RESISTIVE CIRCUIT

2.1 Resistor Definition, Symbol, and Types

2.1.1 Resistor

A resistor is a passive electrical component with the primary function to limit the flow of
electric current. The resistance is measured in ohms (Ω).

Figure 1: Resistor Symbol (Image: EEPower Website)

The resistors have no polarity and can therefore be used in both directions.

To understand more how resistor works, watch: youtu.be/utDPJZA7118

References: EEPower Website, Electrotopic

2.1.2 Overview of Types of resistors

Resistors can be divided in construction type as well as resistance material. The following
breakdown for the type can be made:
2.1.2.1 Fixed Resistor

A Fixed resistor have a fixed, defined electrical resistance which is not adjustable.
Examples of general purpose fixed resistors:

Image: EEPower

The symbol of the fixed resistor is shown in Figure 1.

Reference: EEPower

2.1.2.2 Variable Resistor

A Variable resistor of which the ohmic resistance value can be adjusted. Either
mechanically or electronically. The types of variable resistors are as follows:

Potentiometer Rheostat Digital Resistor

Image: EEPower
 The symbol for Variable resistor are:

IEC Variable resistor symbol ANSI Variable resistor symbol

(Image: Linquip) (Image: Dreamstime)

Reference: EEPower

2.2 Ohm’s Law

2.2.1 Ohm’s Law Equation

Ohm’s law states that For many conductors of electricity, the electric current which will
flow through them is directly proportional to the voltage applied to them. Below is the
mathematical equation that describes this relationship:

𝑽
𝑰=
𝑹

Where:

Symbol Quantity Unit

I Current Ampere (“Amp”) (A)
V/E Voltage Volt (V)
R Resistance Ohm (Ω)
 Note: In other references, voltage could be denoted by E.

Here is the Ohm’s law Triangle technique to easily remember the formula:

Figure 2: Ohm’s Law Triangle Technique (Image: All About Circuits)

If the problem has two quantities given, eliminate from the triangle the one which is
unknown. For example: If you know E and I, and wish to determine R, just eliminate R from the
picture and see what’s left:

Reference: Hyper Physics, All About Circuits

2.2.2 Analyzing Simple Circuits

In the circuit below, there is only one source of voltage (the battery, on the left) and only
one source of resistance to current (the lamp, on the right). This makes it very easy to apply Ohm’s
Law.
 Figure 3: Simple Resistive Circuit (Image: All About Circuits)

Example:

Determine the resistance in the given circuit below.

Solution:

Given: 𝑉 = 36 𝑉
𝐼 =4𝐴

𝑉 36 𝑉
𝑅= = =𝟗𝛀
𝐼 4𝐴
For more Ohm’s Law examples, watch: youtu.be/HsLLq6Rm5tU

Reference: All About Circuits

2.3 Resistance, Conductance, and Effect of Temperature

2.3.1 Resistance and Resistivity

The resistance is a measure of how difficult it is to pass current through a wire or

component. Resistance depends on the resistivity. The resistivity is a characteristic of the material
used to fabricate a wire or other electrical component, whereas the resistance is a characteristic of
the wire or component.

The ratio of the voltage to the current is defined as the resistance 𝑹:

𝑽
𝑹=
𝑰

Figure 4: Cylindrical Segment (Image: OpenPress Website)

The resistance of a cylindrical segment of a conductor is equal to the resistivity of the

material times the length divided by the area:
 𝑳 𝑨
𝑹= 𝝆 ∴𝝆= 𝑹
𝑨 𝑳

Where:

Symbol Quantity Unit

𝜌 (rho) Resistivity Ω∙𝑚
𝐿 Length m
𝐴 Cross-sectional area 𝑚2

The table below shows the resistivity of different materials from conductors,
semiconductors, and insulators:

(Reference: Electronic Hub)

Reference: OpenPress Website

Example 1:

What is the resistance of a 100m length of round copper wire with a radius of 0.0003 m
Note: 𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 1.68 × 10−8 Ω ∙ 𝑚

Solution:

Given: 𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 1.68 × 10−8 Ω ∙ 𝑚

𝐿 = 100 𝑚

𝑟 = 0.0003 𝑚
Calculating the area: 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟2 = 𝜋(0.0003 𝑚)2

𝐴 ≈ 2.83 × 10−7 𝑚2

𝐿 100 𝑚
𝑅= 𝜌 = (1.68 × 10−8 Ω ∙ 𝑚) ( )
𝐴 2.83 × 10−7 𝑚2

𝑹 ≈ 𝟓. 𝟗𝟒 𝛀

For more example for resistance and resistivity, watch: //youtu.be/dRtNvUQC7c8

2.3.2 Conductance

Conductance (also known as electrical conductance) is defined as the potential for a

substance to conduct electricity. The inverse of resistance is called conductance (G).

