The Operational Amplifier

Introduction to Operational Amplifiers

 The first real-time computer was the
analog computer! This computer used
preprogrammed equations and input data
to calculate control actions.
 The programming was hard wired with a
series of circuits that performed math
operations on the data, and the hard wiring
limitation eventually caused the declining
popularity of the analog computer.
 The heart of the analog computer was a
device called an operational amplifier.

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 The concept of the operational amplifier
(usually referred to as an op amp) originated
in the late 1940s with vacuum-tube dc
amplifier developed by the George A.
Philibrick Co.
 Early operational amplifiers (op-amps) were
used primarily to perform mathematical
operations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, integration, and
differentiation—thus the term operational.
 Today’s op-amps are linear integrated circuits
(ICs) that use relatively low dc supply
voltages and are reliable and inexpensive.

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For example the solution for the differential equation

can be solved by the analogue computer circuit shown

below where each block may be designed by op amp.

4
Operational Amplifier Symbol
The standard operational amplifier (op-amp) symbol is shown in
Figure 1–1(a).It has two input terminals, the inverting (-) input and the
noninverting (+) input, and one output terminal. Most op-amps
operate with two dc supply voltages, one positive and the other
negative, as shown in Figure 1–1(b), although some have a single dc
supply. Usually these dc voltage terminals are left off the schematic
symbol for simplicity but are understood to be there.

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Package
Op-amps are available in three commonly used
packages—TO-5 (Metal can), Dual-in-Line Package (DIP),
and ceramic flat package. These are shown below:

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With the development of technology, two op-amps
sharing the same Vcc have also been fabricated. These are
known as Dual op-amp ICs. Similarly four op-amps in the
same package of pins have also been fabricated. These are
called Quad op-amps: LM 358 is a Dual op-amp, and LM
324 is a Quad op-amp.

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Power Supply Connections
Op-amp is a dual power supply IC. It needs + Vcc and − Vcc
of 15 V each for 741 , since a differential amplifier circuit
configuration is used. For a differential amplifier, Vcc and − VEE
are to be given for biasing. So, Op-amp 741 needs two
power supplies. They are to be connected as shown in Fig.
If, the polarity of the voltages is not given properly,
the IC will be damaged.

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The Ideal Op-Amp

Practical op-amp

Ideal op-amp 9
The ideal op amp and its attributes

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Ideal Op-amp characteristics

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The Practical Op-Amp
Characteristics of a practical op-amp are very high voltage
gain, very high input impedance, and very low output
impedance. These are labelled in Figure.
Another practical consideration is that there is always noise
generated within the op-amp. Noise is an undesired signal
that affects the quality of a desired signal. Today, circuit
designers are using smaller voltages that require high
accuracy, so low-noise components are in greater demand.
All circuits generate noise; op-amps are no exception, but
the amount can be minimized.
Practical op-amp

Ideal op-amp 12
Internal Block Diagram of an Op-Amp
A typical op-amp is made up of three types of amplifier
circuits: a differential amplifier, a voltage amplifier, and a push-
pull amplifier, as shown in Figure.
The differential amplifier is the input stage for the op-amp. It
provides amplification of the difference voltage between the
two inputs. The second stage is usually a class A amplifier that
provides additional gain. Some op-amps may have more than
one voltage amplifier stage. A push-pull class B amplifier is
typically used for the output stage.

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Simplified Internal Circuitry of a General
Purpose Op Amp

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Input Signal Modes
A basic op-amp with two inputs and one output as would
result using a differential amplifier input stage. Each input
results in either the same or an opposite polarity (or phase)
output, depending on whether the signal is applied to the
plus (+) or the minus (-) input, respectively.

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Single-Ended Input
Single-ended input operation
results when the input signal is
connected to one input with the
other input connected to
ground. Figure shows the signals
(a)
connected for this operation. In
Fig. (a), the input is applied to
the plus input (with minus input
at ground), which results in an
output having the same polarity
(phase) as the applied input
signal. Figure (b) shows an input
signal applied to the minus input,
an inverted, amplified signal (b)
voltage appears at the output..
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Noninverting Configuration

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Inverting Configuration

XSC1

Ext Trig
+
_
A B
+ _ + _

V2
12V
U1A
8

3
V3
1
80uVpk
2
1Hz
0° LM358AD
4

V1
12V

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Double-Ended (differential) Input
In the double-ended differential mode, a single source is connected
between the two inputs, as shown in Figure (a). Figure (a) shows an
input, Vd, applied between the two input terminals (recall that
neither input is at ground), with the resulting amplified output in
phase with that applied between the plus and minus inputs. The
amplified difference between the two inputs appears on the output.
Equivalently, the double-ended differential mode can be represented
by two opposite-polarity (out-of-phase) as shown in Figure (b).
Figure (b) shows the same action resulting when two separate
signals are applied to the inputs, the difference signal being Vi1 - Vi2.

