DWAIN OCAMPO DOCTANA, LPT
Master of Arts in Education – English
What is RESEARCH?
Definitions of Research
 A scientific investigation of phenomena which
includes collection, presentation, analysis, and
interpretation of facts that links man’s
speculation with reality.
 A continuous discovery and exploration of the
unknown.
 A systematic study or investigation of
something for the purposes of answering
question posed by the researcher.
 The process of gathering data or information to
solve a particular or specific problem in a
scientific manner.
 According to Redman and Mory, Research is a
“systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”
Objectives of Research:
 To gain familiarity with new insights into a
phenomenon;
 To accurately portray the characteristics of a
particular individual, group, or a situation;
 To analyze the frequency with which something
occurs or its association with something else.
 To examine the Hypothesis of a causal
relationship between two variables.
Characteristics of research
1. Empirical. Research is based on direct
experience or observation by the researcher. The
collection of the data relies on practical
experience without benefit of the scientific
knowledge or theory
2. Logical. Research is always based on valid
procedures and principles. Scientific
investigation is done in an orderly manner so
that the researcher has confidence on the results.
Is guided by the rules of logical reasoning.
3. Cyclical. Research is a cyclical process. It starts
with a problem and ends with a problem.
4. Analytical. Research utilizes proven analytical
procedures in gathering the
5.
data, whether historical, descriptive,
experimental, or case study.
6. Replicable. The research designs and
procedures are replicated to enable the
researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive
results. It allows results to be verified by
replicating the study and, thereby building a
sound basis for decisions.
Research methodology | 3:00 PM – 6:00 PM
PRMSU Graduate School – Ib
Dr. Geoffrey Sepil
7. Critical. Research exhibits careful and precise
judgment.
8. Systematic. Research is structured with
specified steps to be taken in a specified
sequence in accordance with the well-defined
set of rules.
Significance of Research
“ All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often
better than over-confidence, for it leads to
inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention”.. …
Hudson Maxim
 Research inculcates scientific and inductive
thinking, and promotes the development of
logical habits of thinking and organization.
Importance
 Research either basic or applied. Basic research
seeks to contribute to knowledge through the
development of the theory or concept, while
applied research seeks to provide solutions to
problems through the development and
evaluation of processes, policies, and other
activities that require specific courses of action.
 With its result new insights of significance,
research can be of tremendous value to the firm
itself and to individuals like students and
faculty.
 The application and advantages of research are
manifold. Specific application though depends
on the particular purpose or need of the
company or the individual. Since management
has begun to realize the significance and
potential value of research will constantly
increase and even take on rapid pace in the
millennium due to advances in computer and
information technologies.
Institutions of higher learning offering degrees
in education -related fields, both on the
undergraduate and graduate levels are
strengthening their programs. They now give
more emphasis on research to respond to the
needs of the education and to provide inputs for
policy formulation and legislative agenda for the
government. Schools are now beginning to
require research in their different courses, and to
link with firms and other agencies that could
serve as sources of topic, data, and/or funds for
research.
What are the qualities of a good researcher?
Researchers must have the following qualities:
Intellectual Curiosity. A researcher undertakes
reflective thinking, raises questions to find answer,
DWAIN OCAMPO DOCTANA, LPT PRMSU Graduate School – Ib
Master of Arts in Education – English Dr. Geoffrey Sepil
and continues to read the related literature. As the provide information of extreme benefit to
problem becomes clear he formulates and tests human beings, a researcher must do all in his/her
hypotheses which may be accepted or rejected. The power to ensure that participants in a research
result of the hypothesis depends on the analysis of study or protected from physical or
data he gathers. psychological harm, discomfort, or danger that
may arise due to research procedures. A further
Prudence. A researcher uses the 4M’s (Man, Money, responsibility is obtaining the consent of
Materials & Machinery) effectively and individuals who may be exposed to any risk.
economically.
