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By three methods:
Q.3 What is the difference between the skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscles?
The difference between skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscles is shown in the table.
Skeletal muscle is supplied by somatic nerves. Cardiac and smooth muscles are supplied
Myofibrils are the thin parallel filaments present in the sarcoplasm of the muscle fiber.
Q.6 What is sarcomere?
The structural and functional unit of skeletal muscle is known as sarcomere. It extends
A muscle cell consists of alternate transverse dark (anisotropic) A-band, and light
(isotropic) I-band. A-band has in its center a region of low refractive index (H-band or
Hensen line), and I-band a line of high refractive index (Z-line or Dobie line).
‘A’ band is the dark band present in the myofibrils of the muscle. It is anisotropic to
polarized light; i.e., if polarized light is passed through this area of the muscle, the light
rays are refracted in different directions. So this band is called ‘A’ band.
Q.9 What is ‘I’ band in the muscle? Why is it called so?
‘I’ band is the light band present in the myofibrils of the muscle. It is isotropic to polarized
light, i.e. when polarized light is passed through this area of the muscle, all the light rays
are refracted at the same angle. So this band is called ‘I’ band.
Myofilaments are the thread-like protein filaments present in the sarcomere. Myofilaments
Actin filaments are thin filaments with a diameter of 20 Å and extend from either side of
the ‘Z’ lines, run across the ‘I’ band, and enter into the ‘A’ band up to the ‘H’ zone. Myosin
filaments are thick filaments with a diameter of 115 Å and are situated in the center of the
‘A’ band.
The actin filament consists of three types of proteins called actin, tropomyosin, and
The contractile elements of the skeletal muscle are the muscle proteins namely myosin,
‘H’ zone is a light area in the middle of the ‘A’ band. ‘M’ band is the middle part of myosin
muscle fiber. The components of this system are ‘T’ tubules (transverse tubules) and ‘L’
The ‘T’ tubules are responsible for the rapid transmission of the action potential through
the muscle fiber. The “L” tubules store a large quantity of calcium ions.
The properties of skeletal muscle are excitability, contractility, and muscle tone.
The response of the living tissue to a stimulus in the form of physicochemical change is
known as excitability.
Conduction of nerve signal by depolarization which changes the normal resting negative
Stimulus is an agent or influence that brings about the response in an excitable tissue.
Intensity or strength
Duration.
The strength-duration curve is the curve that demonstrates the relationship between the
strength and the duration of the stimulus. It is also known as the excitability curve.
Q.26 What is rheobase?
Rheobase is the minimum strength of the stimulus that is required to excite the tissue.
Utilization time is the minimum time required to excite the tissue when a stimulus with
Chronaxie is the minimum time required to excite the tissue when a stimulus with double
Chronaxie helps to determine the excitability of the tissue. Longer the chronaxie, the
Paralysis of muscles
Neural diseases.
Isotonic contraction
Isometric contraction.
Isotonic contraction is the type of contraction in which the tension remains the same and
change occurs only in the length of the muscle fibers. An example is the contraction of the
Isometric contraction is the type of contraction in which the length of the muscle fibers
remains the same and change occurs only in the tension. An example is the contraction of
It is the load that the muscle must generate to overcome the higher pressure.
Q.37 Give the normal duration of different periods of a simple muscle twitch.
Q.38 Why is the contraction period shorter than the relaxation period?
The contraction period is shorter than the relaxation period because the contraction is an
The latent period is defined as the time interval between the point of stimulus and point of
contraction.
It is the time taken for the impulse to travel along the nerve from the place
of stimulation to the muscle
It is the time taken for the initiation of chemical changes
It is the delay in the conduction of impulse at the neuromuscular junction
It is the time taken for the release of neurotransmitter at the neuromuscular
junction
It is the time taken to overcome the viscosity of the muscle
It is the time taken to overcome the inertia of the instruments in
experimental conditions.
Cold conditions
During the onset of fatigue
When the load on the muscle is increased.
Q.43 Classify the skeletal muscles depending upon the contraction time. Give
examples.
Slow or red muscles, which have longer contraction time. Examples: back muscles
Fast or pale muscles that have shorter contraction time. Examples: hand muscles and
ocular muscles.
Q.44 What are the differences between red and white muscle fibers?
Q.45 What are the factors affecting the force of contraction of the muscle within
physiological limits?
Subminimal stimulus
Minimal stimulus
Submaximal stimulus
Maximal stimulus
Supramaximal stimulus.
Threshold or minimal stimulus is the stimulus with minimum strength required to cause
Beneficial effect
Superposition
Summation.
