Language : Gerund or Infinitive

When one verb follows another verb, the structure is usually verb + - ing or verb + to –

Gerund-Infinitive Patterns:

Verb
Verb
Be +Inifinitive or
Verb +Inifinitive or
Verb + +Adjective Verb + Verb + Infinitive Gerund
+Preposition Gerund
Gerund +Preposition Infinitive ( to ) ( without to ) ( distinct
+Gerund ( no difference
+Gerund difference in
in meaning)
meaning)
acknowledge adapt to be accustomed to agree Let attempt forget
admit adjust to be afraid of aim help begin go on
advise agree (with) on be angry about afford may can/can't bear regret
anticipate apologize for be ashamed of appear might can/can't stand remember
appreciate approve of be capable of arrange can cease stop
avoid argue about be certain about ask could continue try
be concerned
consider ask about care will hate
with
defend believe in be critical of choose would like
be discouraged
defer blame for claim Must love
from
be enthusiastic
delay care about consent shall neglect
about
deny complain about be familiar with dare should prefer
detest consist of be famous for decide had better propose
discuss decided on be fond of decline Would rather see
dislike depend on be glad about demand start
endure disapprove of be good at deserve
enjoy discourage from be happy about desire
escape engage in be interested in expect
excuse forgive for be known for fail
feel like give up be nervous about guarantee
finish help with be perfect for happen
go inquire about be proud of hope
imagine insist on be responsible for intend
involve interfere with be sad about know
keep keep on be successful in learn
mention look forward to be suitable for manage
mind (object
object to be tired of need
to)
miss participate in be tolerant of offer
need (passive) persist in be upset about plan
omit plan on be used to pledge
postpone prepare for be useful for prepare
practice profit from be worried about pretend
prevent prohibit from promise
quit put off refuse
recall result from resolve
recollect succeed in seem
recommend suffer from tend
regret talk about struggle
resent take part in swear
resist there's no point in volunteer
resume think about wait
risk warn about want
suggest work on wish
tolerate worry about would like

Note :
- Adjectives + prepositions always take the gerund .
For e.g : I’m fond of watching soccer games on TV.
 They are keen on learning Spanish.
She is fed up with working eight hours a day.

- Most phrasal verbs also take the gerund.

For e.g : He kept on talking although nobody was interested.

Gerunds and Infinitives: Distinct difference in meaning

These verbs can be followed by gerunds or infinitives but with a change in meaning.

forget / regret / remember

When these verbs are used with a gerund they refer to something that happened before a certain time. When they are used
with an infinitive they refer to something that happens at or after a certain time.

forget

Forget with the gerund is often used with never for a memorable previous action.
- I'll never forget going to Japan.

Forget with the infinitive means something happens at or after a certain time.
- Don't forget to meet me at 5.00.

regret

Regret with the gerund refers to a previous action.

- I don't regret leaving my job.

Regret with the infinitive is used to give bad news in a formal, polite way. It's often used with the verbs to say, to
announce, to tell you and to inform you.
- We regret to inform you the interview is cancelled.

remember

Remember with the gerund refers to a previous action.

- I remember meeting you last year. (I met you before now).

Remember with the infinitive is used for something that happens at or after a certain time.
- Please remember to close the door. (in the future please close the door.)

go on

Go on with the gerund means to continue an action in progress. For example:

- I want to go on studying here.

Go on with the infinitive means to do something new. For example:

- After university, he went on to study law.

mean

mean with the gerund shows negative consequence. For example:

- You can buy a new car, but it means spending a lot of money.

mean with the infinitive shows intention.

- He means to leave his job next month.
- I didn't mean to make you angry.

try
Try with the gerund is used for suggestions.
- "I need to lose weight." "Try exercising and eating healthy food".
- "I'm really hot." "Try sitting here, it's much cooler."

Try with the infinitive means to attempt something.

- I tried to lift it but I can't.
- I'll try to finish this by tomorrow morning.

stop

stop with the gerund means to end an action.

- I stopped eating fast food last year.
- I can't stop loving you.
- Stop being so annoying!

stop with the infinitive means to interrupt an action.

- I was walking to the subway station, and I stopped to say "Hi" to my friends.
- I was working at home, and I stopped to answer the 'phone.

come

come with the gerund means movement with a sense of surprise or excitement.
- The ball came flying toward me - it almosty hit me on the head!
- Don't come running to me! (this means don't expect sympathy)

come with the infinitive means a change in perception.

- I thought he wasn't smart, but I came to realize he's very talented.
- I didn't like teaching, but I came to like it.
come with the infinitive can also mean just reason.
- Why did you come? - I came to watch a movie.

help

help is often used with an infinitive.

- I helped to make dinner.
help is also used without to, especially in American conversational English.
- I helped make the dinner.
help is also used with with and the gerund.
- I helped with making the dinner.
These three usages have similar meanings.

Help with the gerund is also used with can't to mean a reaction beyond the subject's control.
- I can't help laughing.
- Those kids are noisy, but I can't help liking them.

Exercises :

A) Complete the sentences using a gerund or an infinitive.

Example: I mean _ to arrive ____ at the truth.

a) arriving b) to arrive

1. Stop _____ mean to your sister!

a) being b) to be

2. On my way home, I stopped _____ some gas.

a) to get b) getting

3. After high school, Sally went on _____ medicine.

a) studying b) to study

4. Before you go to sleep, don't forget _____ the door.

a) locking b) to lock

5. As soon as Ann turns 18, she means _____ to Hollywood.

a) moving b) to move

6. Jason remembered _____ in to me at a party two years ago.

a) running b) to run

7. We regret _____ you that we have suspended all business activity.

a) informing b) to inform

8. We will never forget _____ called Mommy and Daddy for the first time.
a) being b) to be

9. I don't regret _____ up tennis and settling down with my wife and children.
a) giving b) to give

10. I had to go home early yesterday because my son had forgotten _____ his key.
a) taking b) to take

B) Put in the verbs in brackets in the Gerund or the infinitive.

Example: They promised ______ (sell) the old comics.

Answer: They promised to sell the old comics.

1) We decided _____________ (buy) a new car.