2. Ensuring of Confidentiality of Research Data.
High Tolerance to Healthy Criticism. A researcher The confidentiality of the data collected from
is doubtful of the veracity of the results are collected the sources should be kept by the researcher.
honestly. Whenever possible, the names of the
respondents should be withdrawn from all data
Intellectual Honesty. A researcher’s success and collections forms by using numbers or codes.
failure depends on his honest collection of data and The result of the data should also be held in
its interpretation. confidence. The names of individual
respondents should never be used in any
Other traits of researchers are suggested in the publications that describe the research.
following acrostic:
R - Result oriented
E - Efficient 3. Truthfulness to respondents. Deception
S - Scientific occurs when the respondent is only told a
E - Effective portion of the truth or when the truth is
A - Active fully compromised. Some believe this
R - Resourceful should never occur. Others suggest two
C - Creative reasons to legitimate deception: (1) to
H - Honest prevent biasing the respondents prior to the
E - Economical survey or experiment and (2) to protect the
R - Religious confidentially of a third party (e.g., the
client). Deception should not be used in an
attempt to improve response rates.
What are the requirements of a research?
Essentially, research requires a clear recognition of a 4. Research with Children. The following are
problem or identification of a topic. Research after all guidelines when using children or minors
is born out of man’s determination to solve the as participants in a research study;
problems that confront him in his everyday life. a. Informed consent of parent or guardians is
required for participants defined as
Research requires the clear identification of real minors. Signers must be provided all
needs in the market to come up with new and necessary information in appropriate
innovative products or to improve existing ones; and language and must have the opportunity to
to enhance the performance of firms or the refuse.
individuals composing business organizations b. Researchers do not present themselves as
diagnosticians or counselors in reporting
Exercise 1: results to parents, nor do they report
information given by a child in confidence.
Answer the following questions briefly.
Children or minors may never be coerced
1. How does research provide the following
into participation in a study.
benefits to the individual?
c. Any form of remuneration for the child’s
2. How does research provide the following
services does not affect the application
benefits to the various stakeholders, students,
of these (and other) ethical principles.
teachers, researchers, administrators and others?
5. Right to Quality Research. From the
ETHICS IN RESEARCH
proposal through the design to data analysis
and final reporting, the researcher advises
Principles Of Ethics In Research the client on the proper techniques and
1. Safety or Protection of Participants from interpretations.
Harm. Unless the research has the potential to
Research methodology | 3:00 PM – 6:00 PM
DWAIN OCAMPO DOCTANA, LPT
Master of Arts in Education – English
6. Benefits. The purpose and benefits of the
study or experiment must be concealed
from the respondent to avoid introducing
bias. The need for concealing objectives
leads directly to the problem of deception.
7. Debriefing of Respondents. Debriefing
usually includes a description of the
hypothesis being tested and the purpose of
the experiment. Subjects who were not
deceived still benefit from the debriefing
session. It is here that they are able to
understand why the experiment was
created.
8. Rights to Privacy. The privacy laws are
taken seriously and are safeguarded. All
individuals have a right to privacy, and
researchers must respect that right. The
importance of the right to privacy is
illustrated with an example.
9. Respondents’ Consent. In most cases,
securing informed consent from
respondents is a simple matter of
describing the proposed survey or other
research design and requesting permission
to proceed. When dealing with children, it
is wise to have a parent sign a consent
form.
10. Client’s Ethics. Occasionally, researchers
may be asked by clients to identify
respondents or their groups, alter the data,
interpret the data in a favorable light, omit
sections of data analysis and conclusions,
or change the research findings. Each of
these is an example of unethical client
behavior. Compliance by the researcher
would be a breach.
11. Protection of Anonymity Researchers and
assistants protect the confidentiality of the
clients in formation and the anonymity of
the respondents. Each person handling data
should have signed a confidentiality
statement.
