . GREGORY, Int . Sugar J., 49 (1947) 66.
62 M. W. NEUMA NN, Sugar, 35 (9) (1940) 30.
63 L. A. TROMP, op eil., p. 283.
64 H . J . M . ZONDERLAND, Proe. 381h Conf. SASTA, 1964. p. 106.
REFERENCES 1033
64n G. Y. EWART, Proe. 13/h Congr. ISSCT, 1968, p. 256 .

65 J, M. PATIJRAU. in P . HONIG CEd.), PrinciplesofSugar Technology, Vo l. 1//, Elsev ier, A msterdam, 1963, p. 87.
66 G. H. JENK INS, op. ei/., p. 454.
67 A . ROMAGVERA, Facls Sugar, 34 (1) (1939) 47.
68 G. H. JENKINS, Proc. 28/h Conf. QSSCT, 1961, p. 96.
69 N. DHRR, op. cit., p. 338 .
69. C. J. Lv, T. W. HUN G AND C. M. HWAN G, 13th Congr. ISSCT, 1968, p . 16 17.
69b. C. J. Lu, T. W. HUNG AND C. M. HWANG, Sugar J., 32 (S) (1969) 20.
70 N. DEERR, op. ci/., p. 330.
71 L. A. TROMP, Int. Sugar J., 40 (1938) 177.
72 J. SINGH, Proe. 9th Congr. ISSCT, 1956, Vol. 2, p. 31.
73 A. L. WEBRE, in G. P. MEADE, Cane Sugar Handbook, 91h edil., Wiley, New York, 1963, p . 150.
TABLE 41.1 A
PROPERTlES OF DRY SATURATED STEAM (METRrc UNITS)
I temperature, inoC r laten! heat of vaporisation 01' w aler al

p absolute pressure of the vapour. in kg/c m l 1°C, in kca l/g
p' gauge pressure of ¡he vapour, in kg/cm 2 A q + r = 10lal heal of 1 kg of waler al (oC
d density of water al {oC. in kg/dm' w = density of 'r'apour al [oC, in kg/rn 1

q sensible heal 10 raise J kg of water from v specific vo lume of vapour al 1°C. in
O 10 (oC, in kcal / kg m'/kg
p d q r A w v
O 0.00623 0.99987 O 597.2 597.2 0.00485 206.3

0.00889 0.99999 5 594.4 599.4 0.00680 147.2
5
0.01251 0.99973 10 591.6 601.6 0.00940 106.4
10
0.01738 0.99913 15 588.8 603.8 0.01282 77.99
15
0.01853 0.99897 16 588.3 604.3 0.01363 73.39
16
0.01975 0.99880 17 587.7 604.7 0.01447 69.10
17
0.02103 0.99862 18 587 . 1 605.1 0.01536 65.10
18
0.02239 0.99843 \9 586.6 605 .6 0.01630 61.35
19
0 .02383 0.99823 20 586 606 0.0 \729 57.84
20
21 0.02534 0.99802 21 585.5 606.5 0.0\833 54.56

0.02694 0.9 9780 22 584.9 606.9 0.01942 51.49
22
0.02863 0.99756 23 584.3 607.3 0.02056 48.63
23
24 0.03041 0.99732 24 583.8 607.8 0.02\77 45 .94
25 0.03229 0.99707 25 583.2 6082 0.02304 43.4\
26 0.03426 0 .9968\ 26 582.6 6086 0.0243 7 41.04
27 0.03634 0.99654 27 582.\ 609.\ 0.02576 38.82
28 '0.03853 0.99626 28 581.5 609.5 0.027 23 36.7 3
29 0.04083 0.99597 29 581 6\0 0.02876 34 .77
0.04325 0.99567 30 580.4 . 6\0.4 0.03036 32.93
30
31 0.04580 0.99537 3\ 579.8 610.8 0.03204 31.20

32 0.04847 0.99505 32 579.3 6\1.3 0.03380 29.58
0.05128 0.99463 33 578.7 6\1.7 0.03565 28.05
33
34 0.05423 0.99440 34 578.\ 612.\ 0.03758 26.61
35 0. 05733 0.99406 35 577.5 6\2.5 0.03960 25.25
0.06057 0 .9937\ 36 577 613 0.0417\ 23.97
36
37 0.06398 0.99336 37 576.4 613.4 0.04392 22.77
0.06755 0.99299 38 575.9 613.9 0.04622 21.63
3.8
0.07129 0.99262 39 575.3 614.3 0.04863 20.56
39
40 0.07520 0.99224 40 574.7 614.7 0.05114 19.55
41 0.07930 0.99186 41 574.2 615.2 0.05377 18 .60

0.08360 0.99147 42 573.6 615.6 0.05650 17 .70
42
0.08809 0.99107 43 573 616 0.05935 16.85
43
0.09279 0.99066 44 572.4 616.4 0.06233 16.04
44
0.99024 45 5718 616.8 0.06544 15.28
45 0.0977 I
Q.98982 46 57 1.2 617.2 0.06867 14.56
46 0.\0284
0.98940 47 570.7 617.7 0.07203 \3. 88
47 0.\0821
0.98896 48 570.\ 6\8.\ 0.07553 \3 .24
48 O. 11382
0.98852 49 569 .5 6\85 0.079 I 8 \2.63
49 0.11967
0.98807 50 569 619 0.08298 12.05
50 0.12578
STEAM TASLES 1035
TABLE 41.1 A (conlínued)
p d q r A w v
0.1322 0.98762 50.9 568 .4 619.3 0.0869 11.50

~1
0.1388 0.98715 51.9 567.8 619.7' 0.0910 10 .98
52
0. 1457 0.98669 52 .9 567.3 620.2 0.0953 10.49
53
0.1 530 0.9862\ 53.9 5667 620.6 0.0997 10 .02
54
0.98573 549 566.\ 621 0.\043 9.584
55 0.1605
0.98524 559 565.6 6215 0.\091 9.164
56 0 . 1684
0.98478 56.9 565 621.9 0.114\ 8.764
57 0.\765
0.98425 57.9 564.4 622 .3 0.1193 8. 385
58 0.\850
0.98375 58.9 563.8 622.7 0.\247 8.025
59 0.1939
0.98324 59.9 563.3 623.2 0.1302 7.682
60 0.2031
0.98272 60.9 562.7 623.6 0. 1359 7.356

6\ 0.2127
0.98220 61. 9 562.\ 624 0.1419 7.046
62 0.2227
0.98\67 62.9 5615 624.4 0.1481 6.752
63 0.2330
0.981 \3 639 560.9 624.8 0. 1545 6.473
64 0.2438
0.98059 64.9 560.3 625.2 0.\611 6.206
65 0.2550
0.98005 65.9 559.7 625.6 0.\680 5.95\
66 0.2666
0.97950 66.9 559.1 626 0.\752 5.709
67 0.2787
0.97894 67.9 558.5 626 .4 0.1826 5.478
68 0.2912
0.97838 689 558 626.9 0.\902 5.258
69 0.3024
0.97781 699 557.4 627.3 0.1981 5.049
70 0.3 177
0.3317 0.97723 70.9 556 .8 627. 7 0.2062 4.849

7\
0.97666 71.9 556.2 628.\ 0.2\46 4. 658
72 0.3463
0.97607 72.9 555.6 628.5 0.2234 4.476
73 0.36\3
0.97548 73.9 555 628.9 0.2324 4.302
74 0.3769
0.3931 0.97489 74.9 554.4 629.3 0.24\8 4.\36
75
0.97429 75.9 553.8 629 .7 0.25\4 3.977
76 0.4098
77 0.4272 0.97368 76.9 553.2 630 . 1 0.26\4 3.826
0.445\ 0.97307 77.9 5526 630.5 0.27\7 3.68 1
78
0.4637 0.97245 78.9 552 630.9 0.2823 3.543
79
0.4829 0 .97183 80 551.3 631.3 0. 2933 3.410
80
0.5028 0.9712\ 8\ 550.7 631. 7 0.3046 3.283

8\
0.5234 0.97057 82 550. I 632.1 0.3162 3.\62
82
0.96994 83 549.5 632.5 0.3282 3.047
83 0.5447
0.5667 0.96930 84 548.8 632.8 0. 3406 2.936
84
0.5894 0.96865 85 548.2 633 .2 0.3534 2.830
85
0.96800 86 547.6 633 .6 0.3666 2.728
86 0.6129
0.6372 0.96734 87 547 634 0.3802 2.630
87
0.96668 88 546.4 634.4 0. 3942 2.537
88 0.6623
0 .96601 89 545.7 634.7 0.4086 2.447
89 0 .6882
0.96534 90 545. I 635.\ 0.4235 2.361
90 0.7149
0.96467 91 544.5 635.5 0.4388 2. 279

9\ 0.7425
0.96399 92 534.9 635.9 0.4545 2.200
92 0.77\0
0.96330 93 543.3 636.3 0.4707 2.124
93 0.8004
08307 0.9626\ 94 542.7 636.7 0.4873 2.051
94
0.96192 95 542 637 0.5045 1.98 1
95 0.8619
0.96122 96 541.4 637.4 0.5221 1. 914
96 0 .8942
0.9605\ 97 540.8 637.8 0.5402 1. 85 1
97 0.9274
0.9598 I 98 540.2 638.2 0.5588 1.789
98 0.96 16
095909 99 539.5 638.5 0.5780 1.730
99 0.9969
0.95838 100 538.9 638 .9 0.5977 1.673
100 1.0332
TAB LE 41.1 A (conlinued J
p p' q r >- w v
10 1 1.0707 0.0375 101 538 .3 639.3 0.6 179 1.6 18

102 1. 1092 0. 0760 102 537. 6 639.6 0.6387 1.5 65
103 1.1489 0.1 157 103.1 ' 536 9 640 0. 6601 1.51 5
104 1. 1898 O. I 566 104. I 536.2 640. 3 0.6820 1.466
105 1. 23 I 8 0.1986 105 . 1 535.6 640.7 0.7045 1.41 9
106 1.275 I 0.2419 106.1 53 5 641 . 1 0.7276 1.3 74
107 !.l196 0.2864 107.1 534 .3 641.4 0.7514 1.331
108 1.3654 0.3322 108 . 1 5J36 641. 7 0.77 58 1.289
109 1.41 25 0.3793 109 . 1 533 642. I 0.8008 1.249
11 0 1.4609 0.4277 110.1 532.4 642 .5 0. 8265 1.2 10
111 1.5 106 0.477 4 111.1 531 .8 642.9 0.8 528 173
11 2 1.5618 0.5286 11 2. I 531 . 1 643.2 0.8798 137
113 1.6144 0. 58 12 11 3.2 5304 643.6 0.9075 1.102
114 1.6684 0.6352 114.2 529.7 643 .9 0. 9359 1.068
115 1.7239 0 .6907 115.2 529 . I 644 .3 0 .9650 1.036
116 1. 7809 0.7477 116.2 528.4 644 .6 0.9947 1.005
11 7 1. 8394 0.8062 11 7.2 527 .8 645 1.026 0.9752
118 1.8995 0.8663 11 8.2 527. 1 645.3 0.05 7 0.9462
11 9 1. 9612 0.9280 119.2 526.4 645. 6 1.089 0. 9 183
120 2.0245 0.9913 120.3 525.7 646 1. 122 0.89 14
121 2.0895 1.0563 12!.l 525 1 646 .4 1.156 0.86,5

122 2.1 561 1.1229 122 .3 524.4 646.7 1.190 0. 8404
123 2.2245 1.1 9 13 123. 3 523. 7 64 7 1.225 0.8 161
124 2.2947 1.26 15 124.3 523. I 647.4 1.262 0.7927
125 2.3666 1.3334 125.3 522.4 647.7 1.299 0 .7701
126 2. 4404 1.4072 126.4 521 .6 648 1.337 0.7482
127 2.5160 1.4828 127.4 520.9 648 3 1.376 0.727 I
128 2.593 5 1.)603 128.4 520. 3 648.7 1.415 0.7068
129 2.6730 1.6398 129.4 5 19 .6 649 1.455 0 .6871
13 0 2.7544 1.7212 130.4 51 8.9 649.3 1.496 0.6680
131 2.8378 1.804 6 131.4 5 18.2 649. 6 1.539 0.6496

13 2 2. 9233 1.890 1 132 .5 5 17.4 649.9 1.583 0.6318
133 3.0 11 1. 978 133.5 516.7 650.2 1.628 0.6146
134 3. 10 1 2.068 134.5 516 650 .5 1.673 05979
135 3. 192 2. 159 135.5 515.3 650.8 1.7 19 0. 581 7
136 3.286 2.253 136.6 5 14. 6 651.2 1.767 0.566 1
13 7 3.382 2. 349 1376 5139 651.5 1.8 15 0>510
138 3.481 2.448 138.6 513.3 651 .9 1.864 0.536)
139 3.582 2.549 1) 96 512.6 652 .2 1.915 05221
140 3.685 2.652 140.6 511. 9 6525 1. 967 0.5084
141 3.790 2.757 14 1.7 511. 1 652.8 2. 020 0.4951

142 3.898 2.865 142.7 5 10.4 653.1 2.074 0.4823
14 3 .4.009 2.976 14 3.7 509.7 653 .4 2. 129 0.4698
144 4.122 3.089 144.8 508 .9 653.7 2. 185 0.4577
145 4.237 3.204 14 5.8 508.2 654 2.243 0.4459
146 4.355 3.322 146.8 5075 654.3 2.3 02 0.4345
14 7 4.4 76 3.443 147. 8 5068 654.6 2.3 62 0.4235
148 4.559 3.566 148 .9 506 654.9 2.423 0.4128
149 4.725 3.692 14 9.9 505 .3 65 5. 2 2.485 0.4024
150 4.8 54 3.821 15 0.9 5046 655 .5 2.54 8 0.3924
STEAM TABLES 1037
TABLE 41 1 A (continued)
p' q r A w v
p
' .
3.967 15 1. 1 1 152.1 5037 655 .8 2.621 0.3816
5
4.467 154.71 155.8 501.1 656.9 2.867 0.34 88
5.5
4.967 158 .08 159.3 498.5 657.8 3.112 0.3213
6
5.467 161.21 162 .5 496. 1 658 .6 3.356 0.2980
6.5
5.967 164 . 17 165 .6 493.8 659.4 3.600 0.2778
7
6.467 166.96 168.5 491.6 660.1 3.842 0.2603
7.5
169.61 171.3 4895 6608 4.085 0.2448
8 6.967
7.467 172.12 173.9 487.5 661.4 4.327 0.2311
85
1703 176.4 485.6 662 4.568 0.2189
9 7.967
176 .83 178 .9 483.6 662.5 4.809 0.2080
9.5 8.467
179.04 18 J.2 481.8 663 5.049 0.1981

10 8.967
181.16 183.4 480.1 663.5 5.290 0.1891
105 9.467
183 .20 185 .6 478.3 663.9 5.530 O. J808
11 9.967
185 . 17 187 .7 476.6 664.3 5.770 0.1733
11.5 10.467
187.08 1897 475 664.7 6.010 0.1664
12 10.967
11.467 188 .92 191.6 473.5 665.1 6.249 0.1600
12.5
11.967 190.71 193.5 471. 9 6654 6.488 0.1541
J.1
12467 192.45 195.3 470.4 665.7 6.728 0 . 1486
13.5
12.967 194 .1l 197. 1 468 .9 666 6.967 0.1435
14
13.467 195.77 198.9 467.4 666 .3 7.207 0.1l88
14.5
197.36 200.6 466 666.6 7.446 0 . 1343

15 IJ .967
14.967 200.43 203.9 463.2 667.1 7.925 0.1262
16
203.35 207.1 460 .4 667.5 8.405 0.1190
17 15 .967
206.14 210.1 457 .8 667.9 8.886 0.1126
18 16.967
17.967 208.81 213 455.2 668.2 9.366 0.1068
19
211.J8 215.8 452.7 668.5 9.846 0.1016
20 18.967
19.967 213.85 218.5 450.2 668.7 10.Jl 0.09682
21
216.23 221.2 447.7 668.9 10.81 0.09251
22 20.967
21.967 218.53 223.6 445 .5 669.1 11.29 0.08856
23
22.967 220.75 226.1 443.2 669.3 11. 78 0.08492
24
23. 967 222.90 228.5 440.9 669.4 12 .26 0.08157

25
24.967 224 .99 230 .8 438.7 669.5 12.75 0.07846
26
227 .01 233 436.6 669.6 13.23 0.07557
27 25.967
28 26.967 228.98 2352 434.4 669.6 Il .n 0.07288
27.967 230.89 237.4 432.3 669.7 14.21 0.07037
29
232.76 239.5 430.2 669.7 14.70 0.06802
30 28 .967
236 .35 243.6 426.1 669.7 15.69 0.06375
32 30 .967
32 .967 239.77 247.5 422 . 1 669.6 16.68 0.05995
34
34.967 243.04 251.2 41 8.3 669.5 17 .68 0.05658
36
249.18 258.2 410.8 669 19.69 0.05078
40 38.967
256.23 266.5 401.7 668.2 22.25 0 .04495

45 43 .967
262.70 274.2 393 .1 667.3 24.85 0.04024
50 48.967
274.29 288.4 376.6 • 665 30.21 0.03310
60 58.967
293.62 312.6 346.3 658.9 41.60 0.02404
80 78.967
309.53 334 3 17.1 651.1 54.21 0.01845
100 98.967
340.56 38J.7 243.2 624.9 93.90 0.01065
150 148.967
364.08 431.4 150 .7 582 . 1 161.2 0.00620
200 198.967
374.15 501.5 O 501 .5 315 0.00318
225.6 224.567
1038 STEAM PRODVCTlON AND VSAGE Ch. 41
TABLE 41.1 B
PROPERTIE$ OF DRY SATURATED STEAM (BRInsH UNlTS)
t temperature, inoF r latenl heal af vapori saiion of waler ar

p absolute press ure of the steam, in p.s.i.a. t'F, in B.T.U./lb.
p ' gauge press ure of Ihe steam, in p.s.i.g. A q +r ::= 10lal heal of lIb. of water al 1°F
densily of wal er al (oF. in Ib./cu .rt. w = densj¡y of vapour al f OF, in Jb./cu.rl.
d
q sensible heat to raise lib. af waler from v specific volume of vapour al r °F, in
32 to t'F, in B.T.U./lb. cu.ft./lb.
p d q r X w v
0.0886 62.420 O 1075 1075 0.000303 3305

32
0.1271 62.428 8 1071.3 1079.3 0 .000409 2445
40
0.1780 62.411 18.1 1064 .9 1083 0.000587 1705
50
62 .368 28.1 1059 .3 1087.4 0.000828 1208
60 0.2563
0.2751 62.357 30.1 1058.2 1088.3 0.000886 1130

62
0.2951 62.344 32.1 1057.1 1089.2 0.000947 1057
64
62.331 34 . 1 1056 1090.1 0.001011 989.2
66 0.3163
0.3389 62 .3 18 36. I 1054.8 1090.9 0.001079 926.5
68
70 0.3630 62.303 38.1 1053.7 1091.8 0.001152 868.4
0.3886 62.287 40.1 1052.6 1092.7 0.001228 814.5

72
0.4156 62.271 42 1051.5 1093.5 0.001308 764.6
74
76 0.4444 62.254 44 1050.4 1094.4 0.00 I 393 717.9
0.4749 62 .235 46 1049.2 1095.2 0.001483 674.2
78
0.5070 62.218 48 1048. I 1096.1 0.001579 633.5
80
82 0.5411 62. I 98 50 1046.9 1096.9 0001679 5957

84 0.5771 62.178 52 1045 .8 1097 .8 0.001785 560.4
0.6152 62.158 54 1044.7 1098 .7 0.001896 527 .5
86
88 0.6556 62.137 56 1043.6 1099.6 0.002012 4969
90 0.6983 62.113 58 1042.5 1100.5 0.002135 468.3
92 0.7434 62.092 60 1041.3 1101.3 0.002265 441.5

94 0.7910 62.069 62 1040.1 1102 . 1 0.002402 416.4
96 0.8410 62 .045 64 1039 1103 0.002545 393
0.8939 62.021 66 1037.9 1103.9 0.002696 371
98
100 0.9495 61.995 68 1036.8 1104.8 0.002853 350.5
102 1.0080 61.970 70 1035 .7 1105 .7 0.003019 331 .2

1.0696 61.944 72 1034.5 1106.5 0.003193 313.2
104
1.1347 61.917 74 1033.4 1107.4 0.003376 296.3
106
1.2033 61.890 75.9 1032 .2 1108.2 0.003567 280.4
108
1.2752 61.862 77.9 1031 1109 0.003767 265.5
110
61. 833 79.9 1029.8 1109.8 0.003977 251.4

112 1.3509
61.804 819 1028.7 1110.6 0 .004197 238.3
114 1.4304
61.775 83.9 1027 .6 1111.5 0.004427 225.9
116 1.5137
61.745 85.9 1026.4 1112.3 0.004666 214.3
118 1.6012
61.714 87 .9 1025.2 1113.1 0.004918 203.4
120 1.6929
61.683 89.9 1024.2 1114.1 0.005180 193

122 1.789
61.652 91.9 1023 .1 1115 0.005455 183.3
124 1.890
93.9 1021.9 1115.8 0.005742 174.2
126 1.996 61.619
95.9 1020 .8 1116.7 0.006042 165. 5
128 2.107 61.587
61 .554 97.9 1019 .6 1117 .5 0.006353 157.4
130 2.223
STEAM TABLES 1039
TABLE 41.1 B (conlinued)
q r A
- v
p d
'"
2.345 61.520 99.9 1018.5 1118.4 0.006676 149.8
132
2.472 61.486 101.9 1017.4 1119.3 0.007016 142.5
134
2.605 61.452 103.9 J016.2 1120.1 0.007371 135.7
136
2.744 61.417 105.9 J015.1 1121 0.007741 129.2
138
61.382 107 .9 1013.9 1121.8 0.008127 123 .1
140 2.889
3.041 61.346 109.9 1012.8 1122.7 0.008526 117.3

142
61.309 1 I 1.9 IOH .6 1123.5 0.008943 111.8
144 3.200
61.272 113.9 10 10.4 1124.3 0.009375 106.7
146 3.365
61.235 115.9 1009.2 1125.1 0.009824 101.8
148 3.538
61.198 11 7.9 1008 1125.9 0.01029 97.14
150 3.719
61.160 11 9.9 1006.9 1126.7 0.01078 92.74

152 3.907
4.102 61.121 121. 9 1005.7 1127 .6 0.01129 88.57
154
61.082 123.9 1004 .5 1128.4 0.01182 84.62
156 4.306
61 .043 125 .9 1003 .3 11 29.2 0.01236 80.88
158 4.519
4.741 61.003 127.9 1002.1 1130 0.01293 77.32
160
4.970 60 .963 129.9 1000.9 1130.8 0.01352 73.97

162
5.213 60.922 131.9 999.7 1131.5 0.01413 70.77
164
60.88 1 133.9 998.4 1132.3 0.01477 67.73
166 5.463
5.723 60.840 135.9 997.2 1133.1 0.01542 64.83
168
5.994 60.798 137.9 996 1133.9 0.01611 62.08
170
60.755 139.9 994.8 1134.7 0.OJ68 I 59.47

172 6.274
60.7 J2 141.9 993.6 J J35. 5 0.01755 56.99
174 6.566
60.669 J43.9 992.3 1 J 36.2 0.0183J 54.62
176 6.868
60.626 145 .9 991.1 1137 0.01909 52.37
178 7.184
60.582 147.9 989.9 1137.8 0.01990 50.24
180 7.512
60.538 149.9 988.6 1138.5 0.02074 48.21

182 7.852
60.493 15 1.9 987.4 1139.3 0.02161 46.27
184 8.204
60.448 153 .9 986.1 1140.1 0.02252 44.41
186 8.569
60.403 155.9 984.9 1140.8 0.02345 42.65
188 8.948
60.357 158 983.7 1141.6 0.02441 40.96
190 9.341
9.747 60.311 160 982.4 1142.4 0.02541 39.36

192
60.264 162 981.2 1143 . 1 0.02644 37.82
194 10.168
60.2 17 164 979.9 1143.9 0.02750 36.36
196 10.606
60. 170 166 978.7 1144.7 0.02860 34.97
198 11.059
11 .528 60. 123 J 68 977 .5 1145.4 0.02973 33.64
200
60.075 170 976.2 1146. 2 0.03090 32.36

202 12.013
60026 172 975 1147 0.0321 I 31.14
204 12.514
13.034 59.977 174 973.7 1147.8 0.03335 29 .99
206
59.928 , 176 972.5 1148.5 0.03463 28.88
208 13.569
59.879 178 971.3 1149.3 0.03595 27.82
210 14.124
TABLE 41 .1 B (co ntinued)
p p' q r >- w v
212 14 .696 59 .830 180. 1 970 1150.1 0. 0373 1 26 .80

214 15.290 0 .594 182 . 1 968.8 1150. 9 0.03872 25 .8 3
15.902 1. 206 184. 1 967.4 1151.5 0.040 17 24 .89
216
218 16.535 1.839 J 86.1 906 11 52 . 1 0.04166 24
220 17. 189 2.493 188. 1 964.7 1152.8 004320 23.15
222 17.863 3.167 190.2 963.5 1153.7 0.04478 22 .33

224 18.559 Ü6 3 192.2 962.2 1154.4 0.0464 1 21.55
226 19 .275 4.579 194. 2 960. 8 1155 0.04809 20.79
20.01 6 5.320 196.2 959.2 11 55.7 0.04982 20.07
228
230 20. 779 6.083 198 .2 958.3 11 56.5 0.05 160 19.38
21.567 6.871 200.2 957. 1 11 57. 3 0.05343 18. 72

232
22.380 7.684 202.3 955.7 11 58 0.0553 1 18.08
234
23.218 8.522 204.3 954 .3 1158 .6 0.05724 17.47
236
238 24.08 1 9.385 206.3 95 3 115 9.3 0.05 923 16 .88
24 .970 10.27 4 208.3 951.7 11 60 0.06 127 16 .32
240
242 25 .885 11.1 89 210.4 950.4 11 60.8 0.06337 15.78

244 26 .828 12.132 212.4 949.1 11 61.5 0.0655 3 15. 26
27 .797 13 . 101 214.4 947.7 11 62 .1 0.06775 14.76
246
248 28.795 14.099 216.5 946.3 11 62.8 0.07003 14.28
29.825 15.1 29 21 8.5 945 1163 .5 0. 07236 13.82
250
252 30.883 16. 187 220.5 943.6 1164.1 0.07 476 13.38
254 31. 973 17.277 222.5 942 .3 11 64.8 0.07723 12.95
256 33.093 18.397 224 .6 940.9 11 65.5 0.07976 12.54
258 34.244 19. 548 226.6 939.5 1166. 1 0.08237 12.14
260 35.427 20.731 228.6 938. 1 11 66.7 0.08504 11.76
262 36. 643 21.947 230.7 936.8 1167.5 0.08776 11 .39

264 37.893 23. 197 232.7 935.4 1168.1 0.09057 11 .04
266 39 . 177 24.481 234.7 934 1168.7 0.09345 10. 70
268 40.496 25.800 236 .8 932.6 11 69.4 0.09640 10.37
270 41.851 27.1 55 238.8 931.1 1169.9 0.0994 1 10.06
272 43.250 28.55 4 240.9 929.6 1170. 5 0.1025 9.756

27 4 44 .680 29.984 242.9 928.2 '11 71.1 0 . 1057 9.462
276 . 46.143 31.447 245 926.8 11 7 1. 8 0.1089 9. 179
278 47.650 32.954 247.1 925.4 1172.5 0. 1123 8.907
280 49.200 34 .504 249.1 924.1 11 73.2 0.11 57 8.643
282 50.790 36 .094 251.1 922.7 11 73.8 0.1192 8. 389

284 52.420 37 .724 253.2 92 1.3 1174.5 0.1228 8. 144
286 54.080 39.384 255.2 919 .8 11 75 0. 1264 7. 908
55. 800 41.1 04 257.3 918.4 11 75.7 0 1302 7. 681
288
57.555 42.859 259. 3 91 7 1176.3 0.1340 7.461
290
44.659 26 1.4 915 .5 1176.9 0.1380 7.247

292 59.355
46. 504 263.4 9 14 . 1 11 77. 5 0 . 1420 7.040
294· 61.200
48.394 265.5 912 .7 11 78.2 0.1462 6. 84 1
296 63.090
65.025 50.329 267.6 911 .2 1178.8 0. 1504 6. 650
298
52.3 10 269.6 909.7 11 79. 3 0. 1547 6.464
300 67.006
STEAM TABLES 1041
TABLE 41. 1 8 (conlinued)
p' q r A w v
p
74 .7 60 30733 277.2 904.3 1181.5 0.1714 5.836

70 316.05 286. 2 897 7 1183.9 0.1929 5.184
84.7
94. 7 80 323.92 294.4 891.6 1186 0.2143 4 .666
331. I 7 301. 8 886 .1 1187.9 0.235 7 4.244
104.7 90
337 .89 3089 880.6 1189.5. 0.2570 3.892
114.7 100
110 34416 3154 875.6 1191 0.2781 3.596

124 .7
350.05 321.5 8708 1\92.3 0.2993 3.341
\34 .7 \20
355.59 327 .5 866.2 1193 .7 0.3204 3. \ 2 \
\44.7 \30
360.85 333.1 861.7 1194.8 0.3415 2.928
\54.7 140
365.85 338.4 857.5 1195 .9 0.3626 2.758
164 .7 150
370.61 343.4 85 3.5 1196.9 0.3836 2.607

174 .7 160
375. \8 348 .2 849.5 1197.7 0.4046 2.472
184. 7 170
37955 352 .8 845 .7 \ 198. 5 0.4256 2.349
\94.7 180
383 .75 357.3 841.9 \ 199.2 0.4467 2.239
204 .7 190
387.78 361.7 838 .3 1200 0.4677 2. \ 38
214 .7 200
391.67 365.9 834.7 1200.6 0.4887 2.046

224.7 210
220 395.44 3699 831.2 1201. 1 0.5098 1.962
234.7
230 399.06 373.9 827.8 1201.7 0.53 08 1.8 84
244.7
402 .59 377.7 824.5 12022 05519 1. 8\2
254 .7 240
406 381.3 821.2 1202. 5 0.57 30 1.745
264.7 250
409.32 385 8\ 7. 9 1202 .9 0.594\ 1.683

274. 7 260
270 4\2.56 388.5 814 .8 1203 .3 0.615 I 1.626
284.7
415.70 391.9 8 I 1.6 1203.5 0.6362 1.572
294 .7 280
418. 75 395.3 808.4 1203.7 0.6575 1.521
304.7 290
421.74 398.7 805.4 1204. I 0.6785 1.474
314.7 300
320 427.49 405 799 .6 1204.6 0.7209 1.387

334. 7
340 432.98 4 11 793.9 1204.9 0. 7634 1.310
354.7
438 .24 416.8 788 .4 1205. 2 0 .8060 1.241
374.7 360
443 .28 422 .4 782.9 1205.3 0.8489 178
394.7 380
400 448 .1 3 427.9 777.6 1205.5 0.8919 1.121
414.7
500 470 452.8 752.3 1205 . 1 1.109 0.9016

514 .7
488.8 474.6 728.8 1203.4 J.332 0.7509
614.7 600
505 .4 1 494 .2 706.8 1201 1.559 0.6412
714. 7 700
800 520.33 512 .3 685. 9 1198 .2 1.793 0.55 76
8 14.7
1,000 546.37 544 .7 646 .3 1191 2.281 0.4383
1,014 .7
1,200 568.75 5736 608 .7 11 82 .3 2. 801 0.35 70

1,214.7
597.50 613 554 1167 3.660 0 .2732
1,514. 7 1,500
2,000 636. 82 673 461 1134 5.377 0.1860
2,014.7
696 .08 805. 7 209.3 1015 1 J.930 0.0838
3,014.7 3,000
705.47 ' 902.7 O 902.7 19.660 0.0509
3,207. 4 3,193
1042 STEAM PRODUCTlON AND US AGE Ch. 41
TABLE 41.2
MEAN SPEC IFIC HEAT OF SUP ER H EATED STEAM