2) They've got some work __________________ (do).

3) Peter gave up _____________(smoke).

4) He'd like _______________ ( fly) an aeroplane.

5) I enjoy ________________(write) picture postcards.

6) Do you know what ___________________(do) if there's a fire in the shop?

7) Avoid _______________(make) silly mistakes.

8) My parents wanted me _________________(be) home at 11 o'clock.

 9) I dream about __________________ (build) a big house.

10) I'm hoping _______________(see) Lisa.

C) Gerund or infinitive after "forget", "remember" and "stop"

1. You left the lights on all night. Don´t forget ________________ (switch) them off when you go to bed.
2. I´ll never forget _______________ (cross) the Channel for the first time.
3. I´ll always remember _________________ (fly) for the first time.
4. Don´t forget ________________ (take) your raincoat. It hasn´t stopped raining all day.
5. Oh dear, I didn´t remember ________________ (buy) the tickets.
6. Don´t forget ________________ (buy) some milk when you go to the supermatket.
7. You mustn´t forget ________________ (go) to the doctor´s today.
8. I remember _____________________(shut) the door when I left.
9. Did you remember __________________(shut) the door when you left?
10. I can´t listen to you any more. Please stop ____________________ (talk).
11. After driving in his car for about half an hour Mr Duncan was lost. So he stopped _____________ (ask) someone for
help.
12. As so many people die of cancer I strongly advise you to stop __________________(smoke).
13. I remember ___________________(hear) a loud bang.
14. I will never forget _____________________(take) the final exams at school.
 Language : Tenses ( Review)
Table of English Tenses:
Tense Affirmative/Negative/Question
Simple Present A: He speaks.
N: He does not speak.
Q: Does he speak?
Present Progressive A: He is speaking.
N: He is not speaking.
Q: Is he speaking?
Simple Past A: He spoke.
N: He did not speak.
Q: Did he speak?
Past Progressive A: He was speaking.
N: He was not speaking.
Q: Was he speaking?
Present Perfect Simple A: He has spoken.
N: He has not spoken.
Q: Has he spoken?
Present Perfect Progressive A: He has been speaking.
N: He has not been speaking.
Q: Has he been speaking?
Use Signal Words
always, every …,
-Action in the present taking place
never, normally, often,
once, n never, or several times seldom, sometimes,
-Facts usually
if sentences type I (If I
-Actions taking place one after another. talk, …)
-Action set by a timetable or schedule
at the moment, just,
-Action taking place in the moment of
just now, Listen!,
speaking. Look!, now, right now
-Action taking place only for a limited
period of time.
-Action arranged for the future.
yesterday, 2 minutes
-Action in the past taking place once,
ago, in 1990, the other
never , or several times day, last Friday
if sentence type II (If I
-Actions taking place one after another .
talked, …)
-Action taking place in the middle of
another action.
when, while, as long as
-Action going on at a certain time in the
past.
-Actions taking place at the same time.
-Action in the past that is interrupted by
another action.
already, ever, just,
-Putting emphasis on the result
never, not yet, so far,
-Action that is still going on in the till now, up to now
present.
-Action that stopped recently .
-Finished action that has an influence
on
the present.
- Action that has taken place once,
never,
or several times before the moment of
speaking .
all day, for 4 years,
-Putting emphasis on the course or
since 1993, how long?,
duration (not the result) the whole week
-Action that recently stopped or is still
going on .
-Finished action that influenced the

Past Perfect Simple A: He had spoken.
N: He had not spoken.
Q: Had he spoken?
Past Perfect Progressive A: He had been speaking.
N: He had not been speaking.
Q: Had he been speaking?
Future Simple A: He will speak.
N: He will not speak.
Q: Will he speak?
Future (be going to) A: He is going to speak.
N: He is not going to speak.
Q: Is he going to speak?
Future Progressive A: He will be speaking.
N: He will not be speaking.
Q: Will he be speaking?
Future perfect Simple A: He will have spoken.
N: He will not have spoken.
Q: Will he have spoken?
Future perfect Progressive A: He will have been speaking.
N: He will not have been speaking.
Q: Will he have been speaking?
present.
-Action taking place before a certain
time
in the past . already, just, never,
-Sometimes interchangeable with past not yet, once, until that
day
perfect progressive . if sentence type III (If I
-Putting emphasis only on the fact (not had talked, …)
the duration) .
for, since, the whole
-Action taking place before a certain
day, all day
time
in the past .
-Sometimes interchangeable with past
perfect simple .
-Putting emphasis on the duration or
course of an action.
in a year, next …,
-Action in the future that cannot be
tomorrow
influenced. If-Satz Typ I (If you
ask her, she will help
-Spontaneous decision .
you.)
-Assumption with regard to the future . assumption: I think,
probably, perhaps
in one year, next week,
-Decision made for the future .
tomorrow
-Conclusion with regard to the future.
in one year, next week,
-Action that is going on at a certain
tomorrow
time
in the future .
-Action that is sure to happen in the
near
future.
by Monday, in a week
-Action that will be finished at a certain
time in the future .
for …, the last couple
-Action taking place before a certain
of hours, all day long
time
in the future .
-Putting emphasis on the course of an
action.
English Tenses – Graphic Comparison

 action that takes place once, never or several times

 actions that happen one after another
moment in time
 actions that suddenly take place

 action that started before a certain moment and lasts beyond that moment

period of time  actions taking place at the same time

 action taking place before a certain moment in time

Result  puts emphasis on the result

 action taking place before a certain moment in time

Course / Duration  puts emphasis on the course or duration of the action
English Tenses – Examples
Explanation
action that takes place once,
never or several times
actions that happen one after
another
state
action going on at that moment He was playing football.
actions taking place at the
same time
action taking place before a
certain moment in time;
emphasises the result
action taking place before a
certain moment in time (and
beyond), emphasises the
duration
Past
Simple Past
He played football every
Tuesday.
He played football and then he
went home.
He loved football.
Past Progressive
He was playing football and
she was watching.
Past Perfect Simple
He had won five matches until
that day.
Past Perfect Progressive
He had been playing football
for ten years.
Present
Simple Present
He plays football every
Tuesday.
He plays football and then he
goes home.
He loves football.
Present Progressive
He is playing football.
He is playing football and she
is watching.
Present Perfect Simple
He has won five matches so
far.
Present Perfect Progressive
He has been playing football
for ten years.
Future
Future Simple
He will / is going to play
football every Tuesday.
He will play football and then
he will go home.
He will love football.
Future Progressive
He will be playing football.
He will be playing football and
she will be watching.
Future perfect Simple
He will have won five matches
by then.
Future perfect Progressive
He will have been playing
football for ten years.
 Past Perfect
[had + past participle]
Examples:

 You had studied English before you moved to New York.