(b)
(a) 19
Differential Inputs

XSC1

Ext Trig
+
_
A B
+ _ + _
V3
12 V
8
U1A
3
V1
1
100uVpk V2 2
3 Hz
0° 90uVpk 4 LM358AD
V4
3 Hz
0° 12 V

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Common Mode
In the common mode,
two signal voltages of the
same phase, frequency,
and amplitude are applied
to the two inputs, as
shown in Figure. Ideally,
the two inputs are equally
amplified, and since they
result in opposite-polarity
signals at the output,
these signals cancel,
resulting in 0-V output.
Practically, a small output
signal will result.
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Common Mode Inputs

XSC1

Ext Trig
+
_
A B
+ _ + _
V3
12 V
8
U1A
3
V1
1
100uVpk 2
100 Hz
0° 4 LM358AD
V4
12 V

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Common-Mode Rejection
A significant feature of a differential connection is that
the signals that are opposite at the inputs are highly amplified,
whereas those that are common to the two inputs are only
slightly amplified—the overall operation being to amplify the
difference signal while rejecting the common signal at the two
inputs.
Since noise (any unwanted input signal) is generally
common to both inputs, the differential connection tends to
provide attenuation of this unwanted input while providing an
amplified output of the difference signal applied to the inputs.
This action is called common-mode rejection. Its
importance lies in the situation where an unwanted signal
appears commonly on both op-amp inputs. Common-mode
rejection means that this unwanted signal will not appear on
the output and distort the desired signal. Common-mode
signals (noise) generally are the result of the pick-up of
radiated energy on the input lines, from adjacent lines, the 60
Hz power line, or other sources.
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Differential and Common-Mode Operation
Since amplification of the opposite input signals is much greater than that
of the common input signals, the circuit provides a common-mode
rejection as described by a numerical value called the common-mode
rejection ratio (CMRR).
Differential Inputs
When separate inputs are applied to the op-amp, the resulting
difference signal is the difference between the two inputs.

Common inputs
When both input signals are the same, a common signal
element due to the two inputs can be defined as the average
of the sum of the two signals.

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Output voltage
Since any signals applied to an op-amp in
general have both in-phase and out-of-phase
components, the resulting output can be
expressed as

where Vd = difference voltage given

Vc = common voltage given
Ad = differential gain of the amplifier
Ac = common-mode gain of the amplifier 25
Opposite-Polarity Inputs
If opposite-polarity inputs applied to an op-amp
are ideally opposite signals, Vi1 = -Vi2 = Vs, the
resulting difference voltage is
Vd = Vi1 - Vi2 = Vs - (-Vs) = 2Vs
and the resulting common voltage is
Vc = 1/2 (Vi1 + Vi2) = 1/2 [Vs + (-Vs)] = 0
so that the resulting output voltage is
Vo = AdVd + AcVc = Ad(2Vs) + 0 = 2 AdVs
This shows that when the inputs are an ideal
opposite signal (no common element), the
output is the differential gain times twice the
input signal applied to one of the inputs.
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Same-Polarity Inputs
If the same-polarity inputs are applied to an op-
amp, Vi1 = Vi2 = Vs, the resulting difference voltage
is
Vd = Vi1 - Vi2 = Vs - Vs = 0
and the resulting common voltage is
Vc = 1/2(Vi1 + Vi2) = 1/2 (Vs + Vs) = Vs
so that the resulting output voltage is
Vo = AdVd + AcVc = Ad(0) + AcVs = AcVs
This shows that when the inputs are ideal in-
phase signals (no difference signal), the output is
the common-mode gain times the input signal Vs,
which shows that only common-mode operation
occurs.
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Common-Mode Rejection
The solutions above provide the relationships
that can be used to measure Ad and Ac in op-
amp circuits.
1. To measure Ad: Set Vi1 = -Vi2 = Vs = 0.5 V,
so that
Vd = (Vi1 - Vi2) = (0.5 V - (-0.5 V) = 1 V
and
Vc = 1/2(Vi1 + Vi2) = 1/2 [0.5 V + (-0.5 V)] = 0 V
Under these conditions the output voltage is
Vo = AdVd + AcVc = Ad (1 V) + Ac(0) = Ad
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2.To measure Ac: Set Vi1 = Vi2 = Vs = 1 V, so
that
Vd = (Vi1 - Vi2) = (1 V - 1 V) = 0 V
and Vc = 1/2(Vi1 + Vi2) = 1/2(1 V + 1 V) = 1 V
Under these conditions the output voltage is
Vo = AdVd + AcVc = Ad (0 V) + Ac(1 V) = Ac
Thus, setting the input voltages Vi1 = Vi2 = 1 V
results in an output voltage numerically equal
to the value of Ac.

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Common-Mode Rejection Ratio
Having obtained Ad and Ac (as in the measurement procedure
discussed above), we can now calculate a value for the common-
mode rejection ratio (CMRR), which is defined by the following
equation:

The value of CMRR can also be expressed in logarithmic terms as

It should be clear that the desired operation will have Ad very

large with Ac very small. That is, the signal components of
opposite polarity will appear greatly amplified at the output,
whereas the signal components that are in phase will mostly
cancel out so that the common-mode gain Ac is very small. Ideally,
the value of the CMRR is infinite. Practically, the larger the value
of CMRR, the better is the circuit operation.
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We can express the output voltage in terms
of the value of CMRR as follows:

we can write the above as

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Example
Calculate the CMRR for the circuit measurements shown in Fig.

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Solution
From the measurement shown in Fig. (a), using the
procedure in step 1 above, we obtain

The measurement shown in Fig. (b), using the procedure in

step 2 above, gives us

we obtain the value of CMRR,

which can also be expressed as

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Example
Determine the output voltage of an op-amp
for input voltages of
Vi1 = 150 mV and Vi2 = 140 mV.
The amplifier has a differential gain of Ad =
4000 and the value of CMRR is:
a. 100.
b. 105.

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Solution
Vd = Vi1 - Vi2 = (150 - 140) mV = 10 mV

(a)

(b)

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