(Knoblauch and Ja kob)
This ta ble gives (h e mean specific heat C' of steam bel ween ¡I S sa luralioll lernperatulT ( illld Ihe !"illal h.' lll pe ralu ft'
of superheal T (melric Ul1i(5). This mean specific heal permils of calcu!arion 0 1' Ihe (otal he al in Ih e superhem ed
stea m. A:
A = ), + c (T - t) (41 . 1)
c mean specific heal o f Ihe steam, al cons tan( press ure,. between { and pe
I saturalion temperature of (he Sleam al lhe pressure P. in oC
T final lem peralUre of Ihe su perhea ted steam, in oC
), to tal heal of th e sa turated sleam al pressure p, in kca l/ kg
A to tal heal of (h e superh eated steam al T O and pressure p, in kcal / kg
p abso lule pressure o f [he steam, in kg /cm 2
c, specific heal of saturalcd Sleam al pressure p
p 1 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 25 30
p' O 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 24 29
I 99 120 143 158 /70 179 187 194 200 206 2 11 223 233
.c, 0.487 0.50 1 0.528 0.555 0.584 0.613 0.642 0.670 0.699 0.729 0.760 0.848 0.940
T c c c c c c c c c c c c c
120 0.483
140 0.480 0.496
160 0.478 0.49 1 0.521
180 0.476 0.488 0.515 0.5 44 0576
200 0.475 0.486 0.509 0.534 0.56/ 0.590 0.623 0.660
220 0.47 5 0.485 0.505 0.526 0.548 0.572 0.599 0.629 0.66 1 0.697 0.738
240 0.474 0.484 0.50 1 0.5 19 0.538 0.558 0.580 0.605 0.6 31 0.660 0.694 0. 783 0.898
260 0.474 0.48 3 0.499 0.514 0.530 0.548 0.567 0.588 0.6 10 0634 0.660 0729 0.808
280 0.474 0.482 0.497 0.5 10 0.525 0.5 40 0.556 0.575 0.594 0.615 0.637 0.692 0.752
300 0.474 0.482 0.496 0.508 0.521 0.534 0.548 0.565 0.582 0.600 0.6 19 0.665 0.714
320 0.475 0.482 0.495 0.505 0.517 0.530 0.543 0.558 0. 572 0.589 0.606 0.645 0.685
340 0.476 0.382 0.494 0.504 0.5 / 5 0.527 0.538 0.552 0.565 0.580 0.596 0.630 0.565
360 0. 477 0.483 0.494 0.504 0.514 0.524 0.535 0.548 0.560 0.574 0587 0 .617 0.647
380 0.478 0.483 0.494 0.503 0.5 12 0.522 0.533 0.545 0.556 0.568 0.580 0 .607
400 0.484 0.494 0.503 0.5 11
STEAM TABLES 1043
TABLE 41.3
TOTAL HEAT OF SUPERHEATED STEAM

(Izar! t - afler Mollier)
This table gives [he total heal A of eqn. (41. J) using the same Ilomendature. p' ::r corresponding approximate
gauge pressure, in kg/crn 1
A. METRIC UNlTS
., .
p 9 11 13 17 21 26 31., 41 51 61
p' 8 10 12 16 20 25 30 40 50 60
pe
200 677.5 674.9 67 1. 8
210 6RJ 680.8 67R.2 672.5
220 688.4 686.3 684 6792 673.7
230 693.5 691.6 689.6 685.3 680.6 673 .8
240 698 .7 697 695.2 691.3 687.2 681.2 674.6
250 703 .8 702.2 700.6 697 693.2 688 . 1 682.4
260 709 707.5 706 702.7 699.2 694.6 689.6 677.8

270 714 712.6 711.2 708.1 705 700.8 696.3 686.1 673.6
280 719 717.7 716.3 713.5 710.6 706.8 702.8 693.6 682.8 670.1
290 724 . 1 722.8 721.5 718.9 716.2 712.7 709 700.7 691.3 680.3
300 729.2 727.9 726.7 724.3 72 1.8 718.4 715 707 .5 699.1 689.5
310 734.3 733.1 731.9 729.6 727.2 724.1 721 714 . 1 706.5 698
320 739.3 738.2 737.1 734.8 732.6 729.7 726.8 720.4 713 .5 705.8
330 744.3 743.2 742.2 740 737.9 735.2 732.5 726.6 720.2 713.3
340 749.4 748.4 747.4 745.4 743.4 740.8 738.2 7J2.7 726.7 720.5
350 754.4 753.5 752 .5 750.6 748.7 746.3 743.7 738.5 733 727.2
360 759.4 758.5 757.6 755.8 754 751.7 749.3 744.3 739.2 733.8
370 764.5 763.7 762.8 761.1 759.3 757.1 754.9 750.1 745.4 740.4
380 769.6 768.7 767.9 7662 764.6 762.5 760. 3 755.9 751.5 746.8
390 774.6 773.8 773 771.4 769 .8 767.8 765.7 761.6 757.4 753
400 779.6 778.9 778.1 776.6 775.1 773.1 77 1.2 767.3 763.2 759.1
410 784.8 784. 1 783.3 781.9 780.4 778.6 776.7 772.9 769.1 765.2
420 789.9 789.2 788.5 787.1 785.7 783 .9 782.1 778.5 774.8 771.1
430 795 794.3 793.6 792.3 790.9 789.2 787 .5 784.1 780.5 777
440 800.1 799.4 798.8 797.5 796.2 794.6 792 .9 789.7 786.2 783
450 805 .2 804.5 803.9 802.7 801.4 799.9 798.3 795.2 792 788.8
460 810.2 809.6 809 807.8 806.6 805.1 803.6 800.6 797.5 794.5
470 8 15 .3 814.8 814.2 813 811.9 810.4 809 806.1 803.2 800.2
480 820.5 820 819.4 818.3 817.2 815.8 814.4 8/1 .6 808.8 806
490 825.7 825.2 824.6 823.6 822.5 821.2 819.8 8/7 .1 814 .5 8/1 .7
500 838.8 830.3 829.7 828.8 827.7 826.4 825.2 822.6 820 817.4
510 836 835.5 835 834.1 833 831.8 830.6 828.1 825 .5 823
520 841.2 840.7 840.2 839.3 838.3 837.1 835.9 833.5 831 828.6
530 846.4 846 845.5 844.6 843.7 842.6 841.4 839 836.6 834.4
540 851.6 851.2 850.8 849.9 849 847.9 846.8 844.5 842.2 840
550 856.8 856.4 856 855.1 854.3 853.2 852.1 849.9 847.8 845.6
1044 STEAM PRODUCTlON AND US AGE Ch.41
B. BRlTISH UNITS (A lN B.T.U./ lb.)
T"F
p p
(p.s .;.a.) (p.s.;.g.) 400 500 600 700 800 900 /000
114 .7 100 1226.0 1277.0 1327.6 1378 .0 1428.0 14 79.6 1531.0

134.7 120 1223.0 1275.1 1326.3 1376.8 1427 .6 14 78.8 15 30.6
154.7 140 1219.8 1273.6 1324.8 1375 8 142 6.8 14 78. 1 1530.1
174 .7 160 121 6.2 1271.7 1323.3 1374. 6 1425.8 14 77.4 1529.6
194.7 180 121 2.6 1269.6 1321.9 1373. 6 142 5. 1 14 76.7 1528 .9
214 .7 200 1208 .7 1267.6 1320.4 1372. 5 1424 .3 14 75.9 1528.4
264.7 250 1262.3 1316.9 1369.7 1422.0 14 74.3 152 6.9

314.7 300 1256.7 1313.1 1367.0 141 9.8 1472.5 1525 .6
364.7 350 1250.9 1309.3 1364.1 141 7.6 1470.8 1524.1
414.7 400 1244.8 1305.5 1361. 4 141 5.4 1469.1 1522.7
464.7 450 1238.0 1301.4 j 358.4 1413 .2 1467.2 1521.3
514.7 500 1230 .8 1297.4 1355.5 1411.0 1465.5 1520.1
614.1 600 1214.5 1288.8 1349 .6 1406 .6 1462.0 1517.0
814.1 800 1269.8 1337.3 1397.5 1454.9 1511.3
srEAM rABLES 1045
rABLE 41 .4 A
SP ECIFIC VOLUME OF SUPER HE AT ED STE AM (METR1C UNITS)
P absolute pressure or ¡he steam , in kg /c m~

p' approximate gauge pressu re of sleam, in kg/cm 1
I corresponding s8 1uralion le mperalure al p, in oC
T temperature of the superhealed steam, in oC
v specHic voJume o f sleam al Toe and pressure P. in mJ / kg
Sp. vol. v in mJ l kg 01 a femperalure T rOe) o/::

p p' 1°C
150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
O 99.1 1. 725 1.976 2.215 2.453 2.69 1 2.927 3. 164 3.400 3.636
2 I 119.6 0.902 0.980 1. 102 1.222 1.342 1. 46 I 1.580 1.698 1.8 16
3 2 132.9 0.6 17 0.647 0.73 1 0.812 0.892 0.972 1. 052 1. 131 1.210
4 3 142.9 0.471 0.48 1 0.545 0.607 0.668 0.728 0.788 0.847 0.907
5 4 151.1 0.382 0.43 4 0.484 0533 0. 581 0.629 0.677 0.725
6 5 158. 1 0.321 0.359 0.402 0.443 0.484 0.524 0.564 0.60 4
7 6 1642 0 .278 0.306 0.343 0.379 0.4 14 0.448 0.483 0.517
8 7 1696 0.245 0.267 0.299 0.330 0.36 1 0.392 0.422 0. 452
9 8 174'.5 0.2 19 0.235 0.265 0.293 0.32 1 0.348 0.375 0.401
10 9 179 0.198 0.210 0.237 0.263 0.288 0.3 13 0.337 0.36 1
11 10 183.2 0. 181 0.190 0.215 0.239 0.26 1 0.284 0.306 0.328
12 11 187.1 0. 166 0. 173 0.196 0.2 18 0.239 0.260 0.280 0.300
13 12 190.7 0. 154 0.159 0.181 0.201 0.220 0.239 0.258 0.277
14 13 194 .1 0.144 0. 146 0. 167 0.186 0.204 0.222 0.240 0.257
15 14 197.4 0.134 0. 136 0. 155 0.173 0 . 190 0.207 0.223 0.240
16 15 200.4 0.126 0. 14 5 0 . 162 0.178 0.194 0.209 0.225
17 16 203.3 0. 119 0. 136 0. 152 0 .167 0.182 0. 197 0.2 11
18 17 206.1 0.113 0. 128 0. 143 0.158 0.172 0.186 0.199
19 18 208 :8 0.107 0. 120 0. 135 0.149 0. 162 0.176 0. 189
20 19 211. 4 0.102 0. 114 0. 128 0.141 0.154 0. 167 0 . 179
21 20 213.8 0.0968 0. 108 0. 122 0. 134 0. 147 0.159 0.170
22 21 216.2 0.0925 0.103 0. 11 6 0.128 0.140 0. 15 1 0. 162
23 22 218.5 0.0886 0.0978 0.110 0. 122 0.133 0.144 0.155
24 23 220.7 00849 0.0932 0. 105 0. 11 7 0. 128 0.138 0. 149
25 24 222.9 0.0816 0.0890 0.10 1 0. 11 2 0. 123 0.133 0.143
26 25 225 0.Q785 0.0852 0.0968 0.107 0. 11 8 0.127 0 .137
27 26 227 0.0756 0.0817 0.0930 0. 103 0. 11 3 0. 123 0 . 132
28 27 229 0.0729 0.0783 0.0894 0.0994 0. 109 0.118 0.127
29 28 230.9 0 .0704 0.0752 0.0860 0 .0958 0.105 0. 11 4 0. 123
30 29 232.8 0.0680 0 .0723 0.0829 0.0924 0.10 1 0. 11 0 0.118
31 30 234.6 0.0658 0.0696 0.0800 0.0893 0.0979 0. 106 0. 11 5
36 35 243 0.0566 0.0582 0.0678 0.076 1 0.0837 009 10 0 .0982
4I 40 250.6 0.0495 0.0585 0.066 1 0.0730 0.0795 0.0859
51 50 263.9 0.0394 0.0454 0.0520 0.0578 0 .0632 0.0685
61 60 275. 4 0.0325 0.0364 0 .0425 0.0476 0.0523 0.0568
1046 STEA M P RODUC TlON AND USAGE Ch.41
TABLE 41.4 B
SPECIFIC YOLUME OF SUFERHEATED STEAM (BRlTfSH UN/TS)
P absolu te pressu re Or steam, in p.s.i.a.

p' gauge pre.o;sure, in p.s.i.g.
I temperatu re or sa turaled sleam al pressure P, in 1f
T lemperalure or the superheated steam, in °F
v specific volum e of the steam al TOF. in cu. fl. /lb.
Sp. vol. v in cu.fl./lb. al a (emperafll re T (OF) oI

p p' I "F
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
14.7 O 212 26.8 30.5 34.7 38.8 42 .9 46.9 51.0 55.1 59 . 1

24.7 10 239.4 16.5 18. 1 20.6 23.0 25 .5 27.9 30.3 32.7 35.2
34.7 20 258.8 12.0 12 .8 14.6 16.3 18. 1 19.8 21.6 23 ) 25 .0
54 .7 40 286.7 7.83 8.00 9. 18 10 .3 11.4 12. 6 13.7 14 .8 15 .9
74.7 60 307.3 5. 84 6.67 7.5 1 8.35 9. 17 9.98 10 .8 11.6
94.7 80 323.9 4.67 5.22 5.90 6.56 7.22 7.86 8.50 9. 14
11 4.7 100 337.9 3. 89 4 .28 4.85 5.40 5.94 6.48 7.01 7.54
134.7 120 350 3.34 3.61 4.11 4.5 8 5.05 5.51 5.96 6.42
154.7 14 0 360.9 2.93 3.12 3.56 3.98 439 4 .79 5.19 5.5 8
174.7 160 370.6 2.6 1 2.7 4 3.13 3.51 388 4.23 4.59 4.94
194.7 180 379 .5 2.35 2.42 2.80 3. 14 3.47 3.79 4.11 4.43
214.7 200 387.8 2. 14 2. 19 2.53 2.84 3.14 3.43 3.72 4.01
234.7 220 395.4 1.96 1. 98 2.30 2.59 287 3.14 3.40 3.66
254 .7 240 402 .6 1. 81 2. 11 2.38 2.63 2.89 3.13 3.37
274.7 260 409.3 1.68 1. 94 220 2.44 2.6 7 2.90 3. 1J
294.7 280 415 .7 1.57 1.80 2.04 2.27 2.49 2. 70 2.9 1
3 14 .7 300 421 .7 1.47 1.68 1.90 2.12 2.32 2.52 2.73
334.7 320 427. 5 1.]9 1. 57 1.78 1.98 2. 18 2 . .17 2.56

35 4.7 340 43 3 1. 31 1.47 1. 68 1.87 2.06 2.23 2.41
374.7 360 438.2 1. 24 1.]8 1.58 1.77 1.94 2.1 1 2.28
394.7 380 443.3 1.1 8 1.30 1.50 1.67 1. 84 2.00 2. 16
414.7 400 448.1 1.1 2 1.23 1.42 159 1. 75 190 2.06
464.7 450 459.5 1.000 1.08 1.25 1.41 1.55 1.ó9 1.83
5 14 .7 500 470 0.902 0 .956 1. 12 1.26 1.40 1.49 1. 65
6 14 .7 600 488.8 0.751 0.772 0.921 1.05 1.16 1.27 1.37
7 14 .7 700 505.4 0.641 . 0.775 0.887 0.988 1.08 1.18
814.7 806 520.3 0.55 8 0.664 0.768 0.859 0.945 1. 03
42. Steam Turbines
CONCISE THEORY OF THE STEAM TURBlNE
Fundamental equation
The equario n which conslilures rhe basis of all calcu larions in fluid mec hanics is that of Ber-
noulli:
dz + v dp + d (~;) = O (42.1)
lt simply expresses the conse rvarion of energy along a thin stream of fluid in motion :
z = head of rhe fluid
v specific volume of the fluid
p = pressure
V = velocit y
g = acceleration due to gravity.
For gases, and in particular for stea m, the in tegral of dz is always negligible:
(1) Because in the turbin e everything rakes place at the same height, whi ch is th a t of the
turbine,
(2) Because v, which is smalJ in hyd rau lics (for water, v = 0.001 m 3 /kg), is high for stea m
(v = 1,650 m 3 /kg for saturated sieam even a t 100°C).
In limiting ourselves to steam , and taking no account of z, we obtain the formula of Barré
de Saint- Venant:
V'
t.;-
2g
(42.2)
which applies to perfect fluids and does not rake friction into acco unt. The indices 1 and 2
apply, respectively, ro the initial and final states of the s team in the change under considera-
tion.
Relation between heat drop and steam velocity

Let us co nsider a transformarion of steam from o ne state A to anorher sta te B, for instance:
passage of rhe steam in (for rhe sake of simplification) a single-stage rurbine. L et us draw
a dynamic' diagram (Fig. 42.1). The Saint- Venant formula (42.2) gives us o
V'8 - V'A
=
r) P,
v dp = W (42.3)
2g P,
1048 STEAM TURBINES Ch. 42
VA = velocity 01' the steam in sta te A (before th e transformation, for inslance upstream 01'
the wheel)
V. = velocity 01' lhe sleam in stale 8 (afler Ihe Iransformalion, 1'01" instan ce issuing from
lhe wheel)
w area 8baA = work done by lhe Sleam in the lransformalion.
"-
0·f-____________________'_'~A~2_
o~ ________________________ __
~v
o~----------------------~ _____
Fig. 42.1. Transforma!ion of steam. p - v diagram .
Fig. 42.2. Transformalion of sleam. Enlropy diagram.
In lhe case 01' lhe lurbine, starting from the nozzle-chest, we may always neglect V~
(steam velocity in the nozzle-chest) in comparison with V~, and \Ve obtain:
V' = 2g W (42.4)
V velocity 01' lhe sleam producing wbrk W.

=
On lhe entropic diagram, lhe line 01' zero volume is practically the ¡ine x = O. The cross-
hatched area (Fig. 42.2) represent s the heM used q:
W = Eq (42.5)
E = inechanical equivalent of the kcal = 42 7 kg m (1 BTU. 778.3 fl.lb.)

q = Al - A" which can be read on the diagram.
We have then:
V = .J 2gEq = .J [2 x 9.8 x 427 ( ~ "':'-~;)J

(42.6)
(224 .J Al - A,)
This is a theoreti ca l equalion and relates 10 a perJ'ect gas. As steam is no t a perfect gas, \Ve
must write in practice:
V = 91.5 .J Ci (Al - A,) (224 .J Ci (Al - A,)) (42.7)

· CONCISE THEOR y OF THE STEAMS TURBINE 1049
V steam velocity, in mi s (fr.s)

A, total heat of the stea m, before the wheel, in kcal/kg (B.T.U./lb.)
A, total heat of the steam, leaving Ihe wheel, in kcal/kg (B.T.U .llb.)
with:
Cl =0.94 for a fir sl wheel, simple or multiple
Cl 0.98 for the second and following wheels
=
Cl = 0.97 to calculate the speed al lhe Ihroat of a nozzle.
In order lO lake into accounl Ihe friclion in a nozzle, lhe same formula is used, with a
= 0.85.
This formula (42.7) is one of lhe mosl imporlanl in calculations relatin~ 10 Slea m turbines.
Oulpul of a nozzle
The Sainl- Venant formula allows us to study Ihe fl ow of stea m through an elongated opening
linking two compartments where pressures are respectively PI upstream and p, downstream.
The fine streams of f10wing steam take the shape shown in Fig. 42.3, and form a constric-
tion.
lt may be shown thal pressure Po at the cons triction, for perfect gases, depends only on
the upstream pressure P,.
Po = 0.52pl (42 .8)
But steam is nOI a ·perfect gas and in practice we have:
Po 0.58pl for saturated steam

(42.9)
Po 0.54pl for superheated steam
Oulput .
OL----------L--------~---P2
0.54 P,
Fig. 42.3. Flow of sleam. Fig. 42.4. OU(pUI of a nozzle.
We sée that superheated steam is closer to being a perfect gas than is saluraled steam.
If we draw a graph plotting the sleam OUlpUI of Ihe nozzle as a funclion of Ihe downslream
pressure (Fig. 42.4), we shall see that Ihe OUlpUI remains consta nI while:
p, ,¡; 0.54pl
l hen decreases rapidly and falls 10 O when p, = P,.

II follows from (his tha l. in a tur bi ne. Ihe sleam oulput. and consequenlly the power.
depends on ly o n the cha racteristics of the upstream sleam. PI and V,. and on Ihe sectiollS
at , he .lhro a ls of lhe nozzles before the firsl wheeJ.
Shape of (he nozzle

The form given lO th e nozzle is thal whi ch the flowing steam tend s to tak e. Between the inlel
and the throat. the form is roughly that of a cone with an apical angle of r. Thi s angle is
an optim um: a smaller angle wo uld make a nozzle too elongaled, thus increas ing friclion;
a wide r angle would not be f01l0wed by lhe steam.
The section al the throat approximates to a sq uare. If we do no t ha ve exac tl y a square,
the square should be found between lhe throat and lhe exhausl.
IMPULSE TURBINES AND REA CTlON TURBINES
The Bern ou 1li equation (42.1). d isca rding th e neg li gib le firsl lerm dz. shows that the steam
produ ced by the boilers has two power-generaling prope rties: its pressure and il s velocilY·
Since the steam re aches the nozzle-chest wit h pr aclical ly a negligible velocil Y. all ils energy
is in realit y in its pressure (if il is superhealed lhe fa cto r v of the lerm V dp obviously shows
th at the energy co nt ained in a given weig hl of lhal steam at a given pressure increases with
its superh ea t) .
The energy contained in lhe steam under Ih e form of pressure can be used in two ways:
(a) By co nve rtin g il entirely 10 velocil y
(b) By using part of il direclly uncler Ihe form of pressure, and by convenin g Ih e res t into
velocity.
Each of these two methods leads to a special Iype of tur bi ne:
(a) That in which alllhe energy is used under th e form of veloe ily: Ihi s is Ihe impulse lur-
bine.
(b) Thal in whieh lhe energy is used parlly under Ihe form of pressure and pa rll y und er
the form of veloei ty: thi s is the reaclion lurbine.
The impulse lurbine is so ca lled because il is actuated by the impulse or impa cl due 10 Ihe
velocily of Ihe stea m. The reaclio n lurbine gets ilS na me from lhe facl Ihal Ihe expansion
of th e sleam in the mo ving blades causes a reacl ion on them; thi s reacl ion conlribules 10 their
mov emenl. as does lhe impa cl due 10 lhe Sleam veloc il Y. In olher wo rds: while il is Ihe sleam
pressure Ihal is used in all tu rbi ne s. so rne are driven by th e impul se of Ihe speed imparted
10 lh e steam by Ihe press ure drop; these are impul se lurbines. Others rotate under the effeets
of (a) lh e speed given to the Sleam by parl of lhe pressure drop and (b) the reaelion caused
in lhe wheels by lhe expansion d ue lo Ihe fraelion of Ihe pressure drop nOI Iransformed in 10
speed : lh ese are lhe impulse and reaclion (or aClion and reaelion) lurbines. more briefly lerm-
ed reaelion lurbines.
This dislinetion is not at a1l purely aeademic: il imposes il self on th e desig ner, from one
end of the turbine to Ihe olher. In lhe impulse lurbine, Ih e lola l sec li on of lhe passage
Ihrough lhe fixed dislributor blading will have 10 in erease in a given di slribulo r as we ll as
inereasing in lhe suceess ive di slribUl ors. The exil of a dislribulor wi ll ha ve 10 be caJcu laled
iMPULSE TURBINES AND REACTION TURBINES 1051
for Ihe saine pressure as Ihe enl ry of Ihe following dislribulor, however, while the steam wil!
Ira verse the wheel pl aced in between Ihese Iwo dislribulors al a conslant pressure.
Impulse lurbines
ConSlruction of lhe lurbine. A ccording lO whal we have jusI said, lhe wheel s of an impulse
lurbine are nol designed ro wilh sland a difference in pressure. Thal is lhe reason why they
are perforaled, so Ihal if, unexpecledly, lhere happened lO be a reaction , lhe pressure could
al once equalise on lhe lwo sides. However, lhe laSI wheels are nol perforaled, beca use:
(a) The difference in press ure is small (ef. Table 42.2),
(b) Reaclion on lhe lasl wheel s is not a drawback , bu! ralher an adv anlage (ef. p. 1063),
(e) Th ose wheel s have lon ger blades and are submitted lO a higher Slress·. 'Therefore il is
beller nOI lo perforale Ihem .
Nozzle chest
Fig. 42 .5. B ac~- press ure st ea';' turbine (Fives Cail - Babcoc k) .
Figure 42.5 gives a seclional view of a lurbine. Th e h.p. sleam comes in al the admi ss ion
nozzle-c heSI and pass es lhrough Ihe nozzles onlo the bJadings of a firsl wheel. Jssuing from
tha! wheel, j( is taken up by fixed blading, which gives it Ihe desired direclion and direcls
il on lO a second wheel, and so on (Fig. 42.6). An importan! poinl in the construction of
a lurbine wiIl lhen be lhe correCI desi gn of Ihe blading; it has lO recei ve or guide Ihe sleam
with the minimum of shocks, eddies, and friction. The material 01' the blading is slee l IVilr
12070 chromium.
Nozzle s
7/// Fixed
Movi ng
1st wheel ~'O----
Relurn
blodes Fixed
2nd w heel _ - - Moving
Fig. 42.6. Blading.
Efficiency of a wheel. Let

V = mean peripheral speed 01' the blading due to the rotation
V absolute steam velocity
W relative steam velocity, relative 10 the blading
CI angle between Vand V
(3 angl e between Vand W.
Lel us use index I for the entry to the wheel, and index 2 I'or the ex il (Fig. 42.7). As lhere
is no expansion and as we neglect friction : W, = W,. Besides. V, = V, since \Ve are con-
sidering a 'single wheel through which th e steam passes in a direcli on parallel to the shaft.
Finally, we consider generally: (3, = 180 - (3,.
Let us draw the figure again, transferring O 2 10 O" and W 2 to W, (Fig. 42.8).
We ¡hen have:
V¡ = Vi + 4V' - 4VV, COSCl, (42.10)
u 0,
Fig . 42.7. Ve[ocity of Sleam al e nlry and exit of a wheel. Fig. 42.S. Tri angle al' velocilies.
IMPULSE TURBINES ANO REACTION TURBINES 1053
Now, the wheel receives the energy: (CvDl2g and releas es wil hollt work: CJ/ll2g.
e = output of the steam from lhe turbine.
Thus lhe effic ien cy is:
v~ - v~
(42.11)
Q
v~
.and we obJain, replacillg the numerator by Íls value taken from (42.10):
4 U (V, COS a, - U)
Q (42.12)
V~
for a given speed V, and a given angle a " let us try and find th e value of U which :w'ill
give us the maximum efficiency. We notice that the sum of the 2 variable factors in th e
numerator is a constant:
therefore we have a maximum when the 2 terms are equal or :
U = V, cos a, - U
or
U cos a,
(42.13)
2
Cornments: (1) Normal delivery. We may write:
(42.14)
which shows that, in fig. 42.8, V, is at right-angles to the movement of the wheels.
(2) Maximum efficiency. We get ma ximum erficiency for:
V, cos a,
U (42.15)
2
lis value is:
V~ cos' a,
4 .
4
QM COS 2 al (42.16)
V;
Wc sce rhen rha! rhe maximum efficiency corresponds to rhe smallest angle "". But rhere
is a limir to rhe diminurion of rhe enrrance angle, for, with a, = O, Ihe sream would nOl'enter
lhe wheel. In general, a, varies belween 12° and 20° for lhe firsl wlleel. Quile afIen we have
a, = 16°. It increases in lhe following wheels, up 10 35° and evel1 40° ror lhe la sl dislribulor.
(3) The € rule. Let us suppose:
(42.17)
COI1c1ilion (42.13) willlllen be expresse cl by lhe I"ollowing rule : lhe ralio € 01" lhe peripheral
speed of rile wheel 10 lhe enlrance velocil)' of lile sleam 10 ilS blades has all oplilllum "alue
= (cos a,)/2.
We ha ve seen lhar (x, could nor be sma ller lhan 12°. Theorelically, lhen, lhe oprimum €
can nOl exceed 0.49. Besides, ir is advanlageous lo increase the expansion, and, since a func-
lion varies litlle in lhe vic inil Y of ilS maximum, il is possible 10 gel aIVay sligllll)' from lhe
oplimum ralio wilhout appreciably changing Ihe efficiency. In praclice, lherel-ore, we shall
nOl exceed:
€ = 0.45.
11 is lhe rOlalional speed U which Jimits rhe designer, on account of the Slress in Ihe sleel
due lO lhe centrifugal force. The smaller ~, rhe grealer is V, and consequently rhe Ilear drop
q which is proporlional to V' (cf. eqn. 42.6). We shall Ihen come lo\\' er in lile enlropic
diagram, lo a lower pressure p,. A grealer drop in eilch wlleel \\'ill meiln re\\'er \Vheels, \\'i lh
downstream temperatures and pressures clecreasing mo re rapielly, 1 hcrefore fe\\'er metal ex-
pansions and leakages. For thal reason, rhe Illeorelicil l efficiency is somelimes sacrificed and
one comes down to ~ = 0.30. Jf it is nOl desired ro lel lhe efficiency sufrer 100 Illuch , lile
value is preferaQly·kepl in the vicinily of: ~ = 0.40. In lhe sugar indusrry, the lurbin es are
back-pressure lurbines in which lhe efficiency is nol of primar)' importance, since lhe
manufaClure of sugar requires more exhausl sleam Ihall rile rurbine can produ ce. Therefore
lhe lurbines here will generally have a € va rying fl"Om 0.30 10 0.40.
N.B. The Greek lell er ~ is pronounced "xi".
Internal efficiency of the wheel. The effici ency we have jusI considered, expressed by for-
mula (42.11), takes inlo accounl only lhe residua l 1055 V¡l2g. II is also possible lO lake inlo
accounl Ihe losses undergone by lhe Sleam, lhrough shocks, friclion i1lld lurbulellce, durillg
ilS passage in lhe wheel. They amounl 10:
w¡ w¡
(42.18)
2g
e = Sleam output of the turbine.

Tll e ve locil)' U being the same al Ihe enlry and al lhe exit, \Ve c,ln clra\\' ril e rri angle 01"
velocilie s al enlry alld rhe lriangle al exil 011 the sallle vec lor AB = U (Fig. 42.9). Those 111'0
lriangl es give us:
IMPULSE TURBINES AND REACTlON TURBINES 1055
W', vi + u' 2 U V, cos ""

W'2 V¡ + u' 2 UV, cos ""
) (42.19)
Hence:
Vi - Vj - (Wi - WD 2 U (V, cos a, - V, cos a,) (42 .20)
Mul!iplying by C!2g we have :
Vi vj Wi - W; C
C . - - C- - - c· = 2 U (V, cos a, - V, cos a,) (42.21)
2g 2g 2g 2g
Now:
Vi
C ' - = power provided at the wheel
2g
loss Ihrough res idual speed
wi wj
C· --;:--- Josses thr ough shocks and friclion.
2g
e B u
e
Fig. 42.9. lnlernal efficiency of lhe wheeL
The first term of eqn. (42.2]) represents lhe power remaining after laking into account
Ihese Iwo losses. Relalillg il lo ¡he power provided for, we shall have lhe "internal efficien -
cy" of lhe wheel:
2.U (V, COS 0', - V, COS 0'2)

(42.22)
V ,
2
II is also called: "hydraulic efficiency" or "thermodynamic efficie ncy".

On lhe diagram (Fig. 42.9), we can read il graphicall y:
2U x ca (42.23)
v¡
Necessity of having several wheels. The normal heal drop in a lurbine, belween Ihe boilers
and lhe ex hallst main, is aboul 100-150 kcal / kg ( 180-270 B.T.U./lb.) The most freqllem
value would be:
~A (23 kg/cm', 350°C) = 747 kcal/kg

~B (0.5 kg/cm', x = 0:93) 607 kcal/kg
140 kcal/kg
(
~A (327 p:s.ig., ~62°F) 1,344 B.T.U ./lb.\
~B (7 p.s.J.g., x - 0.93) 1,092 B.T.U./lb. !
I
~A - ~B = 252 B.T.U./lb. ,
1l' we wished lO use lhis all on one wheel, we sllolllcJ reilcll lil e I'o llowing Slcalll velocil)':
v = 91.5 .JO:9;¡)('140 = 1,050 mis (3,447 fUs)
whic h would require a peripheral speed 01':
v = IV = 0.40 x 1,050 = 420 mis (1,379 I'l. / s)
We cannol hope, by a long way, however, lo realise such a speed. The highesl speeds reach-
ed in smaIl turbines are aboul 300 mi s (1,000 fl./s), and generall)' sleps are laken to keep to
moderate speeds, 160 - 220 mis (500 -720 fI./s). Allen I generall)' adopls 190 mis. For
general figures, it mal' be commenled in passing thal the maXilllllnl speeds used in lurb ines
01' very high power are of th e order 01' 570 mi s (1,870 fl./s).
In order lo remain under lhe conditions 01' maxilllum erficiency, i.e. in order 10 observe
lhe I rule, we may follow two methods.
1st Method: pressure compounding. If the turbine functions belween Ihe pressures P4
and PB' the lotal pressure drop will be'divided inlo x stages, each slage consisling 01' a ring
01' fixed distributor blading, where all the expansion \V iII lake place, and 8 wheel lhroug h
which lhe steam will pass al a conSl3nl presslIre.
How should lhese partial expansions be apport ioned?
Rule. Efficien cy is at a maximum when all the wheels ha ve th e S3me power.

