Chapter 7 – Vibrations & Waves

A. Periodic Motion
• A movement is called periodic, if it reproduces itself identically, at the end of a constant duration T,
called the period of motion. E.g., the movement of the earth around the sun, the swings of an old
clock pendulum, the vibration of a mass connected to a spring.
• Movement during one period is called a cycle.
• In the S.I. system, the period T is measured in seconds (s)
• The number of cycles/oscillations/vibrations during one second is called the frequency ”f” of the
movement:
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑛
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑓=
𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∆𝑡
The SI unit of “ f ” is hertz (Hz). 1 cycle/s = 1 Hz.
𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 1
• Since: 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 , then: 𝑇 = 𝑓 𝑜𝑟 𝑓 = 𝑇

B. Vibrations or oscillations
• Some objects, such as a pendulum or a ruler fixed at one end, oscillate, or vibrate when they are
released after being moved from their equilibrium position: they make regular movements back
and forth (or up and down) between two extreme positions.
• An oscillation or vibration is characterized by its period (duration of a single vibration) and its
frequency (number of vibrations per second).
• The amplitude of a vibratory motion is the maximum deviation from the equilibrium position, i.e.,
the distance between the equilibrium position and one of the extreme positions of the vibrating
object.

C. Waves
• It is the set of disturbances or deformations that propagate. While moving, a wave carries energy
but not matter, i.e., the particles of the medium vibrate in place without moving with the wave.
• To produce waves, we need a source of vibrations (source of energy).
• Wave characteristics:
1. Period T(s)
2. Frequency f(Hz) same as those of the source
3. Amplitude a(m)
4. Wavelength 𝜆(m) : it is the distance traveled by the wave during a period (1 cycle). We can
determine λ by measuring the distance between two crests or two consecutive troughs.
5. Speed of propagation v (m/s): depends on the medium in which the wave moves, i.e. in a given
medium the speed of propagation of the wave remains constant.
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜆 1
𝑣= = 𝑏𝑢𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑣 = 𝜆. 𝑓
time 𝑇 𝑇
D. Nature of waves
1. Mechanical wave: it needs a material medium to propagate through. Ex. Sound waves, wave on the
surface of water, wave on a rope, ....
2. Electromagnetic wave: it can travel in vacuum. It consists of 2 vibrations: electric and magnetic. Ex.
Light, radio waves, X-rays, .... In vacuum all electromagnetic waves propagate at the same speed
𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠 (known as the speed of light).

E. Types of waves
1. Longitudinal waves: for this type, the particles
of the medium vibrate parallel to or along the
direction of propagation of the wave. Ex. Sound
waves, longitudinal wave on a spring.

2. Transverse waves: for a transverse wave the

particles of the medium vibrate perpendicularly
to the wave direction. Ex. Electromagnetic
waves, wave on a rope, wave on the surface of
water.