ASSIGNMENT – 1

ASWIN VARGHESE – 8817384

APPLIED ENERGY MANAGEMENT – RENEWABLE ENERGY STREAM

ERGY8100 – ELECTRICITY GRID

JERIN JAMES

OCT 14, 2022

SOLUTION 1:

a)
Electric power transmission is the large-scale transfer of electrical energy from a
producing location, such as a power plant, to an electrical substation. The system of
interconnecting wires that makes this movement possible is referred to as a
transmission network.
Usually, Electrical Power generation voltage is between 11kV and 33 kV. Transferring
large amounts of power at this voltage will require conductors of large cross-section
areas and a lot of Energy will be lost due to heat. To avoid heat loss and reduce the
size of the conductor, the Voltage is Stepped Up to 110kV, 220 kV, or 800 kV
(depending upon distance and amount of power to be transferred). Stepping up the
voltage level depends upon the distance at which power is to be transmitted. The
longer the distance, the higher will be the voltage level. Stepping up of voltage is to
reduce the I2R losses in transmitting the power (when voltage is stepped up, the
current reduces by a relative amount so that the power remains constant, and hence
I2R loss also reduces). This phase is referred to as the primary transmission. The
energy grid in Ontario is made up of a 29,000 km high-voltage transmission network
that provides power to major industrial customers and municipal utilities and a 123,000
km low-voltage distribution system that provides service to around 1.3 million end
users, many of whom are located in rural service areas and smaller local municipalities
throughout the province.

The primary Transmissions phase mainly uses two types of means,

i) Overhead lines: The voltage on these transmission lines, which can be
anywhere between 100 kV and 800 kV, is quite high. They must have high
voltage in order to reduce power losses to resistance and are appropriate
for long-distance transmission.
ii) Underground lines: When overhead lines can't be used, underground lines
are used to transport power across inhabited regions, underwater, or other
locations. Due to greater and heat-related losses, they are less frequent as
compared to overhead lines.

The major advantage of high voltage power transmission allows for lesser resistive
losses over long distances in the wiring. Due to the high-voltage transmission's
efficiency, a higher amount of the generated power may be sent to the substations,
which in turn can be transmitted to the loads and reduce operational costs.
Example in Ontario: Hydro One is a holding corporation with four subsidiaries, the
most important of which being Hydro One Networks. As Ontario's largest distribution
utility, it operates 98% of the high voltage transmission infrastructure and serves 1.4
million consumers in rural regions across the province.
b)
The voltage from the primary transmission lines (generally 110kV, 220 Kv, or 500 kV)
is stepped down at a receiving station to 33kV or 66kV. Secondary transmission lines
emerge from this receiving station to connect substations located near load centers.
In these substations, the voltage is once more scaled down to 11 kV. These
substations may directly supply 11kV power to sizable industrial users, and feeders
may also leave these substations. This phase is called as the primary distribution.
Feeders are either overhead lines or underground cables that transport power up to a
few kilometres from the load points (end consumers). Finally, a pole-mounted
distribution transformer reduces the voltage to 415 volts and delivers it to the
distributors. End users are supplied by distributors via a service mains connection.
Feeders, distributors, and service mains comprise the secondary distribution system.
Among the most important characteristics of a distribution network is its rated voltage.
System voltage determines which components of the network you should use, such
as cables, connectors, and breakers. A transformer in a distribution grid is located in
between the substation and the customer, where it steps down the voltage to meet
customer requirements
Example in Ontario: Milton Hydro Distribution Inc. is a local distribution company,
which is responsible for distributing electricity to more than 31,000 business and
residential customers within the Town of Milton. Milton Hydro Distribution Inc. is a
wholly-owned subsidiary of Milton Hydro Holdings Inc. They generally transmit
electricity within a range of 415v to 120v which are required by households.
SOLUTION 2:
a)
b)
SOLUTION 3:
a)
Considering the time of the peak demand and the location of the university city in
southwest Ontario, the ideal carbon-free renewable energy system is to link solar
photovoltaic systems to the distribution grid. Also by considering the geography of
the location other technologies like wind turbines, which would require a big space
for the installation, and biogas plants, which may provide challenges for the people
in this congested region. Hence solar power will be the most appropriate source to
meet the increasing demand.
Since there is huge potential for solar energy throughout the time between 11 am
and 3pm, proper analysis must be conducted in calculating the solar irradiance of
the specific location as well as the selection of the type of PV system that is suitable
for the location must be figured out.
Moreover, Solar panels installed on the rooftops of households should have valid
operation and maintenance protocols to extract maximum output from these
sources. The advantage of a grid-connected PV system, whether it has storage
batteries or not, is that it can continue to produce electricity on bright sunny days
even though the house is consuming very less load and the excess energy can be
directed onto the grid and thereby support meet the peak demand load.