 Had you studied English before you moved to New York?
 You had not studied English before you moved to New York.

Complete List of Past Perfect Forms

USE 1 Completed Action Before Something in the Past

The Past Perfect expresses the idea that something occurred before another action in the past. It can also show that
something happened before a specific time in the past.

Examples:

 I had never seen such a beautiful beach before I went to Kauai.

 I did not have any money because I had lost my wallet.
 Tony knew Istanbul so well because he had visited the city several times.
 Had Susan ever studied Thai before she moved to Thailand?
 She only understood the movie because she had read the book.
 Kristine had never been to an opera before last night.
 We were not able to get a hotel room because we had not booked in advance.
 A: Had you ever visited the U.S. before your trip in 2006?
B: Yes, I had been to the U.S. once before.

USE 2 Duration Before Something in the Past (Non-Continuous Verbs)

With Non-Continuous Verbs and some non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, we use the Past Perfect to show that
something started in the past and continued up until another action in the past.

Examples:

 We had had that car for ten years before it broke down.
 By the time Alex finished his studies, he had been in London for over eight years.
 They felt bad about selling the house because they had owned it for more than forty years.
Although the above use of Past Perfect is normally limited to Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of
Mixed Verbs, the words "live," "work," "teach," and "study" are sometimes used in this way even though they are
NOT Non-Continuous Verbs.

IMPORTANT Specific Times with the Past Perfect

Unlike with the Present Perfect, it is possible to use specific time words or phrases with the Past Perfect. Although this is
possible, it is usually not necessary.
Example:

 She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996.

MOREOVER

If the Past Perfect action did occur at a specific time, the Simple Past can be used instead of the Past Perfect when "before"
or "after" is used in the sentence. The words "before" and "after" actually tell you what happens first, so the Past Perfect is
optional. For this reason, both sentences below are correct.

Examples:

 She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996.
 She visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996.

HOWEVER

If the Past Perfect is not referring to an action at a specific time, Past Perfect is not optional. Compare the examples below.
Here Past Perfect is referring to a lack of experience rather than an action at a specific time. For this reason, Simple Past
cannot be used.

Examples:

 She never saw a bear before she moved to Alaska. Not Correct
 She had never seen a bear before she moved to Alaska. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

 You had previously studied English before you moved to New York.
 Had you previously studied English before you moved to New York?

Past Perfect Continuous

[had been + present participle]
Examples:

 You had been waiting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived.
 Had you been waiting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived?
 You had not been waiting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived.

Complete List of Past Perfect Continuous Forms

USE 1 Duration Before Something in the Past

We use the Past Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past and continued up until another time in the
past. "For five minutes" and "for two weeks" are both durations which can be used with the Past Perfect Continuous. Notice
that this is related to the Present Perfect Continuous; however, the duration does not continue until now, it stops before
something else in the past.
Examples:

 They had been talking for over an hour before Tony arrived.
 She had been working at that company for three years when it went out of business.
 How long had you been waiting to get on the bus?
 Mike wanted to sit down because he had been standing all day at work.
 James had been teaching at the university for more than a year before he left for Asia.
 A: How long had you been studying Turkish before you moved to Ankara?
B: I had not been studying Turkish very long.

USE 2 Cause of Something in the Past

Using the Past Perfect Continuous before another action in the past is a good way to show cause and effect.

Examples:

 Jason was tired because he had been jogging.

 Sam gained weight because he had been overeating.
 Betty failed the final test because she had not been attending class.

Past Continuous vs. Past Perfect Continuous

If you do not include a duration such as "for five minutes," "for two weeks" or "since Friday," many English speakers
choose to use the Past Continuous rather than the Past Perfect Continuous. Be careful because this can change the meaning
of the sentence. Past Continuous emphasizes interrupted actions, whereas Past Perfect Continuous emphasizes a duration of
time before something in the past. Study the examples below to understand the difference.

Examples:

 He was tired because he was exercising so hard.

THIS SENTENCE EMPHASIZES THAT HE WAS TIRED BECAUSE HE WAS EXERCISING AT THAT EXACT MOMENT.
 He was tired because he had been exercising so hard.
THIS SENTENCE EMPHASIZES THAT HE WAS TIRED BECAUSE HE HAD BEEN EXERCISING OVER A PERIOD OF TIME. IT IS
POSSIBLE THAT HE WAS STILL EXERCISING AT THAT MOMENT OR THAT HE HAD JUST FINISHED.

REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs / Mixed Verbs

It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-
continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Past Perfect Continuous with
these verbs, you must use Past Perfect.

Examples:

 The motorcycle had been belonging to George for years before Tina bought it. Not Correct
 The motorcycle had belonged to George for years before Tina bought it. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

 You had only been waiting there for a few minutes when she arrived.
 Had you only been waiting there for a few minutes when she arrived?

 Future Perfect
Examples: [will have done]
 You will have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.
 Will you have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.?
 You will not have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.

USE 1 Completed Action Before Something in the Future

The Future Perfect expresses the idea that something will occur before another action in the future. It can also show that
something will happen before a specific time in the future

Examples:

 By next November, I will have received my promotion.

 Will she have learned enough Chinese to communicate before she moves to Beijing?
 By the time I finish this course, I will have taken ten tests.

Notice in the examples above that the reference points (marked in italics) are in Simple Present rather than Simple Future.
This is because the interruptions are in time clauses, and you cannot use future tenses in time clauses.