Under those conditions, each wheel will have ro absorb ql x kcal or B.T. U., and each set of
distributor blading wiIl deliver the Sleam a l a velocilY:
V., = 91.5 Ja x.CJ. (42.24)
and ¡he optimum peripheral speed will be: Ux ~V .

x
IMPULSE TURBINES AND REACTION TURBINES 1055
w', Vi + u' 2 UV, cos <>,
w', Vj + u' 2 U V, cos <>, } (42.19)
Hence:
V¡ - Vi - (W¡ - WD 2 U (V , cos 0', - V, cos <>,) (42 .20)
Mulliplying by Cl2g we llave:
C' Vi _ c. v¡ _ c. w¡ - wj C
2 U (V, cos 0', - V, cos 0',) (42.21)
2g 2g 2g 2g
Now:
V',
C'- power provided al Ihe wheel
2g
V',
loss Ihrough res idual speed
2g
W¡ W¡
C· --;0--- losses through shocks and frictian.
2g
e B
e
fig. 42.9. (nternal efficiency of the wheel.
The firSI term of eqn. (42.21) represents Ihe power remaining after taking imo accounr
Ihese 111'0 losses. Relaling il lo rhe power provided for, we shall have Ihe "internal efficien-
cy" of the wheel:
2, U (V, COS el' I - V, cos 0',)

(42.22)
vi
It is also called: "hydraulic efficiency" or "thermodyna mic efficiency".
On rhe diagram (Fig. 42.9), we can read ir graphically:
2U x ca (42.23)
vi
Necessity of having several wheels. The normal heaI drop in a lurbine , be lween lhe boi lers
and lhe exhaust main, is aboul 100-150 kcal/kg (180-270 BT.U ./ lb .) The mosl frequenl
va lu e would be:
AA (23 kg/cm ' , 350°C) = 747 kcal / kg

A8 (0.5 kg/c m', x = 0:93) 607 kcal / kg
140 kcal/ kg
AA (327 p:s.i.g., ~62°F) = 1,344 B.T.U ./lb. \

AO (7 p.s.l.g., x - 0.93) 1,092 B.T. U ./lb. !
(
AA - AO = 252 B.T.U ./ lb. , I
I f we wished 10 use Ihi s all on one wheel, we SllOlI ld reach Ih e J'o llowi ng Slealll velocilY:
v= 91.5 .JO:'94>(" 140 = 1,050 m Is (3,447 ft./s)
which would require a peripheral speed of:
v = 1V = 0.40 x 1,050 = 420 mIs (1,379fUs)
We cannOI hope, by a long way, however, to reali se such a speed . The highe sl speeds reach-
ed in sma ll turbines are about 300 mIs (1,000 ft ./5), and generally steps are laken to keep 10
moderate speeds, 160-220 m Is (500-720 fl. /s ). Allen' generally adopls 190 m Is. For
genera l figures, il may be commenled in passing thal Ihe nwximllm speeds used in Illrb ines
01' very high power are 01' Ihe arder 01' 570 mIs (1,870 1'1./5).
In order lO remain under Ih e condilio ns 01' ma xilllum efficiency, i.e. in order 10 observe
Ihe 1 rule, we may follow IIVO melhods.
1st Melhod: pressure compounding. If Ihe lu rbine functions belween Ihe pressures P,
and PB' lhe total pressure drop wil l be 'divided inlo x slages , each slage co nsisling of a ring
of fixed distriblltor blading, where all the expansion \Vi ii lake place, and a \\'heel Ihr ough
w hi ch the Sleam will pass al a cons tan! press ure.
H ow s hould lhese parlial expansions be apponioned?
Rule. Efficiency is at a maximum w hen aH lhe wheels ha ve lhe same power.

Un der those conditions, each wheel wi ll ha ve lO absorb q/x kcal or B.T . U ., and each sel of
distribulor blading will deliver lhe Sleam al a velocilY:
V = 91.5
,
J a.C{x (42.24)
and lhe optimum peripheral speed will be: U, w· x

IMPULSE TURBINES ANO REACTION TURBINES 1057
Whence:
91.5H
l
= (42.25)
u V 91.5~ -fX
Wilh four wheels, il wiJl lherefore be possible lo use a speed only half of that necessary
for a single wheel.
Determination 01 the number 01 wheels. Let:

x = the total number of wheels in rhe turbine
q = the total heat drop: AA - A.
q, = the heat drop in lhe first wheel
q" = lhe heat drop in each of the folJowing wheels.
II is ad vantageous to have the same diameter and the same ~ for aJl the wheels of lhe tur-
bine, and Ihis is easy lo realise in a back-pressure turbine suitable for Ihe sugar factory. We
shaJl then ha ve:
v = U = 7rn D Constant (42.26)

~ 60 E
n = roralion speed of the turbine, in r.p.m.

D = diameler of Ihe wheels, at the middle of the blading, in m (ft.)
V = steam velocity, in mi s (ft.s).
Since (eqn. 42.7):
,-
V = 91.5 ,j 0.94q, = 91.5 IO.98qn (224 ,j 0.98 q)
with:
q, = q - (x - I)qn
We lhen require:
0.94 [q - (x - l)qn 1 = O.98Qn
Hence:
q (x + 0.04)qn (42.27)
Since:
U = EV = E91.5 ,j 098qn E91.5 )0.98 x q

+ 0.04
1058 STEAM TURBINES Ch . 42
Hence:
x + 0.04
8,205 (AA - A8 ) e
(
49,085 (AA - A8 ) e) (42.28)
U' . • U'
Rule. We shall give lo x lhe values: J, 2, 3, 4; 5, eIC.; we sha l.1 calculale Ihe correspo ndin g
va lu es of ~, a nd we shall choose lhe number of whee ls x which will give Ihe ~ va lu e neareSI
10 Ih a l desired.
2nd Meth od: velocity compounding. In o rde r lo relain the co ndilion s of maximum effi-
ciency, one can also ulilise Ihe pressure d rop (o r pa rl of il) by se nding Ihe Sleam, under a
constanl pr.essure (impulse lurbine), Ihrough Iwo or more success ive rings o f mobil e blading
dis posed on Ihe same whee l, and se parated by fixed reclifying blades (Fi gs. 42.10 and 16.2) .
Fixed b/odes
Fig. 42.10. Double wheel.
Characlerislics of multiple wheels. A sludy of Ihis so luli o n, simil a r to Ihe one \\'e have jusI
made of a single w heel , leads lo Ihe following co nclll sions:
(al E· A mllltipl e wheel wil h n rings has an op lillllllll E 0 1:
COS Ctl
En = 2n (42.29)
Consequentl y, if Ihe optimllm E of a sing le whee l is 0 .42, for inslallce, Ihal 01" a double
wheel will be 0 .21 and Ihal 01" a Iriple whecl 0. 14:
En = ~In (42.30)
(b) Heal drop: si nce il is Ihe periphera l speed w hi ch seiS Ihe limil 10 l!le designe!", ancl since
thal limil is almosl the same for a mullipl e wheel and for a single whee l, we sh all need 10
ha ve (subscripl 1 refers 10 Ihe sing le w!l eel and subscripl n 10 Ihe Illulliple one):
U E, V, = E, . V (42.31)
n
n
IMPULSE TURBINES AND REACTlON TURBINES 1059
Hence:
(42.32)
or:
91.5 .j aq, = n 91.5 ~
Hence:
(42.33)
We can see, Ihen, Ihal a double wheel wilJ 'absorb 4 limes as many heat units as a sing le
w/leel. In olher words, a double wheel in a turbine wiJl replace four single wheels.
Commenl. Of course, this is no longer true unless we take corresponding valu es for Ein
bot/l cases. 11 is easy lO see, fol' instance, that a double wheel with E = 0.2 is only equivalenl
lO 9/4 01' a single wheel wilh E = 0.3. The el'ficiency of the latter is then far lower, however.
We can see in passing lhal il is possible lO increase lhe power of a wheel by accepling a
lower efficiency.
(e) Efficiency. The theoretical efficiency of a multiple wheel is the same as that of a single
whee!:
Q, = QI = cos 2 0', (42.34)
(d) Apportioning lhe power of the different slages. The tri angles of velocities show that
the powers lransmilled by Ihe different stages of a mullipl e wheel follow in relation to one
another the sequence of the successive decreasing odd numbers:
Double wheel: 3- 1
Triple wheel: 5- 3- I
Friction only aggravates chis poor theoretical apporlioning.

(e) Field of use of the double wheel. lf we compare lhe total losses in a double wh eel and
in Ihe four single wheelsit replaces, we shall see that the power plays a part: the losses are
the same for a given power Po. Below Po ¡hey are smaller for the double wheel; aboye Po,
Ihey are greater. COllsequently the double wheel is interesting for small powers.
It is generally agreed that:
Po 4p (_n
1,000
)J D' ( P (door
1,370
D') (42.35)
Po = limiling power for Ihe use of Ihe double wheel, in h.p.

p admission rressure of lhe slea m, in kg/e m gallge (p.s.i.g.)
'
11 rOlallonal speed oF Ihe lurbine, in r.p.m.
D = mean diameler oF lhe wheels, in m (FI.).
This Formula shows uS Ihal if we are 10 ha ve a double wheel, il wi ll be placed firsl, since
p Falls sharp ly aFler Ihe Firsl wheel.
The Field oF rhe lriple wheel is even more limited, and ils use is ra re in eonsequenee.
(j) Advanrages oF lhe double wheel: There is a tendeney 10 use Ihe double wheel even a
lilll e outside its rrorer Field, For a power slightly superior to Po, even Ihou gh il means a Fall
in cFFieiency oF aboul a 1 or I unil. The double wheel ollers SO Ill C au vanlages:
(1) Considerable ex ransion in a single wheel, tllllS illlll1edialel y and considerably deereas-
ing Ih e pressure at Ihe adrnission end.
(2) Longer JiFe oF the h.p. packing in eo nsequenee oF thal drop in pressure.
(3) Parallel Fall in lemperature; henee Ihe possibilily of smaller elearances and less wear
in lhe rolor.
(4) RigidilY of Ihe wheel, owing 10 ils double ring; hence less ri sk 01' warring Ihrollgh '111
abrupt opening oF lhe sleam val ve.
(5) Shorler shaFI (one wheel instead oF I·our).
Reaction turbines
We have seen (p. 1050) rhat reaetion turbines are turbines in which Ihe expansion oF Ihe Sleam
takes place in part in Ihe Fixed blading and in par! in Ihe lll obile blading, Ihus giving lO Ihe
tal ter a supplemenlary speed.
e _ "-- U
B A d
I (3,
1
1
1
1 ~,
1
1 ~ "" ~
1
1
1
e
Impulse turbine
e B ~. .. - U
- a;C
(3"
D
ReaClion Lurbine
Fig. 42. 11 . Vclüci l it'S rOl" impul s(' <111<-1 n.'[I(.'lioll turbincs.
Triangle of velocities. The reaction causes ralher large differences in the choice 01' speeds
(Fig. 42.11). In lhe impulse IUrbines, W, is inferior to W, owi ng to the fricti o n of lhe steam
on the blading, and V, is much inferior to V" since ir is precisely the energy (V¡ - V~)l2g
which is turned inlo movement in the wheel.
[n the reaction lurbine, si nce ¡he steam expands in the wheel, W, is greater than W and
V, is much greater than in impulse turbines. The angle {J, is nearl y 90° instead of 20-60°
"
in impulse turbines.
E lheory and practice show that the efficiency is maximum for E = 0.85 or ther eabouts.
I f we attribute subscript O to the impulse, and the letter without a subscript to the reaclion,
we see that we ha ve approximately:
(42.36)
Steam velocity. Consequently we have:
u Uo
V
=2 Vo
We know, however, that it is U that sets a limit to the designer, and tha! the reaction does
nol determine the strength required of the steel of the turbine. Therefore, U = Uo and:
Vo
V= (42.37)
2
In a reaction turbine, the steam velocity is half that of the corresponding impulse turbine.
Number of wheels. In the reaction turbine, suppose we use half the heat drop under the
form of speed. The other half is left for the reaction (this is the proportion generally
adopted). lf the number of wheels is x , the speed will be given by:
V = 91.5 rq
J'b:
and if we compare that turbine with an impulse turbine, functioning under the same heat
drop q, we shall have according to ¡he preceding rul e (42.37):
Hence:
x = 2xo (42.38)
Th e reaction turbine has twice as. many wheels as the corresponding impulse turbine.
1062 SIEAM TURBINES Ch. 42
Shock and friction. Suppose ry expresses Ihe losscs Ihrough shock and friclion. They are
given in eaeh wheel by an express ion or ¡he rorm:
ry = kV' (42.39)
or, ror Ih e lwo ¡urbines we are co mparing:
ry = kx V' '10 kXo V~
Hen ee :
ryo
'1 k2xo (42.40)
4 2
Reaelion is Ihu s a smoother and more delieate way or using ¡he steam. This is ils big advan -
lage.
Leaks. Wilh Ihe impulse lu rbine rhere are leak s al Ihe diaphragms only, Wilh Ihe reaelion
turbine, we have in addition Ihe leaks on Ihe periphery oi' Ihe wheels, owing 10 Ihe dirrerence
in pressure between the two sides or the whee!. Thi s kind or leak is rneasured by r/h (Fig.
42.12).
//
Fig. 42 . 12. Leaks,
Thererore il is rnueh rnore important in the h.p. slages :

(1) Beeause r is then larger owing to the big di l'rerenees in lemperature: rrorn l 10 1.5 mm.
(2) Beeause h is smal!.
Axial Ihrust. The axial Ihru SI is ver y small in al1 impul se lurbil1e, but il1 a reaelion lurbine
il beeomes very large, thu s eompelling rhe designer 10 lake spec ial mea s ures in order 10 ab-
sorb il.
Degree of injeclion . The reaetion, in the rirst wheel, makes il neeessary 10 ha ve full annular
injeetion, whieh is prohibitive where small powers are co neerned, .l ince il 1V0u ld lead 10 very
shon blades, These are ne ver made less Ihan S mm, and Ihi s is Ihe rea son why reaclion is
nOI used with small pow ers - in any case 1101 as .loa n as Ihe fir sl whee!.
Conc!usion. S umming Up the advantages and drawbacks, we ca n see that it is advan-

tageou s to ha ve impulse h.p. stages and reacli o n I.p. stages. Thus:
(a) One ca n use partial injection.
(b) Lea ks ca n be avoided where r/h is greater.
(e) The axial Ih rusl is avoided in the wheels w here lh e di fferences in pressure are greatesl.
(d) The reacli on improves e ffici ency in lhe lalter slages.
Ordinarl' sugar factorl' turbines are al ways impulse turbines , a t least in the h . p . stages .
Steam consumption
Turbines are generall)' used lO drive ahernalors inlhe lurbo- alle rnat or sets o f the eleclric
power-house; hence we sha ll co nsider Sleam co nsumplion per kWh or per h.p.h . al lhe ler-
mina ls of lhe swilCh boa rd . tI is given by:
632 2,544 )
Q (42.41)
(A A' )r¡eme,e g CA A' )r¡eme,e g
or:
860 3,413 )
Q' (42.42)
(A A' )r¡eme,e g CA A' )r¡eme,e g
Q = sleam consumption o f the turbo -a lternator set, in kg/ h.p.h . (Jb ./h. p.h.)
Q' = s team consumplio n o f Ihe turbo-alternator sel, in kg/kWh (lb ./kWh)
A total heat of the slea m at the nozzl e-c hest, in kcal/kg (B.T.U ./lb.)
A' = total heal of the stea m al exhaust, in kcal/kg (B.T.U ./lb .)
r¡ = thermodl'nami c efficiencl' of lhe lurbine
12m = m echa ni cal effi ciencl' of th e turbine
e, = efficiencl' of the redu c ti on gear in g, if it is a geared turbine
eg = effi ciency of the ahernator or th e generator.
Value 01 e",' Approximatell' 0.985.
Value 01 e, Va ries with power: 0.94 - 0.985 .
Value 01 e,' Varies from 0.97 to 0.985.
Value 01 r¡.
Th e th erm odl' namic 'e fficiencl' of the turbin e depends on:
(a) The mechani cal sta ndard of co ns lruction
(b) Its power; the m o re powerful the turbine the higher the e ffi ciencl'
(e) The adiabati c heat drop; the higher the drop lhe better the e fficie ncl'.
We mal' use lhe fi g ures o f Table 42.1.
1064 STEAM TURBrNES Ch. 42
TABLE 42.1
MEAN VALUES OF THERMODYNAMTC EFFICIENCY
Impulse [urbines
Back-pressure LUrbines
Turbines with reduclion gear and doubJe whecl 0.65
Back-pressure = 43 - 100 p. s. i.g. ,- 0.65~0.70
Back-pressure = 7- 43 p. s.i.g. 0.70 - O. 72
Condensing turbines 0.72 - 0.75
Condensing reaclion lurbines 0,75 - 0.80
Condensing Iurbinc:; 3 - 8 IVIW 0.80
Condensing IUrbincs 20 M W 0 .82
In order to obtain the actual sleam eonsumption, we shall ha ve to add to the aboye value Q:
For losses through condensalion: 3 - S OJo

For losses by leaks: 2 - 3 OJo
The effieieney of the complete power plant is Ihus, laking Ihe normal average values:
(a) Effieieney of the lurbine: eme,e¡, = 0.985 x 0.98 x 0.95 x 0.75 = 0.688
(b) Losses: ep = 0.936; 0.688 x 0.936 = 0.644
(e) Au xillaries. If we take into aeeount auxillary equipment (feed pump, air healer ,
draught fan) whieh takes its power from the turbin e to a lJow it to function, wilhoul direel
use in the faelor y, we musl also include a eoe ffieienl >lo = 0.935, 3nd we oblain:
e, = 0.644 x 0.935 = 0.6
The useful energy is thus primarily only 60OJo of that contained in the slea m. Thi s arplies
for Ihe turbines driving knives, shredder and milis. 11' we eonsider Ihe eleelrie motors 01' Ihe
fa etor y we should also allow for effieieney of transmission lines and mean e ffieien ey of elee-
trie molors, giving overall effieieney for eleetrie drive as: 0,6 x 0.97 x 0.85 = 0.5
Thus lhe useful power 01' eleetrie motors is only hall' 01' that derived from the steam.
Losse-s of pressure. We must not lose sight 01' Ihe losses of pressure between Ihe boiler and
the turbine. Varying with th e dislanee, th e larger or smaller seetion 01' Ihe pipes, and the more
or less careful insulation , we sha ll have lO deduel:
For pressure: 10- I 2 OJo of Ihe pressure at the boiler

For lemperalure: 5 -IOOJo of the lemperalure at Ihe boiler
Steam at 25 kg / em 2 , 360°C (350 p.s.i., 680°F) al the boilers will arrive al Ihe lurbine al
22 - 23 kg/em', 340°C (315 - 320 p.s.i., 644°F). This differenee takes inlo aeeount lhe nue-
tuations of pressure at the boilers, whieh is rarely equal 10 the raled value, and reaehes it
only oceasionally.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR A TURBINE 1065
SPECIFlCATIONS FOR A TURBINE
We shall proceed to establish the preliminary design of a turbine for a sugar factory, with
back-pressure and gearing.
Data
Pressure at enlry: PA 23 kg/cm gauge (325 p.s.i.g.)

'
lemperalure of lhe superhealed sleam al lhe enlry: lA 340°C (644°F)
Back-pressure at exhaust: Pe = 0.5 kg/cm ' gauge (7 p.s.i.g.)
Power required al lhe allernalor lerminals: = 1,500 kW
ROlational speed of Ihe lurbine: n = 9,000 r.p.m.
Calculations. If there were no gearing, lhe rotational speed would be imposed by lhe fre-
quency and lhe number of poles of lhe allernator. In this case, if we consider an alternator
of 1,500 r.p.m., we "hall need a speed reducer of 6 to 1.
Lel us remember that 1,500 kW = 2040 metric h.p. = 2,010 British h.p.
Heal drop. The enlropy diagram gives:
742 kcal/kg 1,335 B.T.U./lb.)

607 kcal/kg 1,092 B.T.U./lb.
(
135 kcal/kg \ 243 B.T.U./lb.
Diameler. The diameter is first chosen according to lhe following two consideralions:
(a) Keep modera te values for U: 160 mis (500 ft./s) for a double wheel, 180-240
(590 - 780) for a single.
(b) In lhe case of high powers, we musl have sufficient outlets in the last wheels, Ihat is
a moderate h/D at lhe blades. Here we ha ve nothing 10 fear in thal respect, however, since
ours is a back-pressure turbine.
For the same reason, we shall be able lo give to all the wheels the same diameter D, since:
7rDn
u=
60
Let us take:
3.14 x D x 9,000
200
60
Hence:
D 0.425 m (1.4 ft. "" 17 in.)

1066 . STEAM TURBINES Ch. 42
Leading wheel. Le! us check whether ir would be advantageous to ha ve a double wheel

(eqn. 42.35):
Po = 4p (_n_)
1,000
D' J = (4 x 23 x 9 3 x 0.425') = 930 h.p. = 683 k\V
This means that we are outside rhe field of the double wheel, and it IVould not be suitable.
Number o/ wheels. Since we wish to have the same ~ in all lhe IVheels, we sllall write (for·
mula 42.28):
8,205 x 135 . ~, e
x + 0.04 27.7
200'
To each value of x there corresponds therefore a value of ~. Let us loo k for the best solu·
tion among l he di fferent corresponding values.
For: x 3 ~ 0.333
x 4 ~ 0.384
x 5 ~ 0.429
x 6 ~ 0.470
If we were interested only in the erriciency, we should take x = 6, \\'hich "'oulcl give us
a ~ vallle very close to 0.45. ¡r, on the contrary, we reqllired a simple anci cheap turbine, \Ve
couid come clown to x = 3, which wouid give us a ~ value ciose 100.30. \Ve shali rejecl lhese
two extreme solutions, however, which would mean for us: the firsl, 100 expensive a turbine;
and the second, a very low efficiency.
\Ve are lefl wi¡h ¡he ¡wo intermediate solutions. If we had, or planned to have, a thermo-
compressor, and ir we were seeking the utmost economy in bagasse, we should take x = 5
with a ~ value greater rhan 0.40. \Ve shall be content wirh x = 4 and with ~ = 0.38, however,
a value very suitable for a back-pressure turbine.
Scale o/ pressures. \Ve have rhen ~ = 0.384. Hence:
v= U 200
= 524 mis (1,719 FE/S)
~ 0.384
On rhe olher hand:
v = 91.5 .J 0.94q¡
Firsl wheel. Hence:
524'
34.8 kcai/kg (63 B.T.U/lb)
91.5' x 0.94
SPECIFICATIONS FOR A TURBINE 1067
T A
B B' f3
O~~-------------+~----
oL-mL-------------~b----~
Fig. 42 . 13. Pressure slages .
On Ihe enlropic diagram, we look for point 1, on lhe vertical of A, such that:
AA - A, = q,
A, = AA - q, = 742 - 34.8 = 707.2 kcal/kg (1,272 B.T.U ./lb.)
and we read on thediagram that poinll corresponds lo: 13.6 kg/cm' abs., 263°C, w, = 5.56
kg/ m) (193 p.s.i.a., 505°F, W, = 0.35 lb ./cu . ft.)
Nozzles. If we have:
po = 0.54p, = 0.54 x 24 12.96 kg/ cm' abs. (183 p.s.i.a.)
\Ve see that there is no constriction.
Olher wheels. We have just found the heat drop in the first wheel, q,. We have now to
release:
A, - A8 = 707.2 - 607 = 100.2 kcál/kg (180 B.T.U./lb.)
and to use lhree wheels. ConsequenlJy each of lhem wiIl have 10 work under a heat drop of:
100.2
qn = 33.4 kcal/kg (60.0 B. T. U ./lb.)
3
and we can check that we have in facl:
U 200
0.384
V 91.5 ...¡ 0.98 x 33.4
1068 STEAM TURBlNES Ch. 42
" ••' . .¿
Fig. 42.14. Back·pressure steam turbine with four wheels and speed reducer, CQver removed.
Wilh lhe aid af lhe enlrapy diagram, we can lhen eSlab lish lhe scale af pressure slages
The steam at the first faur s tages is superheated. In lhe lasl tw a j¡ is wet and lhe dryness
fractian is:
In the 3rd whee l: x 0.98

In the 4th wheel: x = 0.94
Influence of losses. The lasses in the nazzles and the lasses thraugh s hock and frictian in
the wheels are turned inta heat , thu s increasing superheat ar the dryness fractian af lhe
steam . It fcillows that the representative paints 1, 2, 3, B, ac[ually come 10 1',2 ',3', B'an
the corresponding isobars (Fig. 42.13).
In practice we take the lasl paint B ' half- way between B and paint {3 siluated on lhe graph
x = 1. Then we draw in the appra ximate line AB'.
Choice of turbíne. The principal turbines'supplied by Fives Cail- Babcack a re rhe 40 CP

and the 50 CP. We may adapt: far pawers below 5000 kW the 40 CP, and far highe r powers,
the 50 CP.
TABLE 42.2
'"In."
()
SCALE OF PRESSURES ."
O
TOlal heal A Temperalure A bsolufe pressure Gauge pressl:lre Density >
>-i
(kcal/kg) (B. T. U. / lb.) (oC) (OF) (kg / cm') (p .s.i. a.) (kg/cm') (p.s.i.g.) (kg / cm') (Ib ./cu.ft.) O
z
Boiler 752 1,352 360 680 26 370 25 355 9.2 0.57
'"
."
O
Admission
1st wheel
742
707
1,335
1,272
340
263
644
505
24
13.6
341
193
23
12.6
325
178
8.7
5.6
0.54
0.35 ">
674 3.4 0.2l >-i
2nd wheel 1,211 188 369 7.1 100 6.1 85 ce
3rd wheel 640 1,152 137 279 3.4 48 2.4 34 1.9 0.12 ;<l
4th wheel 607 1,092 112 233 1.5 2l 0.5 7 0.9 0.06 'Zen"
o
~
'>D
Fig. 42. 15. Condensing steam turbine (40 ba r, 40QoC, eXlraClion al 1. 5 ba r, Fives Ca il - Babcock).
Minimum dryness fraction admissible

Experi ence has shown that in arder ro keep co rro sion or the blades wilhin reasonab le limil s,
the we tness o r (he stea m must not exceed 10 OJo a t exhaust rrom (he la,1 slage.
In other words, superheal will have to be chosen so that B' com e, belll'een 111<: li/le or
dryness 0.90 and the line x = l.
Lyle' se ts th e extreme limit at 13 % wetness; beyond tllat rigure, the droplets or \Va le r cause
se ri ous erosion or the blades in (he lasl stage or the lurbin e.
Valves
Lack or steam-tightness or the h.p. stop valve 011 the supp ly ro Ih e tur bi ne can lead 10 co n·
densation during shutd ow ns and consequent corr osio n o r Ihe ro to r.
To avoid rhi s dra wback, it is advisab le to install two h.p . SIOp va lves, placed one in I'ro nt
of the ot her with a drain open 10 atmosphere bel ween th e two, 10 evac uate condensa le due
to poss ible leakage or the upstream val ve.
REFERENCES 1071
Accessories. For safe ry, a no-load speed should be limired ro 10-15070 aboye rhe max-
imum operaling speed.
Speed. A milllurbine should nOl exceed 5,000 r.p. m. 11 is advisable ro provide for a ma)(-
imulll speed 01'4,500 ¡-.p.m. For a given sizeo f nozzles , and a fixed pO lilio n of Ihe regul alo r,
lhe power drops wirh lhe speed. lf il is for example, 1,000 kW al 4,500 r.p.m. il wiJI be only
965 al 4,000,915 al 3,500,850 al 3,000, 765 al 2,500, and 650 al 2,000 r.p. m.
REFERENCES
I AUEN TURBINES, Sugar Azucar, 70 (1975) 25.

2 O. LYLE, Tile Effióenl use of Sleam, 11th edn., HMSO, 1974, ~. 9.
/
43. Electricity
We llave been able lO give a short Iheory of steam turbines, sum nÍing up Ihe principal nOlions
relaling to the worki ng and des ign of Ihose machines. Il would ha ve been desirable to do Ihe
same conce rning allernarors and eleclric motors.
Unfonunalely, ir is impossible lO sum up in a fe w pages a Iheory, however short, of elec-
IricilY and eleclrical machines; and Ihose who wish 10 inform Ihemselves complelely on Ihal
subject mu st perforce be directe d to spec ial works.
We shall, Iherefore, be cOn!ent here lO reca ll the essenlial general nOlions and Ihe faclOrs
which are most importan! from the pOinI ?!. view of sugar manufacture.
D1RECT CURRENT AND ALTERNATlNG CURRENT
Electricity is produced under two forms:

(a) Direct current
(b) Allernating curren!.
Direct currenl offers some advantages:
(a) Simplicily
(b) Powe rful slarting to rque of Ihe motors
(e) Possibility of driving the mOlors at any given speed
(d) Wide range of varialion in Ihe speed of each motor.
The last point is the real advantage of direct curren!. Steam permits of ha ving a wide range
of variation in speed in all the engines, simply by reguJating Ihe steam valve al the entr)', or
by adjusting the governor. Wilh electriciry we lose this big advantage; but il is allernaling
currenl which brings in Ihe main reslrictions from rhal poinl of view. DirecI currenl s¡ ill
leaves a liltle more scope in Ihe choice of mOlOr speed, wilil Ihe addilional possibililY of
modifying and regulating that speed.
However, direcI current is praclical only for very small inslallations. The magnilude o f Ihe
modern sugar factory demands allernaling current , which offers Ihe following ad va nlages:
(a) E asy Iransformation from high to Jow tension and conversely .
(b) Relatively high efficiency in transmi ssion and ulilisation ¡·or unjls o f large or moderalc
power.
(e) Smaller size and lower cos t o f the mOlors.
THREE-PHASE ALTERNATlNG CURRENT
The only alternaling currenl of any inleresl in sugar manufaclure is Ihree-phase supply.
THREE·PHASE ALTERNATING CURRENT 1073
Three-phase cur rent is produced by an alternator whi ch has three groups of windings, sym-
metrically di sposed and di sp laced electrically by 27r/3 in relati on lO each otheL The windings
of each of lhese three groups are linked in series, and il is lhe current ¡hey provide which
feeds each of Ihe three wires co ming from Ihe alternaLOL These three wires therefore carr y
currenls displaced in relati on LO each o lher by ! o f a period, and the same applíes lO lheir
respeclive eJeclromolive forces.
Lel us consider lhese lhree groups of windings, or lhree corresponding lurns in eac h of
lh em. Lel us call u lhe effective or r.m.S. (rool mean square) potential difference crealed in
eac h of Ih e wi ndings, and i lhe Lm .S. va lu e of lhe curre nl which flows thr ough Ihem . Th ere
a re IWO ways of co nnecling these windings in order lO Iransmit LO the molors Ihe current pro-
duced:
(a) Star connection (Fig. 43.1). The r.m.s. pOlential difference between an y lwo of lhe
three lines is Ih en:
u= u.j 3 (43.1)
u
uV3
O
B
e
Fig. 43. 1. Slar con neclion. ·
and the Lm.S. currenl flowing through them:
1 = i (43.2)
(b) Delta connection (Fig. 43.2) . Jt may easily be show n that in Ihis case :
Fig. 43 .2. De lia conl1ection.
u = u (43.3)
I
1074 ELECTRICITY Ch. 43
f=i..J3 (43.4)
Power factor. By definition, alternating currents are currenls which vary in value periodic-
ally, changing direction rrom a positive maximum to a negalive maximum of Ihe same
magnilude (Fig. 43.3). The difference in pOlenlial follows Ihe sume law of varialion, which
approximates more or less a sinusoidal formo
Fig. 43.3. Allernaling curren!.
The duration T of a complete cycle is called the period, and the number of periods per
second is called the frequency f of the currenl:
f = T (43.5)
The varialion of the current f or Ihal of the pOlential difference U can also be represenled
by a veClor revolving round a given poinl al Ihe rale of frevoluliol1s per second (Fig. 43.4),
lhe inSlanlaneous value of Ihe currenl or of Ihe potenlial difference under consideralion be-
ing then represented by the projection Om of the vector on Ihe x-axis.
Fig. 43.4. Schematic represenlation or allernaling curren!.
Owing to the self-induclion of the windings, there is always ,a certain lag <P (Fig. 43.4), bel-
ween the current and Ihe potential difference. [f those two veclOrs were in phase, lhe power
would be given by Iheir product Uf. When there is a lag is called the "power factor". 1f 1> = 90°, cas 1> = O, and lhe power produced is ni!.
The power factor plays an important role in electrified faclories and we shall consider it
further on (p. 1093).
GENERATION OF ELECTRlCITY
How can we produce on the spot the electrical energy required by the factory? Since lhe only
actual so urce of energy is the bagasse, the factory has to produce the electricity in a power
sial ion driven by steam produced from bagasse in the boilers.
The back-pressure steam lurbine is of great interest in the sugar faclory. In producing
steam at 25 kg/cm' (356 p.s.i.) and 360°C (680°F), for instance, we shall use about 750 kcal
(1,350 B. T. U.) per kg (lb.) of steam, but tha! kg (lb.) of steam, when passing through a steam
turbine, will give us alJ the power we need in the factory and to spare. And, at the exhaust
of the turbine, we shall find our kg (lb.) of steam available for all the heat requirements of
the whole process, and still containing more than 600 kcal (1,080 B.T.U.), that is, more than
j of the heat we have given to il.
Thus \Ve see how low the cost is of all the power neeessary in a factory, to drive its engines
and its milis, all the pumps and all other machinery; less than 25070 of the heat it has to pro-
duce or of the fuel it has to burn for the purpose of heating and concentrating the juices and
syrups.
Tha! fraction is so smaJl tha! it is considerably less than the difference between the con-
sumption of steam for healing in a badly organised and badly equipped factory, and that
of a well-designed one which uses its heal logically and economically. We can say that power
costs nothing, or next to nothing, in a sugar factory. It is obtained almost free, while produc-
ing steam for heating purposes which is indispensable.
This shows that, even if we have at our disposal a public supply giving eleetricity at a very
low rate; even when we have, in the vicinity of the factory, a souree of water power which
could be easily harnessed, we should still find it advantageous to produce the power necessary
10 run the fac!ory from lhe bagasse.
Only so me use for the bagasse giving it'a value much abo ve its va'lue as a fuel (production
oC bagas se board, paper pulp, cellulose products, etc.) could lead to the use of an external
source of energy for production of electrical power; or indeed, the need for power external
to Ihe factory, exceeding the margin of energy available from the bagasse, such as pumping
for large irrigation demands, for example. Even there, however, sinee heating steam is in any
case indispensable, it is highly probable that, even in these two cases, it would be of interest
to produce this steam at the temperature and pressure required to obtain simultaneously the
pOll'er requirements for the factor~ and the heating s!eam which is equally necessary.
Whatever the source of heat utilised in the boilers, it is advisable that this source of heat
should at the same time furnish the heat for power generation and that for heating.
Steam turbines of small power output, up to about 1,500 kW, are generally of geared type:
Ihey run a! 8,000 - 9,000 r. p.m. and, through reduction gearing, drive an alternator running
al 1,500 r.p.m. For higher powers, abo ve 1,800 or 2,000 kW, turbines generally run at 3,000
r.p.m. with direct drive to a two-pole alternator.
/
Relation between frequency and speed. With an a.c. machine we have:
1 = pn (43.7)
60
1 frequency of the current, in cycles / s

p number of pole pairs
n rolational speed, in r.p.m.
Hence:
n
601 (43 .8)
p
and if: 1= 50 cycles per second:
60 x 50 3,000
n (43.9)
p p
This equalion is rigorously true for alternators and synchronous mOIOrs. For non·
synchronous motors it is correct if allowance is made for slip:
n-n'
g = (43.10)
n
g slip
n = synchronous speed, given by eqn. (43.9)
n' = actual speed of the motor.
Consequently lhe speed of alternalors and synchronous motors, or the synchronous speed
of induction mOlors, has lo be a sub-multiple of 3,000 when using a currenl of frequency
50, or of 3,600 for a frequency of 60 (Table 43.1).
TABLE 43.1
SYNCHRONOUS SPEEDS
P 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
n 3,000 1,500 1,000 750 600 500 428 375

1= 50
n' 2,900 1,450 960 720 580 480 415 360
n 3,600 1,800 1,200 900 720 600 514 450

1= 60
n' 3,500 1,750 1,160 870 700 580 500 435
P number of paje pairs of ahernator or motor.

n synchronous speed. in r.p .m.
n' actual speed of an asy nchron?us motor, ror él normal slip of) -4070 .
GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY 1077
50 cycles per second is [he standard frequency in Europe. In America, the standard fre-
quency is 60 cycles.
The normal slip for an asynchronous motor is 3 - 5070; it can be appreciably higher and
motors are manufactured providing for slips as high as 50070, without stalling.
Units. Let us recall in passing two units frequently used in eJectricity:
1 kg m 9.8 J
J h.p. 75 kg mis = 735 lis = 0.735 kW
J fLlb. 1.356 1
1 h.p. 550 x 1.356 = 746 lis = 746 W
Torque of eIectric motors. Let us recall that:
W = e'o (43.11)
W = power of a motor, in watts

e' = corresponding torque,in joules
n = angular velocity of the motor, in radians/s.
Or, reverting to usual units:
W
e= gO (43.12)
e = torque, in m kg (ft.lb.)
But (cf. eqn. 43.7):
úJ 21ff
(43.13)
p p
úJ = angular frequency hf (by definition).

