RESN! (K H@Lliday W@Lker Physics For JEE Main and Advanced (Iitjeebooks - Com) - 1

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9
c h a p t e r
Center of Mass
9.1 | WHAT IS PHYSICS? Contents

9.1 What is Physics?
Every mechanical engineer who is hired as a courtroom expert witness to 9.2 The Center of Mass
reconstruct a traffc accident uses physics. Every dance trainer who coaches 9.3 Newton’s Second Law
a ballerina on how to leap uses physics. Indeed, analyzing complicated for a System of Particles
motion of any sort requires simplifcation via an understanding of physics. 9.4 Linear Momentum
In this chapter we discuss how the complicated motion of a system of objects, 9.5 The Linear Momentum
Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs
of a System of Particles
such as a car or a ballerina, can be simplifed if we determine a special point
9.6 Impulse and Momentum
of the system—the center of mass of that system. 9.7 Conservation of Linear
Here is a quick example. If you toss a ball into the air without much spin Momentum
on the ball (Fig. 9-1a), its motion is simple—it follows a parabolic path, 9.8 Collisions
as we discussed in Chapter 4, and the ball can be treated as a particle. If, 9.9 Inelastic Collisions in
instead, you fip a baseball bat into the air (Fig. 9-1b), its motion is more One Dimension
9.10 Elastic Collisions in One
Dimension
9.11 Collisions in Two
Dimensions
9.12 C-Frame
(a) 9.13 Impulse Momentum
Equation for Continuous
Processes
Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs
9.14 Systems with Varying

Mass: A Rocket
9.15 Some Derivations
Pertaining to com of
Objects
(a) (b)
Figure 9-1 (a) A ball tossed into the air follows a parabolic path. (b) The center of
mass (black dot) of a baseball bat fipped into the air follows a parabolic path, but all
other points of the bat follow more complicated curved paths.
334 Chapter 9 Center of Mass
complicated. Because every part of the bat moves differently, along paths of many different shapes, you cannot
represent the bat as a p
article. Instead, it is a system of particles each of which follows its own path through the air.
However, the bat has one special point—the center of mass—that does move in a simple parabolic path. The other
parts of the bat move around the center of mass. (To locate the center of mass, balance the bat on an outstretched
fnger; the point is above your fnger, on the bat’s central axis.)
You cannot make a career of fipping baseball bats into the air, but you can make a career of advising long-
jumpers or dancers on how to leap p roperly into the air while either moving their arms and legs or rotating their
torso. Your starting point would be to determine the person’s center of mass because of its simple motion.
9.2 | THE CENTER OF MASS

Key Concept
◆ The center of mass of a system of n particles is defned to be the point whose coordinates are given by
1 n 1 n 1 n
xcom = ∑ mi xi ,
M i =1
ycom = ∑ mi yi ,
M i =1
zcom = ∑ mi zi ,
M i =1
 1 n 
or rcom = ∑ mi ri ,
M i =1
where M is the total mass of the system.
We defne the center of mass (com) of a system of particles (such as a person) in order to predict the possible
motion of the system.
The center of mass of a system of particles is the point that moves as though (1) all of the system’s mass were concentrated
there and (2) all external forces were applied there.
Here we discuss how to determine where the center of mass of a system of particles is located. We start with a
system of only a few particles, and then we consider a system of a great many particles (a solid body, such as a
baseball bat). Later in the chapter, we discuss how the center of mass of a system moves when external forces act
on the system.
System of Particles
Two Particles. Figure 9-2a shows two particles of masses m1 and m2 separated by distance d. We have arbitrarily
chosen the origin of an x axis to coincide with the particle of mass m1. We defne the position of the center of mass
of this two-particle system to be
m2
xcom = d. (9-1)
m1 + m2
Suppose, as an example, that m2 = 0. Then there is only one particle, of mass m1, and the center of mass must
lie at the position of that particle; Eq. 9-1 dutifully reduces to xcom = 0. If m1 = 0, there is again only one particle
(of mass m2), and we have, as we expect, xcom = d. If m1 = m2, the center of mass should be halfway between the two
particles; Eq. 9-1 reduces to xcom = 1/2 d, again as we expect. Finally, Eq. 9-1 tells us that if neither m1 nor m2 is zero,
xcom can have only values that lie between zero and d; that is, the center of mass must lie somewhere between the
two particles.
9.2 The Center of Mass 335
y y
This is the center of mass
xcom of the two-particle system. xcom
m1 m2 m1 m2
x x
com com Shifting the axis
d x1 d does not change
the relative position
x2
of the com.
(a) (b)
Figure 9-2 (a) Two particles of masses m1 and m2 are separated by distance d. The dot labeled com shows the position of the center
of mass, calculated from Eq. 9-1. (b) The same as (a) except that the origin is located farther from the particles. The position of the
center of mass is calculated from Eq. 9-2. The location of the center of mass with respect to the particles is the same in both cases.
We are not required to place the origin of the coordinate system on one of the particles. Figure 9-2b shows a more
generalized situation, in which the coordinate system has been shifted leftward. The position of the center of mass
is now defned as
m1 x1 + m2 x2
xcom = . (9-2)
m1 + m2
Note that if we put x1 = 0, then x2 becomes d and Eq. 9-2 reduces to Eq. 9-1, as it must. Note also that inspite of the
shift of the coordinate system, the center of mass is still the same distance from each particle. The com is a property
of the physical particles, not the coordinate system we happen to use.
We can rewrite Eq. 9-2 as
m1 x1 + m2 x2
xcom = , (9-3)
M
in which M is the total mass of the system. (Here, M = m1 = m2.)
Many Particles. We can extend this equation to a more general situation in which n particles are strung out along
the x axis. Then the total mass is M = m1 + m2 +  + mn, and the location of the center of mass is
m1 x1 + m2 x2 + m3 x3 +  + mn xn
xcom =
M
1 n
= ∑ mi xi .
M i =1
(9-4)
The subscript i is an index that takes on all integer values from 1 to n.