USE 2 Duration Before Something in the Future (Non-Continuous Verbs)

With Non-Continuous Verbs and some non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, we use the Future Perfect to show that
something will continue up until another action in the future.

Examples:

 I will have been in London for six months by the time I leave.

Although the above use of Future Perfect is normally limited to Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of Mixed
Verbs, the words "live," "work," "teach," and "study" are sometimes used in this way even though they are NOT Non-
Continuous Verbs.

REMEMBER No Future in Time Clauses

Like all future forms, the Future Perfect cannot be used in clauses beginning with time expressions such as: when, while,
before, after, by the time, as soon as, if, unless, etc. Instead of Future Perfect, Present Perfect is used.

Examples:

 I am going to see a movie when I will have finished my homework. Not Correct
 I am going to see a movie when I have finished my homework. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

 You will only have learned a few words.

 Will you only have learned a few words?
 Tense exercises

A) Choose the correct explanation :

1- When I got to Mary's, George had gone.

a) George left after I arrived.
b) George left before I arrived.
2- The children had got up when their father arrived.
a) The children were already up before the father arrived.
b) The children got up after the father arrived.
3- The children got up when their father arrived.
a) The children were up before their father arrived.
b) The children got up after their father arrived.
4- When they heard the news, Rob and Chris left.
a) Rob and Chris left before they heard the news.
b) Rob and Chris left after they heard the news.
5- When they heard the news, Rob and Chris had left.
a) Rob and Chris heard the news and then left.
b) The news came after Rob and Chris left.
6- Gary entered the room. They told him to wait outside.
a) He entered the room first.
b) He was told to wait outside first.
7- Gary entered the room. They had told him to wait outside
a) He entered the room first.
b) He was told to wait outside first.
8- Pat had failed his exam. He became sick.
a) Pat was sick before the exam.
b) Pat was sick after the exam.
9- Pat failed his exam. He had been sick.
a) Pat was sick before the exam.
b) Pat was sick after the exam.
10- The storm damaged the bridge but the man had crossed it.
a) The man crossed it before the storm damaged it.
b) The man crossed it after the storm damaged it.
B) Put the verbs into the correct tense (Simple Past or Past Perfect).
1-The wind (blow) ________ away the leaves that we ( collect) _____________.
2-She (throw)__________ away the letter that she ( write) ___________ .
3-They (show)___________ me the pictures, they (take)___________ during their holidays.
4-In the evening, the children (tell) _________ their daddy what they (see)__________ at the zoo.
5-The boy (be) __________ very sorry for what he(do)___________.
6-My friend (eat)_________ up all the biscuit we (bake)____________ .
7-The teacher (correct)_____________ the tests we(write)_______________.
8-I (give)____________ them some of the candies I (buy)____________.
9-My sister(not/see) ____________________ the note that I (lay)_____________ on the kitchen
table for her.
10-We (want)____________ to watch a film that we (not/see)____________before.
11-When Simon (go)__________out to play, he (already/do)______________his homework.
12-Jenny (come)_________________ home, (sit)____________ down and (switch)___________
on the telly.
13-Before that day in winter, the African boy (never/see)_______________snow in his life.
14-She (give)_____________ me the book that she (read)______________ .
15-We (visit)___________ the museum that our friend (tell)___________ us about a month before.
16-When he (wake up)_____________, his mother (already/prepare)______________breakfast.
17-We (go)____________ to London because the Queen (invite)____________ us for tea.
18-He (hear)___________ the news, (go)__________ to the telephone and (call)_______ a friend.
19-When she (start)__________to learn English, she (already/learn)____________ French.
20-Jane (already/type)_____________ ten pages when her computer (crash)_______________.
21-By the time he (arrive)____________ at the pub, they (run)_________ out of beer.
22-Before that day we (never/ think)_______________ of going to Japan.
23-I (know)________________ him for a long time before I (meet)___________ his family.
24-They (not/know)_________________ where to meet because nobody tell)___________ them.
25-It (be)___________ cloudy for days before it finally (begin)______________ to rain.
26-We (give)____________ away the flowers that we (pick)________________.
27-Wendy (send)_______________the letter that she (write)_________________ .
28-The gardener (water)________________ the trees that he (plant)________________ .
29-I (get)__________ into the taxi that my friend (call)________________ for me.
30-She (want)____________ to wear the jumper that her mum (just/wash)______________.
31-Yesterday a boy (destroy)_____________ the snowman that we (build)_______________ .
32-Jimmy (tell)_______________ us about the film that he (see)________________ .
33-We (find)_____________the mobile phone that Marwin (lose)_____________.
34-He (sing)______________ a song that I (never/hear)___________________before.
35-Cathrine (open)__________________ the window that I (just/close)__________________.
36-When I(arrive)_____________ at school, the lesson (already/start)________________.
37-I (go)______________ to New York last month. I (never/be)_____________to the USA before.
38-Bob (not/let)___________us into his room because he (not/clean)____________it for weeks.
39-I (feel)_____________very hungry because I (not/eat)______________anything yet.
40-As Vanessa (see)________ the film before, she (not/want)_________to go to the cinema with us.
41-William (live)___________ in Boston for six years before he (move)__________ to New York.
42-The blue car (cross)___________ the street after the lights (turn)_____________red.
43-When James (try)_____________ to ring us, we (already/leave)______________the house.
44-After Joanna (finish)______________ her presentation, we (ask)___________ our questions.
45-On her first day at the driving school, we (be)_______ very nervous because we (not/drive)
______________a car before.
46-It(be)_________ a cold and rainy Sunday, so I (decide)______________ to finish the essay that I
(start)___________________ writing a few days before.
47-I (switch)_____________ on the computer and (open)____________ the document.
48-Then I (begin)______________ looking for my notes that I (handwrite)______________on a
sheet of paper.
49-But the notes (be)_________ not on my desk and I (not/can)__________ remember where I
(put)_______________them.
50-I (turn)________________the whole house upside down.
51-And where (I/find)______________my notes?
52-I (leave)______________ them in the sitting room, under a huge staple of papers and magazines.
53-Now that I (find)____________ my notes, I (want)____________ to continue writing my essay.
54-First I (not/know)______________ what to write but then I (have)___________ lots of ideas.
55-I (almost/complete)_________________ my essay when my computer suddenly (crash)
___________ and I (notice)_____________that I (forget)______________to save the document.
56-After I (reboot)______________ my computer, I (see)_____________ that at least 5 of the pages
I (type)______________(be)_______________ missing.
57-So I (have)_______________ to start all over again.
 C) Put the verbs into the correct tense (Simple future or future Perfect).
1. I..........(meet) the entire committee by the time I leave England.
2. She ..............(be) prime minister for ten years by next year.
3. You look tired. Sit down and I..............(make) you a cup of tea.
4. Another million people..........(become)unemployed by this time next year.
5. What..........(you,do) when you've spent all your money?
6. By the time the police get here, the burglars....................(vanish).
7. When you grow older, you...............(change)your mind about this.
8. At this time next year they ....................(build) a new school in our district .
9. I'm sorry I made you so angry. I.............(not do) that again.
10. Scientists.................(finish) the experiment by the end of the week.
D) Put the verbs into the correct tense (Simple future , future continuous, or future Perfect).
1. This time next week I (relax)_________at the beach
2. This time tomorrow I (fly)______________to France.
3. Don't phone me between 8 a.m. and 12 p.m. I (work) ______________ .
4. By the end of the week he (spend)_____________all his money.
5. Sorry, but I can't come at 5. I (play)______________football with my mates.
6. Next month we (be married)________________for 25 years.
7. In half an hour everybody (watch)_______________the film.
8. I (be)______________very sad if you do that.
9. I suppose the concert (finish)___________________about 6.
10. John is very upset today. I (try)________________to talk to him.
11. By the time you arrive, she (go)_______________.
12. I think she (pass)_____________tomorrow's exam.
13. I (tell)_____________you everything when I go back.
14. Tomorrow she (write)_________________a very important exam.
15. I can visit you at 5. We (finish)_________________the game
 Language : Linking words.
Linking words are used to connect sentences. They are of four types :
Coordinators /conjunnctions
Coordinators connect elements of equal importance.
S + V , but (and, but, so, or, nor, for*, yet)
S+V
S + V and V
S and S + V
N and N
Adj. and Adj.
Phrase and Phrase
Can be used in a series: A, B, C, or D