b)
here,
Peak load = 3150 MW
Average load = 2000 MW
As per the problem, the average load that can be met by the Central power plant
is 2000MW, since the peak load that needs to be met is around 3150MW, the DERs
in this scheme must be sized in such a way that they should meet the peak load
for the system. Therefore, each DERs must have a size in such a way that it
provides almost 1150 MW (3150MW – 2000MW). Also, since the demand is exact
and there will be some losses during transmission an additional 50 MW must be
considered for balancing the overall system. Hence the overall capacity of an
individual DER should be around 120 MW(as there are 10 DERs) after considering
losses. If we are planning to install SunPower SPR-MAX3-400 for the PV system
with an efficiency of 22 percent, it requires 3 acres of land to generate 1MW of
energy, hence we will require 360 acres of land for one DER system. Therefore in
order to provide 1200 MW of energy, it requires 3600 acres of land.
SOLUTION 4:
a) A distribution transformer station:

When it comes to distribution transformers, economic factors take priority, and

the minimum amount of protection is typically offered while maintaining a
satisfactory level of performance. High-speed protection is not usually required,
especially for phase faults as issues with power supply stability are rarely to be
taken into account. The large-sized distribution transformers are equipped with on-
load tap changing and may also have forced cooling. smaller ones have neither
and are equipped with fuses and circuit breakers. Major protection involves,
▪ Over current protection: For small transformers rated below 10 MVA, HRC
fuses are utilized. If differential protection is not employed, overcurrent
relays are used as the main protection above that. Overcurrent protection is
utilized as a backup measure if differential protection is employed. Over-
current protection operates when the current in any one of the phases
exceeds the maximum value of the settings.
▪ Differential current protection: Similar to a ground fault interrupter,
differential current protection monitors incoming and outgoing current from
each of the three-phase lines to prevent current imbalance. It works by
measuring the amount of current entering and exiting a circuit component,
then tripping a circuit breaker if those two currents ever fail to match.
▪ Pressure relief valves: The oil-cooled transformer's metal tanks
instantaneously produce a tremendous amount of gas when a sudden,
severe short circuit occurs, which significantly raises internal pressure. The
transformer runs the risk of exploding and causing hurt and damage if the
pressure cannot be released outside. In case of a sudden and uncontrolled
increase in pressure inside the transformer, the pressure relief device allows
the insulating fluid to be discharged in milliseconds. Our pressure relief
devices significantly improve transformer reliability and safety.
▪ Restricted earth fault protection: Differential protection provides almost 80
percent of the winding and the rest of the protection is carried by REF. It
protects the transformer winding from earth faults. REF provides protection
in the zone between the Transformer Star side winding and its Neutral
Terminal which is earthed. It senses the fault current only in this particular
zone so it is called Restricted protection.

b) Typical feeders: Feeder protection is the process of protecting a feeder from a

malfunction so that the power grid can keep supplying electricity. The feeder
transports electrical energy from the substation to the load end. Therefore,
safeguarding the feeder from different types of the malfunction is crucial.

▪ Distance protection: The term "distance protection relay" refers to a type of

protection whose efficacy is based on the distance between the feeding
 point and the fault. The duration of such protection depends on the
impedance or the relationship between voltage and current. The electrical
distance between the relay and the fault determines the impedance between
them. The performance of distance protection relays is different from other
types of protection because it depends on the ratio of these two parameters
rather than the size of the current or voltage in the protective circuit. A
voltage-driven coil on one of the coils and a current-driven coil on the other
activate this double-actuating quantity relay. The voltages element has
created a negative and reset torque, but the current element generates a
positive or pick-up torque.