Three Dimensions. If the particles are distributed in three dimensions, the center of mass must be identifed by
three coordinates. By extension of Eq. 9-4, they are
1 n 1 n 1 n
xcom = ∑ mi xi ,
M i =1
ycom = ∑ mi yi ,
M i =1
zcom = ∑ mi zi .(9-5)
M i =1
We can also defne the center of mass with the language of vectors. First recall that the position of a particle at
coordinates xi, yi, and zi is given by a position vector (it points from the origin to the particle):

ri = xi i + yi j + zi k.
(9-6)
Here the index identifes the particle, and i, j, and k are unit vectors pointing, respectively, in the positive direction of
the x, y, and z axes. Similarly, the position of the center of mass of a system of particles is given by a position vector:

rcom = xcom i + ycom j + zcom k . (9-7)
If you are a fan of concise notation, the three scalar equations of Eq. 9-5 can now be replaced by a single vector
equation,
 1 n 
rcom = ∑
M i =1
mi ri , (9-8)
where again M is the total mass of the system. You can check that this equation is correct by substituting Eqs. 9-6
and 9-7 into it, and then separating out the x, y, and z components. The scalar relations of Eq. 9-5 result.
Solid Bodies
An ordinary object, such as a baseball bat, contains so many particles (atoms) that we can best treat it as a continuous
distribution of matter. The “particles” then become differential mass elements dm, the sums of Eq. 9-5 become
integrals, and the coordinates of the center of mass are defned as
1 1 1
M∫ M∫ M∫
xcom = x dm, ycom = y dm, zcom = z dm, (9-9)
where M is now the mass of the object. The integrals effectively allow us to use Eq. 9-5 for a huge number of
particles, an effort that otherwise would take many years.
Evaluating these integrals for most common objects (such as a television set or a moose) would be diffcult, so
here we consider only uniform objects. Such objects have uniform density, or mass per unit volume; that is, the
density ρ (Greek letter rho) is the same for any given element of an object as for the whole object. From Eq. 1-8,
we can write
dm M
ρ= = , (9-10)
dV V
where dV is the volume occupied by a mass element dm, and V is the total volume of the object. Substituting
dm = (M/V) dV from Eq. 9-10 into Eq. 9-9 gives
1 1 1
V∫ V∫ V∫
xcom = x dV , ycom = y dV , zcom = z dV . (9-11)
Symmetry as a Shortcut. You can bypass one or more of these integrals if an object has a point, a line, or a plane
of symmetry. The center of mass of such an object then lies at that point, on that line, or in that plane. For exam-
ple, the center of mass of a uniform sphere (which has a point of symmetry) is at the center of the sphere (which
is the point of symmetry). The center of mass of a uniform cone (whose axis is a line of symmetry) lies on the axis
of the cone. The center of mass of a banana (which has a plane of symmetry that splits it into two equal parts) lies
somewhere in the plane of symmetry.
The center of mass of an object need not lie within the object. There is no dough at the com of a doughnut, and
no iron at the com of a horseshoe.
CHECKPOINT 1
The fgure shows a uniform square plate from which four identical squares at the corners will be y
removed. (a) Where is the center of mass of the plate originally? Where is it after the removal of
(b) square 1; (c) squares 1 and 2; (d) squares 1 and 3; (e) squares 1, 2, and 3; (f) all four squares? 1 2
Answer in terms of quadrants, axes, or points (without calculation, of course).
x
4 3
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.01