12. Plagiarism. Plagiarism or passing someone
else’s work as your own, is not a new
phenomenon in research. It has gained
greater attention with the advent of
technology that has made it easier to
uncover instances of plagiarism. There are
many types of plagiarism already
described. Although no degree of
plagiarism is acceptable, it can range from
Research methodology | 3:00 PM – 6:00 PM
PRMSU Graduate School – Ib
Dr. Geoffrey Sepil
complete plagiarism, as the most egregious
act of fraud, to accidental plagiarism.
Two Approaches/Main Types of Research
The two main types of research are qualitative
research and quantitative research.
Qualitative research is descriptive in nature, because
it generally deals with non-numerical and
unquantifiable things.
A biologist studying symbiotic relationships in
nature, for example, would use qualitative research,
because the scientist would more often than not be
describing behaviors of animals. There might some
numerical data in that the researcher would document
the number of observations; however, the
observations themselves would be descriptive of
what the animals do. Anecdotally, when students of
mine are first learning about wave interactions, they
have to do an experiment that asks them to
qualitatively describe what happens when a wave
trough meets a wave crest.
Quantitative research is much more numbers-driven.
The emphasis is on the collection of numerical data.
The conclusion then makes inferences based on that
data.
A biologist studying population numbers would use
quantitative research. Using the same anecdotal lab
of mine, students eventually change the frequency of
waves to manipulate the wavelength. They can
qualitatively describe what happens, but they are also
taking quantitative numerical data about the
wavelength, amplitude, and frequency of various
waves.
Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Quantitative and qualitative research use
different research methods to collect and analyze
data, and they allow you to answer different kinds of
research questions.
Qualitative vs. quantitative research
Quantitative research Qualitative Research
Test hypothesis Formulate hypothesis
Analyzed through math Analyzed by
and statistical analysis summarizing,
DWAIN OCAMPO DOCTANA, LPT
Master of Arts in Education – English
categorizing and
interpreting
Mainly expressed in
Mainly expressed in
numbers, graphs and
words
tables
Requires many Requires few
respondents respondents
Closed (multiple
Open-ended questions
choice) questions
Data collection methods
Quantitative and qualitative data can be collected
using various methods. It is important to use a data
collection method that will help answer your research
question(s).
Many data collection methods can be either
qualitative or quantitative. For example, in surveys,
observations or case studies, your data can be
represented as numbers (e.g. using rating scales or
counting frequencies) or as words (e.g. with open-
ended questions or descriptions of what you observe).
However, some methods are more commonly used in
one type or the other.
Quantitative data collection methods
 Surveys: List of closed or multiple choice
questions that is distributed to a sample (online,
in person, or over the phone).
 Experiments: Situation in which variables are
controlled and manipulated to establish cause-
and-effect relationships.
Qualitative data collection methods
 Interviews: Asking open-ended questions
verbally to respondents.
 Focus groups: Discussion among a group of
people about a topic to gather opinions that can
be used for further research.
 Ethnography: Participating in a community or
organization for an extended period of time to
closely observe culture and behavior.
 Literature review: Survey of published works
by other authors.
When to use qualitative vs. quantitative research?
A rule of thumb for deciding whether to use
qualitative or quantitative data is:
Research methodology | 3:00 PM – 6:00 PM
PRMSU Graduate School – Ib
Dr. Geoffrey Sepil
 Use quantitative research if you want
to confirm or test something (a theory or
hypothesis)
 Use qualitative research if you want
to understand something (concepts,
thoughts, experiences)
Research question: How satisfied are students with
their studies?
Quantitative research approach
You survey 300 students at your university and ask
them questions such as: “on a scale from 1-5, how
satisfied are your with your professors?”
You can perform statistical analysis on the data and
draw conclusions such as: “on average students rated
their professors 4.40”.
Qualitative research approach
You conduct in-depth interviews with 15 students
and ask them open-ended questions such as: “How
satisfied are you with your studies?”, “What is the
most positive aspect of your study program?” and
“What can be done to improve the study program?”
Based on the answers you get you can ask follow-up
questions to clarify things. You transcribe all
interviews using transcription software and try to find
commonalities and patterns.