Hence:
0.738 W x 60)
( 21fn
or, expressing power in kilowatCs:
K
e = 975 - (43.14)
n
e = torque, in m kg (fLlb.)
K = power, in kW = W/J ,000
n = rotational speed, in r.p.m. "
This eqn. (43.14) is used mainly for an alternator or a synchronous moto r. Taking the effi-
ciency inlo accounl, we have, for inslance, for an allcrnalor:
e = 975 K (43.15)
r¡n
e lorque required ror driving lile allernalor"in m kg (fl.lb.)

K = power developcd al Ihe lertllinal s 01' Ihe allcrnalor, in kW
n = rOlalional speed 01' lh e alternaror, in r.p.m.
r¡ = efficiency of lhe alternator (usually 0.90 - 0.95).
Power
The number 01' vo ll-amperes ab.sorbed by a mOlor using lilree-pil ase a.c. sup ply is (cf. eqns.
43.1 -43.4):
W' = UI.J3 (43.16)
W' = voll-amperes absorbed

U = r.m.s. vo llage belweel1 phases, in volls
1 r.m.s. current in each phase, in amperes.
lf we require Ihis figure in kVA, we sha ll have lO wrile:
Uf .J3
K' (43.17)
1,000
K' = inpul in kVA.

The co rrespo nding power is
W = Uf.J3 cos = lag between lhe eleclromorive force and Ihe curren l.
Cos <P, as already slaled, is called "power faclor", al1d usually varies belween 0.5 and 0.8.
Or, in order lO have lhe power in kilowatls:
Uf.J3 cos <P

K = - - -- (43.19)
1,000
K = power consumplion, in kilowatls.

JI is 01' inleresl lO know lhe relalion berween lhe power absorbed by a mOlor and Ihe il1len-
si lY01' rhe currenl il uses. Since normall y alllhe molors in a faclory wo rk on a si ngle vollage,
il is inleres ling lO calcula le once and for all lhe conSlanl rerm:
U.J3
(43.20)
1,000
ALTERNATORS 1079
in lhe formula (43.19). Knowing cos '" we shall have directly the coefficient:
u..f3
m' = cos <P (43.21)
1,000
and simply by multiplying by that value m' the number of amperes read on the motor am-
meler, we obtain the power absorbed by the motor expressed in kilowatts.
If we prefer to have it in h.p. we shall calculate:
U-/3 U -/3 )
m - - cos <P (- - cos <P (43.22)
735 746
and we shall then have:
'P = mI (43.23)
P = power absorbed by the motor, in h.p.

m = coefficienl given by formula (43.22) or Table 43.2
J = alllperes absorbed, read on Ihe molor alllmeler.
11 wiU be noticed that, for 550 volts, and cos <P = 0.78, the number of amperes read on
Ihe ammeter corresponds exactly to the number of h.p. absorbed.
In the same way, at 220 volts, the value of m is roughly equal to half cos <P.
Commenl. The power P' developed on the shaf¡ of the motor is Oblained by multiplying
lhe aboye power absorbed by the efficiency Q of the motor.
P' = QP (43.24)
TABLE 43.2
RATIO m = PI! OF POWER IN H,P. TO CURRENT ABSORBED IN A MOTOR USING THREE-PHASE ALTERNATING CURRENT
(Brilish h.p.; ror melrie h.p. mulliply by 1.0147)
Voltage at the terminals (JI)

Cos <P
220 380 440 500 550
0.8 Ó.408 0.706 0.816 0.929 1.022

0.7 0.357 0.618 0.714 0.813 0.894
0.6 0.306 0.529 0.612 0.697 0.766
0.5 0.255 0.441 0.5 lO 0.580 0.638
, ~ -,'
ALTERNATORS
In lhe standard type of alternator itis the armature which is fixed: it is then called the stator,
and surrounds Ihe field or inducing circuit, which is then called the rotor.
1080 ELECTRlCITY Ch. 43
Fíg. 43.5. Rotor of salient-pole altenÚllor (4-pole) (Fives Cail- Babcock).
Fig. 43.6. Slalor of alternalor (Fives Cail- Babcock) .

ALTERNATORS 1081
There are two types of rotor:

(a) Salient-pole rotors (Fig. 43.5)
(b) Smooth rotors, which are found mainly where high powers are concerned.
The current required for excitation is supplied to the field circuits by a small dynamo pro-
ducing direct current, fixed to the end of the rotor shaft (Fig. 43.7) and called an "exciter".
The power output of the alternator is regulated by adjusting the excitation current.
Power of individual alternators

When the capacity of the factory permits, it is of advantage lo divide the total power require-
ment between several turbo-alternators so that the individual capacity of each set does not
exceed 1800 kW, above which it becomes difficult to obtain suitable equipment, particularly
safe circuit-breakers.
Efficiency
The efficiency of typical alternators in the sugar factory, which generally range from 300 to
12,000 kW, is of the order of 93.5 - 98.50/0.
Fig. 43.7. Back·pressure turbo·generalor. 9,500 k w, 7,500/1,500 pm. Adm., 40 bar eff., 400'C.
Exhaust, 2.5 bar eff.
1082 ELECTRlCITY Ch. 43
ELEC TRIC MOTORS
Different types of electric motor are di stingui shed by:

(a) Their system of protection and the cooling merhod which it involves
(b) Their windings and the resulting electrical characteristics.
Classification of molors according lo syslem of proleclion

This c1assification combines protection of personnel against contact with moving parts or live
conductors, and protection of the machine against external material: solid bodies, dust,
water or gases. The open type, which in volved risks to personnel, is no longer co nstr ucted,
and today we di stingui sh the following principal types:
(a) Drip-proof Iype (Fig. 43.8): drops of water and objects falling venically cannot
penetrate into the motor. Certain parts which are alive or moving are exposed.
(b) Prolecled Iype (Fig. 43.10): the motor is protected against projection ofwater or solid
objects which could hit the machi ne at a direction making an angle with the vertical up lO
60°.
These two types are often provided with grilles (Fig . 43.8), i.e. their ventilation openings
are covered with open grille-work to prevent accidental co nt act or pene trarion of solid bodies
aboye a certain dimensiono
(e) Thesemi-enclosed type (Figs. 43.9, J J and 12): while the machine is nOI completely seal-
ed , exchange of air between the interior of the motor and the exterior is preve nled except
Fig. 43 .8. Drip-proof molor (Fives Cail - Babcock).

ELECTRIC MOTORS 1083
Fig . 43.9. Enclosed induction H.T. motor (Jeumont - Schneider) .
Fig. 43.10. Protecled induclion motor .(Jeumont,... Schneider).

Fig. 43.11. Enclosed motor with tu be for cooling (Fives Cail- Babcock).
Fig. 43 . 12 . Enclosed motor with air or wl\ler cooling (Jeumonr - Sc hneider).

· ELECTRlC MOTORS 1085
at restricted openings. Large particles and drops of water cannot penetrate; no contact is
possible with live parts or moving parts.
(d) Totally-enclosed type: the motor is constructed so as to prevent penetration of gas or

steam under specified conditions of pressure and temperature, or penetration of water when
submerged to a specified depth.
(e) Explosion-proof type: the machine is constructed so as to operate in an ambient at-

mosphere which ma y become explosive. An explosion occurring inside the casing cannot be
propagated to the outside aiT (Fig. 43.13).
Monnier' estimates th at with similar magnetic and electric circuits, fully enclosed motors
s how , compared with the earlier type of open motors, a reduction in power output given by
Table 43.3.
TABLE 43.3
REDUCTION IN PQWER COMPARED WITH AN OPEN MOTOR
Enclosed ventilated molar 12'10

Enclosed motor wilh double venlilation 20'10
TotalJy enclosed motor without ve nlilation 591170
Fig. 43.13.
/
Explosion-proof molar (Jeumont - Scheider).
The enclosed mOlor wilh double ventilalion is filled wilh Iwo fans, one moving Ihe air in-
side the motor, the other on the outside along the fins of the casing.
Normally, according to requirements, the Iypes used in sugar faclories will be lhe semi-
protected, protected or drip-proof types wherever Ihe atmosphere is c1ean and Ihe risk 01' ac-
cess of water is slight. In countries wilh high rainfall, and especially in counlries subjecl 10
cyclones, il is advisable 10 choose preferably Ih~ prolecled and drip-proof Iypes, owing 10
Ihe danger of welting due to drops falling from Ihe roof or from lile skylighls, or driving
rain coming tllrough doors and windows. If Ihe air is loaded with duSI, ashes or fine bagasse,
Ihe totally enclosed molor is necessary, in spite of tlle cos!. This is Ihe case wilh Ihe mOlors
driving Ihe laleral lables, lhe auxiliary carrier, the cane crane, lhe bagasse conveyors, and
all lhe mOlor pumps placed in pilS or in a humid place and exposed to splashes or drips 01'
liquids.
Classification of motors according to their electrical characteristics

According to whetller the speed of tlle rotor is rigorously tied lO the frequency, we disling-
uish:
(1) Synchronous molors, the speed of which is given exactly by line n of Table 43.1.
(2) Asynchronous molors, which give a lorque only when Iheir speed is lower lhan Ihe syn-
chronous speed. These are subdivided inlo IWO main groups:
(a) lnduclion molors, including:

Induction motors with wound rotor and slip rings
Squirrel-cage induction molors.
(b) The commulalor molor.
We shall sludy briefly the various types.
1. Synchronous motors
The synchronous motor is buill in exactly the same way as an allernator and may be COIl-
sidered as an alternator used as a molor. It has liJen a direcI currenl exciter (Fig. 43.14).
The inducing rotor has a number of po les obviously equal lO the number of poles of lhe
induced slator. When tlJe lerminalsof lile armalure are linked wilh Ihe supply, a revolvillg
field is produced in ir, the rolalional speed of which is the synchronous speed given by for-
mula (43.8). If the rolor is brought lO the same speed, the revolving field will attracI the cor-
responding pole following il, and will continue to carry it along. The torque, which was nil
when Ihe lag between the revolving field and the pole was zero, increases when lhatlag varies
from O to half a polar interval. lt is then maximal and decreases when lhe lag varies from
half to one polar interval. In Ihe lasl case, operalion is unstable, since an increase of lhe lor-
que leads lO an increase in the lag, and the motor falls out of slep.
If we draw lile grapll representing lile relalion belween the currenl 1 in the stator and lhe
excilation current i (Fig. 43.15), we obtain a V-curve. The current 1 is then at a minimal ror
a cerlain value 01' i; below Ihis value Ihe currenl lags behind lhe eleclrOmoli\'e Coree (e.Jll,r,);
at higher values it is ahead of iI. Hence an interesting property of the synchronous motor:
if over-excited, ir returns reactive energy to the network instead of absorbing iI.
The synchronous motor, then, has the very great advantage of improving the power factor
of the factory. From the mechanical point of view it has the advantage of permitting a con-
siderably Iarger air-gap than the non-synchrollous motors.
However, it is very seldom used, becau se:
(1) It is difficult to hand!e.
(2) [t needs an exciter.
(3) lt is difficult to start, and does so only if the resisting torque is very small, ¡.e. at most
15 - 301170 of the normal lOrque, according to the starting method used. Otherwise it has to
be slaned with the help of a sma!1 auxiliary non-synchronous motor.
Fig. 43.14. Synchronous molar.
. ¡ .. : ,
', . , : '
Power factor 
' ;., . ..
QL-________________
Fig. 43 . 15. Synch"ronous motor/Variation of the slalor current 1 as a funclion of rhe exc.itation currenl i.
1088 ELECTRlCITY C h. 43
(4) E ve n from lh e poinl of view of lhe impro ve menl of cos <P, il can nowadays be replaced
by sync hronised or compensaled non-synchronous mOl ors , which are more conve nienl.
(5) II allows no va riali on of speed (lhis cha rac leri slic can , however, offer an ad va nlage in
lhe cases where a constanl speed is needed).
(6) 11 risks falling oul of slep when lhe overload is heavy. However, il generally ca rri es an
overload corresponding roughly 10 a 10lal load dO,uble lhe normal load.
A sync hr on ous molor could be used for an air pump or a fan; howeve r, il is nOI \Videly
used in faclories. 11 could also be used simpl y as a condenser, by lelling il run wilhoUI load,
in order lO improve lhe power faclor. BUI lhere are olher ways of oblaining Ihis resull (ef.
p. 1094).
2. Asynchronous molors
A. Induction motors. These are by far lhe mosl importanl mOl ors for sugar faclories, and
praclically all mOlors used in mosl raclories are of Ihis Iype.
Opera/ion. They consisl of a fixed inducing slalor, which recei ves lhe currenl, and a rotor
which forms a closed indu ced circu it. The allernating currenl f10wing lhrough the windings
of lhe slalor creat es a "rotaling field", lu rning al an angular velocilY fl given by eqn. (43.13),
and corresponding la lhe rOlalional speed n. This rotating field imersecls the rOlor cond uc -
lors and in it s lurn causes in lhem an induced e.m.r. E,. As those conductors forlll a c10sed
circuil , a currenl 1, f10ws in lh em , lhe inlensily of whi ch depends on the re acla nce and lhe
resislance R, of lhose windings. Th e lorque produced by this eleclro-magnelic aClion of Ih e
rOlaling field bn lhe rolor is proportional 10 lhe current 1,.
Varia/ion al/arque wi/h speed. Lel us suppose R, is lhe resistance, considered 3S fiwd,
of Ihe rOlor. If we draw the graph represenling the varialion of lhe lorque C ¡l S run clion al'
Ih e speed of the rotor, from lhe instanl of slarling (ef. formula 43.10):
n' = O g = 1
up to the maximum speed , whi ch is thal of lhe rOlating field, or synchronous speed:
n' = n g = O
we oblain a graph of the form represen ted by Fig. 43.16. The lorque slarlS from a certa in
value Ca when lhe rolor is slatio nary, at slan in g, reaches a maximum CM' and tends
lowards zero as lhe speed approac hes lhe synchronous speed. Al lhal speed, lhe rotaling
field, having the same speed as the rOlor, is staliona ry in relalion lO il, and is no longer CUI
by lhe co nductors . Therefore there is no varialion of the flux cUl, nor any induced e.m.r.
S/abi/i/y. When theload increases, Ihe mOlor slows down. TI can be seen al once lhal Ihe
mOlor will be able to funclion only 011 parl MNA of lhe curve, al which any redu clion in
speed gives an increase in lhe lorque. On part MC o, on lhe conlrary, a slowing down causes
a decrease in lorque, and lhe mOlor falls oul of slep immedialely.
As il is imperalive 10 keep a sa fel y ma rgi n in order lO avoid slalling, the motors are con-
slrucled SO as 10 cope with the normall y accep ted overloads. This generally leads to the adop-
lion of a normal lorque CN equ al 10 abou l half Ihe maximal lOrque CM or slighlly more:
(CN = 50 - 60070 of CM)' The co rres ponding slip gN will be about one-third of lhe slip al
stalling gM'
Slip. It is see n that the sl ip increases almost proportionally to the torque fr om zero to the
ma ximal torque CM'
The slip at no load is of the arder of 0.001; for large motors, 0.0008. The motor thu s run s
practicall y at synchronous speed.
At full load the slip is of the arder of 2070 for large motors of 200 h.p._ and aboye, or in
general 1. 5 - 3070.
The drop in speed between O and 10070 slip is, at co nstant load, proportional to the roto r
resistance'.
Variation 01 torque with rotor resistance . We ha ve assumed the resislance o f the rOlor fix-
ed. If, by some device, we make it vary, and th en draw on the same graph all the curves
similar to that of Fig . 43.16, we shall find a famil y o f cu rves as shown on Fig. 43.1 7.·
We see that:
(I) Th e smaller the resista nce R" the lower is the starting lorque Ca.
(2) The maximum torque CM is independenl of the resislance R, of the rolor.
(3) The maxi mum lo rque CM corresponds to a speed n' increasing (or to a slip g decrea s-
ing) "' hen res iSlance R, decreases.
(4) We ca n al ways choose R, so thal lhe maximum torque CM is reach ed for a given
speed nx '.
In particular, R , can be given the value R, (4) for which the maximum torqu e is reac hed
at the very beginning of the starting (n' = O).
Mox. imum torque M

CM - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I------¡
, I
: I
I I
,
,
I
,
,
CM:
I
I
Speed n'
O L-L-~-L~~--L-i-~~-+--~~-~---
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 A or shp 9
n' == o- - - - - - - - - - - __ n' = n
9=1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 9=0
Fig. 43.16. Induclion motors. Variation of l orque as a runcl ion of speed .

/
~-l
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
1
I n'
o A r
0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 O 9
9=1- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -9=0
n'=O- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -n'=n
Fig, 43.17. Induction mOlOrs. Variation of (arque as a funclion of speed and rotor resislance R 2 .
Typesofinduclion molar. This sludy enables us to see Ihe difi"erence belween Ihe Iwo Iypes
of induction motor. According to whether or nOI il is possible 10 vary Ihe resislance R, of
the rotor, we distinguish between:
(a) The squirrel-cage induction motor, in which the rOlor resistance R, is fixed.
(b) The inducljon malar wilh wound rolar and brushes, in which Ihe resislance R, of Ihe
rOlor may be varied.
(a) Squirrel-cage molar. The rOlor consists simply of a series of copper rods, linked
together at bOlh ends by copper rings (Fig. 43.18).
As we can see, this motor is very simple, very slrong and very cheap. Ii does nol require
any rheostat, and starts without any extra operation, simply by swilching on. Its efficiency
and its cos q, values are slighlly superior to those of the mOlor wilh wound rolor.
But ji also has drawbacks:
(1) 11 makes it necessary lO choose, oncc ancl I'or all, Ihe resislance R, 01" Ihe cage and, COll-
sequently, the curve of the torque varialion. If one needs a slrong slaning lorque, an R, (3)
curve (Fig. 43.17) corresponding to a high resislance will be eonsidered. In general, Ihis is
Ihe case with high-grade centrifugals which ha ve 10 be started rapidly and frequently. If slar-
ting can be effected al no load or wilh a reduced load, a curve of type R, (1) or R, (2) wil!
be chosen.
Fig. 43.18. Squirrel-cage rotor.

R, (4) cannot be chosen, for conditio ns at normal running would be very bad.
(2) Curve
Consequently the resi sta nce R, chosen is always too low for starting, and a very heavy cur-
renl 1, has to be used al that momen!. 1, in the stator varies more or less as 1" for 1, is the
main component of 1,. Consequently squirrel-cage motors require in lhe slator a very strong
starting current, which becomes prohibilive where high powers are concerned.
Those drawbacks have been remedied in two ways as follows:
(1) By slar-delta slarting: the stator is connected in delta for the normal running and in
star for starting.
(2) By using the double-cage Boucl1erot motor: the rotor is formed by Iwo superposed
cages, Ih e outside one made of small rods, having a high resistan ce and low reactance; the
inside one, made of thick rods, having a low resistance and high reactance. The outside cage
gives a lorque of tbe e, lype (Fig. 43.19), maximal and preponderant al the moment of sta r-
ling. The inside cage gives a torque of the e, type, which is preponderant when it nears the
synchronou s speed. It is as if the torque folIowed lhe variation e = e, + e,.
e
e
n' "" O n'~ n
9 " I 9=0
Fig. 43 . t9. Torque or Boucherol molor.
TABLE 43.4
SQUIRREL-CAGE MOTORS . STARTII'JG TOR QUE ANO CtlRRENT AS % OF VALUES AT FULL LOAD
Motor Mefilod 01 Sforfing Torque Curren!
Single cage Direct on line 100- 150 500 - 800

Star·delt. 40 150
DirecI on line 160 - 250 200 - 400
Double-cage Boucherol
Star·delta 60- 70 110- 150
However, those two remedies are only palliatives, as Table-43.4 will show us: it gives the
torque and starling current, in % of their value under full load.
·Usage. The squirrel-cage motor wilI be used for preference whenever possibl e, owing to
its low cost and its simplicity, and because it requires little upkeep and gives littl e trouble.
,/ .i _ _. , _ 1: ,
1092 ELECTR1CITY Ch. 43
Bul ils characteristics limil ilS use to lhe following cases:

(a) When the speed required ha s to be co nstanl
(h) When lhe starting torque is less than lhe full load torque.
Beca use of ilS influence on the factory network, al Ihe moment of starting, it will imen-
tionally be used for low ralher than for high powers. [n general, the sqllirrel-cage motor is
not used aboye 30 or 40 h.p.
It is used mainly for centrifugals and for sma ll pumps, and sometimes for cane carrier
drives.
(b) Molor wilh wound rolor and slip rings. This is by far lhe most co mm on type used in
suga r faclories. The rotor cons ists of windings connecled to three rings placed on the shaft
of the motor, and corresponding lO Ihe three phases. By means of Ihree brushes, Ihese rings
can be co nn ec ted with three variable resistances, consituting a triple rheos ta l.
When Ihe resislance increases, lhe speed decreases proportionalel y. The vollage drop oc-
curring in the resistance should be compensated by the rotor, which in vol ves an increase in
slip, or in olher words a drop in speed .
The maximum va lu e of th e resistances is chosen in such a way that it correspo nd s 10 curve
R, (4) in Fig. 43.17. By applying Ihe maximum resistance it is possible to start with rhe max-
imum lorque, wirh a relatively low curren l. Then Ihe resi slances are decreased gradually by
changing from one conlaCI stud to anolher on Ihe rheos lat, whic h corresponds 10 passing
from one curve to another in the series R, (4), R, (3), R, (2) ... When lhe motor is nearing
the synchronous speed, the resistances are sllppressed by lifting the brushes, which lea ves lhe
rOlar short circuiled on its own resi sta nce. Previously, th e motor was stopped by lifting the
brushes. Al present the brushes are left permanenlly in conlac l, and a time swilch is used
10 cut Oul the resistances successively from lhe circui t, over a period of 5 - 15 seconds. The
mOlor with wound rotor and slip rings lherefore is nOI so simple; it requires a slarting rheoslal
and a time swilC h. lts efficiency and its cos el> are slightly lower lhan th ose of Ihesquirrel-cage
motor, but it permits of starting wilh a high torque, withou t absorbing excess ive current. Coil
resistances were previously used; al prese nt resistances of electrolYle type are used, Ihe elec-
lrol yte being, for examp le , soda so lution.
T()rque and currenl al slarling . II is possible to oblain a slarting lorque more Ihan double
the full-Ioad torque, if desired. Whatever Ihe starting lorque used , if it is m limes Ihe full·
load torque the corresponding starting current will be 1.25m times the full-Ioad currenl, and
acceleration will be ver y smooth if the resistance in the rotor circuit is progressively cut down.
Usage. The motor with wound rotor and slip rings is used:
(a) When Ihe speed requires slighl adjustmenls below Ihe synchronous speed. The slip is
then made lo va ry by using the rheoslat. The adjusling margin is in Ihe range of 10070 for
ordinary motors, but it can reach 30% and even 50% in some spec ially designed mOlors.
However, that margin is obtained at the expense of efficiency, since the energy is lost in heal
in the rheOSla!.
(b) When the slarting lorque is equal or superior 10 Ihe full load lorq ue.
The wound rOlor mOlar is used for the mili s, Ihe vacuum pumps, 01 her larger pUlllpS and,
in short, for almost all lhe large motors in the faclOry.
Effieieney of induetion motors. The erriciency of induction motors improves slightly with:
Speed
Power
Load
(a) Speed. The influence of speed is rather small. Still, there is an advantage in choosing
motors with the highest s peed possible; but the difference in efficiency between, say, 750
r.p.m. and 1,500 or 3,000 r .p.m. is little more than 1OJo.
(b) Power. On the contrary, the effect of the power is very important. The optimum effi-
ciency is in the range given by Table 43.5.
TABLE 43.5
EFFlClENCY OF rNDUCnON MOTORS
Power (h.p.) Efftciency (approx.) %
3- 5 77 -83
5- 10 79-85
10- 20 82 -87
20- 50 84 -90
50 - 100 88 -91
100-1,000 90-92
Power factor. One of the biggest drawbacks of non-synchronous motors is their low power
factor. Like the efficiency, the power factor of induction molors varies with speed, power
and load.
(a) Speed. The influence of speed on cos 1> is much greater than on the efficiency (ef. Table
43.6).
TABLE 43.6
POWER FACTORS OF INDUCTlON MOTOR S (oplimum cos 1> al full load)
Speed a/ful/load (r.p.m.)

Po wer (h .p.)
3,000 /,500 /,000 750
3- 5 0.88 0.82 0.75 -0.78 0.73 -0.76

5- 10 0.89 0.83 - 0.84 0.78-0.81 0.76 - 0.80
10- 20 0.90 0.84 - 0.88 0.81 -0.84 0.80 - 0.83
20- 50 0.90-0.91 0.88 - 0.89 0.84 -0.87 0.83 - 0.86
50- 100 0.91 0.89 - 0.90 0.87 - 0.88 0.86 -0.87
100-1,000 0.92 0.90 - 0.91 0.88 - 0.90 0.87 -0.88
(b) Power has an influence on cos 1> similar to its effect of efficiency.
(e) Load. The power factor always decreases at the same time as the load, slowly at first,
then rapidly. It falls to about 0.2 when the motor runs atno load. Hence it is reasonable
to oppose the lendency of the manufacturers to build motors which are too powerful and
offer too wide a safety margino If they had it their own way, a factory would work with an
average cos of 0.5 . It mU SI be remembered !hat lhe sho rler Ihe duralion 0 1' Ihe overloads,
lhe grealer lhey ca n be, and lhe power of each mOlor in s[ alled has lO be care fully de[ermined.
Average power jac/or. In spi le of lhe precaulions which ca n be laken, a fact ory often func-
tions with an average power factor, shown by the swi[chboard al lh e elec[Iic po,,"er 11Ouse,
much 10wer [han lhe th eore ti ca l value 0.8, which is so of[en quoted bu[ rarely recorded in
practice.
This is due to lhe motors working unde r va r¡'a ble load, which work far below their no minal
power for an important part of th e time, and in particular:
(a) The centri fugals
(b) Pumps reg ulaled by a valve on lhe di scharge.
The average power factor in a fa c[ory in whi ch 110 spec ial sys[em is used [O improve il is
generally in Ih e range 0.6 - 0.7. Somelimes il comes down 100.5, bU I rarely goes abo ye 0.75,
unl ess spec ial measures are taken.
Drawbacks oj a low power jac/or. A low power factor prese nl S drawbacks :

(a) Unsati sfa ctor y ulili sa lion of the allernator. Th e OU[PUI of Ihe all ernalor which pro-
duces eleclri cily for lhe fa ctor y, in lhe power house, is limil ed by [h e cur rent [which flo\\' s
lhrough il. But th e use ful pow er provided is only proportional to [cos <P. Consequenlly if
cos = 0.4, the power lh e a llernator will be able 10 produ ce will be o nl )' half [hal which
it could produce wi[h a cos = 0.8. If that has been foreseen, it ha s been deemed necessary
to buy an al[ernalOr bigger than it should be. I f nOI, lhe expecl ed power will nOI be ava ilable.
(b) In crease in the losses through the Joule effect in the lines; these los ses are proportional
to / 2.
(e) In creased voltage drop in the allernalor and the lines.
(d) Decrea se in the efficiency of lh e a llern ator; this can be more lhan l fIJo.
/mprovemen/ oj ¡he power jaetor. In o rde r 10 impr ove power faclor we have al our
disposa l Ihe following means:
(a) Betler adaptation of the power of the mOlors to Ihe work the y ha ve to perform.
(b) Intr odu ction of co nden sers , eilher al Ihe Swil chboarcl, or pre ferabl y al Ihe 1110[ors
responsible for Ihe low powe r ('ac[or, and in parlicular Ihe ce nlrifu ga l molors, so as 10 relieve
l he corlespond i ng Ii ne co nneCIing Ihe swi leh bomd 10 [he ce n [ri fugill s, \\' 11 ich olherwise ",ould
remain overloadecl. In Ihi s way lhe power faclor of lhal seClo r ca n be broughl up 10 aboul
0.95. The drawback 01' lh ese co nd enscrs, howcvcr, is Ih a l [hey arc cxpens ive and Ihal Ihey
create risk s o f boos ting lhe volt age when the motors are being switched on or off.
(e) Use of an over-excited sy nchron o us motor (ej. Fig. 43.15); bul the wcak [orque al Slar-
ting mak es lhe use of such mOlors difficult.
(d) Use of sy nchronised or compensated as)'nchronous mo[ors: [hese are no ", 'la rdl y used
in indu stry.
B. Commutator motor. Thi s is the second type o f non-synchronou s mOl o r. Alihough il

is much less widely used than lhe induction motor, it presenls a certain ad vanlage and has
fo und so me applicalions.
In Ihe se motors [he lotor, like Ihe a rm at ure o f a clynal11o, is co nnecled lVi lh a commUlalor
ELECTR1C MOTORS 1095
by brushes, Ihe number of which is equal to Ihe producl of lhe number of phases by Ihe
number of pole pairs. ROlor and slator are supplied with current, either in se ries or shunl
conneclion, from lhe a.c. supply. By mOdifying the position of the brushes, ¡he lag between
Ihe e.m.r. of Ihe stator and thal of the rotor may be altered al wil!, hence a greal number
oJ possible combinations.
Advantages. From the point of view of the range of speed variation, the commulator
motor of'fers possibilities much superior lO lhose offered by induclion motors. Hence:
TABLE 43.7
RANGE OF SPEED VARIATIQN OF COMMUTATOR MOTORS
Series mOlOr: from 0.4 lO 1.3 times synchron ous speed. say I : 3 approx.
Shunt molor: from 0.2 to 1.5 limes synchronous speed, say 1 : 8 approx.
(a) Wide range of speed varialion', see Table 43.7.