com of three particles
Three particles of masses m1 = 1.2 kg, m2 = 2.5 kg, and and

m3 = 3.4 kg form an equilateral triangle of edge length
a = 140 cm. Where is the center of mass of this system? 1 3 m y + m2 y2 + m3 y3
ycom = ∑
M i =1
mi yi = 1 1
M
KEY IDEA (1.2 kg)(0) + (2.5 kg)(0) + (33.4 kg)(120 cm)
=
We are dealing with particles instead of an extended solid 7.1 kg
body, so we can use Eq. 9-5 to locate their center of mass.
= 58 cm (Answer)
The particles are in the plane of the equilateral triangle,
so we need only the frst two equations.
In Fig. 9-3, the center of mass is located by the posi-
Calculations: We can simplify the calculations by choos- 
tion vector rcom , which has components xcom and ycom. If
ing the x and y axes so that one of the particles is located
we had chosen some other orientation of the coordi-
at the origin and the x axis coincides with one of the
nate system, these coordinates would be different but
triangle’s sides (Fig. 9-3). The three particles then have
the location of the com relative to the particles would
the following coordinates:
be the same.
Particle Mass (kg) x (cm) y (cm)

y
1 1.2 0 0
This is the position
2 2.5 140 0 150 vector rcom for the
3 3.4 70 120 m3
com (it points from
the origin to the com).
100
The total mass M of the system is 7.1 kg.
From Eq. 9-5, the coordinates of the center of mass a a
are 50
1 3 m x + m2 x2 + m3 x3 ycom
rcom
xcom = ∑
M i =1
mi xi = 1 1
M m2
x
0
0 m1 50 xcom 100 150
(1.2 kg)(0) + (2.5 kg)(140 cm) + (3.4 kg)(70 cm)
= Figure 9-3 Three particles form an equilateral triangle of
7.1 kg
edge length a. The center of mass is located by the position

= 83 cm (Answer) vector rcom .
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.02

com of plate with missing piece
This sample problem has lots of words to read, but they KEY IDEAS
will allow you to calculate a com using easy algebra
(1) Let us roughly locate the center of plate P by using
instead of challenging integral calculus. Figure 9-4a
symmetry. We note that the plate is symmetric about
shows a uniform metal plate P of radius 2R from which
the x axis (we get the portion below that axis by rotating
a disk of radius R has been stamped out (removed) in an
the upper portion about the axis). Thus, comP must be
assembly line. The disk is shown in Fig. 9-4b. Using the
on the x axis. The plate (with the disk removed) is not
xy coordinate system shown, locate the center of mass
symmetric about the y axis. However, because there is
comP of the remaining plate.
s omewhat more mass on the right of the y axis, comP y

must be s omewhat to the right of that axis. Thus, the
location of comP should be roughly as indicated in
Fig. 9-4a.
(2) Plate P is an extended solid body, so in 2R
principle we can use Eqs. 9-11 to fnd the actual R
coordinates of the center of mass of plate P. Here
x
we want the xy coordinates of the center of mass comP
because the plate is thin and uniform. If it had any
appreciable thickness, we would just say that the Plate P Assume the plate's
center of mass is midway across the thickness. Still, mass is concentrated
using Eqs. 9-11 would be challenging because we as a particle at the
(a)
would need a function for the shape of the plate plate's center of mass.
with its hole, and then we would need to integrate
the function in two dimensions.
(3) Here is a much easier way: In working with
y Here too, assume the
centers of mass, we can assume that the mass of a
mass is concentrated
uniform object (as we have here) is concentrated in
as a particle at the
a particle at the object’s center of mass. Thus we Disk S center of mass.
can treat the object as a particle and avoid any two-
dimensional integration. x
comS
Calculations: First, put the stamped-out disk (call
it disk S) back into place (Fig. 9-4c) to form the
(b)
original composite plate (call it plate C). Because
of its circular symmetry, the center of mass comS for
disk S is at the center of S, at x = −R (as shown).
Similarly, the center of mass comC for composite y Composite plate
plate C is at the center of C, at the origin (as shown). C=S+P
We then have the following:
Here too.
Center Location
Plate of Mass of com Mass
P comP xP = ? mP
comC
S comS xS = −R mS
C comC xC = 0 mC = mS + mP (c)
Assume that mass mS of disk S is concentrated in Here are those