Mixed methods approach
You conduct interviews to find out how satisfied
students are with their studies. Through open-ended
questions you learn things you never thought about
before and gain new insights. Later, you use a survey
to test these insights on a larger scale.
It’s also possible to start with a survey to find out the
overall trends, followed by interviews to better
understand the reasons behind the trends.
The Research Process
What are the major steps in research?
The steps in conducting research are:
1. Identification of Research Problem-Formulation
of Research Problem and Objectives
2. Development of the Theoretical Framework
3. Designing the Research Methodology
4. Collection, Analysis, and Interpretation of data
5. Presentation of Conclusions and
recommendations
6. Taking Course of Action
DEVELOPMENT AND FORMULATION OF
RESEARCH PROBLEM
DWAIN OCAMPO DOCTANA, LPT
Master of Arts in Education – English
Identification and Selection of the Research
Problem
For a beginning researcher the most difficult part is
the identification of the research problem for
investigation.
A research problem, also called a research issue, is a
statement about an area or field of concern that
professionals aim to understand and address. The aim
of the research may be to clarify a contradiction or
fill a knowledge gap.
A research problem is a specific issue or gap in
existing knowledge that you aim to address in your
research. You may choose to look for practical
problems aimed at contributing to change, or
theoretical problems aimed at expanding knowledge
(McCombes & George, 2023).
A research problem is a statement about an area of
concern, a condition to be improved, a difficulty to be
eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in
scholarly literature, in theory, or in practice that
points to the need for meaningful understanding and
deliberate investigation. In some social science
disciplines the research problem is typically posed in
the form of a question. A research problem does
not state how to do something, offer a vague or broad
proposition, or present a value question (Scared Heart
University, 2020).
A researcher may use the following strategies to
identify problems areas:
1. Read the Literature. Books, journals, theses,
dissertations, monographs, and similar research
publications provide information on areas that
are frequently studied; those that are new, being
explored, or just started; those that are off-
shoots of previous studies, and areas
recommended for future undertaking. Reviewing
related literature is the most important step for
purposes of identifying the research problem.
Inability to undertake this step will result in the
failure of the entire study. Research reviews
published in journals provide critical choice of
theoretical framework and methodology for a
particular problem. Recommendations of
previous study.
2. Search Using Computer Technology- Because
of the advancements in technology, it is possible
to get ideas in less time and find out what have
already been done in the various fields related to
business by searching the CD-ROM or surfing
the Internet.
Research methodology | 3:00 PM – 6:00 PM
PRMSU Graduate School – Ib
Dr. Geoffrey Sepil
3. Inquire from Business Practitioners – Many
business practitioners (i.e., managers, technical
staff, or entrepreneurs) have a good grasp of
what happens in their industry because of their
expose and actual involvement. Their success/
failure stories provide many avenues for
research. Many of these entrepreneurs and
business people are very willing to share their
success stories and other ideas, which can
stimulate further research. They are already
known the problem in the business.
4. Ask Technocrats- Civil service professionals
from government agencies and other
departments affecting the business sector can
also give suggestions, especially those that will
involve policy formulation.
5. Ask Leaders. Active on the scene are
organizations that represent owners and major
stockholders of companies in various industries.
Leaders of these
groups can provide information on issues and
concerns that can be interesting topics for
research.
7. Ask Recognized Academicians. Teachers from
leading academic institutions who have outstanding
research track records can suggest research areas in
their respective fields of expertise. University
research agenda can also be source of research
problems. Thesis students are frequently encouraged
to explore topics related to these research agenda.
8. Attend Conferences / Fora / Symposia. Current
and future business trends and issues are to the
agenda of conferences and forums conducted in the
business sector. Such presentation, discussion, and
open forum generate topics for research.
9. Inquire from Other Agencies. There are a number
of private agencies such as the Ford Foundation,
United States Agency for International Development
(USAID), Canadian Institute of Development
Agency, Sumitomo Foundation, PhilExport, Inc., and
Program of the Philippine APEC Study Center
Network (PASCN), which offer grants for research
projects based on their priorities.