▪ Parallel feeder protection: Two feeders are linked in parallel to improve

transmission capacity and in locations where supply continuity is especially
important. In order to guarantee supply continuity through another feeder in
the event that one of the feeders experiences a problem, just that feeder will
be affected. Here directional relays are provided in conjunction with
overcurrent relays so that if fault occurs in any one feeder then the relay
trips the faulted feeder without affecting the other feeder and thereby
maintaining power in the system.

c) An inverter-based DER connected to one of the distribution feeders:

• Multi-Function Relay: The system will be outfitted with a multi-function

relay. It will identify and inform the system of any flaws in the feeder. A
multi-function relay may identify a variety of flaws, increasing system
safety as a whole. When a fault is detected, the relay will be able to
recognize most faults, including overcurrent, overvoltage, under-voltage,
and earth fault current, and will send a triangular signal to the breaker.

• Anti-islanding: The Energy Resource Facility will follow the grid and will
not be islanded. According to IEEE 1547 and UL1741, SA, the NE/I
source inverters provide both passive and active anti-islanding
protection. The inverters notice the loss of electricity and disconnect if
the utility's regular power supply is disrupted.

• Protection against reverse power: Reverse Power Protection - In

addition to the multi-function relay at the utility supply monitoring reverse
power (32R), the load is constantly watched to make sure the NE/I
source discharge is under the consumption of the facility. Furthermore,
this safeguards against power injection into the electric grid.
SOLUTION 5:

Distributed energy resources are a collection of interconnected renewable energy

sources that provide the energy needed by the electric grid. In some cases, solar and
wind farms are connected to the grid, allowing for the supply of extra electricity. The
requirements that must be met in order to connect a new DER to the electrical grid are
listed below.

I. VOLTAGE MATCHING: The output voltage is controlled by a variety of

components in the DER system. Any location's electric network will have a few
major features, with the system voltage playing a significant role. The output
voltage from the DER must match the grid voltage.

II. FREQUENCY COUPLING: The majority of North America's electric grid is an

AC grid, hence the DER's output will be of an AC kind. It is a need that the
frequency of the AC power from the DER should be equal to the frequency of
the electric grid since the AC output from the inverter will have a specific
frequency.

III. AC POWER CONDITIONING: To provide clean power to the electric grid, the
AC power from the DER needs be linked to the grid through a power
conditioner. It is necessary to connect this equipment to the output of the DER
when connecting to the Grid because all connected equipment operates
according to a standard set of specifications. The power conditioner ensures
that the output of the DER, which is typically voltage in most cases, matches
the voltage rating of the Grid.

IV. Thermal rating: Each distribution network component has a maximum current-
carrying capacity known as its thermal rating. Under conditions of high
generation and low demand, connecting DER to the system has the potential
to alter the current flows in the circuit, thereby violating the loading limits for
network elements.
 V. REACTIVE POWER CONTROL: In order to govern the reactive power of the
entire system, it is necessary to control the lagging and leading power factors
in addition to providing active power. Reactive power, power factor, and fixed
power factor control points are generally used to regulate it.

VI. Load and generation forecasting: Given that DER are presently modelled as
load modifiers in the majority of load prediction models, it is crucial to have
accurate information that permits prediction of DER power output apart from
load and deployment scenarios in long-term planning of distribution systems
and load/generation forecasting systems.

VII. APPROVAL FROM AUTHORITIES: The entire project must be carried out in
line with the requirements of the local authorities, and approval at each stage
must be sought before turning on a new system. It comprises representatives
from the civil department, fire and safety department, and other agencies in
addition to the power department.

VIII. VOLTAGE FLUCTUATION: As a result of numerous switching operations

between the transformer, capacitor, and different components, the DER system
undergoes voltage fluctuation. The DER's fluctuations lead to an unbalanced
voltage when it is linked to the grid. In order to prevent these oscillations, the
required regulating should be put in place, and if the problem persists, the
system has to be unplugged from the grid.

IX. POINT OF COMMON COUPLING: The point at which the distributed energy
resource is coupled to the distribution feeder is known as the point of common
coupling. The new DER Facility's connection assets or new line expansion
assets will be connected to the main distribution system at this point.

X. Modeling: The right modeling approaches will be required to enable effective

DER integration at higher layers. Models that take their variation and
interactions with other resources into account must be constructed since DER
are frequently netted with load at the distribution bus for operations and
planning.