a particle at xS = −R, and mass mP is concentrated three particles.
in a particle at xP (Fig. 9-4d). Next we use Eq. 9-2
to fnd the center of mass xS + P of the two-particle (d) x
comS comC comP
system: Disk particle Plate particle
mS xS + mP xP The com of the composite

xS + P = . (9-12) plate is the same as the
mS + mP
com of the two pieces.
Figure 9-4 (a) Plate P is a metal plate of radius 2R, with a circular hole of radius R. The center of mass of P is at point comP.
(b) Disk S. (c) Disk S has been put back into place to form a composite plate C. The center of mass comS of disk S and the center of
mass comC of plate C are shown. (d) The center of mass comS + P of the combination of S and P coincides with comC, which is at x = 0.
Next note that the combination of disk S and plate P is Because the plate is uniform, the densities and thick-
composite plate C. Thus, the position xS + P of comS + P must nesses are equal; we are left with
coincide with the position xC of comC, which is at the ori-
gin; so xS + P = xC = 0. Substituting this into Eq. 9-12, we get mS area S area S
= =
mS mP area P areaC − area S
x P = − xS . (9-13)
mP π R2 1
= = .
We can relate these masses to the face areas of S and P π (2 R)2 − π R 2 3
by noting that
Substituting this and xS = −R into Eq. 9-13, we have
mass = density × volume
= density × thickness × area. 1
xP = R. (Answer)
mS density S thicknessS area S 3
Then = × × .
mP density P thicknessP area P
PROBLEM-SOLVING TACTICS
Tactic 1: Center-of-Mass Problems Sample Problems 9.01 and 9.02 provide three strategies for simplifying
center-of-mass problems. (1) Make full use of the symmetry of the object, be it about a point, a line, or a plane.
(2) If the object can be divided into several parts, treat each of these parts as a particle, located at its own center of
mass. (3) Choose your axes wisely: If your system is a group of particles, choose one of the particles as your origin.
If your system is a body with a line of symmetry, let that line of symmetry be the x axis or y axis. The choice of
origin can be completely arbitrary because the location of the center of mass is the same regardless of the origin
from which it is measured.
CHECKPOINT 2
Find location of com of the arrangement of regular hexagon that has point masses at fve vertices.
m L m
m 4m A
x
O
m m
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.03

com of several thin rods
Figure 9-5a shows two thin uniform rods, each of length KEY IDEA
0.20 m and mass 0.020 kg. What are the x and y coordi-
A uniform object has a uniform (or even) distribu-
nates of the center of mass of the two-rod system?
tion of mass. The com of a uniform rod must be at the
y (m) Similarly, the y coordinate of the system’s com is given

by
0 x (m) m1 y1 + m2 y2
ycom =
0.10 0.20 m1 + m2
−0.12 (0.020 kg)(0) + (0.020 kg )(− 0.12 m)
=
(a) 0.020 kg + 0.020 kg
Figure 9-5 (a) Two thin uniform rods of different mass and length. = − 0.05 m. (Answer)
rod’s center. We can pretend that the mass of the rod

is concentrated there, and then we can treat the rod as y (m)
being a particle. The com of the system of two rods is
located at the com of the system of two particles.
(0.10, 0)
Calculations: The com of the top rod is located at the x (m)
(x, y) coordinates (0.10 m, 0), and the com of the bottom
rod is located at coordinates (0.20 m, −0.12 m). The asso- (0.20, −0.12)
ciated particles are shown in Fig. 9-5b. The x coordinate
of the system’s com is then given by Eq. 9-2: (b)
Figure 9-5 (b) The associated particles of two rods.