Formulation of the Research Problem and Objectives
Formulation of Research Problem
Once identified and selected, the research problem
may now be stated in the clearest terms possible. A
well-formulated problem statement provides director
and focus to the study. In practice, it is acceptable
that the problem statement be either in the question or
declarative form. Good and Scats (1972) believe,
however, questions, based in the beginning of the
study sharpen and clarify the problem.
DWAIN OCAMPO DOCTANA, LPT
Master of Arts in Education – English
In formulating the problem statement, the following
criteria should be considered:
 The research problem is written in question
form.
 The research problem identifies a specific area.
Formulation of Research Objectives
The statement of the problem should be followed by
the statement of the objectives of the study. Research
objectives are the aims or the purpose that need
attained at the investigation.
Given this nature, research objectives provide a
detailed definition and delimitation of the research
problem. Moreover, objectives give particular and
specific reference to the question posed at the
introduction by formulating subordinate items that
need to be investigated in order to answer the
question.
In formulating specific objectives, the following
criteria should be considered:
 Research objectives must be stated in
declarative form.
 Specific variables to be investigated must be
written clearly.
 Concepts to be studied must be measurable
 The scope of the study must be attainable
 Each statement must be related to the main
problem
 The relationships and patterns to be tested must
be specified.
Review of Related Literature
The survey of related literature involves the
comprehensive documentation of published and
unpublished materials relevant to the research
problem.
The review of literature is primarily done by going
through secondary sources in various libraries and/or
accessing the data through the computer.
Scholarly researches like theses, dissertations, and
those published in journals always require a section
on review of related literature.
Research methodology | 3:00 PM – 6:00 PM
PRMSU Graduate School – Ib
Dr. Geoffrey Sepil
Significance of the Study
One of the primary considerations in undertaking
research is the immediate or long-term benefit
accruing to the end-user. It is, therefore, vital that the
researcher is able to clearly articulate the value of the
investigation to various individuals, groups, or
sectors.
FORMULATING THE THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a supposition of an occurrence of an
event that can be tested. It is not a wild speculation
but rather an educated guess which can be proven
empirical. The hypothesis enables the researcher to
formulate a provisional explanation of outcome that
can serve as a guide in the investigation. One good
source of hypothesis is the results of previous
investigations on the same line of topic to be studied.
Since the hypothesis will be put to test, the statement
must clearly express the relationships between two or
more variables to be investigated. The words used in
the statement must be measurable, devoid of value
judgments, and unambiguous.
The statement of the hypothesis is usually written in
the null form (Ho). The null hypothesis expresses a
no relationship or no difference between two
variables, or an assertion that is it hoped to be
rejected. The opposite of the null is the alternative
hypothesis (Ha). This hypothesis expresses that
there is a relationship or a difference between two
variables or the conjecture top be accepted.
Statistically, it is the null hypothesis that is tested or
proven. If the null hypothesis is rejected, then the
alternative hypothesis is accepted.
SAMPLING
Sampling is the process of choosing adequate and
representative elements from the population. By
studying the sample: 1) the researcher is able to draw
insights and conclusions for the entire population.
In data gathering, sampling has many advantages
over census or total enumeration. Aside from being
DWAIN OCAMPO DOCTANA, LPT
Master of Arts in Education – English
able to generalize the findings for the entire
population. 2) the researcher is also able to save in
terms of time, efforts, and cost. 3) Sampling makes
the scope of the study manageable because of the
small number of respondents to be covered, and
increase the likelihood of obtaining more reliable and
accurate result.
Population vs. Sample
First, you need to understand the difference between
a population and a sample, and identify the target
population of your research.
There are two primary types of sampling methods
that you can use in your research.
 Probability Sampling involves random
selection, allowing you to make strong statistical
inferences about the whole group.
 Non-probability sampling involves non-
random selection based on convenience or other
criteria, allowing you to easily collect data.