When two stimuli are applied to a muscle one after another in such a way that the second
stimulus falls after the relaxation period of the first twitch, two separate contractions are
recorded and the force of the second contraction is greater than that of the first
An increase in the temperature during the first contraction decreases the viscosity of
While applying two successive stimuli, if the second stimulus falls during relaxation of the
first twitch, the first curve is superimposed by the second curve. This is called
When two stimuli are applied one after another and if the second stimulus falls during the
contraction period or second half of the latent period, two contractions are summed up,
giving a single contraction which is bigger and broader than a simple muscle curve. This
The decrease in the response of the muscle due to repeated stimuli is known as fatigue.
Exhaustion of acetylcholine
Accumulation of metabolites like lactic acid and carbon dioxide
Lack of nutrients like glycogen
Lack of oxygen
Q.55 Mention the order of site (seat) of fatigue in the intact body.
Q.56 How to prove that the neuromuscular junction is the first site of fatigue in the
In the isolated muscle nerve preparation, the nerve is stimulated continuously and the
curves are recorded till the fatigue occurs, i.e. till the muscle fails to respond to the
stimulus. Then, immediately the muscle is stimulated directly. A response is noticed in the
form of a curve. This shows that the muscle is not yet fatigued. The nerve cannot be
fatigued. So, the site where fatigue must have occurred is the neuromuscular junction.
Removal of metabolites
Formation of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction
Availability of nutrients
Availability of oxygen.
stimuli.
Frog muscle:
clonus = 55/sec
Q.62 What is pathological tetanus?
nervous system and its common features are muscle spasm and paralysis.
Q.63 What is the effect of a moderate increase in temperature on the muscle? What
Causes:
Q.64 What is the effect of a decrease in temperature on the muscle? What are the
Causes:
Stiffening and shortening of the muscle fibers because of high temperature is called heat
Stiffening and shortening of the muscle fibers due to extreme cold is called cold rigor and
it is reversible.
After death, there is loss of ATP. Relaxation cannot occur because of lack of ATP and
Freeload or fore load is the load that acts on the muscle freely even before the onset of
Q.72 State whether the muscle works better in after loaded condition or in free
Muscle works better in free loaded condition than in the after loaded condition. Because,
in free loaded condition the initial length of the muscle fibers increases even before the
onset of muscular contraction. And according to Frank Starling’s law, the force of
contraction of the muscle is directly proportional to the initial length of the muscle fiber
Optimum load is the load at which the work done by the muscle is maximum.
The refractory period is the period at which the muscle does not show any response to a
stimulus.
Absolute refractory period—the period during which the muscle does not show any
Relative refractory period—the period during which the muscle shows some response if
muscle?
The absolute refractory period extends for 0.005 sec, i.e. during the first half of the latent
period. The relative refractory period extends for 0.005 sec, i.e. during the second half of
the latent period. Thus, the duration of the refractory period in skeletal muscle is 0.01 sec.
Q.77 What is the duration of absolute and relative refractory periods in cardiac
muscle?
The absolute refractory period is 0.27 sec, i.e. it extends throughout the contraction
period. The relative refractory period is 0.25 sec, i.e. it extends during the first half of the
relaxation period. Thus, totally the refractory period in cardiac muscle extends for about
Q.78 What is the significance of the long refractory period in cardiac muscle?
Because of the long refractory period, fatigue, tetanus, and complete summation cannot
The muscle fibers always maintain a state of slight contraction with a certain degree of
Skeletal muscle: Maintenance of tone is neurogenic and it is under the influence of the
Cardiac muscle: Maintenance of tone is purely myogenic and it is by the muscle itself.
Electrical changes
Physical changes
Histological changes
Chemical changes
Thermal changes.
Q.82 What is resting membrane potential (RMP)?
The potential difference between inside and outside of the cell across the cell membrane
under resting conditions is known as RMP. It is negative inside and positive outside.
Q.83 What are the mechanisms involved in the ionic basis of RMP?
potential.
Is propagative
Is biphasic
Obeys all or non-law
Summation is not possible
Shows refractory period.
Depolarization
Repolarization.
When stimulated, the resting membrane potential is lost in the cell. The Interior of the cell
becomes positive (up to +55 mV) and the exterior becomes negative. This is known as
depolarization.
the cell.
The restoration of negativity inside the cell and positivity outside is known as
repolarization.
Repolarization is due to the opening of potassium channels and the efflux of potassium
When the cell is stimulated, depolarization starts slowly. After the initial slow
During an action potential, the rapid depolarization and rapid repolarization are together
After rapid repolarization, slow repolarization takes place and this is known as after
efflux.
