Section Proportion

Classification of Sections
I-sectional shapes can be classified in four categories based on different fabrication processes or
their structural behavior as discussed below:

• I-sectional shapes can be categorized into four categories: rolled sections (I-beam) with or
without cover plates, built-up sections (plate girder) with or without haunches, deep beams, and
trusses.
• Rolled sections are suitable for shorter spans, while plate girders are applicable to longer spans,
providing engineers flexibility in proportioning flanges and web plates efficiently.
• I-sections can be classified based on their fabrication process or structural behavior.
• Rolled sections (I-beams) and plate girders (built-up sections) are two common types of I-
sections used in composite steel I-girder bridges.
• Composite sections, which use the properties of steel and concrete together, are recommended
for positive moment regions.
• Compact, noncompact, and slender sections are classification categories for I-sections, based on
their ability to develop plastic stress distribution and deformation ductility.
• Hybrid sections, consisting of flanges with higher yield strength than the web, can save materials
and are being promoted.
• The selection of I-rolled shapes or sizing the web and flanges of a plate girder is the first step in
the structural design of an I-girder bridge.

Depth-to-Span Ratio
• AASHTO LRFD specifies minimum depth-to-span ratios for straight and curved girders in highway
and railway bridges.
• I-rolled shapes can be selected from the AISC Manual (2010b).
• Variable cross sections and haunched sections may be used to save materials.
• Plate girders must have sufficient flexural and shear strength and stiffness.
• An efficient and economical girder minimizes weight and construction costs.

Flanges
• Flanges provide bending strength and are usually determined by the width-to-thickness ratio
and design requirements.
• Flanges should be at least 12 inches wide, with a width of approximately 1/5 to 1/6 of the
web depth for straight girders and 1/4 of the web depth for horizontally curved girders.
• Minimum flange thickness should be 3/4 inches for straight girders and 1 inch for curved
girders, with a desirable maximum of 3 inches.
• Compression and tension flanges must meet proportion requirements to prevent excessive
distortion, buckling, and ensure proper boundary conditions.
 • Thicker flanges should provide 25% more area than thinner flanges and not be greater than
twice the thickness of the thinner flange.

Web

• The web provides shear strength for the girder

• Web thickness should be as small as practical to meet the D/tw ratio limits
• Web depths should be in increments of 2 or 3 inches
• Web thickness should be not less than 1/2 inch to avoid excessive distortion from welding
• Web thickness should be constant or with limited changes
• Web thickness increments should be 1/16 or 1/8 inches for thicknesses up to 1 inch, and 1/4
inches for thicknesses greater than 1 inch

Stiffeners

• Longitudinal and transverse stiffeners are used in I-sections to increase bending and shear
resistance respectively
• Three types of stiffeners are used: transverse intermediate, bearing, and longitudinal
• Transverse intermediate stifeners are welded to the web and provide anchorage for tension field
force to develop post-buckling shear resistance
• Bearing stifeners are required at bearing and concentrated load locations, and work as
compression members to support vertical loads
• Longitudinal stifeners work as restraining boundaries for compression elements to allow for
inelastic flexural buckling stress
• Design considerations include slenderness, stiffness, and strength requirements

Span and Framing Arrangement

Span Configuration

• Optimizing span arrangement is important for efficient and cost-effective steel use.
• Two-span continuous girders are not the most efficient system.
• Three and four span continuous girders are preferable.
• End span lengths should be approximately 70% to 80% of interior span lengths.
• Simply supported girders under construction load and continuous girders through steel
reinforcement for live load can be economical.

Girder Spacing

• Girder spacing within 11 to 14 t. range is the most economical

• 10 to 12 t. spacing preferred for spans less than 140 t.
 • 11 to 14 t. spacing recommended for spans greater than 140 t.

Diaphragms and Cross Frames

• Diaphragms and cross frames are synonymous terms.

• Intermediate cross frames provide bracing against lateral torsional buckling.
• End cross frames or diaphragms at piers and abutments transmit lateral wind loads and seismic
loads to the bearings.
• Cross frames are primary load-carrying members in horizontally curved girder bridges.
• End cross frames or diaphragms in slab on-girder steel bridges may be designed as ductile
systems for better inelastic performance and energy dissipation capacity.

Spacing

• No arbitrary limit on the cross-frame spacing in AASHTO-LRFD

• Spacing compatible with the transverse stiffeners

Orientation

• Intermediate cross frames are placed parallel to the skew up to a 20o skew and normal to the
girders for skew angle larger than 20.
• Horizontally curved girders should always have cross frames placed on radial lines.

Connections

• Cross frames are typically connected to transverse stiffeners.

• Welding is preferred over bolting.

Design Guidelines

• Diaphragm or cross frame should be as deep as practicable for lateral load transfer and stability
• Cross frames should be designed for easy erection and resist wind loads
• End diaphragms/cross frames at bearings resist lateral forces and impact loads
• Slenderness ratios for diagonals and tension members should be less than certain values
• Use rectangular gusset plates and consider integral abutments/pier/bents

Lateral Bracing

• Lateral bracing is not commonly used for wind loads resistance in completed bridges
• Investigate need for lateral bracing during construction, especially for curved and long straight
girders
• Bottom flange lateral bracing should be avoided
Field Splice Locations

• Preferably located at points of dead load contraflexure and section change, spaced more than
50t. apart
• Dependent on shipping and fabrication limits, adjacent girders should be spliced at
approximately the same location.
• Field bolted splices are preferred.

Expansion Joints and Hinges

• In-span hinges not recommended for steel bridges due to seismic loads
• Steel bridges can be designed without expansion joints and hinges up to 1200t. lengths
• Consider expansion bearings with dropped cap bents to prevent temperature effects on
substructure.

Structural Modeling and Analysis

• Steel girder bridges are often analyzed using the line girder method
• Flexural stiffness of the composite section is assumed over the entire bridge length
• Longitudinal reinforcing steel in the top mat of concrete deck is generally not included in
calculating section properties
• Dead loads are distributed based on tributary area, while live load distribution depends on
various factors
• Finite element method may be used for complex bridge systems such as skewed and horizontally
curved bridges