m1 x1 + m2 x2
xcom =
m1 + m2
(0.020 kg)(0.10 m) + (0.020 kg)(0.20 m)
=
0.020 kg + 0.020 kg
= 0.15 m. (Answer)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.04

com of uniform plate after a piece is removed
Figure 9-6 shows a uniform square plate with edge y

length 6.0 m; the plate is centered on the origin of an xy
coordinate system. A rectangular portion measuring 1.0 m
by 3.0 m is to be removed from the lower left. What is the
x component of the remaining plate’s com? R
x
W
KEY IDEA 3m
D
A uniform distribution of mass can be replaced with a
particle of the same mass, located at the distribution’s
com. In an “easy” geometric shape, the com is at the obvi- 1m
ous center of the shape. The com of a system of several
Figure 9-6 Uniform square plate and a rectangular portion
particles can be calculated with Eq. 9-5 ( xcom = ∑ m1 x1 )
removed from the lower left.
with M being the total mass).
Method 1: The com of the whole plate is located at the
origin, at point W in Fig. 9-6. The com of the deleted piece coordinates (−2.5 m, −1.5 m). We want the coordinates of
is located at the center of the piece, at point D which has the com of the remaining piece, at point R.
The mass m of any part of the plate is proportional to Piece com coordinates Face area
its face area A. So, for the deleted piece and the whole
Upper-left square (−1.5 m, 1.5 m) 9 m2
plate, we have
Upper-right square (1.5 m, 1.5 m) 9 m2
mD AD 3 m2
= = Lower-right square (1.5 m, −1.5 m) 9 m2
mW AW 36 m 2
Lower-left rectangle (−1.0 m, −1.5 m) 6 m2
3
or mD = mW .
36 The total area of these rectangles is 33 m2. Again, mass is
If (3/36) of the whole-plate mass is deleted, then the proportional to face area. So, the masses of the pieces can
remaining piece must have mass (33/36)mW. be written in terms of the total mass M of the rectangles:
Let us go back to the whole plate, which has a com
at coordinates xcom, W = 0 and ycom, W = 0 and mass mW. Mass of piece Area of piece
=
It consists of a piece to be deleted and a remaining Total mass Total area
piece. The deleted piece can be represented by a par-
ticle at (−2.5 m, −1.5 m) and with a mass of (3/36)mW. Here are the masses:
The remaining piece can be represented by a particle
at unknown coordinates (xR, yR) and with a mass of
Piece com coordinates Face area Mass
(33/36)mW. Equation 9-5 then gives us
Upper-left square (−1.5 m, 1.5 m) 9m 2
(9/33)M
mR xR + mW xW Upper-right square (1.5 m, 1.5 m) 9 m2 (9/33)M
xcom , W =
mR + mW Lower-right square (1.5 m, −1.5 m) 9m 2
(9/33)M
 33   3  Lower-left rectangle (−1.0 m, −1.5 m) 6m 2

(6/33)M
 mW  xR +  mW  (−2.4 m)
 36   36 
0=
 333 3  Finally, we use Eq. 9-5 to fnd the x component xR of the
 mW + mW  com of this system of four particles that represent the
 36 36 
xR = 0.23 m . (Answer) four rectangles.
Method 2: Split the remaining plate into four rectangles.  9   9   9   6 

Replace each rectangle with a particle at the rectan-  M (−1.5) +  M (1.5) +  M (1.5) +  M (−1.0)
 33   33   33   33 
xR =
gle’s center and with the rectangle’s mass. That mass is M
proportional to the face area. So, frst fnd the face areas: = 0.2. (Answer)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.05

com of uniform objects
Figure 9-7a shows two uniform plates made of the same

y
material and having the same thickness (not shown).
Figure 9-7b shows a uniform, solid cylinder of radius y (m)
r = 0.030 m and height h = 0.20 m. Locate the com of the
two-plate system and the com of the cylinder. B
3
KEY IDEA A
1
The com of a uniform object is at the center of the x (m) x