Q.96 What is afterhyperpolarization? What is the cause of it?
When repolarization occurs, it does not stop at the level of resting membrane potential but
goes beyond that level causing more negativity inside the cell. This is known as
Unlike sodium channels, the potassium channels remain open for a longer duration
allowing a large number of potassium ions to move out of the cell. So, the interior of the
depolarization)?
change (mild depolarization) in the membrane potential. It loses its intensity as it starts
Is non-propagative
Is monophasic
Does not obey all or non-law
Summation is possible
Has no refractory period.
Patch-clamp technique is the method to measure the ionic currents across the biological
membranes.
actin filaments to slide over the myosin filaments leading to the contraction of the muscle.
Q.102 What is Ratchet theory? What are the other names for it?
Ratchet theory explains the mechanism involved in the sliding of actin filaments over the
myosin filaments during the muscular contraction. The other names for it are sliding
Tilting of the head of myosin towards the arm and dragging the active filament along with
Q.104 What are the changes taking place in the sarcomere during contraction of
muscle?
After contraction, the calcium ions are actively pumped back into the sarcotubular
detachment of calcium ions from troponin. This causes the release of myosin from actin
Q.106 What are the chemical changes taking place during muscular contraction?
triphosphate (ATP) and resynthesis of ATP from creatine phosphate and glycolytic
pathway.
Q.108 What is the glycolytic pathway or Embden–Meyerhof pathway? How many
The breakdown of glycogen into pyruvic acid is called the glycolytic pathway or Embden–
Q.109 Amongst the aerobic glycolysis and anaerobic glycolysis, which one is
Aerobic glycolysis is better because a greater amount of energy is liberated during this
process.
Q.110 How many molecules of ATP are formed during carbohydrate metabolism?
38 molecules of ATP are formed during carbohydrate metabolism, i.e. during break down
of each glycogen molecule. 2 molecules are formed during glycolysis and 2 molecules are
formed during the Krebs cycle. The remaining 34 molecules of ATP are formed by the
utilization of hydrogen atoms which are released during the Krebs cycle.
Q.111 Explain the changes in the pH of the muscle during contraction.
In resting condition, the reaction is alkaline with a pH of 7.3. During the onset of
contraction, the muscle becomes acidic due to breakdown of ATP. During the later part of
contraction, the muscle becomes alkaline due to the resynthesis of ATP from creatine
phosphate. And at the end of contraction, once again it becomes acidic due to the
Q.112 What are the different stages of heat production during muscular
contraction?
Resting heat
Initial heat
Recovery heat.
neuromuscular junction.
Q.115 What are the important structures present in the axon terminal?
Acetylcholine
Q.117 What is the effect of Ca-ions and Mg-ions on the release of acetylcholine
Ca-ions serve to stimulate the release of acetylcholine while Mg-ions inhibit this release.
its action?
Q.119 Name the important events taking place during neuromuscular transmission.
Release of acetylcholine.
Action of acetylcholine
Development of endplate potential
Destruction of acetylcholine.
Q.121 What are the differences between endplate potential and action potential?
It is nonpropagative
It is monophasic
It does not obey all or none-law.
The significance of endplate potential is that it causes the development of action potential
a weak endplate potential up to – 0.5 mV. This is called miniature endplate potential.
Q.125 Name some drugs, which can stimulate the neuromuscular junction.
The single motor neuron with its axon terminals and the muscle fibers innervated by it are
During muscular exercise oxygen demand increases, but muscle can keep on contracting
anaerobically. The amount of oxygen required for muscle recovery after this is called the
‘oxygen debt’.
Smooth muscles are the nonstriated involuntary muscles, which form the contractile
muscles.
Q.131 Name the substance that initiates the contraction of smooth muscles.
Q.132 What are the differences between the electrical activity of smooth muscle
Tonus or tone is a state of partial contraction maintained by the smooth muscles of some
visceral organs. It is due to the tonic contraction of the smooth muscle without action
potential.
Q.134 What is the difference between the nerve supply of smooth muscles and
skeletal muscles?
parasympathetic fibers) whereas the skeletal muscles are supplied by somatic nerve
fibers.
An electromyogram (EMG) is the record of the electrical activity of the muscle. It is useful
Muscular cramps are involuntary, localized painful contractions of muscles often relieved
due to the inability of neuromuscular junction to transmit the impulses from nerve to
muscle.
against its own acetylcholine receptors. The antibodies destroy the acetylcholine
The maximum force that can be developed during contraction is known as the strength of
the muscle.
The amount of work done by the muscle in the given unit of time is called the power of
the muscle.
endurance.