(b) Easy and very smoolh slarting.
(e) Small variation of speed with load, for the shunt motor.
(d) Possibilil Y of choosing a given speed for any given load.
(e) High efficiency, maintained over a Jarge par! of the scale oL spéeds.
(j) Very high power faclor for speeds around Ihe sync hronous speed. somelimes reaching
and even leading al speeds higher Ihan sy nchronous.
lt is the commulation which limil S Ihe use of Ihe commutator motor: good at low speeds,
il becomes bad aboye the synchronous speed.
Usage. The commutator motor is the obvious choice every time a wide range of speed
variation is required, and especiall y when that variation is expected without the high losses
involved in the rheostat of an induclion motor with a wide range of slip.
It is sometimes used for pumps, and especially for fans with adjuslable speed.
Combinations of a.c. and d.c. motors. [n the sugar faclory , (hese combinations are
employed only in mil! drives. They are discussed in Chapter 15 .
Protection of electric motors. A pruden( practice, which we recommend, consists in never

installing any motor of more (han 7.5 h.p. without providing a device comprising starter
together with overioad and low voltage protection.
Overload relays. However, we have to watch continually, and figh! against, certain tenden-
cies of the employees in the factory: ·very often the person in charge of an electric molor,
because he is annoyed at the circuir breaker opening frequently, wil! modify the adjustmenl
so Ihat it does not open; but instead of this, the reason for its frequent opening should be
sought and corrected, while taking careful precautions that the protection which it should
give is not losl.
11 is generally agreed that maximum current relays shoul.d function for a current three
limes thal corresponding to lhe normal continuous load of the motor.
Fig. 43.20. Group of two condensing lurbo-generators (40 bar - 400°C. EXlraction al 1.5 bar).
Thermal overload relays. Thermal overload relays, on the other hand, which operate by
heating, have_to be acljusted for a current only 10-20"70 aboye that corresponding lO tile
maximum power which ¡he motor can provide for one hour of sustained running.
Maintenance of electric motors

As soon as the campaign is finished, the small e1ectric motors have to be removed, marked
for identification, cleaned and sto red in a special room, sheltered from moisture and from
cyclones. For large motors, a hood of light sheet iron should be built which \Viii cover ¡he
motor completely. After c1eaning the motor, it will be coyered with a sheet of impervious
material such as plastic or polythene filted closely over il, and, thus wrapped, will be placed
under the metal hood.
Before ¡he crushing season begins, the motors will be carefully dried, for example by swit-
ching on under the cover a large electric lamp which gives out a certain amount of heat, and
leaving it there for a week. The motors will then be run at no load forhalf a day or a day,
or longer if necessary.
If a motor has been splashed with juice, the windings wil! be washed with a brush and a
c1oth, until al! viscous deposits have been removed. They will then be wiped and dried
careful!y.
Cleaning during the slack season should include blowing out the dust from the spaces bet-
ween the windings. This operation is readily performed wirh the aid of an air compressor or
a simple tyre pump.
I f the motors are wet following a cyclone, they have ro be dried out as soon as possible
CONDUCTORS 1097
in a drying room, which can be a makeshift cabinet easily constructed. The temperature
should not exceed 90°C (194°F) 50 as to avoid damage to the insulation.
CONDUCTORS
Different types of conductor

These may be classified under two main headings.
A. Control cables. These are smalJ wires serving for control, regulation and metering, par-
ticularly for automatic equipment. They form the nerve system of the factory:These conduc-
tors are generally 01' copper; their cross-section generalJy ranges between 0.8 and 10 mm 2 They
are used with insulation designated as:
(a) U 1000 RO 2Y, for L.T. (up to 1000 Y), International standard CEI 502, consisting of:
A core of copper or aluminium, 3 conductors
Number of wires 6 to 37
Insulating coaling in PRC (chemical polyethylene reticule) around each conductor
Elastoplastic coaling of the bundle 01' 3 conductors, or synthetic strip
Exterior coating 01' black p. V.c. (polyvinyl chloride)
Usual cross-section of each conductor = 1.5, 2.5, 4, 6, 10, 16 or 25" mm'
This cable, if laid underground, should have a protective metal sheet.
(b) U 1000 RGPFV, for L.T. (to 1000 V); similar protection as aboye with additionally:
Water-tight sheath of lead
Fig. 43.21. Turbo-generator. 12,800 kW, 7,500/1,500 r.p.m., 38 bar, 375"C, exhaust 2 bar, alternator 15,000 V
(Flves Cail- Babcock).
1098 ELECTRICITY . Ch. 43
Armour consisting of paper coa ted with tar and stee l sheath
E xternal layer of black p. V. c.
This ca ble ensures protecti on of joints in Ihe mosl severe conditions.
(e) There are ot her Iypes 01" cable, armou recl o r nOl, Ihe specifications of which ha ve been
estab lis hed by the makers.
8. Power cables. These are th e cab les serving tRe molors. Their conduclors may be of cop-
per or of a luminiu m. For car rying equal cur rent, the section of aluminium should be 50070
greater lha n thal of a copper cable; taking this fact inl o accounl, aluminium cables are lig,hler
and cheaper , bu! more susceptible 10 corrosion. The normal se ries in French induslry is
c1esignated by:
(1) The lett er U, co nfo rms lo the standard of Union Tec hni que de ¡'Electri cilé (U.T.E) ;
(2) A number design ali ng Ihe nominal maximum vo ltage permissible;
(3) Letlers indi ca ling the nature of the consiluents, suc h as:
B = vulcanised bUl yl rubber
C rubber (caoulchouc)
E = pol yt hene
H hypalon
] impregna tecl paper
K silicone rubber
L ethyl propyl rubber
N = polychloroprene, or equivalent
R polylhene chemica ll y reliculated
V ~ polyvinyl chloride (p.v.c.).
Fig. 43 .22. Tu r bo-gene rato r. 12,800 kW, 7,000/ 1,500 rpm, 43 bar err;. 415°C, exhausI 2.5 bar err., alrernalor
¡ 5,000 V (Fives Cai ¡ - Babcoc k).
For L.T. (U ~ 1,000 V), for example, the cab le used is.U 1000 RO 2 V, which may o r
may nO I be armoured; ' fo r particularIy severe condilions: U 1000 RGPFV. For medium len-
sion (U ~ 1,000 - 30,000 V), Ihe cable used may be EdF HN 33 S 23, which ma y be placed
underground, o r H N 33 S 22, which should nOI be direcll y underground.
The use of a luminium is developing rapidly; il tends lO repla ce copper.
CONDUCTORS 1099
Section of the conductors

The cross-section of the electric wires and cables. carrying the current in the factory has to
be proportional to the current carried.
lt is heating in the wires that limits the carrying capacity; and it must be remembered that
a wire becomes heated through its whole mass, whereas it cools down through its surface.
Since the ratio of the outer surface of a given length of wire to the section of that wire
decreases when the diameter increases, the density of current it can carry decreases when the
diameter increases.
The current density is the ratio oof the current flowing in the conductor to the section of
that conductor:
1 (43.25)
s
lt is evaluated in amperes per square· millimetre.

The current density that can be carried depends on:
(1) The limit of heating permissible. A temperature of 65°C is generalIy accepted for im-
pregnated paper, 70°C for polyethylene, 75°C for p.v.C., 90°C for p.r.c., or 140°C for
silicone rubber.
(2) The ambient temperature, which can lea ve a larger or smaller margin before reaching
the limit temperature. [n tropical factories estimates may generally be based on 40°C, except
sometimes near a boiler or a hol surface.
Permissible current density. Table 43.8 gives, in amperes, the current density permissible
for an L.T. cable suspended freely in Ihe open airo 11 depends on the insulalion and on the
prOleclion of the cable. 11 is slated in amp/mm' of cross-section of each of the Ihree conduc-
tors, and is thus to be multiplied by that cross-section.
o"
·.'i
TABLE 43.8
PERMISSIBLE CURRENT DENSITY
Sec(;on (mm 1) Rubber (amp/nlln 1) U /000 R02V U /000 RGPFV
1.5 12 16 15
4 7 10 ' 1I
10 5 7 8
25 3.5 5 5.7
50 2.8 4 4.2
120 2 2.8 3.1
240 1,5 2.1 2.4
300 1.4 2
400 1.2 1.6
This maximum current density applies for cables in the open air at 30°C. For a different
ambient temperature, the figures should be multiplied by the following values of coefficient
k:
1100 ElECTRlCITY Ch. 43
At 30 35 40 45 50 55 60°C
k = 0.96 0.91 0.87 0.82 0.76 0.71
Simi larly, for a cable in the sun:
Wilh c1ear insulalion: k = 0.9

With black insulatio'n: k = 0.8
For adjacent locat ion of cables:
In a group of: 2 3 4 or 5 6-8 9 and aboye
Horizontal layer: k 0.85 0.78 0.75 0.74 0.70

Vertical la yer: k 0.80 0.73 0.70 0.68 0.66
L.T. cables, located together in conduit, according to the number:
Number of cables: 2 3 4 5 6 7 >7

k = 0.89 0.80 0.75 0.71 0.66 0.60 0.59
U nderground:
In soil at: 20 25 30°C

k = 0.96 0.93
POWER ROUSE
Electric power required

For mean powers installed, Trompl quotes for several power stalions in Cuba lhe figures in
Table 43.9.
TABLE 43.9
AVERAGE TOTAL INSTALLED POWER FOR AN ELECTRIFIED FACTORY
TOlally eleclrined 30 kW / l.c.h. ~ 40 h.p./t.c.h.

Electrified except for mili s 15 kW / l.c .h. ~ 20 h.p./I.c. h.
We recall the values quoted in Table 41.29 (but these concern the mean power used. and
not the installed power):
Milis Gfher machines Toral
FaClories totally electrified 12 - 20 12 - 20 20-40 h.p ./l.c.h.

Fnclories wj¡h sleam-driven milis 12 - 20 12 -20 h.p.ll. c. h.
REFERENCES 1101
These figures are now much exceeded.

In his figures, Tromp counled for lighling: 0.75 kW/I.c.h. = 1 h.p./I.c.h.
Slack sea son power. During Ihe slack season, requirements for workshop, dislillery,
lighling. elc., could be estimaled at:
1 h.p./t.c.h
Of course, thal value is only a rough indication, since Ihe crushing rate of Ihe faclory in
I.c.h. can give only a rough idea of the slack season load. Requiremenls for irrigation pump-
ing may of course greally exceed Ihis figure.
Transformatíon of power
We have several limes drawl1 alienlion 10 lhe double Iransformalion of power which lakes
place in Ihe power slalion of a factory.
Owing lo Ihe losses involved in each transformation; we can say Ihal, in arder lo oblain
J h.p. allhe shafl of an e/eclric molar, we musl have e/ose lo J kW allhe lermina/s of Ihe
a/lernalor.
Since the efficiency of an eJeclric motor wilh ~ load varies, according lO its speed and
power, belween 73 and 88070, we may count 80070 as an average. Besides, Ihe efficiency of
Ihe lransmission li[le is about 0.95 or.0.97. One h.p. applied 10 the shaft corresponds thento:
1 h.p. x x 0.746 0.96 "" 1 kW

0.80 x 0.96
at the terminals of lhe allernalor. '.'
REFERENCES
I P. MONNIER, L 'Éleelrieilé dans l'Usine, PresSEs Universitaires de France, Paris, ¡ 934, p. 91.
2 D. L. HUGHES, Frac. 361h Conf. SASTA, 1962, p. 69.
3 L. A. TROMP, Maehinery and Equipmenl of Ihe Cane Sugnr Faelory, Norman Rodger, London, 1936, p. 576.
4 P. MONNIER, op eil., pp. 189-191.
. -. '
/ ¡"-.'- ',.'1"' i
.' , .""
44. Pumps
CENTRlFUGAL PUMPS
The vast majority of pumps in the sugar factory are centrifugal pumps, with direct coupled
electric motors (Fig. 44.1).
Fig. 44.1. Single stage electric pump "Men-bloc" (Jeaum o nt-Schneider).
Speed
The main drawback of such pumps is that the speed of the electric motor is fixed once and
for aH, and cannot be adjusted: 2,900, 1,450,960 ... r.p.m. (50 cycles alternating current).
Adjustment of tbe output

The adjustment of the output has then to be done with a va!ve, and that val ve must always
be placed on the delivery si de and not on the suction side. Otherwise ca vitation would take
place leading to rapid wear of the impeller.
The power absorbed by a pump thus adjusted actuall y decreases with the output, alrhough
of course it does not decrease in proportion. BUl lhe cos 1> of lhe motor also decreases and
could fal! very 10w .
However, adjustment by means of the delivery valve does not a1ways allow the output of
the pump to be regulated to suit the continua! and sometimes substantial variations required
in output.
In order to do away with the continua! attention and supervi sion required of such a val ve,
it is of advantage 10 fit each pump with a device consisling of a balanced va! ve operaled by
a floal, placed in an intermedia le lank, and regu!ating the output of (he pump (Fig. 44.2).
The output is thus rendered proportional to the quanlity of liquid arriving in the imermediate
tank B. If the level in that tank is a boye a certain mark N" the float c10ses the va!ve com-
p!etely, and aH the !iquid is forced away through the delivery pipe T. If the level comes down
below N" the floar opens the valve fully and al] (he liquid flows in a closed circuil belween .
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 1103
the tank B, the pump and the val ve. In normal operation the valve recirculates a certain pro-
portian of liquid.
This device is very useful, in arder to secure satisfactory functioning of a centrifugal pump
on mixed juice, for example, to avoid fluctuations in the the feeding of the units placed
downstream in relation to the pump.
~--~----~---~- N2
fig. 44.2. Adjustment of the outpO[ of a pump by f1oat-controlled val ve.
Choosing the output of the pump

When drawing up a project of an installation which ineludes centrifugal pumps, the designers
tend to provide for pumps the nominal f10w of which is 25 or 30070 greater than the average
ou tpu t needed.
lt is essential to provide a margin, so as to face sudden variations in output, air leakages,
minor accidents in operation, etc., but an excessively wide margin sabotages the cos 1> of the
factory. We consider a margin of 15 - 20% as a maximum is sufficient to avoid all troubles.
For instance, in a factory where the volume of juice is 100,000 l/h (12,000 gal./h), wc shall
consider pumps designed for 120,000 l/h (14,000 gal./h). There is no reason to allow a wider
margin; then the impellers have to be changed or repaired when they are worn out. Besides,
if the capacity of the factory increáses gradually, as is often the case, and certain pumps are
found to be barely adequate, it is generally easy to find another use for them, in a different
part of the factory.
This remark, of course, does not apply to the boiler feed pumps, for which prudence
demands a substantial margin in the output (cf. p. 998).
Power
The power absorbed by centrifugal pumps is given by the formula:
1104 PUMPS Ch. 44
p
Q (H + h) Q (H + h))
( (44. 1)
102 12 738 e
P = power absorbed by the pump, in kW

Q = output of water or juice, in kg/s (lb.s)
H = liquid head, total of suction and delivery, in m (fL)
h liquid head corresponding to los ses of lÍead in the piping, in m (fl. )
e volumetric efficiency of the pump.
For the efficiencye of the pump, we shall take:
Small pumps: e "" 0.50

Medium size pumps: e = 0.60
Large pumps: e .: : : 0.70
Tromp' gives the more precise values of Table 44.1.
TABLE 44.1
ME CHA NICAL EFfl CIENCY OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
OUlp ul Ejjiciency
(l/m in) (Imp. gal./min)
300- 1,000 75 - 250 55 - 65

1,000- 5,000 250- 1,000 65 - 70
5,000- 15,000 1,000- 3,000 70-73
15 ,000 - 25 ,000 3,000 - 6,000 7) - 75
25 ,000 - 50,000 6,000 - 10,000 75 - 80
Multi-stage pumps obviously have a lower efficiency. We must take 0.35 - 0.45 for or-
dinary pumps, and somewhat more for special pumps.
Multi-stage pumps
The ordinary single impeller or single-slage pumps ca n raise waler only up to approximately:
H "" 50 m (165 f1.) when they llave no fi xe d vanes
H = 100 m (330 f1.) when ritted with fixed vanes.
Consequently, when the head is greater than 100 m or 10 kg/ cm', multi-stage pumps are
required . These are simply single-stage pumps arranged in series on the same shaft, one
delivering the liquid to the other. In sugar factories they are to be found mainl y:
(a) A s feed pumps for high press ure bo¡lers.
(b) For pumping juice through a battery of heaters.
(e) As high pressure pumps for hydraulic dri ve to centrifugals, where this is slill used .
(ti) As water pumps Tor delivery to an elevated reser voir.
Suction
Centrifugal pump s are obviously limited where 'suction height is concerned.
A head of 7m (23 fL) is the limil, and lhal only inlhe mOSI favourable cases.
Hol waler fUrlher lowers lhal limiL We lake from the Bréguet catalogue lhe graph of Fig.
44 .3, giving lhe maximum suclion heighl admissible as function of the temperature of the
liquid. We muSl notice that from a temperature of 68°C (155°F), the so-called "suction"
lank will have to be located aboye the pump.
The suction height is counted as from lhe shaft of the pump to the level of the liquid in
the suclion tank.
Above 3 m (10 ft.) of lift, it will be necessary to fit a foot-valve.
Besides, there is always an advanlage in installing centrifugal pumps so that they have a
posilive suction head, since theydo not self-prime automatically as do piston pumps. When
working under suction they always risk losing lheir water if stoppages occur, 'and re-priming
is somelimes difficult.
100 120 140 160 180 200 212 "F

+3
+2
+1
O
-1
_2
-3
I::x: -4
-5
-6
-7
-8
10 20 JO 40 50 50 70 .80 90 100 oC
T~mperature
Fig. 44.]. Centrirugal pumps. Maximum suclion heighl (or minimum posilive head) according lO lemperalure or
liquid.
Nel posilive suclion head

Problems posed by the suction in a pump are resolved by the calculation of the NPSH, that
is, the net absolute pressure at the point of minimum pressure in the pump. If this head is
negative, it will cause cavitalion, rapid wear of the impeller and failure of pumping. The
calculated head is theo compared with the minimum head required for correet functioning
of the pump, and if the difference or lhe nel head is positive, there will be no eavitation.
lt is advisable to allow a margin of safety. It is convenient to express this pressure in lerms
of the heighl of a column of the liquid to be pumped. It may also be expressed in kg / cm 2
or any other unit of pressure.
1106 PUMPS Ch. 44
The net absolule head al the pump consists of:

(a) The pressure P exerted on the liquid al lhetank from which il is pumped. If lhis is
open to lhe atmosphere, Pis lhe atmospheric pressure.
(b) The vapour lension 8. This is a negative element which can decrease Ihe available
pressure and which must be deducled from Ihe preceding figure.
(e) The suction !ifl h, that is lhe difference in level between lhe axis of Ihe pump and Ihe
surface of lhe Iiquid in lhe lank feeding il. This ~s also a deduction, unless Ihe pump is under
a positive head, in which case lhis heighl will be added to the pressure P.
(d) The 1055 of head J corresponding to the output of the pump, also a deduclion.
These four elements are to be laken into account, following the choice effected, either in
height of liquid or in olher pressure unils.
Examp/e. Consider a faclory al sea level, which requires a pump to pump syrup from
ground !evel lO lhe second !loor of the faclory, lhe differen ce in leve! be¡ween Ihe suclion
lank and the de!ivery tank being 8 m (lhis however does nOl influence lhe NPSH). The syrup
is at 60°C and ilS density is 1.32. The pump is 0.9 m aboye the surface of the syrup in lhe
lank, lhe suclion pipe is 125 mm (5 in.) in diameler; ils lenglh is 6 m (20 ft.), and lhe quanlily
lO be pumped is 60 t/ h.
NPSH available: (a) pressure al lhe lower tank; it is open, so Ihis is atmospheric pressure;
taking that as 770 mm of mercury:
770 x 13.6
P= 7.93 m (26 ft.)
1.32 x 1,000
Fig . 44.4. Muhi-Slage eleclrie pump FM (Jeumonl - Schneider).
(b) Vapour tension: at 60°C (Fig. 44.3). il is 2.3 m of water, or in syrup of densily 1.32:
2.3
8 = 1.32
= 1.74 m (5.72 ft.)
(e) Suclion head: this is precisely the difference in leve!: pump minus lank:
h = 0.90 m (3 fl.)
(d) Loss of head: the flow of syrup per secon d is, by weight:
60,000
q = 16.7 kgls
3600
a nd, by volume:
16.7
q' 12.6 l/s (0.45 cu.fL/s)
1.32
The velocity u of the liquid in the suct io n pipe:
12.6
u = -:---:-:c---- = 10.29 dm/ s = 1.029 m/s (3.32 [LIs)
0.7854 X 1.25 2
The kinematic viscosity " (Table 45.1 or móre complete table):
" = 12 X 10 - 6 m2 / s (129 X 10- 6 sq. ft./s)
The Reynolds number is thus:
uD 1.029 x 0.125
R = 10,720 (dimen sionless)
12 x 10- 6
Formula (45.11) gives:
A = -.;=:~=':=;;===:: - O. 03 I
~ 100 x 10,720 ,
Hence the loss of head:
J = 0.031 X 1.029' x 6 = 0.08 m (0 .26 ft.)

19.6 0. 125
We hav e [inally:
NPSH available: 7.93 1.74 . - 0.90 - 0.08 = 5.2 1 m (17.02ft.)
The suppliers generall y indi ca te in th eir cata logues the NPSH necessary for proper opera-
tion of the pump, as a fun cti on of the capac ity. Jt is necessaryto compare the avaiJable
NPSH wirh the 'required figure, to verify that it is higher and that the safety margin is suffi-
cient.
1108 PUMPS Ch. 44
Fig. 44.5. Single-stage "Men" pump with protecled motor (Jeumonl- Schneider).
Unchokable pumps
These are centrifugal pumps specially designed so as ro pass pieces of bagasse lhe size of lhose
which drop from the mills, belween the feed piare or trash plale and rhe rollers.
They are sometimes called also "dredging pumps" or "chokeless" pumps.
They ha ve necessarily a very low efficiency, and cannot be regulaled by a valve \\'ilhout
risk of obstruction. Consequently, they should be firted with a variable speed mOlor, or an
airleak to the suction, ro regulate rhe Oulput.
Coulter, an engineer at Naalehu (Hawaii) advises the use of pumps wilh a capaciry 25070
greater than the maximum quantiry of juice they may ha ve to handle, and Wilh a power 50070
greatér rhan rhe maximum theoretically needed.
Storrar' considers that no pump should be classed as unchokable unless ilS suction and
delivery openings are al least 7.5 cm (3 in.) in diameter. 11 follows lhat, in praclice, un-
chokable pumps cannOI be used in faclories of less lhan 40 I.c.h., especially lhose using less
than 15070 of imbibition. We would even advise raising lhis limillO 80-100 I.c.h. and 20070.
ROTARY PUMPS
Use
Molasses can be handled by gear-pumps (Fig. 46.6), which are very simple and rugged and
are now constructed wilh direct coupled molor drive (Fig. 44.7). They do nor require much
ROTARY PUMPS
1109
fig . 44 .6 . Principle or a gear pümp ror massécuite and magmas (Broquel).
Fig. 44.7 . Diagram showing why crySlals cailOOl be crushed in Broquel pump.
Fig. 44.8. Motor-driven gear pump for molasses and mas secuile (Broquel).
1110 PUMPS Ch. 44
attention and we sha ll not study them here.

Massecuile is more difficult lO handle, since cryslal damage musl be avoidect. Il muy,
however, be salis factorily handled in gear pum ps especially manu fact ured (Figs. 44.8 and 44.9)
as well as in pumps of lhe "Rota" type (Figs. 44.10,44.11 and 44.12).
It is a positive displacement pump, consisting of a rotor of elliptical section rotating ins ide
the casing of the pump, and on whi ch rests a spring-loaded scraper (Figs. 44.10 and 44 . 11).
Its operatíon can be readily understood fro m the figure.
Fig. 44.9. Pump ror massecuite and magmas (Broquet).
~'I
~I
~I
Suclion
. _--- ----
fig. 44.10. ROla pump. Section.

ROTAR Y PUMPS 1 111
DISCHARGE BOAE
~----~----~._~
Fig. 44.11. Pump for massecuite (Flelcher and Slewarl).
Speed
These pumps are usually supplied either under the form of a complete set with motor, or with
a reducing gear and driving pulJey.
Speed reduction between pulley and pump is preferably done by Vee belts, or by gear with
a leather pinion. In the case of the motor-driven pump there was previously a first reduction
by worm-gear, which lowered the efficiency considerably, but much simplified the speed
reduction. Tod~y such sets are sold with a coaxial speed reducer, the efficiency of which is
much higher.
The speed of the rotor varies from 120 to 150 r.p.m. for molasses and from 30 to 60 r.p.m.
for massecuite.
Qu!pu!
We have:
7r D2 ) (44.2)
Q = 60 ( -4- -:- s LnQ,
Q = output of the pump, in l/h (cu. ft./h)

D = diameter of the cylindrical body, in dm (ft.)
s = section of the rotor, perpendicular to the shaft and expressed in dm 2 (sqJt.)
L = width of the barrel, parallel to the shaft and expressed in dm (ft.)
n = speed of the rotor, in r.p.m.
Q, = volumetric efficiency.
We shal1 take for:
Molasses: Q, 0.70 - 0.85 according to vjscosity

Massecuites: fl
'<, 0.60 - 0.75 according to viscosity
Power
The Jlower absorbed by. the pump is given by:
/
1112 PUMPS Ch. 44
p = V (H + h)d V (H + h)d)
(44.3)
(
100 Qm Q, QM 138Q",Q,QM
P = power absorbed by th e motor of the pump, in kW

V =voJume of the material putJ;1ped, in l/s (Cu.fL /S)
d =density of the material pumpcd, in kg/d¡;nl (lb .lcu . fL)
H =total heig ht between suction and delivery, in m .(fL)
h =loss of head, in m (ft.) of water; for very viscous li quids this term can be very large
Qm = overall efficiency of the pump itself
Q, = efficiency of the speed reducer and of the transmissio n
QM = efficiency of the electric motor.
In general:
\ 0.70 - 0.80 (molasses)
Qm is in the range of
I 0.60 - 0.70 (massecuite)
~
0 .90 - 0.95 for two-stage gearing
Q, is in the range of
0.50 - 0.60 for one worm reduction
QM is in the range o f: 0.80 - 0.90.
Suction and delivery

Primed with molasses, which fills the clearances well, these pllmps can lifl lO 2 - 3 m (6 - 10
ft.), corresponding to 3 - 4 m of water. They can deli ver IIp to 20 - 30 m heighl, say 3 - 5
kg/cm' (60 - 100 fl. or 45 -70 p.s.i.).
Fig . 44.12. ROla pump (Smi'h Mirrle<s).

SCREW PUMPS 1113
........ _--
-~
'''---./}
,,O 0 ,
" ~/ .
Fig. 44 . 13. Guinard screw pump, Houttuin type.
A pplication
They are rather expensive and it is advisable to use them only for massecuites, for which they
are very useful, particularly as Ihey do nOl damage the cryslals. Once installed, they require
little altention and upkeep. The par! which breaks most frequenlly is the spring which loads
rhe scraper. It is advisable to carry an adequate stock of s pa res, and lo demand a metal of
very good quality. In sorne cases lhe spring can be replaced by a counter weight, bul this ex-
pedient is 110t always successful.
SCREW PUMPS
These are pumps ralher analogous 10 gear pumps , bul in which lhe volume displaced during
a rotation corresponds 10 the free space between two lhreads of a screw, The type mOSI used
in French faclories is lhe Guinard double screw pump (Fig. 44.13): Ihe engagement of one
sc rew wilh lhe olher assures separalion of lhe individual volumes belween successive lurn s
of lhe screw and consequently prevenls leakage, that is it ensures irre versibilily of Ihe f1ow.
1114 PUMPS Ch. 44
These pumps are utilised for molasses; their effieieney is of the order of 0.70.
A pump of similar design, well known in Brirish countries, is rhe "Mono".
REFERENCES
L. A. TROMP, Maehinery and Equipmenl oi Ihe Cane Sugar Faetory, Norman Rodger, London, 1963, p.506.
2 T. STORRAR, Proe. 9th Congr. ISSCT, 1956, p. 121.
.',
45. Piping and Fluid Flow
The f10w of f1uids in pipes is expressed by the same laws, whether liquid or gas is concerned.
This may appear slrange at first sight, bul it is due la the important role played by viscosity
of the fluid; and since viscosity is defined in terms of resislance to f1ow, il is due to i.ts effect
that the formulae become unified.
Since mosl problems of gas f10w in a sugar factory may be easily resolved by lhe adoption
of recommended velocities, we shall be concerned here mainly with flow of liquids. However,
once lhe viscosity is known, problems can be solved in either case by completel y analogous
methods.
In lhe factor y, we are concerned mainJy wilh the folJowing f1uids: water, juice, syrup,
moJasses (intermediate and final), steam, carbon dioxide, air and flue gases.
GENERAL FORMULAE
A. Equation of f10w
In any pipe transporting a liquid, we have:
7rD'
Q
4
u (45.1 )
Q = vo lume f1ow, in mJ/s (cu.ft./s)

D = pipe diameter , in m (ft.)
U = velocilY of liquid, in mis (ft./s).
B, Pressure drop
All f10w invo!ves friclion, and hence loss of energy, described in the present connection as
"press ure drop". We have:
U' L
tlp ;=Aw'-'- . (45.2)
2g D
tlp = pressure drop of the !iquid a!ong the pipe, in kg/m' (Ib./sq.ft.)
A = coefficient expressing resistance to flow (dimensionless)
w = densil Y of the liquid, in kg/m J (lb. /c u.ft.)
U mean velocit y of f10w of the Iiquid, in mis (ft./s)
g 9.8 mis' (32. 16 ft./ s ')
L length of pipe, in m (ft.) /
1116 PIPING AND-FLUID FLOW eh_ 45
D = di ame ter of pipe, in m (ft.).

It is sometimes convenient to express a pressure drop in head of liquid. We have then:
/:"P U' L
J=-=A'~'- (45.3)
w 2g D
J = pressure drop (or loss of head) along the pipe, in m (fL) head of liquid.
In ¡he same way, the head loss may be expressed per unit length of pipe:
J A U' (45.4 )
j
L D 2g
j = unit loss of head, in m per m lengrh pipe (fL per fr.).

(For water, l fl. head = 62.4 Ib.lsq. fL)
When rhe flow takes place by graviry, without obstruction or resrriction at entry, exir, or
along the pipe, rhe los s of head J is equal to the difference of level:
J = Z (45.5)
The critical point consists in calcularing A, which for laminar flow is a function of Ihe
Reynolds number onIy, but wirh rurbulenr flow is also influenced by the roughness of rhe
interior walls of the pipe.
C. Reynolds number
This is a dimensionless coefficienr which characterises the nalure of Ihe rIow, whelher
laminar or turbulent:
UD
R (45.6)
v
R = Reynolds number
U = fluid velociry, in mis (fl./s)
D pipe diamerer, in m (fr.)
v - kinemaric viscosity of the fluid = ~glw, in mis (sq.fL/s)
~ absolute viscosity of rhe fluid, in (lb.slsq. fL)
w density of the fluid, in kg/m J (lb.lcu.fr.)
When R < 2,320, the flow is laminar, i.e. rhe elemenrs of fluid move parallel to the cen-
treline of ¡he pipe, and the variation of velocity acrOss an axial secrion of Ihe pipe folloll's
a parabolic law, rhe maximal velocity being that at the centre.
When R > 3,000, the flow is turbulenl, or eddying.
When R lies between these two values, the flow is unstable and may be eilher laminar or
turbulenL The values 2,320 and 3,000 are called ¡he upper and lower critical values of ¡he
Reynolds number.
GENERAL FORMULAE 1117
D. Viscosity
The kinematic viscosity v is generally expressed in stokes. In calculations for piping, the
M.K.S. system (metre, kilogram-force, second), or the British f.p.s system are generally us-
ed; the conversion is readily made:
I v (m 2 /s) = 10,000 stokes (cm 2 /s)

I f.p.s. unit (sq.ft./s) = 929 stokes (45.7)
I v (m 2 /s) = 10.764 f.p.s. units
rhe kinematic viscosity is determined by means of a gravity flow viscosimeter (since it is

the dellsily of the ¡iquid which then provides lhe pressure difference).
The absolute viscosity ry is gene rally expressed in poises in the metric system, ánd con ver-
sion lo British f.p.s. units is equally convenient: "
I ry (kg 51m 2 ) = 98 poises

(45.8)
I f.p.s. unit (Ib.s/sq.ft.) = 14.89 poises
The absolute viscosity is determined by a viscosimeter operating on an applied force in-

stead of weight of the liquid, the "Hóppler" for example. Table 45.1 gives viscosities for'
waler and pure sucrose solutions.
TA8LE 45.1
ABSOLUTE VISCDSITY r¡ AND KINEMAT1C V¡SCOSITY " OF PURE SUCROSE SOLUTIONS
Tempera/ure (oC)
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
% Sucrose Absolute viscosily r¡ x 10' (Ib.slsq.f/. x 10' or kg slm 2) '
O 1.02 0.82 0.67 0.56 0.48 0.42 0.37

20 1.98 1.52 1.21 0.99 0.83 0.69 0.60
JO 3.25 2.42 1.87 1.50 1.22 1.02 0.87
40 6.29 4.46 3.30 2.54 2.01 1.63 1.35
50 15.73 10.31 7.13 5.17 3.88 3.00 2.39
60 59.6 34.5 21.4 14.3 9.85 7.12 5.30
70 490.9 225.9 116.2 65.6 39.8 25.5 17.1
75 2.373 910 397 197 107 62.6 39
% Sucrose Kinemalic viscosity " x lO' (sq.f/./s X 10 6 or m2/s X 10 6) ....
O 0.80 0.66 0.56 0.48 0.42 0.37

20 1.80 1.39 1.10 0.91 0.76 0.64 0.57
30 2.83 2.11 1.64 1.32 1.08 0.91 0.78
40 5.24 3.73 2.78 2.14 1.70 1.39 . 1. 15
50 12.55 8.25 5.73 4.17 3.15 2.44 1.96
60 45.5 26.4 16.5 11.0 7.64 5.55 4.15
70 357.5 165.2 85.3 48.4 29.4 19.0 12.8
75 1,688 644 285 142 77.4 45.5 28.5
• For eenlipoises. mulliply ~ by 0.98 x 10' .