2 3
object. If a system consists of several uniform objects,
(a) (b)
they each can be replaced with a particle located at the
object’s com, as if all the object’s mass is concentrated Figure 9-7 Two uniform plates made of the same material.
there. The com of the system is then calculated in terms We can now calculate the coordinates xcom and ycom
of these replacement particles. of the system’s com by using the frst two parts of
Two-plate system: We replace each plate with a parti- Eq. 9-5:
cle located at its center. Because the plates are uniform
and have the same density and thickness, the mass of mA x A + mB xB
xcom =
each plate is proportional to the face area. M
 2.0   3.0 
Plate com location Area  M  (1.0) +  M  (2.5)
 5.0   5.0 
A (1.0 m, 0.50 m) 2.0 m2 =
M
B (2.5 m, 1.50 m) 3.0 m2
= 1.9 m. (Answer)
Because the plates are uniform and have the same
density and thickness, the mass of each plate is propor- mA yA + mB yB
tional to the face area. The total face area of 5.0 m2 is ycom =
proportional to the total mass M. M
 2.0   3.0 
Mass of plate Area of plate  M  (0.50) +  M  (1.5)
= 5.0   5.0 
So,
Total mass Total area =
M
Mass of plate Area of plate = 1.11 m. (Answer)
becomes =
M 5.0 m 2
and we have the following table: Cylinder: The com of the cylinder is at the center of the
cylinder, at coordinates
Plate com location Area Mass
A (1.0 m, 0.50 m) 2.0 m 2
(2.0/5.0)M =xcom 0=
and ycom 0.5 h = 0.10 m.
B (2.5 m, 1.5 m) 3.0 m2 (3.0/5.0)M
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.06

com of uniform triangular plate
Find the center of mass of the uniform triangular plate Calculations: In Figs. 9-8b and 9-8c, we subdivide the
that is, shown in Fig. 9-8. plate into slats parallel to the other two sides of the trian-
gle. Again, the center of mass must lie somewhere along
each of the bisecting lines shown. Hence the center of
KEY IDEA
mass of the plate must lie at the intersection of these
Figure 9-8a shows the plate divided into thin slats, paral- three symmetry lines, as Fig. 9-8d shows. That intersec-
lel to one side of the triangle. The key idea here is that, tion is the only point that the three lines have in common.
from symmetry, the center of mass of a thin, uniform slat You can check this conclusion experimentally by tak-
is at its mid-point. Thus, the center of mass of the triangu- ing advantage of the (correct) intuitive notion that an
lar plate must lie somewhere along the line that connects object suspended from one of its points will orient itself
the midpoints of all slats. so that its center of mass lies vertically below that point.
That bisecting line also connects the upper vertex with Suspend the triangle from each vertex in turn, and draw
the midpoint of the opposite side. The plate would bal- a line vertically downward from the suspension point, as
ance if it were placed on a knife-edge coinciding with this in Fig. 9-8e. The center of mass of the triangle will be at
line of symmetry. the intersection of the three lines.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
(a) (b)(c) (d )
(c) (d )
Cord
Cord
(c) (d)
com
com
Cord
(e)
(e)
com
Figure 9-8 In (a), (b), and (c), the triangular plate is divided into thin slats, parallel to one side. The center of mass must lie along
the bisecting line shown, (d) The dot, the only point common to all three lines, is the position of the center of mass, (e) Finding the
center of mass by suspending the triangle from each vertex in turn.
(e)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.07