Subordinators
Subordinators connect elements of unequal importance. One clause is not as
strong as the other.
S + V although S + V (although, even though, because, since*,
when, while, before*, after*, whenever,
wherever*, if, unless, whether?[or not]
as, as [adjective] as, so that, whereas
anywhere*, anytime*)
Although S + V , S + V

Sentence Connectors
Sentence Connectors connect paragraphs or show relationship between very
different ideas.
S + V . However, S + V (however, therefore, thus, moreover,
nevertheless, first*, then*, next*, still*
S + V ; however, S + V besides, consequently, furthermore)

Prepositions
Prepositions show relationship among elements of a sentence.
They are followed by noun phrases only and cannot take on a S + V.
S + V (prep. phrase) (during, after*, before*, in, on, at
despite, in spite of, for*, since*, by
(Prep. phrase), S + V like, except, but*, about, to*, from
between [A and B], among, with
(Prep. phrase) V + S (unusual) within, without, beside, near, next to)

* These words have more than one function.

Linking words –(functions)
Adding Contrasting Expressing cause / reason
*and *but because
as well as However, as
besides Although since
Moreover, despite This is why
Furthermore, In spite of because of
What is more, Nevertheless, Due to
In addition, On the contrary, Owing to
not only .... but also on the one hand For this reason,
another point is that on the other hand, The cause of ….is….
whereas The reason for/why…is…
while …is caused by/due to …
but while
In contrast, Expressing effect / result
Neither...nor *so
so....that
such a...that
Therefore
Thus
Consequently,
As a result,
too...for/to
 not enough...for/to
The result / effect/
consequence of … is….
…Because of this,…
…As a consequence,…
Narration Expressing purpose
First (of all) immediately to
At first Once so as to
At the beginning Suddenly in order that
In the beginning As soon as so that
then on for (Non-specific)
next No sooner....than
Before Hardly...when Expressing opinion
After Finally I would say that
After that Eventually In my opinion,
afterwards At the end I think (that)
When In the end I believe (that)
While At last Personally
during To begin with, Apparently,
Soon until
prior to
Giving examples Summing up / concluding Emphasis
for example, All in all especially
for instance, overall particularly
For one thing, generally Naturally,
this includes In conclusion, exactly because
such as e.g.. (for example) on the whole above all
i.e. (that is) in the main Whatever
To sum up, Whenever
too / enough
The more ....

Giving examples
For example
For instance
Namely
Such as

The most common way of giving examples is by using for example or for instance.

Namely refers to something by name.

"There are two problems: namely, the expense and the time."

Adding information
And
In addition
As well as
Also
Too
Furthermore
Moreover
Apart from
In addition to
Besides
Not only …….but ( also) ….(as well).

Ideas are often linked by and. In a list, you put a comma between each item, but not before and.

"We discussed training, education and the budget."

Also is used to add an extra idea or emphasis. "We also spoke about marketing."
You can use also with not only to give emphasis.

"We are concerned not only by the costs, but also by the competition."

We don't usually start a sentence with also. If you want to start a sentence with a phrase that means also, you can use In
addition, or In addition to this…

As well as can be used at the beginning or the middle of a sentence.

"As well as the costs, we are concerned by the competition."

"We are interested in costs as well as the competition."

Too goes either at the end of the sentence, or after the subject and means as well.

"They were concerned too."

"I, too, was concerned."

Apart from and besides are often used to mean as well as, or in addition to.

"Apart from Rover, we are the largest sports car manufacturer."

"Besides Rover, we are the largest sports car manufacturer."

Moreover and furthermore add extra information to the point you are making.

"Marketing plans give us an idea of the potential market. Moreover, they tell us about the competition."