.. For centistokes, mu!tiply " by 1.0 6 (hence figures in table are centistokes).
1118 PIPING AND FLUID FLOW Ch. 45
A much more detailed table is available in other publicationsl. 2

An impure solution of sucrose has a viscosity much higher than that of apure solution
of the same brix, and very variable according to the nature of the impurities. In the absence
of better data, an approximate value for the viscosity of a solution of purity p may be deduc-
ed from lhat of apure solution of lhe same brix by laking:
viscosity of the pure solution

Viscosity of the impure solution ---'--- ---'-- - - - x 100 (45.9)
p
It is obviously more prudent and more dependable 10 measure the viscosity in the
laboratory.
Example. Brix of juice 20°, purity 85, al a temperature of 140°F:
0.76 X 10- 6
v - 0.89 X 10- 6
0.85
Calculation of kinemalic viscosity. The second parl of Table 45.1 does not allow of suffi-
ciently precise interpolalion. However, it is possible by means of the graph of Figure 45.1
and the tables of Cane Sugar Handbook' to calcula le lhe kinemalic viscosity of a sucrose
solution when the temperature and concentration are known.
For example, take a syrup at 60°C and 60° Brix. The specific gravity of this product is
given, for 20°C. by Table 16 of ref. 2: d = 1.28908, and lhe specific gravilY al 60° by Table
5 of the same Manual. Since the volume at 60° is 1.0172 of its volume al 20', the specific
gravity is:
w 1.28908 = 1. 2673 ,ence

h d "
ensay ¡S 1267 . 3 kg I m 3
1.0172
The graph of Figure 45.1 gives ils absolute viscosity:
9.4
'f) 9.4 centiposies 0.00096 kg s/m'
0.98 X lO'
lts kinematic viscosity is then:
'f) • g 0.00096 x 9.81

v - 0.00000743 m'/s
w 1267.3
Having assumed Brix equal to sucrose content, we do nOI find exactly the same values as
those of Table 45.1.
E. Resistance coefficient "

This coefficient depends on the nature of lhe now, in olher words on lhe Reynolds number
R.
10 20 JO 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Temperoture _oC
Fig. 45 .1. Kinematic vis<;osilY of sugar soJulions as a runction of lemperatu re and concentration.
(a) Laminar flow. We sha ll take:
64
(45.10)
R
(b) Turbulent flow. With turbulent flow, :\ deper¡ds also on the Slale of [he interior surface
of [he pipe.
Smoolh pipes. For R < 10':
:\ = (45.11)
V lOOR
For R > 10':
0.0032 + 0.22 1 (45. 12)

RO.m
Rough pipes. When the Reynolds number is very high (10'- 10 6 , according lO roughness),
we may take:
:\ = 0.01 (DA) 0.' 1<

(45.13)
D interior diameter of the pipe, In m (fl.)

A = coefficient having the dimension of leng th , given by:
Pipe of new metal, relalivel y s moolh: A 1.5 m 5 Fl.

Pipe of new cast iron o r sleel : A = 2.5 m 8 ft.
Pipe of old and rusled iron: A = 5 m 16.5 fl.
For intermediate cases and lower Reynolds numbers. :\ varies over a rela[ive ly lower range
and assumes a value intermedia te between lhose applying lO smoolh and rough pipes.
Other sources of pressure drop

Further pressure drop is caused by bends (particularly elbows), valves, and changes of cross-
section, and these must be taken into accounl. They may be expressed as an equi valenl addi-
lional length of pipe. Precise values are given for each case by Oniga" in a very complete
lreatise on fluid flow.
Example 1. Checking a piping syste m

Data: D and J.
Unknowns: U and Q.
Consider the case of a pipe 120 mm diam. and 100 m in Iength conveying water from one
tank to another, the water level in the lower tan k being Z = 2 m below that in the upper
tank.
We have (eqns. 45.4 and 45.5):
Z 2
J = L 100
0.02 m/ m (ft./ft.)
We require lO know the mode of flow (laminar or turbulent) , allhough we do not yet know
Ihe liquid capacity. We shaIl accordingly proceed by trial and error. We have (eqn. 45.6):
UD 0.120
R 0.133 X lO' U
v 0.9 X 10-'
11 is to be expecled thal R would be very high, greater Ihan 10'. In this case, we would
have (eqn. 45.13):
0.01 (_ 3_)
0.12
O.J I4 = 0.0 1 x 2.75
We should thus have:
0.0275
j = or: 0.02
0.120 2 x 9.8
Hence:
0.02 x 0.120 x 19.6

U' = 1.71 U = 1.31 mis (U = 4.447 fL/s)
0.0275
Checking the mode of flow:
R = 0.133 X lO' x 1.31 = 174,230 (> 10')
The flow is then (eqn. 45.1):
Q = 7rD' . U = 3.14 X 0.12' x 1.31 = 0.0148 mJ"¡s = 14.8 lis (0.6 cu. ft ./s)
4 4
lf we had found a value of R leading to a difference in Ihe conditions assumed, or falling

belween lhe upper and lower critical figures, it would have been necessary lO repeat the
calculation, assuming different figures.
1122 PIPING AND FLUID FlOW Ch. 45
Example 2. Calculation of diameter of a pipe

Dala: Q and j.
Unknowns: D and U.
The tank is situated 12 m aboye a juice tank and a now Q of 5 lis of juice is req uired.
The length of the pipe is L 20 m. What diameter D should the pipe have lO oblain lhe
required f1ow?
W e have:
j =~ = 12 = 0.6
L 20
We require lhe value of D which will give us lhis value of j.

We sha ll lry D = 40 mm, and calculale lhe velocilY U (eqn. 45.1):
U = 4 Q = .,--_4_X--,5-c 3.98 mis (13.04 fUs)

11" D23.14 X 0.4 2
Hence lhe Re yno lds number (Table 45.1, assuming bri x 20 0 , and I
UD 3.98 x 0.040
R = 144,690
v 1.10 X 10- 6
This is well in lhe turbulenl region . If lhe pipe is smoolh , we may lake (eqn. 45 . J 2):
A = 0.0032 + 0.221
RO .l¡l
log RW7 = 0.237 log R = 0.237 x 5.16043 = 1.22302. Ro m = 16. 712
0.0032 + 0.221 0.0032 + 0.0132 0.0164

16 .712
Henée (eqn. 45.4):
A U2 0.0164 3.98 2
j = x 0.33
D 2g 0.04 2 x 9.8
Trying D = 30 mm, we find in lhe same way: j = 1.32, which is greater than lhe head
(0.625) available. Hence lhe diameler required li es belween 30 and 40 mm; we shall adopl
40 mm.
Pumping. The case of a pipe for pumping liquid is much simpler, as there are several so lu-
lions possi ble accord ing 10 lhe pressure drop chosen. A velocilY U from Ihe lable of normal
ve locilies will be chosen; I'rom Ihis lhe diameler D is calcula led, hence Ihe Reynolds number
FLOW OF STEAM AND GASES 1123
R, and lhe resislance coerricient A and so the total head loss 1. A diameter and a velocity
giving an acceptable heat loss will then be chosen.
When water, juices, syrup or molasses are transported in the sugar factories by means of
a pump or even, for a short distance, by gravity, such calculations for the piping are not
generally undertaken. lt is sufficient to choose a pipe diameter such as to give a normalliquid
velocilY (see Table 45.2).
TABLE 45.2
NORMAL VELOCITIES OF FLOW OF LIQUIDS
(mis) (fUs)
Sucrion Delivery Suetian Delivery
Water - 1.25 1.25 - 2.50 3 -4 4 -8

Juice I -1.20 1.20 - 2 3 -4 4 -6
Syrup 0.50- I 0.75 - 1.25 1.4 - 3 2.5 -4
Molasses 0.25 -0.50 0.50-0.75 I -1.5 1.5-2.5
Massecuiles 0.10-0.20 0.15-0.30 0.3 -0.7 0.5 -l
FLOW OF STEAM AND GASES
Flow of gases, and in particular of steam, is expressed precisely by" the same laws as apply
to the flow of liquids, and follows the same formulae given aboye. We give (Tables
45.3 -45.5) the necessary properties of the principal fluids handled in the sugar factory.
Normal velocity for steam

In the sugar factory, steam pipes are seldom calculated by determining pressure drop. lt is
generally considered sufficient to adopt a diameter giving a ve!ocity considered normal for
steam. However, there is not general agreement on these normal values, and we give below
(Table 45.6) those generally accepted by European designers as well as those employed by
American manufacturers and indicated by Tromp'.
The longer the distance the steam has to flow, the lower the velocity we shall choose for
the steam, so as to avoid excessive pressure drops.
Hausbrand' gives formulae for calculating pipe sizes by determining the pressure drop.
Those formulae are similar to those given aboye, and like them are little used in practice.
However, for a given velocity of steam and a given pressure, the pressure drop increases
rapidly when the diameter of the pipe decreases. From the point of view of the 105S of head,
which is obviously the most important consideration, it is therefore logical to adopt a highcr
velocity for the steam as the'section of the pipe becomes greater. In that respect the values
given in Table 45.6 are an oversimplification, and should be replaced by velocities taking into
consideration the diameter of the pipe.
This can be very simply done by adopting the general formula:
(26 -J D) (45.14)
v = speed of (he steam, in mis (ft./ s)

D diameler of the pipe, in cm (in.).
TABlE 45.3
DENSITY AND VISCOSITY OF AIR
Temperature (oC) 20 40 • 60 80 100

(OF) 68 104 140 176 212
Densi ty (kg/ cm ) 1.205 1.129 1.060 0.946

'
(Ib .lcu.rt.) 0.0752 0.0704 0.066 1 0.0624 0.0590
"Absolute viscosity
~ (10- 6 kg s/m') 1.856 1.953 2.046 2.140 2.227
Kinematic viscosily
v (10- 6 m'/s) 15. 10 16.95 18.94 20.95 23.10
Example. Viscosily v o f air at 100°C (212'F): , = 0.0000231 m2/s =

0.000023 I x 10.764 = 0.000249 f.p.s. unit (see eqn. (45.7)) .
TABlE 45.4'"
KINEMATIC V(SCOSITY JI OF STEAM (10- 6 rn1/s)
Absolute pressure p (kg/cm') 2 6 10 20 30

(p.s.i.g.) 14.7 28 85 142 285 427
Gauge pressurc p' (p.s.i.g .) o 14 70 127 270 412
100"C 212'F 22
120'C 248°F 24.8 12.3
160'C 320'F 30.2 15.1
200'C 392'F 18 5.1 3.8
220'C 428'F 6.7 4.2 2.4
300'C 572'F 9. 1 5.7 3.1 2.4
350°C 662° F 6.7 3.7 2.9
400'C 752°F 4.4 3.3
Example. Viscosity JI 01' steam al 427 p.s.i.a ., 752° F : JI 0.0000033 x 10.764 = 0.0000355
r. p.s.
unit.
TABlE 45.5'
K IN EMATI C VISCOSITY v OF COl ANO SO.

(1 0- 6 m'/s, al 760 mm Hg)
Temperat ure (OC) 50 100 150 200 300

(OF) 122 212 302 392 572
CO, 9.7 12 .8 16.3 20.1 28.6
SO, 5.7 7.6 9.8 12.3 17.6

REFERENCES 1125
TABLE 45,6
NORMAL VELOClnES FOR STEAM AN O GASES
(mis) (fl./s)
American European American European

praclice pracfice prac/;ce praclice
Superheated steam 40 - 75 40- 65 130 - 250 130- 210

Saturated sleam 25 - 35 25 - 30 80 - 120 80 - 100
ExhausI steam 30 - 45 30 -40 100 - 150 lOO-DO
Bled vapour 35 - (50) 35 - 50 120 - (160) 120- l60
Vapour undervacuum (45)- 60 50-80 (150) - 200 160 - 25Ó
Compressed air 20 - 30 60 - 100
Air under vacuurn 12 - 18 40 - 60
SO, 20 - 30 60 - 100
ca, 12 - 30 40 - 100
This formula may be applied for all steam pressures , In reality th e coefficient 5 (26) should
be replaced by a coefficient increasing slightly with the pressure of the steam,
In practice, a calculation will first be made from eqn, (45,14), th en the velocity indicated
by Table 45,6 will be adopted, taking advantage of the range given in the table LO approach
the value furni shed by eqn, (45,14), In the case of a large discrepancy, the complete caJcula-
tion should be made,
REFERENCES
E, J, BUCHANAN, Proe, 40th Conj. SASTA, /966, p, 100, '

2 G, P. MEADE, Cane Sugar Handbook , 9th edn" Wiley, New York, 1963 , p, 719,
3 TH, ONlGA, Caleul des Tuyaux, Malémine, Paris, 1949, p, 34,
4 Teehniques de I'/ngénieur, Tee hniques de l'lngenieur, Paris, A,580,5,
5 E, SCHMIDT, VD/ Wasserdampflafeln, R, Oldenbourg, Munieh, 1955,
6 TH, ONlGA, op eil" p , 65 ,
7 L. A, TROMP, Maehinery and Equipmenl of Ihe Cane Sugar Faelory, Norman Radger. Londan, 1936, p, 326,
8 E, HAUSBRAND, Evaporating, Condensing and Cooling Apparalus, 5th Engl. edn" Benn. Lando n, 1933, pp,
188 -91.
46. Automation and Data Processing
.
JI is nol easy to cons ider, in the space available in this chapler, aIllhe questions arising from
auto mal ion and data processing in the manufacluring process. We are restricted to a con-
sidera lion of lhe essen lial elemenl s, considering concre te cases and separati ng from them, as
far as possible, various problems.
The classic exa mple of automation of lh e sugar boiling process will be examined firsr; rhis
will permit certain difficulties to be sorted out, so as to loca te priorities and draw several con-
clusions.
We shall then be equipped 10 tackle a more general plan and consider the problem of
automation in ils modern context. Jn this conneclion, we first pay attenlion 10 the needs ex-
perienced and Ihe methods available for operati on, then we aim 10 show how practical so lu-
tions can be reached. The important criteria will be applied in the search fo r an effecli ve
syslem, characterized by a structure of which details wiIl be given.
At thi s stage in the development of Ihis Irealmenl , il is appropriate 10 consider an example,
which will Ireat Ihe technical aspecls of the crystallizalion station. This consideration of a
concrele case finally allows us lO emphasise Ihe importance of the conlrol of manufaclure
in general and lO in dica te how we can combine operation and control.
A HrsToRICAL EXAMPLE: OPERATlON OF SUGAR BOILlNG
Analysis of (he process

For a deraiJed description of Ihe process ilself, Ihe reader is referred lO Ihe chap ter on Sugar
Boi ling . Here, we consider only Ihe aspecls of particular inleresl for our subjecI, re viewing,
for example, Ihe most complete case of graining charges .
Immediatel y arrer lhe formation of grain, Ih e minul e crysla ls which form in the super-
saturated Ihick juice presenl a very minute surface area. The super-sa tu ration of Ihe solution
I hen depends solely on t he cond iIions o r evaporat ion and feed o f Ihe Iiq uor (1 hick j uice or green
sy rup); Ihe quanlily of sugar which deposils on Ihe crystals can, in erfecl , beconsidered negligi-
ble. During this phase of Ihe process ir is necessary to avoid Ihe formal ion o f false grain, by
co nstanll y conlro lling Ihe super-saturation and vary ing the feed of liquor.
As the operat ion proceeds, Ihe situalion changes. The surface area present ed by Ihe
crys lals becomes more and more importanl, so that Ihe system gradually becomes sell'-
slabilizing as regards super-sal uralion: eve ry increase in Ihe sucrose concenlrarion in Ihe li-
quid phase ca uses an 'increase in the speed of crys lallisation, which limits Ih e increase in
super-saluration . The objective is to oblain a massecuile conlaining Ihe desired cryslal con-
lent at the end of the opera tion; . this can on ly be obtained by allowing Ihe super-saluralion
to "f1oar", It is rhus necessary 10 maint ain a uniform super-saluralion al Ihe beginning 01'
-
A HISTORICAL EXAMPLE: OPERATlON OF SUGAR BO/LlNG 1127
lhe operalion, and lhen lO conlrol lhe slrike in such a manner lhal, al lhe end of the opera-
lion, we obtain lhe desired cryslal content.
Control properties (sensors)

lt is readily seen that several characteristics of lhe massecuile will, at the beginning of lhe
Slrike, be onl)' panly influenced by lhe crySlal conlenl, lhe mass of which is then negligible,
while , al lhe end of the slrike, lhey wilJ be strongly influenced by lhe cryslal content. By
choosing a suilable physical propeny of lhe massecuite, il should lhen be possible 10 maintain
control, al lhe beginning of lhe slrike, of the super-saturation and, during the course of lhe
strike, of a parameter which iS ,dec reasingly dependenl on super-saturation and.increasingly
dependent on lhe cryslal conten!. The properlies ulilised for conlrol of the process will be
lerrned "control propcrtics" or "sensors", The mai'n ones are lhe following,
Boiling point elevation. This propeny depends, in effecl, on the concentration of solid
mal ter in solution. At lhe begin'ning of lhe Slrike, it is a good indication of the super-
saluralion. As lhe charge proceed s, the concenlralion of non-sugars in the mother liquor and
the consequent increase in solubililY of lhe sucrose means lhal, al constant super-saluralion,
lhe boiling point of the mOlher liquor increases as exhaustion increases (lhe efreCl is self-
amplifying for each rise in lemperalure of the mOlher liquor involves an increase in lhe
solubililY), The value of lhe boiling poinl elevation is lhus indirectly influenced by the cryslal
CO l1lent of lhe massecuile,
This effeCl depends on lhe conlent of non-sucrose, In practice, the Clerget purilY of lhe
massecuite should be below 88 in order to render lhe boiling point elevation convenienlly
useful.
Conductivily. The effects ruling here are analogous lO those described in lhe preceding
paragraph. Allhough the volumelric concentralion of ions increases slightly during lhe
course of the strike, lhe decrease in their mobility (increase in viscosity), due to lhe increase
in proportion of malerial in solution in the mother liquor, causes a decrease in conduclivily,
Experience shows lhal lhe lalter is a good parameler provided lhe Clergel purily of the
"
,,/
/
,', Roto t ing spind 1e 1%
tí: sea' t end cover
¡;::
r
/ ,----,
;- ~
/ / r'\
,;
1 :.;:
,,
l'
-t----~
1\. 'Q
'" --'- - - ,- - - '- - - 1--
~CJOCkwise
An
1I
8 r;;
"-
8 r;;
~ V 22
20~ ~310
250 mini
Fig, 46, 1, Example of viscosi'y sensor ("Viscovib" made by Sereg),

1128 AUTOMATION AND DATA PROCESSING Ch. 46
massecuite is below 92. The electrodes should, of coursc, be eleaned periodically; daily clean-
ing may be necessary.
Viscosily of massecuite. Rheology measuremenlS have given very good reslIlts, including
those on pure solutions. Siline has, moreover, shown that the values are very much influenced
by lhe crystal content.
Apparatus fOI determining rheology is mechanical , and consequently rather expensive and
involving sorne maintenance . Various manufaclurérs, however, offer satisfactory equipment:
Siemens, Fischer & Porter, Sereg, etc. (Fig. 46.1).
[t will be noted that viscosity and conductivity still give good bases for control even
if the vacuum varies slightly, whereas boiling point elevation requires a very constanl vacuum
to give useful control.
Solulions proposed
As these are familiar we shall recall only their main characteristics. Figure 46.2 shows the
operalions relative to a graining charge; those corresponding to a magma charge are readily
deduced from these.
A sequence of automatic controls applies vacuum 10 lhe pan and controls lhe introduction
of footing to the pan. The steam valve is then opened and the operations of concentratíon,
100
Volume of charge
, ,/'
:," ' leveJ ... /
,
50
IJ
"
"
•
:' ¡
,'- _______ + _______' _
6:1
--
7 vocuum
•• í2 9--.I•
,•• I 10
,,I I
• 11
•
I
o ... 1\.) w.b.
,.o
\1' (]o "O>", o :::
n Ul o- C>
><
o
~
n
"
o_. O
"" ,. e n~
oc>
3 o'
~
~
Q
~
o
"~
~
"o ~"
~ ~ ~ Q
O
~ 5·
" ..,_ . 0
~
3" '" _.'< C>
00
~3
" _.
~ ~. ~
~ ~
C>'"
" e " _.~
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~
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o
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3t.D~
~"
,,~
~'"
~
e
"
'" '"~'"
~
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5 O- -j O
. ' .
p,
3' j
'" ~
~
~
~
~
'"
Fig. 46.2 . Delailed diagram or graining slrike operadon.
A HlSTORICAL EXAldPLE: OPERATlON OF SUGAR BOJUNO 1129
graining and growth of the crystals take placeas indicated in the diagram. The degree of con-
trol is then adjusted to definite values depending on the liquid level, by regulating the intake
01' thick juice or green syrup. Vacuum and steam press ure are gene rally controlled from s tart to
fini sh of the operation.
As regards equipment, a control cabinet, or a microprocessor (Fig. 46.3), controls the se-
quential operations or transmits instructions to the controllers. The actuating devices (valves,
jack s, etc.) are driven either directly from the control cabinet, or by controllers.
Conclusions
Several conclusions may be drawn from the preceding example as developed. For satisfactory
realisa tion of automation of pan boiling, it is necess ary:
(al to ana lyse th e industrial process very accurately
(bl to establi sh relations between the magnitudes serving as reference and the state of the
massecuite at di fferent s tages of the operation
(e) to study the sequential mechanism of the industrial process in detail.
In all of the following discuss ion, we shall rediscover the necessity for a ver y strict analysis
Fig. 46.3a. Control cabinet for vacuum pan.

Fig. 46.3b. Example of a boiling control cabine!.
of Ihe conditions bUI, as we shall be increasingly concerned with the control of items of
equipmenl and complete stations in the factory, the analysis of physical phenomena \Viii
become less importanl than that of lhe management of the equipmenl as a IVhole.
Our example demonstrates the slructure of automation: the actuating mechanism receives
its orders from the controllers or lhe control cabinet, lhe controllers themselves are instructed
by the control cabinet and it is the operator (such as sugar boiler) who decides lhe general
starting and operalion of the equipment. This order of predominance (hierarchical slruclure)
of lhe faclors will be specified in detail and developed in ¡he following seclions (Fig. 46.4).
Boiler
Conl rol cobinet
Sensors
Act uotors
Fig. 46.4. The nOlion of hierarchical stfUC¡Ure (C = conlfoller).

MO'DERN CONCEPTS OF AUTOMATION 1131
MODERN CO'NCEPTS OF AUTOMATION
Specific needs of the sugar process
Technical aspects. A fundamental element is the sequence of O'peratiO'n O'f the variO'us in-
slallatiO'ns. The seasO'nal character O'f the prO'cess necessitates a choice O'f arrangements adap-
table tO' cO'ntinuO'us service (24 hO'urs per day) fO'r a IO'ng period, but alsO' (whal at first sight
appears paradoxical) for the cO'mplele shutdown O'f Ihe plant for a periO'd O'f sO'me mO'nths.
On lhe other hand, the complexity of the system as a whO'le is such thal a total interruptiO'n,
even mO'mentary, O'f the autO'matiO'n plant, is unacceptable. SolutiO'ns háve tO' be fO'und where
this is impossible. We shall be prO'mpted in the fO'IlO'wing text tO' qUO'te this particular impO'r-
tant element explicitly O'r briefly, severa! times.
Having indicated these constraints, we may remark, O'n the O'ther hand, that the time O'f
respO'nse in the prO'cess is relatively IO'ng, which cO'nstitutes a favO'urable element.
Finally, although this may nO't be the main O'bject O'f the present chapter, we cannot ap-
proach the prO'blems O'f autO'matiO'n encO'untered in the sugar factO'ry withO'UI quO'ting the
need O'f thisinduslry in specific sensors. The unstable nature of the raw material, the
peculiarities O'f certain sections of the manufacluring prO'cess, the importance O'f certain aux-
iliary O'peratiO'ns (pO'wer prO'ductiO'n, control O'f waste prO'ducts, etc.) justifies the impO'rtance
attached by specialists to measuring devices which are nO't fO'und in any other industry. Ac-
cording tO' the particular case, it may be necessary tO' mO'dify existing sensO'rs or tO' study and
put intO' O'peratiO'n new instruments. These different elements, relative tO' industrial applica-
tiO'ns, ha ve been iJlustrated by the example O'f sugar bO'iling.
Economic factors. The cO'st O'f the equipment is obviO'usly important. HO'wever, considera-
tiO'ns O'f efficiency and reliability must never be sacrificed to it; it is alsO' necessáry tO' take
into account cO'sts O'f O'peration and maintenance. The investments invO'lved are by nO' means
negligible and the installatiO'n O'f the equipment should be undertaken in a prO'gressive man-
ner, fitting in with the general plan.
Problems of personnel. It is equally impO'rtant tO' undertake prO'gressive installatiO'n, tO'

avO'id cO'mplete discO'rd betweenpersonnel and the prO'cess. Jt is then desirable tO' plan the
phases systematicaJJy for the adaptation of persO'nnel who are concerned with the necessary
changes.
Evolution of available equipment

Looking back a few years, we see that .lugar factories were reJuctant to adopt electrO'nic and
industrial infO'rmatiO'n prO'cessing equipment, a reticence which appears justified. At that
stage, electrO'nics were nO't sufficiently rO'bust fO'r adaptatiO'n to the needs O'f O'ur industry;
infO'rmatiO'n equipment, mO'reO'ver, was cumbersO'me in size, and its applicatiO'n pO'sed
numerO'us prO'blems. AutO'matic contrO'I O'f the factO'ry was then the dO'main O'f pneumatic
devices and assO'ciated relays. These techniques have nO'w been well mastered by the factO'ries,
sO', in the fO'IlO'wing discussiO'n, we are nO'w mainly cO'ncerned with electrO'nic informatiO'n
systems which are in a state O'f fundamental change.
1132 AUTOMATlON AND DATA PROCESSING Ch. 46
In lhe 1970s a verilable technological revolut¡on took place in lhe field o[ micro-
electronics. The appearance o[ large-scale integrated circuits (L.S.I.) and their integralion in
many oullets has had an important impact on industrial applications. It will be seen Ihal lhis
inflllence was predomínantly concerned, in the [írst place, with the equipment or "hard-
ware" (I.e. the units of equípment: the components, sub-assemblies and machines). In this
domain, new components are appearíng more and more frequently: the micro-processor, an
integrated circuit which constitutes the central unit of an automatic control or data process-
ing machine (Fig. 46.5). The equipment developed around it covers the whole field of ap-
plicalions: in[ormation sensors, controllers, measllring equipment, programmable seqllencers,
micro-ordinators, auxiliary equipment, etc. The introduction of the micro-processor in these
items o[ equipment leads to:
(a) an improvcment in rcliability
(b) a reduction of dimensions
(e) a redllction in cos!.
As regards lhe logic or "software", that is the programming of the tasks undertaken by
the equipment, this has lagged slightly, but is still equally substantial. We may, in general,
say that the techniques have become industrialised: the methods of operatíon are becoming
systematic and lhe results lO which lhey lead are sufl'icienlly reproducible LO give a precise
idea of costs.
Fig. 46.5'. A microprocessor, (he hean of a ccntral processing unit.
Sorne practical recornrnendations

We indicate beJow a few factors which are relevant LO the industrial applicalion of hardware
and software.
Standardisation. Allhough there is considerable room for improvemenl in slandardisation,

it is aIread y possible to selecl standard components: an example which concerns interfaces
MODERN CONCEPTS OF AUTOMATlON 1133
belween computerised machines, is Ihe "serial-asynchronous" mode, For which an interna-

tional standard exists (RS-232C of the Electronic Industries Association, Comité Consultatif
lnlernalional Telegraphique el Telephonique ruling V24, type TTY (Teletype) for currenl
transmission, etc.). This is an important interFace mode satisfying most of the industrial
·requiremenls discussed aboye (its poor performance in some aspects, e.g . transmission speed,
has little importance in industries such as ours) (Fig. 46.6).
Industrial application of hardware. This covers the requirement of efficient systems that
are easy to maintain.
These should be based on practical features suc h as modular elements, that is, where inter-
changeabJe parts allow easy development of units with facilities for troubfe-shooting and
rapid repair of breakdowns.
With regard to inputs and outputs, we must also emphasize the importance of galvanic in-
sulation; an item which has been designed in a laboratory for automation may no! be suitable
to Ihe environment of industrial production. Insulation for more than 100 volts between
analogue channels is sometimes needed in tropical c1imates.
Industrialization of software. This covers the requirement of systematic methods in "pro-

gramming" and the provision of what the specialists cal! "software maintenance", that is,
tlle capability of adaptation to process modification. We advocate the úse of a method called
"slructured programming" for this double purpose, consisting, in particular, of a pro-
gressive transfer of the general problem towards detailed solutions; at each stage of the
lransfer, the task is divided inlo small el lask s of which lhe function is precisely defined. The
reader is invited to refer, for more complete information, to specialized works such as
"Methods of Programming" by B. Meyer and C. Baudoin, published by Eyrolles, or to the
equivalent works in English.
10 k Distance (m)
7
5
3
2
1k .~ ..
7 422
5
'3
2
100
7
5
3
2 RS 232 e ·T
I---~~---~
10~-4--~~~~~-T~~T-~~~~~~+-~__
1002'3 571k 23 5 710k2 '3 57100k2 '3 "71M
Transrnission speed (bauds)
Fig . 46.6. Field or applicalion or serial Iransmission (lhe baud is [he unít or applica(ion or serial Iransmi ssion
I bil I s).
Standardization of language. Once the analysis is carried out, the application must be
"coded", that is, translated into a program that lhe machine can understand. An "advanced
language" should be chosen for lhe purpose, such as FORTRAN, BASIC, PASCAL, ele.,
which considerably improves the ease of software mainlenance. With regard to the sugar in-
dustry we suggest the retention of BASIC because of ilS universal nalure (lO scienlific ap-
plications, real time, management, ele.) and particularly because il can be learnt easily by
non-specialized personnel.
Importance of dialogue. We shall finally saya few words on lhe imporlance of dialogue
in modern induslrial processes - the exchanges in conversalional mode belween lhe
machines lhemselves and also between machines and operators. Preference should be given
to melhocis lhal specialists call "interaClive", thal is, organized for queslion and al1swer
wilh, for example, menus lhat offer choices to the users; the inslruclions for use in so me way
form part of lhe machine ilself.
A STRUCTURE OF AUTOMATION ·
Work has been performed and is slill conlinuing lhroughoul the world on automalion of the
various sections of lhe sugar-making process. Associalions such as ISSCT or CITS report
regularly on aUlOmalion during their conferences and a number of authors have wrilten com-
prehensive reporls on the subject. For our parl, we ha ve tried to organize automation and
optimizatíon of this industry and have defined an overall approach which we now give as
an example.
Organizalion of automation
The Slruclure offered is primarily baseci 011 lhe process ilself and, more precisely, on lhe
lraditional division into "slations", for example, eXlraction, purificalion, evaporalion,
cryslallizalion, elc. Rather than adopting a highly centralized organizalion in which
aulomatation is enlirely entrusled to a very powerful system, the tasks are divided inIO a
number of facililies of small size which are described as "divided" or "dislributed".
Several successive levels of division are defined for organizalion of the overall aUlomalion
syslem. The breakdown may then be as follows:
(a) sensors and actualors providing lile basic interface wilh lhe process, aeeepling infor-
mal ion Rnd issuing orders
(b) the so-ealled "basie" aUlomalion SYSlems, lhat is, the traciilional controllers or logie
automation deviees of limited funelion
(e) the automalion systems lhat we have qualified as apparalUS anci of whieh Ihe mOSl
typieal example is lhe aUlomaled sugar boiling as already discussed
(e!) optimal managemenl of lhe manufacture sIal ion
(e) supervision of lhe whole system
lf we examine these lwo breakdowns of the automation lask, we see lhat lhe firsl is very
well defined and follows the geography of the plant while lhe second dislinclly depends on
lhe data proeessed al eaeh level (as progress is made in levels, lhe crileria relaling 10
teehnology are replaced by critería relaling to the eeonomie impael).
A STRUCTURE OF AUTOMATION J J35
A good idea of a combination of the two breakdowns can be obtained from the di ag ram
of Fig. 46.7. In the jargon of specialists, this struct ure is said to be "distributed and hierar-
chized " . Jt has been given the name of "CHEOPS" (Conduite Hiérachisée par Echange sur
Ordinate.urs pour les Procédés Semicontinus) a name that evokes the decision pyramid that
it establishes .
E::JI.amples
Lev@1 oístribuled and hierarchiled structure
oppl i co t iaos lools
Generol. .
~uperVISlon mini-
(economic computer
'oDtimizotion
Evaporot Ion
manogement
WorkshoP
monogement
mini -
Crystolfizotio n computer
rnonogement
Automation mlcro-
or boiling comput er
"A pporo tu s .. '
ou tomotion
Cen trir ug€d Hi9h-quality
sequencer (anl iOller
Small
'0 . f" ~
contro ller-
Bosi, RI
cutomolio n U
:~ 1 raditionoJ
:: i:: ¡ : regulotor
Sensor ond
Actualor
fig. 46. 7. Operalional diagram or lhe "CHEOPS" .lruelur<.
Ir is noteworthy thal a given level of automation can be implemented in a plant gradually

and without truly starting a sludy of Ihe higher levels. In order 10 build Ihe next stage of the
pyramid later (or part of the stage) il is Sufficient to ensure that the manual controIs of the
automatic equipmenl can be replaced by signals transmitted from · lhe higher leve!.
The principal praclical advanlages of this struct ure are:
(a) improved reJiability of the whole by multiplication of devices (total and si multaneous
breakdown is practically impossible)
(b) the possibility of gradual implementation and, consequenily, staging of invesiments
Ce) training of operaling personnel and of staff in stages.
lt will also be seen that it clarifies analysis of the automation units, When large projects
are being sl udied, it allows, in particular, the avoidance of certain errors in distribution of
lhe tasks assigned to the different devices, for example, preventing a management process com-
puter conlroIling a regulation val ve directly .and, thus, also enhancing (he reliability of the
whole automation syslem .
][36 AutOMATION AND DATA PROCESSING Ch. 46
Operation controllers
We gave an example of operalion controllers al lhe start of lhis chapter (sugar boiling) and
a number of other examples come to mind: cane milis, c1arification planl. lhermo-
compression plant, sugar dryer, etc.
These consisl of combinations of basic controllers such as lhe tradilional regulalors, and
often make use of logic operating sequences. We shall nOI dwell 011 this Iype 01" syslem bUI
would note in passing that they constitute sub-assemblies (hal are highly independenl of each
olher; lheir links are based particularly on th'e shop management conlrollers, which are
described later.
When used traditionally, the operation controllers consist of "cabinets" similar lO those
described for the cond uct of sugar boiling. The mathematical formulae governing the ex-
change of information are always relatively simple; in extreme cases, (hey can be applied by
analogue methods (see Fig. 46.8) or by programmable sequencers for "aJl-or-nothing" pro-
cessing (see Fig. 46.9).
Coordinated workshop management
Modules and their function, This level of technical management is thus conceived as a
coherent set of modules following a breakdown which often depends on lhal of Ihe process.
The following sequence can thus be defined:
(a) preparation and extraction
(b) purification
(e) evaporation
(ri) first crystallization
(e) second cryslallization
fig. 46.8. An ana/ague compulalion Ullil (lhe Modurnat m,ade by Sereg) (comisling 01' basiL' plug-il1 lllUuuks).
A STRUCTURE OF AUTOMATION 1137
Fig. 46.9. Example of a programmable sequencer.
Fig. 46.10. An industrial computer (the MACSY M made by Analog Devices).
(J) third crystallization .. ,