𝟏
𝑮= = 𝑺𝒊𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒔 (𝑺) = 𝑴𝒉𝒐 (℧)
𝑹

Reference: Electrical Website

Example:
Suppose a particular circuit element has a resistance of 1.25 × 103 ohms. What is its
conductance?

Solution:

Since 𝑅 = 1.25 × 103 Ω

1 1
𝐺= = = 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐 𝑺
𝑅 1.25 × 103 Ω

2.3.2 Temperature Effects on Resistance and Resistivity

Temperature co-efficient of a resistance is the amount by which resistance changes when

temperature changes per degree centigrade. Resistance increases as temperature increases. This
relationship is represented by a mathematical equation:

𝑹𝒕 = 𝑹𝟎(𝟏 +𝖺𝒕𝟎 ∆𝒕)

Where:

Symbol Quantity Unit

𝖺𝑡 0 Temperature co-efficient 1
of initial temperature ℃

∆t = (𝑡 − 𝑡0) Change in temperature ℃

R Resistance Ohm (Ω)

On the other hand, the general rule for resistivity, it increases with increasing temperature
in conductors and decreases with increasing temperature in insulators. This is given by:

𝝆𝒕 = 𝝆𝟎(𝟏+𝖺 ∆𝒕)
𝟏
Note: If the temperature co-efficient is unknown, therefore we will use: 𝖺=
𝒕+𝒕𝟎

References: Physics Website, Daenotes

Example:

A resistor of 46 ohms has an initial temperature of 22 ℃ that gradually increases to 75 ℃.

Find its final resistance in ohms if the temperature co-efficient is 0.00393/℃ at 20 ℃.

Solution:

Given: 𝑅 = 46 Ω
𝑡0 = 22℃
𝑡 = 75℃
𝖺20℃= 0.00393/℃

Since the temperature co-efficient at 22℃ is unknown, we will first use the formula:
𝟏 𝟏
𝖺= 𝖺22℃ = 𝒕+𝟐𝟐℃ Eq. 1
𝒕+𝒕𝟎

Notice that there are two unknowns. Thus, we will first find the value of 𝑡 using:

1
𝖺20℃ = 𝑡+20℃

Solving for 𝑡:

0.00393 1
=
℃ 𝑡 + 20℃
𝒕 = 𝟐𝟑𝟒. 𝟓𝟒 ℃

Substituting 𝑡 to Eq. 1:

1
𝖺22℃ = 234.54 ℃+22℃

𝖺𝟐𝟐℃= 𝟑. 𝟖𝟗𝟗𝟑𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑/℃

Finally, substituting the given to the formula:

𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0(1 +𝖺𝑡0 ∆𝑡)

10−3
𝑅𝑡 = 46 Ω(1 + (3.89935 × ) (75℃ − 22℃))
℃

𝑹𝒕 ≈ 𝟓𝟓. 𝟓𝟎𝟕 𝛀
To understand more the effects of temperature to resistance, watch: youtu.be/IRwOjalkcTI

For more examples: youtu.be/PIJTu8z0-_U

Reference: Physics Website

2.4 Resistors in Series and Parallel Circuits

2.4.1 Series Circuit

In a series circuit, the output current of the first resistor flows into the input of the second
resistor; therefore, the current is the same in each resistor.

Figure 5.1: Resistor connected in Series (Image: Openpress)

The equivalent resistance of a set of resistors in a series connection is equal to the algebraic
sum of the individual resistances.

𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑹𝑵
Figure 5.2: (a) Three resistors connected in series to a voltage source. (b) The original circuit is
reduced to an equivalent resistance and a voltage source. (Image: Openpress)

Example 1:

Solve the equivalent resistance in the given circuit below:

Solution:

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑁

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 20Ω + 20Ω + 20Ω + 20Ω + 10Ω

𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝟗𝟎𝛀

Reference: Openpress
2.4.2 Parallel Circuit

In a parallel circuit, all of the resistor leads on one side of the resistors are connected
together and all the leads on the other side are connected together.

Figure 5.3: Resistor connected in Parallel (Image: Openpress)

Generalizing to any number of 𝑁 resistors, the equivalent resistance 𝑅𝑒𝑞 of a parallel

connection is related to the individual resistances by:

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 −𝟏
𝑹𝒆𝒒 = ( + + +⋯+ )
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝑵

Figure 5.4: (a) Two resistors connected in parallel to a voltage source. (b) The original circuit is
reduced to an equivalent resistance and a voltage source. (Image: Openpress)
Example 2:

Three resistors 𝑅1 = 1Ω, 𝑅2 = 2Ω, and 𝑅3 = 2Ω are connected in parallel. What is the
Equivalent resistance of the circuit?

Solution:

1 1 1 1 −1
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = ( + + +⋯+ )
𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑅2 𝑅𝑁
1 1 −1 1
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = ( + + ) = (2Ω)−1
1Ω 2Ω 2Ω

𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝛀

For more example of equivalent resistance in series and parallel circuit, watch:
youtu.be/kjW4H3fKi8o

Reference: Openpress