Not only …….but ( also) ….(as well). can be used at the beginning of the sentence. In this case,
The first clause is put inthe interrogative form.
« Not only did the athlete win the race, but he broke the world record as well. »
« Not only does he sing well, but he also plays the violin. »
« Not only was she late ,but her car did not start as well. »

Summarising

In short
In brief
In summary
To summarise
In a nutshell
To conclude
In conclusion

We normally use these words at the beginning of the sentence to give a summary of what we have said or written.

Sequencing ideas

The former, … the latter

Firstly, secondly, finally
The first point is
Lastly
The following

The former and the latter are useful when you want to refer to one of two points.
"Marketing and finance are both covered in the course. The former is studied in the first term and the latter is studied in the
final term."

Firstly, … secondly, … finally (or lastly) are useful ways to list ideas.

It's rare to use "fourthly", or "fifthly". Instead, try the first point, the second point, the third point and so on.
The following is a good way of starting a list.

"The following people have been chosen to go on the training course: N Peters, C Jones and A Owen."

Giving a reason

Due to / due to the fact that

Owing to / owing to the fact that
Because
Because of
Since
As

Due to and owing to must be followed by a noun.

"Due to the rise in oil prices, the inflation rate rose by 1.25%."

"Owing to the demand, we are unable to supply all items within 2 weeks."

If you want to follow these words with a clause (a subject, verb and object), you must follow the words with the fact that.

"Due to the fact that oil prices have risen, the inflation rate has gone up by 1%25."

"Owing to the fact that the workers have gone on strike, the company has been unable to fulfil all its orders."

Because / because of

Because of is followed by a noun.

"Because of bad weather, the football match was postponed."

Because can be used at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence. For example, "Because it was raining, the match was
postponed."

"We believe in incentive schemes, because we want our employees to be more productive."

Since / as

Since and as mean because.

"Since the company is expanding, we need to hire more staff."

"As the company is expanding, we need to hire more staff."

Giving a result

Therefore
So
Consequently
This means that
As a result

Therefore, so, consequently and as a result are all used in a similar way.

"The company are expanding. Therefore / So / Consequently / As a result, they are taking on extra staff."

So is more informal.
Contrasting ideas

But
However
Although / even though
Despite / despite the fact that
In spite of / in spite of the fact that
Nevertheless
Nonetheless
While
Whereas
Unlike
In theory… in practice…

But is more informal than however. It is not normally used at the beginning of a sentence.

"He works hard, but he doesn't earn much."

"He works hard. However, he doesn't earn much."

Although, despite and in spite of introduce an idea of contrast. With these words, you must have two halves of a sentence.

"Although it was cold, she went out in shorts."

"In spite of the cold, she went out in shorts."

Despite and in spite of are used in the same way as due to and owing to. They must be followed by a noun. If you want to
follow them with a noun and a verb, you must use the fact that.

"Despite the fact that the company was doing badly, they took on extra employees."

Nevertheless and nonetheless mean in spite of that or anyway.

"The sea was cold, but he went swimming nevertheless." (In spite of the fact that it was cold.)
"The company is doing well. Nonetheless, they aren't going to expand this year."

While, whereas and unlike are used to show how two things are different from each other.

"While my sister has blue eyes, mine are brown."

"Taxes have gone up whereas social security contributions have gone down."

"Unlike in the UK, the USA has cheap petrol."

In theory… in practice… show an unexpected result.

"In theory, teachers should prepare for lessons, but in practice, they often don't have enough time."
 Linking words exercises

A) Choose the appropriate linking words :

1. I couldn't get to sleep ___________the noise.

2. ( although – in spite of – because of)

3. I will give you this English book _________you can pass your exam.

( so that- in order to – therefore)

3. She accepted the job _______________the salary, which was rather low.

( despite- however- in addition to)

4. _______________the traffic was bad, I arrived on time.

( since- although- in spite of)

5. Yvonne is borrowing some English books __________learn more of this language.

( in order to – so that – as a consequence)

6. I couldn't sleep __________________very tired.

( in spite of – though - nonetheless)

7. The house is nice and very well situated,____________________ it is overpriced.

( yet- because- consequently)

8. I went home early ______________I was feeling unwell.

( although- as- so)

9. She can’t sleep ________________the noise.

( due to – as a result- as well as)

10. He passed the exam ________________he didn't study well.

( even if - however – furthermore)

Fill in the blanks with the right linking words : (Beside - Even if - Furthermore – namely- in spite of -
nevertheless- owing to - since – that is to say- whereas

1-The team haven't been playing too well. ........................., they are expected to win this afternoon.

2- ........................... in nearly every country in the world they drive on the right, in England they insist on driving on the left.

3- I'm not tired at all. ................................, I'm feeling full of energy.

4-........ …………..the computer had recently been repaired, it still kept crashing.

5- The man was arrested ....................... claiming to have been nowhere near the scene of the crime.

6- I overslept this morning. .................................... , my car ran out of petrol on the way to work.

7- .........................…..the wonderful main meal ,we had a delicious pudding.

8- They decided to buy a new car ..................... they were having problems with their old one.

9- We couldn't contact you ....................... poor communication.

10- The two greatest soccer teams in spain, ………………… FC Barcelona and Real Madrid, are having
a lot of fans in Morocco.

B) Connect the sentences using the linking words :

1- Peter failed the exam.He was lazy. (because of)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

2- Brian stood on the chair. He wanted to reach the lamp.( so as to)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

3- The old man was very rich. The young girl refused to marry him.( however)

....................................................................................

4- Mr Smith took his umbrella . He didn’t want to get wet. ( in order not to)

…………………........................................................................

5- Uncle Ben broke the axe while chopping the wood. He hurt himself, too.(not only..but ..as well)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

6- The policeman had a warrant. The suspect refused to be arrested.( although)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

7- The train stopped. The passengers got off. ( as soon as)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

8- Tom took a taxi to work. He wanted to get to work on time.( so that)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

9- Although it was rainy, we went on a picnic. ( in spite of)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

10- Despite their parents’ wealth, the children are poorly dressed.( Nonetheless)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

C) Rewrite the sentences as suggested

1- The smiths didn’t send their daughter to university as they couldn’t pay for her studies.

Because……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2- Yesterday, Mary had a very busy day. Nevertheless, she went to her son’s school annual meeting.