(g). drying and storage . .
The functions of these modules relate mainly to management of the tlów· of products in
the plant; one of ¡he chief objectives is to maintain steady conditions throughout the process,
which ímproves other characteristics such as:
(a) capacity of any given unít
(b) quality of the s ugar and by -products
(e) economies of energy
(d) life of equípment, etc .
In lhe various cases encountered, these operating modules also provide the necessary adapta-
tion to the production parameters in order to optimize certain operating criteria, for exam-
pie, to mini mise sugar losses.
Interactions between modules. A relative independence is still the rule for each module:
this is so true that one can easily imagine a single module used to manage a I¡miled part of
the process. The system is, however, designed to allow complete managemem of production
and pro vides dialogues for the purpose.
Sorne of these dialogues are first organized between adjacent modules; they are reduced
to the necessary minimum. The intention is to exchange comprehensive information, suffi-
cient to ensure the consistency of operation of the production sub-units.
Other information, mainly of an economic nature, can also be transmittcd by lhe modules
to the supervisor al the top of the decision-taking pyramid. They are mosl oflen processed
when passing in order to devise "high-level orders", namely, overall inslruclions for Ihe
management devices.
Industrial data processing

The algorithms used in this area of shop management devices are complexo The mathematical
formulae are sophisticated and, in particular, can be totally changed depending on lhe condi-
tions of operation.
We are then led to use calculators or industrial computers which are well suited to lhis Iype
of processing. These data processing machines are easily connected to electronic aUlOmation
devices by means of specialized input and output couplers ("industrial interfaces"); their
connection to pneumatic systems is distinctly more expensive because it requires passage
through converters (pressure/current or current/pressure type).
Such computers are most often provided with real time basic software, i.e. they are able tO
follow the chronology of industrial operations and to reaCI 10 events Ihal require priorilY pro-
cessing (such as alarms).
With regard lO the connection between several machines when required, one can always
find in the range offered by suppliers, connections of "serial" type as described abo ve, which
are very suitable (current-loop connections for large dislances).
Digital control systems

Without wishing to enlarge on tltis ralher specialisecl subjecI, we shall briefly describe how
digital systems can be inserted into the CHEOPS structure. Digital conlrol systems have ap-
peared recently, and allow the composition of aUlomalion units. Since Honeywell introduced
the TDC 2000, all the principal manufacturers have progressively included such a melhod
in their catalogues, for example:
(a) Foxboro: the FOX 3
(b) Fisher-Control: the PROVOX
(e) Fischer & Porter: the DCI. 4000
(d) Sereg-Schlumberger: the MODUMAT 800
(e) Controle Bailey: the MICRO Z
(f) Siemens: the TELEPERM.
A STRUCTURE Of AUTOMATION 1139
These systems are distinguished from the traditional machines by the fact that the informa-
tion processed internally is digitized; they contain a certain number 01' micro-computers
specialized for automation. Figure 46.11 i!lustrates the structure of such a system. According
to the supplier, the organization is more or less decentralized and the function of the various
sub-assemblies can therefore be modified. On the other hand, there may be variants of any
given component, such as:
(al a communication system for the rapid transfer of digital information
(bl control of process operation on black and white or color screens connected to the net-
work
(el possibility of connecting a process computer to this network for optimization and
monitoring.
Computer Operatioll and monitoring In·dividual

operatlon
Fig. 46.11. Archilecture of a digital cO"lrol syslem.
Digital automation in structuring

In the context of applying these digital control systems, we have re-examined the CHEOPS
strllcture and confirm that it could be adapted to digital control. The clarity provided by the
structuring is obvious when studying the complete system.
The successive hierarchicallevels can be combined in accordance with the diagram shown
in Fig. 46.12 which is a functional representation but shows how the hardware components
can be assembled in practice:
(al at the bottom, a layer connecting to the process by sensors and actuators
(bl aboye, an automation layer that combines the functions of basic controllers and of
operation controllers; the field of application of the digital control systems
(el finally, a management layer with the shop management and monitoring devices. This
layer is entrusted to industrial computers.
lt is noteworthy that each of the two upper layers is organized around a "network"
through which the data pass. We shall call the first the "automation network" (which is ex-
1140 AUTOMATlON AND DATA PROCESSlNG Ch. 46
actly that of the digital control system), and the second between the management modules
"the optimization network" which can take diverse forms (it involves a true interface bet-
ween hardware if several small machines are used jointly and is limited to a software link if a
single computer combines all the various modules).
Monitoring
Technical
management
Operat ion
controllers
Bosic
controllers
Sensors and
octuators
Fig. 46.12. Ineorporation of digital systems in the CHEOPS strueture.
AN EXAMPLE OF TECHNICAL MANAGEMENT
The problem .
To show how we apply the model structure in practice, we shall take the crystallizalion sta-
tion as an example. The f10w of syrup, massecuite and steam is to be regulated so as to main-
tain a steady rate and stabilize the demand for steam while being able to deal with major lran-
sient events (e.g. sudden drops of flow rate of up to 50070). lt must also be able 10 take action
to cope with accidents.
In principIe, the operator takes part in this program only for overall monitoring and [O
indicate which particular machine has been taken out of operation or which has been return-
ed to operation.
Methods proposed
Models are often used In data processing; these are systems of equations that relate the
various characteristics of the process and which are, in general, difficult to draw up. They
are difficult to use in most cases beca use of their abstract nature.
In order to devise a simple but efficient model of process operation, we have proposed that
it should correspond to a simplified diagram (see Fig. 46.13):
The process consisls of successive modules in which there are always two fundamental
elements:
(a) stock of product to be processed
(b) the component that adjusts flow rate in the downstream direction (val ve, pump, etc.).
AN EXAMPLE OF TECHNICAL MANAGEMENT 1141
module l-1 module module L + 1
Fig. 46.13. Schematic diagram of division int.o modules.
In practice, the production machines are, of course, installed on this schematic diagram
but they take no part in our present discussion (they are illustrated by dotted Jines on the
diagram). The physical meaning of the fundamental data of such a model is c1ear (a stock con-
trolled may be, forexamp1e, the total material in the whole first crystallization station, with the
downstream f10w rate adjustment unit then considered as being the baltery of centrifugals).
1t is noteworthy that a series of two or more modules can be considered as a "super
module" or a "global module", where the total stock is equal to the sum of the stocks in
the component modules and of which the output component is the output component of the
last module (Fig. 46.14). This property of associativity will be used.
module module
"global module"
Fig. 46.14. Associativity or breakdowo iOlO modules.
Operating principIe. We can c1early give now only the main points of the principIe. We
shall first point out that the f10w rate of the plant appears logically to be imposed upslream
(we shall modi fy this proposition below).
The f10w leaving a module (or a global module) depends on the stock in the module. Its
dependence is generally non-linear because it is plain that the situation becomes critical when
stocks are too low or too high.
The meanings of the constants introd uced are also very simple. Most of them are determin-
ed as soon as it is known what stocks are required for each operating mode.
The computer receives all the data required for the computation of stocks. It transmits to
the process the set points required 10 set the f10w rateo A basic safety rule prevents any
module emptying itself into the next module if the lalter is too fuI!. The system, in fact, pro-
poses a reduction of flowrate at any control point when the stock immediately downstream
is too high; this adjustment is generally non-linear.
Saturation at any point of the station, therefore, causes a localized slowing down which
rises up the production system, progressively filling the available vessels. This allows max-
imum use to be made of the existing vessels in order to overcome incidenls or short-time clog-
ging. lt should be noted that, in this case, flow rates can be controlled from dowllSlream.
Adjustment of f10w rates through a crystallization plan!. Automation of the lower levels
(sensors and actuators, regulators, sequential controllers) is provided on all the components
of the equipment (pans, centrifugals, etc.).
Table 46.1 illustrates the modules for this section of the plant. It is, for example, evident
that the centrifugal battery, which is the output component of a boiling section, is regulated
by the stock of the "global module", which is the whole of that section.
The level in the standard liquor tank, which governs Ihe slarting lime between two strikes
is, in fact, a corrected leve!, allowing for the disturbance caused by Ihe possible discontinuity
of the strikes. The data required by the computer to compute this corrected leve! are [he real
level in the tank and the state of the progress of the strike.
The various pan strikes are connected through the syrup tanks. Two or three strikes can
lhus be processed successively and practically by identical programs. In order to regularize
the steam demand, two pans are prevented from starling in the same quarter of an hour, for
example. This condition is the only one [hat does not respect the aboye principies.
Fig. 46.15. Control room of a pan station «(he tWQ rnanagement compu!ers are on [he right).
MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL OF PRODUCTION PROCESSES 1143
The program can evidently be modified to allow for a case of continuous boiling. Figure
46.15 is a photograph of lhe control room of a pan stage. The three massecuite boilings of
the plant are managed in accordance with the principIes given, either discontinuous boiling
or continuous cryslallization.
A major consequence. We have stated aboye lhal the computer language and lhe structure
selected should allow the operator to remain in control of the data processing system. Here,
again, il will be noted that the technical managemenl of the plant decides on the settings to
be adopted and can modify them 'at any time, in full knowledge of the situations, because
the paramelers used are easy lo interpret. It is this lransparency. which is important to main·
tain during the whole automation process.
TABLE 46.1
OVERVIEW OF THE CRYSTALLIZATION CONTROLS PROVIDED BY THE STATION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Contro/s Purpose Conslraints lo be respected
Continua/ adjuslment
(1) Cenlrifuga! sequences Adjuslmenl of overall slock Number of cenlrifugals available

(tiquor lanks + conlents of with limitation and alarm, ir
pans and crystallisers) needed
(2) Flow rales of rOlary pumps Regulation of centrifugal Distribution belween cryslallisers in
distribution level relation to th"eir stock and the
quantilies processed
(3) Time belween IwO boiling Slabilily of tiquor stock Priorit y indicated by the operator
starts (with relevant management) and
alertconditions (high and low)
SaJetJ
(4) Addilion of waler when FuI! safety in level al crystallisers Relaling lo heavying up and
needed befare lhickening discharging strikes, slowing down in
certain cases Ihe slrikes ¡nvolved
with the same set of crys(allisers
(5) Sleam slowing down (in Limitation of additiol1 of water Stage of progress of boilings
anliciparían) lo strict minimum required for concerned in order nol lO disturb
safety : them ,during [he critical phases
Liaison
(6) Sel poinls adjusled lowards Consisten l operation of all Priority relaling lo the algorilhms
upstream (slock and flowrate) seclions used, global stock or partial stock
MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL OF PRODUCTION PROCESSES
Control and computerization

Whether the process is automated or not, it is importanl to supervise the production
characteristics by means of regular control. Specific analyses of each part of the process are
1144 AUTOMATlON ANO DATA PROCESSING Ch. 46
therefore carried out by the control laboratory; on-line measurements are also made, for ex-
ample, to monitor the thermal production parameters.
This process 01' production monitoring is still in a state 01' development but remains
"routine", that is, it is organized around measurements most 01' which are intermillent. The
measuremenls must, 01' course, be consulted by Ihe plant management in Ot'der 10 allow up-
dating 01' the various production parameters.
It must be acknowledged that, until now, communic~tion al lhis level has 01' ten been small
in volume and rudimentary in method. lt is now plain that modern data processing facililies
provide highly effective methods 01' transmitting data within the plant.
There are a number 01' groups 01' plants in the sugar industry thal exchange dala. The ma-
jor companies 01' course cenlralize data to their head office or centrallaboralory and associa-
lions exist at differenl levels belween plants. One may imagine lhat the local strLlClLlres
organized could be laler connecled logelher and/or wilh central orfices depending on lhe
organization 01' the group concerned.
Computerized data management

Any solulion 10 problems posed by computerization 01' produclion conlrol must, in our opi-
nion, be:
(a) adaptative and, by corollary, evolutive, so thal il can easily be transmitled to any sugar
plant and must, even more so, be able 10 evolve efficiently in the plant where it is installed
(b) standardized, for increased capability 01' "software mainrenance". 11 is IhereCore
necessary 10 remain strictly wilhin the framework of slandard available software and, more
generally, selecl work methods that are sufficiently well known
(e) easy lo use, for the users have different levels 01' ability. In order lo considerably
facilitale introduttion to Ihe equipment, a number 01' prac¡ical melhods are used such as
"menus", "formulae", etc., allowing for the racllha¡ experienced operalors Quickly become
familiar with new procedures.
11 is seen, when proceeding further into the sludy, that lhe major dirficully arises from the
diversity of cases processed. This diversity occurs at different levels:
(a) the loeation o/ Ihe plants and the relevant requirements 01' hardware and conneCI ions
(b) the work habils of lhe workers in the planl 3nd the lraditional facilities thal ¡hey
possess
(e) more fundamentally, differences 01' layout and o/ hardware installed in lhe planls.
For our part, we have always abandoned lhe tradilional approach to the subject wilh a
common basis and adaptation to each plant. We prefer the approach that consists 01' supply-
ing the user with the systems required to organize his own specific applicalion, what we call
a "configurable system".
Example. Following these crileria, we have proposed' a universal system lhal can be briel'-
ly described. It operates with a mini-computer with a central memory 01' 256 or 512 K octels
and a "hard-disk" storage system 01' capacity at leasl 10 mega oClels (see Fig. 46.16). A
.ojo G. Windal, Sucrerie Fran<;aise, April 1983.

MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL OF PRODUCTlON PROCESSES 1145
Fig. 46.16. A mi'ni -eompuler designed lO manage leehnical data (CLEOPATRE inslalled on SOLAR 16).
peripheral is added whose size depends on the plant. There are generally 2 - 5 VDUs and 1
or 2 printers.
The software uses BASIC, a universal language that allows transposition to a mini-
computer or to a group of micro-computers when needed; this choice is moreover compatible
with that adopted for the process operation described aboye. It is nevertheless noteworthy
that a process computer makes use of "real time BASIC" whereas in this case the system
makes use of "shared time" which is accessible to several users simultaneously and gives each
the impression of using the machine alone. A tool designed for managing dialogue on the
screen has moreover been used, the presentation of formulae, tests of responses, and correc-
tion of typing errors are organized easily.
The software is organized forapplication of structured programming methods to facilitate
1146 AUTOMATION AND DATA PROCESSINO Ch. 46
Jaler mainlenance. There is an ease of commissioning and of use, l!Janks lO Ihe inleraClive
fealure al alllevels of use. A secrel code provides inlerlocking lO reserve cerl~in procedures
lO one or more privileged operators, typi ca lly the laboratory manager. The syslem also com-
prises safeguard procedures for lhe software and the data banks.
The following principal funetions are available:
(a) entering of data by keyboard
(b) "on-line" entering from analyzers, measuring eolleetors, etc.
(e) display of data in the form of tables
(ri) print-out of resulls
(e) drawing up of averages, preparation of balances
(f) eomparative graphs on colour screen.
Incorporation of the management system

11 is of interest to examine the relationship that may exist between sueh a syslem and the
managemenl slrueture already deseribed. 11 is apparent Ihat the two approaches have a
tendency under any circumstances to improve the conditions of operation of the production
process.
11 is then seen that links must evidently be provided between the two deviees; it is necessary,
for example, to be able to measure the stock of masseeuite, both to manage flow through
the seetion and to calcula te the quantities "pending" and required for the balance of the fac-
tory. In other words, the data management system must be eonnec ted lO Ihe operaling
system.
Figure 46.17 illustrates how such integralion can be earried out. The "Iayer " adopted is
Ihat of optimal management because of the nalure ofdhe dala to be exchanged. A check is
made that the hardware used on either side are in fact "calculators".
11 is seen, however, that the two systems remain fundamentally differenl. The operaling
system is d es tined for short and medium-term reactions, while the control system, in par-
ticular, supplies da ta allowing longer-term updating. It is therefore preferable lO enlrust Ih ese
different tasks to different computers.
Monitoring
Technica l
manageme nt
Operation
cont rollers
Basic
con trollers
Sen~or5 ond
octuolors
Fig . 4~.¡7. "CHEOPS-ClEOPATRE" inlegralion.

Conversion Tables - Metric to British Units
Length
1 cm · 0.3937 In.
I metre 3.28084 fl.
I metre 1.09361 yard
I km 0 .62137 mile
Area
1 cm' 0.155 sq.in .
I m' 10.764 sq. ft.
1 m' 1.196 sq.yards
I ha 2.471 acres
I km ' 0.3861 sq.mile
Volume
I cm) 0.061024 cU.in.
1 dm' 0.0353147 cu.fl.
I m' 35.3147 cu. ft.
1 hl 3.53147 cu. fl.
J litre 0.2200 Imp. gal.
1 litre 0.264166 U.S. gal.
Weight
I g 0.035274 az.
(avoirdupois)
I kg 2.204622 lb .
I quintal = 100 kg 2.204622 cwl. (American)
I quintal = 100 kg 1.9684 cwt. (English)
I tonne 1,000 kg 1.1023 short ton
l tonne = 1,000 kg 0.9842 long ton
Force
Newton 0.102 kg
I daN (deca Newton) 1.02 kg
Pressure
J bar = 1.02 kg/ cm' = IOl Pascal 14.500 p.s.i.
I kg/ cm' 14.2233 Ib ./sq.in . (p .s. i.)
I kg/ m' 0.204816 Ib ./sq. ft.
1148 CONVERSION TABLES - METRIC TO BRITISH UNITS Tables
t/ dm' 10.2408 sh ort to n/ sq . fl.

t/ dm' 9. 1436 long tonl sq. ft.
13 .56 cm of water at 20 0 e
cm of mereury at 25°e =
13.70 cm of water at sooe
Fibre loading
kg/ m' 0.204816 Ib. / sq.ft.
kg / m'/ m 0.062428 Jb.lsq. fLIrt.
Conversion Tables - British to Metric Units
Length
inch 2.54 cm
fool 0.3048 m
1 yard 3 fl. 0.9144 m
1 mile = 1,760 yards 5,280 Fl. 1,609.344 m
Area
1 sq. in . 6.4516 cm'
1 sq. ft. = 144 sq .in. 0.092903 m'
1 sq. yard . = 9 sq. ft. 0.8361 m'
1 acre = 4,840 sq. yards 0.4047 ha
1 sq. mile = 640 acres 2.59 km'
Volume
1 cu.in. 16.387 cm 3
1 cU.ft. = 1,728 cU.in. 28.3 I 7 dm'
1 cU.ft. 0.028317 m'
1 Imp. gallon 4.546
1 U.S. gallo n 3.7854
Weight
1 oz. (avoirdupois) 28.350 g
1 lb. = 16 oz. 453.5924 g
1 cwt. (American) 100 lb. 45.3 6 kg
1 cWl. (English) 112 lb. 50.80 kg
1 short ton (American lon) = 2,000 lb. 907 .185 kg
1 long ton (Engli sh ton) = 2,240 lb. 1,0 16.047 kg
Pressure
1 lb.lsq.in . (p.s.i.) 0.070307 kg/ cm'
1 lb.lsq. fl. 4.88243 kg/ m'
1 short ton / sq. fl. 0.09765 t/ dm'
1 long ton / sq. rt. 0.10937 t/ dm'
1 in . mercury at 80°F = 1.130 ft. water at 70°F
1.143 ft. water at 130°F
1 lb .lsq. in. = 2.316 ft. water at 80°F
1150 CONVERSlON TABLES - BRITISH TO METRIC UNITS Tables
Fibre loading
1 Ib./sq. fl. 4.88243 kg/m'
1 Ib./sq.ft./fl. 16.0185 kg/m'/m
Densily
kg/m' = 1 g/dm' 0.062428 Ib./cu. fl.
kg/dm' = 1 l/m' 62.428 lb./cu. fl.
Heal
1 kcal 3.9683 B.T.U.
1 thermic = 1,000 kcal 3968.3 B.T.U ..
1 kJ = 0.2389 kcal 0.000968 B.T.U.
Calorific value
1 kcal/kg 1.8 B.T.U.llb.
1 kJ/kg 0.43 B.T.U.llb.
Heat transmission
1 kcal/m'/h 0.368669 B.T.U.lsq.ft./h
1 kcal/m'/hrC 0.204816 B.T.U.lsq.ft.lhrF
1 Watt/m r c = 0.86 kcal/m'/oC h
3 0.116 B.T.U.lsq.ftPF h
1 kW/m'/oC = 860 kcal/m'/oC h 176 B.T.U./sq.ft./oF h
Heal conduction lhrough a plate

1 kcal/m'/h/oC/m 0.672 B.T.U.lsq.fl./h;oF/fl.
1 kcal/m'/hrC/m 8.0636 B.T.U.lsq.ft./h/oF/in.
Combuslion chambers
1 kcal/m 3 /h 0.11237 B.T.U./cu.ft./h
Temperature
e 5/9 (F - 32)
1°C (difference in temperalure) 1.8°F
Work and power

J 0.7375 ft.lb.
kgm 7.233 n.lb.
kgm/sec 0.01315 h.p.
eh 0.98632 h.p.
1 kW 1.341 h.p.
CONVERSION TABLES - BRITISH TO METRIC UNlTS 1151 -
Evaporation rale
kg/ m 2 0.204816 Ib./sq. fL
kg/ m' (from o to 100°C) 0.2428 Ib. / sq. fL (from and at
212°F)
1 kg/ m'¡O C 0.113786 Ib./sq.ftPF
Capadly, area and volume

m'/t 9.765 sq. ft./short ton
m'/t 10.9366 sq.ft./long ton
1 lit 0.032036 eU.fL / short ton
J I/t 0.03588 eu. fL / long ton
rn'/m' 0.3048 sq. fL / eu. n.
m' / hl 3.048 sq.ft./eu. fL
ml / t 35.8814 eu. ft. / long ton
ml / m' 3.28084 cu. ft.l sq. fl.
Momen! of inerlia
m' kg wt. 7.233 lb. wl. -sq. ft.
m' kg 23.73 Ib.-sq.ft.
Heal
1 B.T.U. 0.252 keal
Calorific value
1 B.T.U./lb. 0.555556 keal / kg
Heal Iransmission
1 B.T.U./sq.ft./h 2.71246 keallm'/ h
1 B.T.U ./sq.ft ./ h¡OF 4.88243 keallm' / h¡O C
Heal conduclion
J B.T.U./sq.ft.lh¡O F/ft. 1.488 keallm'/h/OC/m
1 B.T.U./sq. ft.lh¡OFlin. 0.1240 keal/m'/h¡OC/m
Combuslion chambers
1 B.T.U ./eu.fL./h 8.90 keaJ / ml / h
Temperalure
F 1.8 C + 32
1°F (temperature differenee) 0.555556 oC
1152 CONVERSION TABLES - BRITISH TO METRIC UNITS Tables
Work and power

1 fl.1 b. 0.138255 kgm
1 h.p. = 550 ft.lb ./sec 76.04 kgm / sec
1 h.p. 1.01387 ch.
1 h.p. 745 .70 W
Evaporalion rafe
Ib. / sq. ft. 4.88243 kg/m'
Ib ./sq.ft./h (from a nd al 212 C F) 4.118 kg/ m' / h (from O (O
100 c e¡
Capacity, area and volume

sq. fl. /s hort ton 0.102408 m'/ t
sq. ft. / long lon 0.091436 m '/ t
cu.fl./s hort ton 31.215 l/ l
cu. fl. / long lon 27.870 1/(
sq. fl. /c u.fl. 3.28084 m'/ m J
sq . fU cu. fl. 0.328084 m'/hl
Moment of inertia
lb. wt.-sq. fl. 0. 138255 m' /kg wl.
Ib.-sq.ft. 0.04214 m' / kg
Equivalents of Foreign, British and Metric Units
Area 1 alqueire 5.98 acres 2.42 ha

Brazil
Area 1 cordel 1/324 cabal!. 0.4142 ha.

Cuba
Area = 1 caballeria = 33.16 acres = 13.42 ha
Weighl 1 lb. (Spani sh) = 1.014 lb. 0.460 kg
¡ = 25 lb. (Spanish) = 11.502 kg
Weighl = arroba
Weighl I long 1 (Spanish) 2,240 lb. (Spanish) = 1,030.400 kg
Weighl 1 sack o f sugar = 325 lb. (Spanish) = 149.500 kg
Egypl Lenglh = 1 cassaba 11.647 fl. 3.55 m

Area ¡ kiral 1/24 acre 0.017 ha
¡ .038 acre = 0.42 ha
Area = 1 feddan
¡ cantar = 99.04 lb. = 44.928 kg
Weighl =
Formosa Area = 1 koh = 2.40 acres = 0.97 ha
Weighl = 1 picul 133.3 lb. 60.460 kg
India Area I bigha 1/3 acre = 0. 135 ha

Weight I seer = 1/40 maund = 0.933 kg
Weight I maund (bazar) 82.2857 lb 37.325 kg
Japan Weight kin 0.01 picul = 0.609 kg

6.37 cU.ft. 180.4 litres
Volume = koku
1.77 acre 0.7163 ha

Java Area = 1 bouw -
Weight 1 picul = 136.2 lb. = 61.780 kg

Volume 1 blik 5 Imp.gal. 22.7 litres
Mauritius Area 1 arl?ent ¡ .043 acres = 0.422 ha
Area I fanegada = 7.156 acres 2.896 ha

Peru
0.700 ha
Area = I cuadra = 1.730 acres
139.44 lb. 63.250 kg

Phillippines Weight .- 1 picul =
Volume 1 cavan 75 quarts = 85.2 litres
1154 CONVERSION TABLES - EQUI VA LENTS Tables
Puerto Rico Area = cuerda = 0.97 acre = 0.3930 ha
South AfricaArea = 1 morgen 2.1165 acres = 0.8565 ha
N.B . The short ton (2,000 lb.) is used in (he American co unlries: Louisiana, Puerro Rico, Hawaii, a)50 in C uba,
Canada and South Africa (the Phili ppi nes use lhe melric IOn).
Mos t co untries previously using the long ton (2,240 lb.) have now adopled lhe metric sySlem .
Subject Index
Absorpli ve power of bagasse, 308 use of, 918

Accumulators, 118 Bagasse briqueues, 9 17
aJr-oil. IIB'" Bagasse co nveyar, 98
dead-weighl, 118 Bagasse delivery plale from las[ mili, 85
individual, 119 Baga sse weig hts a lo ng the landem, 297
Sleam, 1000 Barometric column , 880, 900
AClualors, 1132, 11 36 Barré de SI. Venant formula, 1047
Air, Basic, 1134, 1145
composilion of, 924 Basket of centrifuga l, 757
density of, 1123 con tenIs of, 769
d issol ved 869 sl ress in, 774
secondary , 952 ' Baskels perforaled gauze, 760
viscosil y o f, 1123 Bentonile, 404
Ai r - oiJ accumu)alors 119 Bernoulli equalion, 1047
Alkalising agenls (boiler feed) 1000 Billels (harvesling), 15
Alte rna lors, efficiency of, 1081 Boi ler drums, design of, 1009
Angle of discharge for cane 14 Boilers,
A ngle of repose, construction 0[, 1009
or bagasse, 916 efficiency 0[, 938
of sugar, 819 heating surface of, 958
Ann ular spacc: (noating calandria). 652 maintenance o r, 10 12
Approach (condensers), 866, 898 se ries of, 1007
Apron pla le, 85 lubes for, 1007
Arch, suspe rid ed, '952 types of, 1008
Arcing, 9 1, 187 Boiling, continuous, 712, 1143
Ash grale, 943 Boiling house,
Autocane, 31 co ntrol of, 838
AUlom ali c speed co ntrol (ca rr ier), 31 e ffi cie ncy of, 838
Automators, 1132, 1136 recove ry, 838
Boiling, materi a l balance, 604, 703
Bagasse, 914 Boi ling point and pressure, 496
absorpti ve capacit y o f, J08 Boi ling point elevalion , 495
apparenl densily 0 [, 86. 91, 915 Boilin g process ca lcu la tio ns, 702
balers for, 916 Braking, regenerative, 781
calorific va lue of, 919 Bricks , 988
~hemical composilion or, 919 Brickwo rk of boilers, 988
coefficient of friclio n of, 85, 86, 96 Briquettes, bagasse, 917
combustion of, 924 Brix,
ca mbustion rare or, per unit gra(e a r~a, 95 3, of absolute juice, 334
957 balan ce of, 848
comp ressed, dens it y of, 86, 134, 918 cal cula lions in imbibition, 292
drying 984 definition of, 67 1
physical ca mp os ilion of, 914 g raphs or, 330
pith, 940 ormassecu ite, 627, 683, 691 '
pneum at ic conveying or, 995 of molasses, 81 1
presses for, 916 of sy rup, 627
quanlit y or, produced, 915 Bu lk suga r, 819
sa turated, densily of, 86
sto rage of, 915 Cables, eleclric, 1097
1156 SUBJECT (NDEX
Calandria, 507, 637 capaeity of, 769, 778

r!oaling 638, 660 continuous, 794
Calandria juice area, 512 capacily of, 802
Calorir,c values, 919, 940 exhauslion of, 805
Cane, ,pecifie work of, 799
apparenl volume or, 135 types of, 794
bulk densily of, 1, 11, 18, 32, 39, 46, 70, 134 cycle , 768, 770, 78 4, 785
eva luation or, 341 dimensions or. 763
frielion coerricient or, 99 eleclric,
overnigh( provision for, 1 'Compaet', 786
unloading of, 3 drive of, 779
Cane busler (Sil ver difrusion), 380 power faclor of, 782
Cane handling, I regeneralive braking, 781
Cane preparalors, 73 ,peeial eharaeleriSlie of, 782
Can e unloading, I gravily faclor. 768
by net, 5 large ..:asíog, conti nuous, 798
Capacily or milis, 186 mean equivalent radius, 766
Caramelisation, 504, 692 moment of ¡nerlia, 773
Carbon dioxide, power requiremenl s, 776
in carbonatarian, 416 RobeelS, 788
conlenl or, in nue gases, 929 speed, 765
Carbon dioxide pump, 422 S il ver, 798.803
Carbon monoxide. erriciency 1055 due lO , 930 volume capaci(y. 769
Carbonatation, Centrifuging cycle, 768, 784
continuous, 425 Chapman circulation of juiee, 531
de Haan, 417 Chevron grooves, 53, 1I1
double, 417 Chimney,
favourable eonditions for, 426 cross section, 990
middle-juice, 418 height, 991
single, 416 C hokes, 224
Carbo natation processes, 416 mill,90
Ca rbonate, sodium, 404 C hule, Donnelly, 87, 89
Ca rbonating tanks, capacity or, 424 C ircuil breaker, 1095
Ca rbonic acid, acUon or, on juice, 416 Ci rculation,
Cardan sharts (milis), 256 Chapman, 531
Carrier, of juiee, 528
auxiliary, 18 of massecuite, 649
cane, drive or, 25 mechanieal (pans), 707
form or he ad of 28 speed of, 661
longlh of, 21 Clarifieation, 430
power or, 24 Clarifiers, 431
slope of, 21 comparlmenls, 443
speed of, 22 evolulion, 443
width of, 22 Ei s and Enviro-clear, 441
Carriers, Cleaning,
intermedia te. 76 evaporators, 547
belt 82 vacuum pans, 695
fixed (Meinecke) 81 Coal, 941
high speed 83 Cobe nze diagram, 702
slope, speed, power of 79, 80, 230 Coe rricient,
Cascade syslem, Kraemer, 246 compactian, ) 37
'Cenlre well (effeelS), 509 efficiency k, 346
Centrifugal eyele, 768, 770, 784, 785 of rJow resiSlance, 1115, (118
Centrifugal mOlors, 779, 781 Hawaii, ))9
installation and trends in. 784 of passage, 512, 644, 645
Centri fugals, of solubility, 630
air currenlS in, 793 of supersaluration. 63 J
baleh, 757 lorque-Ioad, 236
B.M .A., 787 Coil" pan, 636
SUBJECT INDEX 1157
Coke, 419 feeding of, 75