Probability Sampling
1. Simple random sampling – In a simple random
sample, every member of the population has an equal
chance of being selected. Your sampling frame
should include the whole population.
To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools
like random number generators or other techniques
that are based entirely on chance.
Example: You want to select a simple random sample
of 1000 employees of a social media marketing
company. You assign a number to every employee in
the company database from 1 to 1000, and use a
random number generator to select 100 numbers.
2. Systematic sampling – systematic sampling is
similar to simple random sampling but is usually
slightly easier to conduct. Every member of the
population is listed with a number, but instead of
randomly generating numbers, individuals are chosen
at regular intervals.
Example: all employees of the company are listed in
alphabetical order. From the first 10 numbers, you
randomly select a starting point: number 6. From
number 6 onwards, every 10th person on the list is
selected (6, 16, 26, 36 and so on) and you end up
with a sample of 100 people.
3. Stratified random sampling – stratified sampling
involves dividing the population into subpopulation
Research methodology | 3:00 PM – 6:00 PM
PRMSU Graduate School – Ib
Dr. Geoffrey Sepil
that may differ in important ways. It allows you draw
more precise conclusions by ensuring that every
subgroup is properly represented in the sample.
To use this sampling method, you divide the
population into subgroups (called strata) based on the
relevant characteristics (e.g. gender identity, age,
range, income bracket, job role)
Example: the company has 800 female employees
and 200. You want to ensure that the sample reflects
the gender balance of the company, so you sort the
population into two strata based on gender. Then you
use random sampling on each group, selecting
80women and 20 men, which gives you a
representative sample of 100 people.
4. Cluster sampling. It also involves dividing the
population into subgroups, but each subgroup should
have similar characteristics to the whole sample.
Instead of sampling individuals from each subgroups,
you randomly select entire subgroup.
Example: The company has offices in 10 cities across
the country (all with roughly the same number of
employees in similar roles.) You don’t have the
capacity to travel to every office to collect your data,
so you use random sampling to select 3 offices –
these are your cluster.
Non-Probability Sampling
1. Convenience sampling. A convenience sample
includes the individuals who happen to be most
accessible to the researcher. This is an easy and
inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no
way to tell if the sample is representative of the
population so it cannot produce generalizable results.
Convenience samples are at risk for both sampling
bias and selection bias.
Example: You are researching opinions about
students support services in your university so after
each of your classes, you ask your fellow students to
complete a survey on the topic. This is a convenient
way to gather data, but as you only surveyed students
taking the same classes as you at the same level, the
sample is not representative of the students at your
university.
2. Quota sampling – relies on the non-random
selection of a predetermined number or proportion of
units. This is called Quota.
DWAIN OCAMPO DOCTANA, LPT PRMSU Graduate School – Ib
Master of Arts in Education – English Dr. Geoffrey Sepil
You first divide the population into mutually
exclusive subgroups (called strata) and then recruit
sample units until you reach your quota. These units
share specific characteristics, determined by your
prior to forming your strata. The aim of quota
sampling is to control what or who makes up your
sample.;

Example: You want to gauge consumer interest in a

new produce delivery service in Boston, focused on
dietary preferences. You divide the population into
meat eaters vegetarians, and vegans drawing a
sample of 1000 people. Since the company wants to
cater to all consumers, you set a quota of 200 people
for each dietary group. In this way, all dietary
preferences are equally represented in your research,
and you can easily compare these groups. You
continue recruiting until you reach the quota of 200
participants for each.

3. Cluster sampling – cluster sampling also involves

dividing the population into subgroups, but each
subgroup should have similar characteristics to the
whole sample. Instead of sampling individuals from
each subgroups, you randomly select entire
subgroups.

Example: the company has offices in 10 cities across

the country (all with roughly the same number of
employees in similar roles) You don’t have the
capacity to travel to every office to collect your data,
so you use random sampling to select three 3 offices
– these are your clusters.

Research methodology | 3:00 PM – 6:00 PM