Despite……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

3- Farmers can’t pay their taxes. It hasn’t rained enough for 2 years.

……………………………………………….As a result,..……………………………………………………….

4- Women in rural areas are illiterate; consequently, they don’t use contraceptives

Because …………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
5- Hard work causes a lot of stress.

……………………………..is due to …………………………………………………………………………..

6- Brahim was seriously ill, but he was always cheerful.

Although ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

7- Siham didn’t feel well. She had eaten too much chocolate.

The cause of …………………………………………….is…………………………………………………………

8- Aziza learnt how to read and write. She also learnt how to do business.

…………………………………………………………………… as well as…………………………………….

9- I have been to many countries. However, my brother has never travelled abroad.

Whereas…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

10- Ashmov wrote many detective stories. He also wrote several books on scientific subjects.

…………………………………………………………..Besides, …..…………………………………………….
 Language : Defining / non-defining relative clauses
How to Form Relative Clauses
Imagine, a girl is talking to Tom. You want to know who she is and ask a friend whether he knows her. You could say:

A girl is talking to Tom. Do you know the girl?

That sounds rather complicated, doesn't it? It would be easier with a relative clause: you put both pieces of information into one
sentence. Start with the most important thing – you want to know who the girl is.

Do you know the girl …

As your friend cannot know which girl you are talking about, you need to put in the additional information – the girl is talking to Tom.
Use „the girl“ only in the first part of the sentence, in the second part replace it with the relative pronoun (for people, use the relative
pronoun „who“). So the final sentence is:

Do you know the girl who is talking to Tom?

Relative Pronouns

relative pronoun use example

who subject or object pronoun for people I told you about the woman who lives next door.

which subject or object pronoun for animals and things Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof?

which referring to a whole sentence He couldn’t read which surprised me.

whose possession for people animals and things Do you know the boy whose mother is a nurse?

whom object pronoun for people, especially in non-defining relative I was invited by the professor whom I met at the
clauses (in defining relative clauses we colloquially prefer who) conference.

that subject or object pronoun for people, animals and things in I don’t like the table that stands in the kitchen.
defining relative clauses (who or which are also possible)

Subject Pronoun or Object Pronoun?

Subject and object pronouns cannot be distinguished by their forms - who, which, that are used for subject and object pronouns. You
can, however, distinguish them as follows:

If the relative pronoun is followed by a verb, the relative pronoun is a subject pronoun. Subject pronouns must always be used.

the apple which is lying on the table

If the relative pronoun is not followed by a verb (but by a noun or pronoun), the relative pronoun is an object pronoun. Object pronouns
can be dropped in defining relative clauses, which are then called Contact Clauses.

the apple (which) George lay on the table

Relative Adverbs
A relative adverb can be used instead of a relative pronoun plus preposition. This often makes the sentence easier to understand.

This is the shop in which I bought my bike.

→ This is the shop where I bought my bike.

relative adverb meaning use example

when in/on which refers to a time expression the day when we met him

where in/at which refers to a place the place where we met him

why for which refers to a reason the reason why we met him

Defining Relative Clauses

Defining relative clauses (also called identifying relative clauses or restrictive relative clauses) give detailed information defining a
general term or expression. Defining relative clauses are not put in commas.

Imagine, Tom is in a room with five girls. One girl is talking to Tom and you ask somebody whether he knows this girl. Here the
relative clause defines which of the five girls you mean.

Do you know the girl who is talking to Tom?

Defining relative clauses are often used in definitions.

A seaman is someone who works on a ship.

Object pronouns in defining relative clauses can be dropped. (Sentences with a relative clause without the relative pronoun are called
Contact Clauses.)

The boy (who/whom) we met yesterday is very nice.

Non-Defining Relative Clauses

Non-defining relative clauses (also called non-identifying relative clauses or non-restrictive relative clauses) give additional
information on something, but do not define it. Non-defining relative clauses are put in commas.

Imagine, Tom is in a room with only one girl. The two are talking to each other and you ask somebody whether he knows this girl. Here
the relative clause is non-defining because in this situation it is obvious which girl you mean.

Do you know the girl, who is talking to Tom?

Note: In non-defining relative clauses, who/which may not be replaced with that.

Object pronouns in non-defining relative clauses must be used.

Jim, who/whom we met yesterday, is very nice.

How to Shorten Relative Clauses?

Relative clauses with who, which, that as subject pronoun can be replaced with a participle. This makes the sentence shorter and easier
to understand.

I told you about the woman who lives next door. – I told you about the woman living next door.
Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof? – Do you see the cat lying on the roof?

Relative clauses exercises

a) Complete using the appropriate relative pronoun or adverb :