Coloralion, 406, 412, 504, 692 innuence on capacilY. 193
Combustion of bagasse, 924 lift, 55
spontaneous, 917 power, 55, 57
Combuslion chamber, 949 pressure on, 55, 57
Compactian coefficienl, 137 3-roller, 56 , 58, 59
Compactness, 1128 speed, 55
Compression (Hugol), 141, 143 types or, 51
Compression ratio, 138 value of, 56
Compression ralio, (Bullock), 144 Crystal conlenl of massecuite, 693
Computer, 1144 Crystal regularilY, 835
Compulerizalion, 1126, 1144 Crystal surface, 692
Concentralion, Crystallisation, 631
¡¡mil oblainable, 627 speed, 633, 726
phase or slrike, 681 time for, 730
Concenlralor (pressure evaporalion), 616 Crystallizers,
Condensa le vessels, 520 capacity, 731
Condensates, double helix, 734
composilion, 524 inslatlation, 728
extraclion, 516 ordinary, 729
pumps for extraction of, 518 Ragot, 735
temperalure, 524 in series, 737
ulilisalion, 524, 996 storage, 749
Condensers, types or, 734
approach, 866, 898 vertical cooling, 749
co·currenl and counter-current, 857, 867 waler-cooled, 735
cross-section, 858 Werkspoor, 738
wilh externa! ajr ex.tractor. 904 Cuilometer, 690
heighl. 857 Currenl,
jet. 897 allernaling, 1072
pressures in, 867 direcl, 1072
lemperatures in, 865 staning, 1092
Heater-condensers, 894 Current density, 1099
Rain·condensers, 894 Cush cush screen, 351
Conduclivity or massecuite, 689, 1127
Cone·press, Silver, 383 Deaeration of feed water I 997
ConslrUClion bf milis, 258 Deerr s.j.m. formula, 838
Containers, storage in, 15 Defecation procedures. 400
Contraclion in sugar Solulions, 628, 833 DelIa connection, 1073
Control, Demineralization, 997
raclory, 327, 838 Derrick, 7
milling, 327, 341 Dessin formula, 572
Com1c:clion in bailer planl, 959 Desuperhealers, calculation. 965, 1004,
Conveyor, 1005
bagasse, 98 Dew poinl (air healers), 979
grasshopper, 814 Diagram.
screw, 811 ent ropy, 908, 909
sugar, 813 Mollier, 908
Cook furnace, 943, 957 Diameler, equivalenl (downtake), 655
Cooling lowers, 893 Diffusion, 358
Crane, B.M.A ., 373
cane, 7,11 cane or bagasse, 366
guyed, 7' capital cost and maintenance, 396
self-supponing, 7 de Smel, 368
travelling, 1I effect on recovery, 395
Crushers, Flelcher and Slewart , 392
diameter, 54 general considerations, 395
double, 59 laws of, 359
extraction, 59 RotocelJ, 389
115 8 SUBJECT INDEX
Saturne, 391 Entropy, 908

Silver, 380 Enviro-clear clari (jer, 441
Digital automati on, 11 38 Equalizers, cane, 29
Dilution (imbibition), 339 Equation, basie, 332
Dilution of massecuite, 807 Equi va lents, thermodynamie, 914
Dilution indicalOr, 817 E .S.G., 842
Donnelly c hute, 85 Evaporation under pressure, 615
Dorr claririer, 431 Evaporation, falling film, 618
Dorrclones, 445 Evaporaríon rate,
Double purging, 792 of boilers, 954
Double wheel (turbine), 1058 of multiple effeets, 570, 572
Douwes Dekker formula, 678 of pans, 662, 707
Draft, (di ffu sion), 362 Evaporators, capacity of, 608
Draught, 989, 991 Exeess air, 924, 930
Drying time of eentrifugals, 768, 771 Exhaustibility of molasses, 678
Dryness fraction, Exhaustion,
of steam , 907 eri teri a, 678
for turbines, 1070 massecuüe, 728
D.S.M. sereen, 354 and molasses purity, 670, 677
Ducasse knives, 46 proeess of, 670
Expansion joinls ,in boiler settings , 988
Econornisers, 965 Extracrion, 314
and air heaters, choice belween, 981 crushers, 59
ealeulations, 968 dry erushing, 327
maxirnurn econorny. 971 first mill, 328
safety margin for, 970 gajn in, by preparation, 320
water and gas ve locities in, 971 primar y juiee, 329, 366
Edge effeet on trash plate, 226 redueed, 3 I 5
Effeets, variation wirh pressure, 172, 321
choice o f Ilumber or, 572 Extraction ratio, 318
mu ltiple, 504 Extrusion of bagasse, 131
EfCiciency.
of boiler furnaces, 938 Falling film evaporalion, 618
of induetion motors, 1093 False grain, 683
meehanieal, of pumps, 1104 Fans,
of mills, 320 for bagaeillo, 490
of pumps, 11 04 boiler, 993
of turbines, 1064 Feed plate, see Hopper,
of turbine wheel, 1052 Feed water for boilers, 995
vOlumetrie, of pumps, 1111, 1114 Feed water tank, 997
Eirnco filler, 479 Feeders, ro(ary. 92
Eimcobell filter, 487 Feeding of mills, 74
Eis elarifiers, 441 Feeding devices, mechanical, 92
Ejeetor eondensér, 90 1 Fiberizer, 381
EJectric motors, see Motors, Fibraque, 135
Eleetrieal units, 1077 Fibre,
Eleetrieity, 1072 in ca ne, caJculalion or. 335
Electri fication, density oL 134
effect o n sleam consumplion, 1028 in successive bagasses, 212
powe r req uired for, 1100 Fibre index, 137, 142
Elevat io n o f boilillg poin!, 495, 497 Fibre loading, 136
Elevalors, speeifie, 136
cane, 28 Film, c1imbing, 613
suga r, 815 Filter,
Energy produetion, 1016 Eimeo, 479
Entrainment, 537 Eimeobelt, 487
Entrainmen( ratio (thermo-compresso r), 555 Oliver-Campbell, 476
Entrainmenr separators (evaporators). 537 Rapifloe, 485
Entrainment separator (Kestner), 613 rotary. 476
SUBJECT lNDEX ¡ ¡ 59
accessories for, 487 bagassc rceding l O, 942

air pump for. 488 comb ust ion e hambers, 949
cake was hing in, 482 dimensions, 951
capadl)' and speed, 481 horse-s hoe, 943
dimensions, 485 s preader-stoker, 947
filtra te handli ng in, 481 slep-grate, 942
proportion of eloudy filtra te, 482 su lphur, 407
rete nti on, 484 t)' pes , 942
seree ns for, 489 Ward, 946, 957
Filter aids , 475
Filter cake, Gas now, 1123
from fi lt er press, 473 Gases,
washing of, 474 ¡ncondensable,
from rmary rilters. 479 in condenser, 854
washing o f, 482 in mulliple effeelS, 525
Filler cloths, 476 valve adjuslmenl for, 528
filler presses, 469 Gauzes,
Fihra bilit y, eentrifugal, 759
of juiee , 404 area of, 771
of sugar, 833 cleaning of, 793
Fillration, 468 dam age lO, 793
of syrups , 492 Gear ing,
Fine bagasse return, 183 mill,253
Finishing cen trifugals, 792 eflieieney, 232
fl anges, roller, 224, 272 power absorbed in, 232
Flash of vapour, 519, 565 Grab, cane, 7
F lash pots (m ulliple erreets), 520 G ra in, building up of, 682
Flash ta n k fo r vapour, 438 Grajn size, 69 1
Fleteher and Stewart, 99, 392 Graining, 68 1
Flexible eoupling (knives) , 37 on molasses, 69B
Floe, ruplUre of, 401 quanlily of seed lo add for, 682
Flow of massecuite, 725 Grain ing vo lume, 646
Flow of wa ler and stea m, 111 5 Grasshopper eonveyor, 814
Flue gases , Grate,
CO, eonlenl, 929 ash, 943
composilion, 928 step, 942
densilY, 924 G ra le area, 952
speeifie hea l , 932, 934 Grave r cJarifier, 433, 434
lempera lure, 93 1, 934 G rooves , dimensions of, 102
ve locity, leaving chimney, 990 Grooving, 101
Flues, a ngle of, 106
cross-section, 989 Kay, 113
gas ve locit y in, 989 of rollers, 101
Fluid drive (centrifuga ls), 779 Gruend ler shredder, 64
Fly ash removal, 993, 994 Gundu Ra o fo rmul a, 844
Force (eent rifugal), 762, 765 Guys for e rane , 9
Frequene)', vMiable, 234 Gy ratory meehani es, 761
Frequeney an d motor speed , 1076
Friction, Haan, de, carbonatat ion , 417
belween bagasse and trash plale, 230 Hard ware, 1132, 1133
between bearings and housings , 164 Hawaii ratio, 339
belween journals and bearin gs , 230 Head 10ss, see Pressure droD,
belween scrapers and rollers, 230 Heanh of furnace, 944, 95 t , 952
Fuel for lime kiln s, 419 Heal, tOlal, of steam , 906, 9 11 , 1034, 1038, 1043
Fuels ot her Ih a n bagasse, 940 Heat losses ,
Fuel oil, 941 from e himne y, 935
Fulton crusher, 51 in evaporators, 542
Furnace temperature measurement, 934 in nue gases , 93 5
Furnaces , in healers , 448
1160 SUBJECT INDEX
in pans, 665 and dilUlion, 339

from piping , 1025 effeel of,
Heat transfer coe rricienl, on bagasse moi sture, J08
of evaporalors, 570 on feeding, 91
of healers, 449 , 454 malhema,ieal Sludy, 280
of Werkspoo r crysla lli zcr, 74] ma xima l, 309
Hea,er-eondenser, 465, 894 op,imal , 303
Hearers, Ine9nde nsable gas valves, 528
air, In eondensab le gases, 465, 525, 85 4
air and gas velocilies in, 975 Indu etion eoupling, H eenan and Froude. 17,27
calculations for, 974 Inenia, moment of (centrifugal). 763, 773
combustion remp eralUre of, 977 In version, 435, 437, 541,694,841
eorrosion, 979 ln version losses, see los ses,
design, 975 I onisation apparatus , 551
and economiz.er, choice belween, 981
effieieney, 983 Java defeealion process, 402
maximal economy, 98 J Java ralio, 33 8
ratio r, 974 J igger steam, 666
recircula¡i an in, 979 Juice,
tempe rature limil, 977 abso lu,e, lost "lo fibre, 3 18
'ypes, 973 c1ariried, reac(i on o r, 403
elecrrical resistance (massecuite), 807 densilY under pressure, 134
juiee, 447 op timal leve l in vesse l, 533
ealeulalion for, 448 primary, propon ion of suerose ex[raeled, 328
ealeulalion o f hea ling surfaee, 459 refrae,ory, 400
circulatian velocity, 455 res idu<ll , puril y of, 337
canstruetion, 462 Ju íce circuJalion in evaporalor, 529
design, 45 7 Juice clarirication, 398
healing surface required, 462 Juiee feed (multiple effeels), 528
press ure o n botlom, 466 Juice leve l con trolle r, 533
pressure drop in , 455 Juice leve l in evaporalors, 533
series of sizes. 463, 464 Jui ee OU lPU' per lube, 6 10
temperature margin for, 457 Juice velocilY,
Hea,ing of juice, 447 in clarifiers, 437
Healing surface, in hct\lcr s,. 455
of evaporalOrs, 570 Juices in co mpound imbibition, 292
of juiee heale rs, 459, 462 Juiees weighls along lhe landem, 297
of pans, 665
ralio of, 10 volume (in pans), 665 Kay groov ing, 11 3
Heenan and Froude eou~ling, 17,27 Kesrner evaporator, 613
Heigh' of layer in diffusion, 372, 384 Keys, for roller shafls, 256
Heigh, of masseeuile in pan, 668, 669, 708 Ki ese lguhr, 475
Hierarehy, .113 5, 1139 Kinet ie ener gy (centriruga l), 763
Hierarehieal SIrUelUre, 113 5, 1139 King bol", 258
Hopper, Knife blades, balance a nd maintenance , 40
erusher feed, 74 Knives, 32, 34
firsl mili feed, 75 adjuslmen', 40, 41
inler mediale mili feed, 85 drive, 35
sugar, 820 eXlra clion gain b y, 33, 321
Horizonlal pan, 641 influenee o L on eapaei lY, 32, 40
Hors e-sho e furn aee, 943, 957 number o f blades , 37
Hydraulie eaps, 120 pileh, 37
Hydraulie load, po wer, 42
feed/delivery, 160 second set, 4)
resulta n" 130 speed or rotali on , 42
101al, 171 ,hird sel, 42
Krajewski erusher, 51
Imbibicion .
eold or ho" 307 labile lOne, 631
SUBJECT INDEX 1161
Lateral table, 16 Mjll~crusher, 56

Leaks of air, 878 Mili drive,
Leaks (vac uum), 6 11 combined, 185
Lealhers (hydraulic), 121 eleclric, 241
Liebermann c10rh (cenrri fugals), 759 by turbine, 249
. LifL of accumulators, J 22 Mili housings, 258
LigamenL , 5 12, 644 inclined, 214, 260
Lime, lubrication, 266
action 011 juice, 398 Mili juice trays, 351
consumpLion, 399, 418 Mili settings, 199
milk of, 399 of rollers, 200, 206
of trash plate, 217
Lime kiln, 419
Limestone, 419- Milling loss, 314
..
Liming, Milis,
while boiling, 400, 401 capaciLy, 186
wiLh double heaLing, 410 construclio n, 258
fraclional, and sulphita tion, 411 conLro l, 327
hOL, 400 ele<.:t ric drive, 241
saccharaLe, 402 feeding, 74
Liquidalion of clarifiers , 435 grooving, 101
Logarithmic temperalure difference, 755 power requirements, 227
Losses, pressures, 117, 130
by inversion, 541. 694, 841, 847 seuings, 199
aL milis, 314 size, 273
of SLeam, 1025 speed, 178
of wa ler , 891 steam consumplion, 248, 252., 1013
of weighL and of tesL (sugar), 820 top angle, 260
LolUs roller, 269 Mixer~distrjbutor for massecuite, 8 11
Moisture content of sugar, 817
Maceralion, 309 Molasses, 699, 835
Magma, 696 as fuel, 941
Magma process, doubJe, 674, 697 density and viscosity, 836
Magnesia in· c1arificalion, 428 exhausted, 677
Magox, 428 exhaustibility, 678
Massecu ite, purity, 670, 671
crysLal conLent, 693 quantity per Wn cane, 680
densiL)', 724 return, 699
exhaustion, 728 rich and poor, 790, 792
f1ow, 725 specific heat, 700
heighL in the pan, 668 treatment, 698
propOrLions of, 724 Momenl of ¡nertia,
quantiLies of, 675 definilion, 763
rate of crysta llisation, 726 of ce nLrifugals, 763, 773
specific heaL, 628 MOLor pumps, 1102
sugar recovery from, 726 Mo tors,
temperalUre of cooling o f, 725 asynchronous, 1088
Massecuile Brix, 627 Bou cherot, 1091
Massecuire syslems, 670 commutator, 1094
Maxwell shredder, 60 efficiency, 1093
MechanicaJ har vesting, 47 electric,
Mégasse, 366 for centrifugals, 779
Meinecke, carrier, 81 c1assification, 1082 , 1086
Mesh entrainment elimin'.ltors, 539 fully enclosed, 1084
Meshing of roller grooves, 103 maintenance and proleclion, 1095, 1096
Messchaerls, 107 for mil! drive, 246
Metastable zone, 631 power, 1078
Micr o~proc essors. 1132 induction, 1090
Mili capaciLy, 186 / power facLOr, 1093
Mili chokes, 92, 224 sC]llirrel cage, 1090
1162 SUBJECT INDEX
synehronised, 1094 Langreney, 716

sy nehron ous, 1086 losses of head , 651
wound-rolor, 1092 massecuite circula¡ion, 649
Movemenl steam, 666 slope of bOllom, 646
Mullifeed ela ri fier, 433, 435 , 443 stea m co nsumption, 664
Mulliple effeel, vessels of, 507 vacuum. 635
Mulliple effeels, 504 Parr's rormula, 238
ca lculalion of Brixes, 590 Passage area, 513, 644, 645
calculacion of healing ~urrac.:es, 591 pH "
ca lculalion s and design, 579, 588 of feed wa ler, 999
ea paeil Y, 608 .o f juice, 400, 401. 402, 403
ca uses of uns3cisfactory operation, 612 Phosphoric acid, artion on juíce, 414
changes in IOlal surface, 595 Pied -de-cuite, vo lum e. 646
checking performance of, 600 Pinion r~ac[ion, 166
construcrion, 506 Pinions, 256
eV3poralion coeffic ient, 571 alternale, 167
individual evaporations. 590 d o uble, 166
innuence of inequaJily 01' vcssels, 596 neSl, 167
operalion, 609 separale setS . 167
operalion of vesse ls in parallel, 553 Piping.
under pressu re , 615 ca lcul'lions, 1 J 15
range of lemperalures, 504, 505 diameter, 514.1122
relative evaporar ion of vessels, 561 juice, 530
sequence of pressures in, 579,588 Sleam, 5 14 , 1123
vapour available al each erreC!, 579 Pistons, hydraulie, 121
Mulliple wheels (lurbine), 1056, 1058 Pitch o f knives , 37
Pi,eh or 'ubes. 512
Nash airpump, 877 Pi,h, 940
Neulral plane, 132 , 139 Play in hydraulic pressure operalion, 122
Noises in mili s , abnormal, 223 determination by the ¡ead process. 123 124
I
Non-sueros;', 847 Plough (een lrifugals), 785

Nozzles (spray pond), 889 Polariz3tion of juice and baga sse, 336
Nozzles (turbine), ·1049 Polygon of forces in Ihe mili, 161
N.P .S. H., 1105 Power,
absorbed by mili landem , 237
Oil as fuel, 941 developed in suga r faelory, 1028
Oliver-Campbell filters, 476 of eleelrie mOlors, 1100
Openings, rO la ling body, 763
in axial plane, 139 slack season, 1101
al start of full pressure, 122 Power faclor, 782, 1074, 1093
belween rollers, improvement. J 094
caiculalion, 202, 207 low , disadvanlage o f, 1094
measuremenl, 200 Power house, 1100
speeifie, 139 Power requiremelll of milis. 227
Overload relays, 1095 genera l formula, 22Y
Overnight provisio n (eane), power 10 inSlal, 239
Pans, relalion of fibre 10, 228, 238
calandria, 637 simplified formula, 234
eapacity, 669 Iypiea l values, 228
circulation velocity, 661 Pre-evaporalor, 573
co il, 636 Preparalian of cane, 73
continuous, 712 Preparation Index, 61, 62
distribution between massecuites, 676 Press, French, 384. 386
evaporation rale, 662 Presses, bagasse, 916
healing. 663 Prcssure,
healing surface, 667 choice of Sleam, 1029
height, 646 feed and deli very, 160
horizonlal,641 hydraulie, 117
hydro sta tic pressure. 647 ma ximal values. 125
SUBJECT INDEX 1163
and number of miJls , 175 Quadrupl e dfecl. s~e Mulliplt: effecL,

resulta nt, 130 Quarez, 408
speci fic, 130
tOtal, 130 Radialion in boilers, 959
h)'droSlatic, 497, 634, 646 Rain eondensers, 894
maximal and roller loading, 156 Rakes (eane), 14
in mili, Rapidorr, 431, 445
graph, J 49 Rapifloc. 485. 487
resolu ¡ion of, 127 Reabsorplion faclo! , 133, 157, J59
in milling, 1J 7 Recirculation (aír healers), 979
speciric, 127 Reeovery, 850
steam, in pans, 667 basic, 842
in tandem, sequence of, 173 ·E.S.G., 842
Pressure eompounding (steam turbine), 1056 general reduced E.S.G ., 843
Pres sure drop, from massecuiles, 83 8
ill heaters, 455 redueed E.S.G. (G undu Rao), 843
in pans, 651 Iheorelieal,841
in piping, 1064, 1115, 1120 Recovery bottle (entrainmenO, 540
in mulliple efreel, 578, 579 Reducing sugars,
Pressure evaporalor, 615 balance, 848
Pressure-feeder, 94 decomposítion, 437
Proees¡ control, 1143 Reducing valve, 1003
Pumping liquid s (in pipes), 1122 Regenera'ive braking (eentrifugals), 78 1
Pumps, 1102 Regulalion Of syrup Brix, 535
air, 868 Rehealing of juiee in first effeel, 595
cakulat ioll s, 871 Rehealing of massecuite, 807, 811
centrifuga!. 1102 Rein formula, 317
ehokeless, 1108 Reliability, 1131, 1134
eo" 422 Remelting e sugar, 695
condenser wa ter , 883 RelenLion o f rotary riller, 484
feed, 998 Relention time (diffusio n), 370
gear, 1110 Returns of molasses lo pans, 699, 700
heal, 555 , 567,603 Reynold 's number, Illó
liquid annulus rOlary, 870 Roller,
mulliSlage, 1104 dirty top, 91
Nash rotary, 877 and accumulalOr lift, 122
OUlpul, 1102, 1103 Roller bearings in mili s, 266. 268
power, 876, 877, 1103 Roller nanges, 224, 272
Rala, 1108, 1110 Roller groovings, 101 , 107, 1 I1
rOlary, 1108 Roller proportions. 274
screw, 1113 Roller wear, 113, 115
speed. 1102 Rollers, 265
suclion. 1103 i'eeding, 85, 92
unehokeable, 1108 universal, 104
Purging, double, 792 Rala pump, 1110
Purilies in sugar boiling, 670 ROloeell, 389
Purities of successive juices in the tandem; Rule of E, 1054
337 Ruplure of floe, 401
Purit y,
innuence on boíling lime, 675 Saccharare liming, 402
o lla,," grade sugar, 693 SafelY factor (sugar). 817
of molasses, 672, 673, 678 Sanitation at milis, 325
of mOlher liquor, 634 Saluralion, 628
of residual juice, 338 Salurne diffuser, 391
virtual, 843 Sca le , automaric, for sugar, 830
Purily drop, 672. 673. 674 Sealing, prevention of, 428, 551
in crysrallisation. 726 Scrapers, 272
in pans, 672, 673 frietion on ro!lers, 230
Purity ríse in evapo ration , 61 1 juiee grooves, 110
1164 SUBJECT lNDEX
Screens. per kg or lb 01" bagé\s se, 940

bagaeillo, 489 propenies, 905, 1034
centrifuga!, see Gauzes, quanlily oblainable, 936
eush-cush , 351 speeiric heal, 1042, 1044
D.S.M., 354 speeirie volume, 1034, 1038
vibrating, 357 superheated,
Searby shredder, 63, 66 heal transmission, 494
Seeding, 681 speei fie heat, 1042, 1044
Sensors, 1127 , 1131 speeific volume, 1034, 1038
Separan, 404, 485, 486 tOlal heal, 1043, 1044
Separatar, magnelic. 49 use, 496, 959
Sequence of brixes, 330 viseosity, 1123
Sequence of purities, 337 Sleam accumulators, 1000
Shredders, 60 Steam balance for ractory, 1012
Gruendler, 64, 65, 66 Steam consumption,
Maxwell, 60 at milIs, 1014
Searby, 63, 64, 65 al pans, 664
Tonga,t, 66 of turbines , 1063
Shutdown, weekly, 435 pcr Ion cane, 1016, 1021, 1026
Silos (sugar), 819 Sleam cyele, 1029
Siphon (juiee evaporationJ, 518, 519 Sleam economy by bleedi ng , 566
Slings (eane), 2 Sleam maximal economy, 1016
Slip in eleetrie motors, 1075, 1089 Steam formulae, 906
Slip in milIs, 189 Sleam, jigging, 666
Sodium carbonate, 404 Sleam losses, 996, 1016
Software, 1122, 1144 Steam produclion, 905
Sootblowers, 1012 Steam reducers, 1003
Specific heat, Steam lables, 1034 - 1046
of Oue gases, 931, 934 Slone problems, 47
of ma ssecu ite, 628 SLorage 01' cane in cantainers, 15
of molasses , 700 Storage of juice in clarifier, 435
of steam, 1042 Slorage or sugar, 817
of sucrose sol ulions, 448, 449 Subsidalion, 430
of sugar, 700, 820 speed O r, 430
Speeds (see a lso Velocities), Suerose solubililY, 832
mili, 178 Suction (pumps), 1104, 1112
in mili landem, 182 Sugar,
sy nchronous, 1076 angle of repose, 8 I 9
Spray ponds, 886, 887 in bulk sLOrage, 819
area, 887 e, disposilion of, 695
cooling possible in, 886 density, 832
depth, 887 deterioration, 817
"nozzles, 889 drying, 820
Squirting, 223 loss of weighl, 820
S.R.1. elarifier, 440 low grade purilY, 792
Slaek-piler, 16 solubililY, 832
Sladler table, 542 specifie hea t, 820
Slar and delta connection, 1073 litre, 834
Slarch, 403 yield from massecuites, 726
Sleam, Sugar boiling, 627
available at each effeet, 579 eonduct of, 681
balance, 10 12 du ration of, 668, 676, 707
choice of pressure, 1029 procedures, 670
dryness fmclion , 907 Sugaf drier ealculations, 82l
entropy diagrams, 908 Sugar dr)'ing, 820
f1ow, 1123 Sugar sea le, aUlomalie, 830
tluctuations in consumplion, 1026 Sugar Slorage, 817
ror healing pans, 664 Sugar Slores, 819
normal velocilies. 514,1123 Sulphilation, 406
SUBJECT INDEX 1165
npparatus, 408 Tumbler, cane, 18

eold, 409 Turbines,
fraelional,411 back pressure, 1065
hOl,410 construction, 1051
before or after liming, 411 impulse, 1051
of syrup, 412 number of wheels, 1056, 1061
Sulphur, 406 reaelion, 1050, 1060
combuslion, 406 speci fications, 1065
consumption, 408 steam, 1047
Sulphurous acid, aClion on juice, 406 steam consumption, 1063
Superheal, 960 Turbo-allernalOrs, 1024, 1079
limil of, 960 Turbo-compressor, 555
Superhealers, 960
Supersaluralion, 631, 632, 684, 726 Uníls, electríeal, 1077 -
Synehronous speeds, 1076
Syrup and molasses feed (pans), 684, 699 Vacuum, 852
Syrup, central, 684, 686, 853
lemperalure, 505 eonstaney, 681 , 685, 688
vOiding or, 536 general values, 854
brix, 503, 534,627 individual, 853
influence on boiling, 688, 692
Tables, laleral, 16 "maximal, 610
Tail-bar, 256 temperatures, 865
Tandem, malerial balance, 297 Yacuum pans, see pans,
Tanks slorage (syrup and molasses), 699 Yalves,
Temperalure or eombustion, 931, 934 incondensable gas, 528
Temperature limits in ev.aporarion, 505 Van Hengel diffuser, 392
Temperature margin in juice heating, 457 Yapour,
Thermal balance of Ihe faelOry, 604 aspirated in thermo-compressor , 603
Thermo-compression, 603 lo be condensed, R62
equivalent number of effects, 569 Vapour bleeding, 554
steam economy obrained by. 568 economy due te, 566
Thermo-compressor, 556 Velocity,
inslaJlation, 603 of circularion,
entrainment ratio, 556 in e1arifiers, 437
Thermodynamic equivalents, 914 in pans, 661
Thin juiees (diffusion), 373, 386 in healers, 445 , 455
Thrusl, axial (Iurbine), 1062 of juice, syrup and massecuite, 1123
Tighlening massecuile, 683 of Sleam and vapour, 1123
Titre of sugar, 820, 834 of syrup and molasses, 1123
Tonnage records, 197 of waler and juiee, 1123
Top angle of miJls, 260 Veloeity eompounding (steam turbine), 1058
Torque, Vertical erystallizer, 748 -751
of mOlor, 1089, 1092 Vibro-crible, 357
slaning, 1090, 1092 Viseosity, 1117, 1123
variation, 1088 Vollages, 245, 1079
TOlal hydraulie pressure (t.h,p,), 125, IJO Volume,
Trash plate, graining, 646, 668
channeJling, 224 no-void, 134
melal, 226
selling, 217 Ward-Leonard drive for milis, 244
shape, 218 Washing,
Truek, lipping, 4 al cenlrifugals, 790
Tube plales, f1al, inclined, 638 of filter cake, 474
T.ubes, limit of, 475
for boilers, 1007 Water,
for healers, 462 brix-free (of eonstitution), 134, 136
for multiple effeels, 509 feed, for boilers, 995
for pans, 643 make-up, for boilers, 996
· '· 1166 SU/llECT lNDEX
Water )osses, 891 Werkspoor crystalliser, 738

Waler ~equirements or condensers, 864, 885 I.:hecking, 747
Water requiremen¡s of the factory, 892 cooling surrace, 742
W~l c r separalor (condenser), 862 ~oo!ing time, 744
Waxes, design, 745
efrecl, dimensi ons , 744
on rillrRtion, 475 pOIVer required ror, 739
in imbibition, 307 spac ing or disc s, 745, 746
Wear or rollers, II J water r C'qui rem ~ nt, 739
Wear or lrash plale, 224 Win! Cr-CMp formlda, 839
Webre, 578 Wood, as fuel, 940
W eekly shutdown, 435

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HANDBOOK OF

Revised by the au thor,

G.H. JENKJNSt, M.Sc.App.

THIRD, COMPLETELY REVISED, EDITION

Dil'trihulors fo, Ih,' U"il<,ú Slalcs and Canada:

FLSFVIFR SCiENCE PUBLlSHIN(; COMI'ANY INC.

I.'irst edítíon 1960

ISBN 0-444-42438-5 (Vol. 7)

© Elsevier Seience Publishers B.V., 1986

AII rights reserved. No part of this publication ma y be reproduced, sto red

I'rint ed in The Netherlands

Preface to the third edition

Steam balance of the factory for\,maxiníurl¡,'ec('morn.y

This Ihird edilion of Ihe Handbook of Cane Sugar Technology is

List 01 chapter headings

l. Delivery, unloading and handling of 24. Defecation.

Preface to the third edition, v

Chapler 2. The cane carrier, 21

Chapler 3. Cane knives, 32

Chapler 4. Tramp-iron separalO rs, 49

Chapler 7. Combinations~ óh:ane preparat o rs, 73

Chapler 8. Fecdi ng of milis and co nvey ing of bagasse, 74

Chapter 9. Roller grooving, 101

Chap ter 10. Press ures in millin g, 11 7

Chapler 12 . Mili capacily , 186

Chapter 13 . Mili settings-;" 199

Chapter 14. Power requirements of milis, 227

Factors in fluencing power requirements , 227

Chapter 15. Electric drive or milis, 241

Systems oC electric drive for milis, 244

Chapter 16. Mili drive by steamturbine, 249

Turbines for mili drive , 250

Chapter 17. Mili gearing, 253

Speed reduction, 253

Chapter 18. Construction of mills, 259

Chapter 19. Imbibition, 280

General consideratiQJ1s, 304

Chapter 20. Extraction, 315

Chapter 21. Milling control, 328

Chapter 22. Fine-bagasse separaLOrs, 352

Chapler 23. Diffusion, 359

Brief historical note, 359

C hapter 24. Defecation, 399

Clarification of juices, 399

Defecalion proce{Jures, 401

Chapter 25. Sulphitation, 407,

Chapter 26. Clari rication with phosphoric acid, 4 l 5

Chapter 27. Carbonatation, 417

Chapter 28. Use of magnesia in clarirication, 429

Chapter 29. Subsidation, 431

Clarificrs or subsiders, 432

Chapter 30. Juice heating, 448

Calculations for heaters, 449

Chapter 3 l. Filtration, 469

Condilions for good filtration, 469

Chapler 33. Sugar boiling, 627

Vacuum pans, 635

Chapter 34. Crystallisalion, 724

Types of crystalliser, 734

Batch centrifugals, 757

Chapler 36. Storage and drying of sugar, 817

Sugar stores, 818

Chapter 37. Sugar, 832

Chapler 38. Mbl'asses; 836