1. This is the bank ______________ was robbed yesterday.

2. This is the station ______________ Emily met James.
3. July and August are the months____________ most people go on holiday.
4. The man _____________ robbed the bank had two pistols.
5. He wore a mask ______________ made him look like Mickey Mouse.
6. He came with a friend ________________waited outside in the car.
7. The woman______________ gave him the money was young.
8. The bag ______________ contained the money was yellow.
9. The people ____________were in the bank were very frightened.
10.A man ______________ mobile was ringing did not know what to do.
11.Do you know the reason _______________ so many people in the world learn English?
12.A woman ______________ daughter was crying tried to calm her.
13.The car ________________the bank robbers escaped in was orange.
14.The robber _______________ mask was obviously too big didn't drive.
15.The man ______________drove the car was nervous.
16.He didn't wait at the traffic lights _________________ were red.
17.A police officer ______________ car was parked at the next corner stopped and arrested them.
18.This is the church ___________ Sue and Peter got married.
19.A boy ______________ sister is in my class was in the bank at that time
20.Edinburgh is the town _____________Alexander Graham Bell was born.
21.A famine was the reason ____________ so many Irish people emigrated to the USA in the 19th
century.
22.A greengrocer's is a shop ______________you can buy vegetables.
23.The day ___________ I arrived was very nice.
24.There is the bridge ________________we have to cross.
25.The girl ______________ lives next door is very nice.
26.December is the day______________ children in Great Britain get their Christmas presents.
27.The bus___________ takes you to the station should be here any minute.
28.This is the dog _______________ barks every night.
29.This is the man _____________ built our house.
30.A castle is a place _____________ a king or queen lives.
31.An actress is a woman __________________ plays in films or theatre plays.
32.This is the girl _____________mother is from Canada.
33.This is the time of the year ___________________many people suffer from fever.
34.The flowers _____________ grow in the garden are beautiful.
35.A horror film was the reason ________________ I couldn't sleep last night.
36.The woman _______________ is sitting at the desk is Mr Winter's secretary.
37.I cannot remember the reason_________________ he wanted us to leave.
38.Jane, ______________ mother is a physician, is very good at biology.
39.She didn’t see the snake _______________ was lying on the ground.
40.Do you know the shop _________________ Andrew picked me up?
 b) Rewrite the sentences as suggested.Use commas when necessary.
1. I gave you a book. It had many pictures.
The book ___________________________________________________________.
2. Samuel Johnson was the son of a bookseller. Samuel Johnson was born in 1709.
Samuel Johnson _____________________________________________________.
3. In 1728, he went to Oxford. He studied at Pembroke College in Oxford.
In 1728, he went ____________________________________________________.
4. I am reading a book at the moment. It is very interesting.
The book ___________________________________________________________.
5. Johnson had to leave Oxford without a degree. He was too poor to pay the fees.
Johnson ___________________________________________________________.
6. You live in a town. The town is very old.
The town ________________________________________________.
7. The sweets are delicious. I bought them yesterday.
The sweets _______________________________________________.
8. In 1737, Johnson moved to London. There he wrote poetry, essays and biographies.
In 1737, Johnson _________________________________________________.
9. The football match was very exciting. My friend played in it.
The football match _________________________________________________.
10. The letter hasn't arrived yet. I posted it three days ago.
The letter __________________________________________________________.
11. He lives in a house. The house is not very big.
The house _________________________________________________________.
12. In 1746, Johnson started to write his dictionary. It took him nine years to complete.
In 1746, Johnson started ___________________________________________________.
13. His home at that time was in 17 Gough Square in London. It is a museum now.
17 Gough Square in London __________________________________________________.
14. They are playing a song on the radio. Do you like it?
Do you like the song _________________________________________________?
15. Jane wore a beautiful shirt yesterday. Did you see it?
Did you see the beautiful shirt ____________________________________________?
16. In this house, his wife died in 1752. Her name was Elizabeth Porter.
In this house his wife _____________________________________________________.
17. Sue is going out with a boy. I don't like him.
I don't like the boy ________________________________________________.
18. In 1755, the work was published. It was called A Dictionary of the English Language.
In 1755, the work _________________________________________________________.
19. Samuel Johnson died in 1784. He is buried in Westminster Abbey.
Samuel Johnson __________________________________________________________.
20. We spent our holiday in Scotland last year. Scotland is in the north of Great Britain.
Last year we spent ________________________________________________________.
21. People live in Scotland. They are called Scots.
The people ______________________________________________________________.
22. We first went to Edinburgh. Edinburgh is the capital of Scotland.
We first ________________________________________________________________.
23. Arthur Conan Doyle was born in Edinburgh. He wrote the Sherlock Holmes stories.
Arthur Conan Doyle ________________________________________________________.
24. Then we visited a lake. It is in the Highlands.
The lake ________________________________________________________________.
25. Loch Ness is 37 km long. People know it for its friendly monster.
Loch Ness _______________________________________________________________.
26. There we met an old man. He told us that he had seen Nessie.
An old man ______________________________________________________________.
27. We then travelled to a mountain. The mountain is near the town of Fort William.
We then ________________________________________________________________.
28. The mountain is the highest mountain in Great Britain. It is called Ben Nevis.
The mountain ____________________________________________________________.
29. I sent you a postcard. It was written on the summit of Ben Nevis.
The postcard_____________________________________________________________.
30. I watched a film last night. The film was interesting.
The film ________________________________________________________________.
31. Carly helps a man. The man is my teacher.
The man _______________________________________________________________________.
32. We ate chicken at the restaurant. It was delicious.
The chicken ____________________________________________________________________.
33. The boy is very nice. I know him from school.
The boy _______________________________________________________________________.
34. The shoes are too big. My grandma bought them for me.
The shoes _____________________________________________________________________.
35. We bought a car last week. The car is blue.
The car ________________________________________________________________________.
36. The girl is a singer. We met her at the party.
The girl _________________________________________________________________________.
37. The bananas are on the table. George bought them.
The bananas ____________________________________________________________________.
38. We watched a film last night. It was really scary.
The film ________________________________________________________________________.
39. I have to learn new words. They are very difficult.
The new words __________________________________________________________________.
40. A monk is a man. The man has devoted his life to God.
A monk ___________________________________________________________________.
41. I have one black cat. His name is Blacky.
I have ____________________________________________________________________.
42. A herbivore is an animal. The animal feeds upon vegetation.
A herbivore ________________________________________________________________.
43. Carol plays the piano brilliantly. She is only 9 years old.
Carol _____________________________________________________________________.
44. Sydney is the largest Australian city. It is not the capital of Australia.
Sydney ____________________________________________________________________.
c) Combine the sentences using relative pronouns or adverbs. Use commas when necessary.
1. We ordered a book. It was very expensive.
____________________________________________.
2. You are sitting on a bench. The paint on the bench is still wet.
_____________________________________________.
3. The photographer could not develop the pictures. I had taken them in Australia.
____________________________________________.
4. One of the bins smells awful. You haven’t emptied the bin for 3 weeks.
_____________________________________________.
5. They are singing a song. I don’t know the song.
____________________________________________.
6. The city seems to be abandoned. It is usually crowded with people.
_____________________________________________.
7. You made an offer. We cannot accept it.
______________________________________________.
8. A midwife is a woman. She assists other women in childbirth.
______________________________________________.
9. Three youngsters were arrested by the police. They had committed criminal offences.
_______________________________________________.
10. The World Wide Web has become an essential part of our lives. It was invented by Tim
Berners-Lee.
_________________________________________________.