com of U-shaped object
The U-shaped object pictured in Fig. 9-9 has outer dimen- y (mm)
sions of 100 mm on each side, and each of its three sides 100
is 20 mm wide. It was cut from a uniform sheet of plastic
6.0 mm thick. Locate the center of mass of this object.
KEY IDEA A B
50
Here we break the U-shaped object up into pieces, each
having an easily located center of mass of that piece, and
then use Eq. 9-5 to locate the center of mass of the whole 20
C
object.
0 x(mm)
Calculations: As shown in Fig. 9-9 we can think of the 20 50 80 100
U-shaped object as made up of two vertical bars, each
Figure 9-9 U-shaped object.
100 mm long 20 mm wide, joined together by one hori-
zontal bar 60 mm long and 20 mm wide. Let’s place the
origin of our coordinate system at the lower-left rear cor- each of the bars, A, B and C, we can now write down
ner of the U, with the x axis across its base and the y axis their locations in the coordinate system pictured there:
along its left edge. To locate the center of mass of each of
the bars, we will use the key idea that the center of mass
of a symmetric object of uniform density is located at its Object Mass X (mm) Y (mm) Z (mm)
geometric center. This means that the center of mass of Left bar MA 90 50 3
each bar is exactly halfway from either end, halfway from Right bar MB 90 50 3
either side, and halfway between the top and bottom sur-
Bottom bar MC 50 10 3
faces of the plastic sheet. Putting a dot at the center of
To learn more about the relative masses of the three M AYA + M BYB + MC YC
bars, we can use the key idea that the mass of each bar is Ycom =
Msys
proportional to its volume since the bars have a uniform
common density. In this case, the relationship is even M (50 mm) + M (50 mm) + 0.6 M (10 mm)
=
simpler: since the three bars are of the same width and 2.6 M
thickness, each one’s mass is directly proportional to its = 41 mm
length, so
M (3.0 mm) + M (3.0 mm) + 0.6 M (3.0 mm)
MA = MB = M and MC = M(60 mm)/(100 mm) = 0.6 M Zcom =
2.6 M
and Msys = MA + MB + MC = M + M + 0.6 M = 2.6 M (7.8 mm)M
=
2.6 M
Replacing each bar by a point mass at its center of mass, = 3 mm
Eq. 9-5 gives us the location of the center of mass of the
entire U-shaped object.
So, Rcom = (50 mm)i + (41 mm)j + (3 mm)k (Answer)
M X + M B X B + MC X C
X com = A A
Msys
M (10 mm) + M (90 mm) + 0.6 M (50 mm)
=
2.6 M
= 50 mm
9.3 | NEWTON’S SECOND LAW FOR A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES

Key Concept

◆ The motion of the center of mass of any system of par- Here Fnet is the net force of all the external forces
ticles is governed by Newton’s second law for a system acting on the system, M is the total mass of the system,
of particles, which is 
and acom is the acceleration of the system’s center of
  mass.
Fnet = Macom .
Now that we know how to locate the center of mass of a system of particles, we discuss how external forces can
move a center of mass. Let us start with a simple system of two billiard balls.
If you roll a cue ball at a second billiard ball that is at rest, you expect that the two-ball system will continue to
have some forward motion after impact. You would be surprised, for example, if both balls came back toward you
or if both moved to the right or to the left. You already have an intuitive sense that something continues to move
forward.
What continues to move forward, its steady motion completely unaffected by the collision, is the center of mass
of the two-ball system. If you focus on this point—which is always halfway between these bodies because they have
identical masses—you can easily convince yourself by trial at a billiard table that this is so. No matter whether
the collision is glancing, head-on, or somewhere in between, the center of mass continues to move forward, as if the
collision had never occurred. Let us look into this center-of-mass motion in more detail.
Motion of a System’s com. To do so, we replace the pair of billiard balls with a system of n particles of
(possibly) different masses. We are interested not in the individual motions of these particles but only in the motion
of the center of mass of the system. Although the center of mass is just a point, it moves like a particle whose mass
is equal to the total mass of the system; we can assign a position, a velocity, and an acceleration to it. We state
9.3 Newton’s Second Law for a System of Particles 345
(and shall prove next) that the vector equation that governs the motion of the center of mass of such a system of
particles is
 
Fnet = Macom (system of particles). (9-14)
This equation is Newton’s second law for the motion  of the center of mass of a system of particles. Note that its

form is the same as the form of the equation (Fnet = ma ) for the motion of a single particle. However, the three
quantities that appear in Eq. 9-14 must be evaluated with some care:

1. Fnet is the net force of all external forces that act on the system. Forces on one part of the system from another
part of the system (internal forces) are not included in Eq. 9-14.
2. M is the total mass of the system. We assume that no mass enters or leaves the system as it moves, so that
M remains constant. The system is said to be closed.

3. acom is the acceleration of the center of mass of the system. Equation 9-14 gives no information about the
acceleration of any other point of the system.
 
Equation 9-14 is equivalent to three equations involving the components of Fnet and acom along the three coordinate
axes. These equations are
Fnet, x = Macom, x Fnet, y = Macom, y Fnet, z = Macom, z.(9-15)
Billiard Balls. Now we can go back and examine the behavior of the billiard  balls. Once the cue ball has begun

to roll, no net external force acts on the (twoball) system. Thus, because Fnet = 0, Eq. 9-14 tells us that acom = 0 also.
Because acceleration is the rate of change of velocity, we conclude that the velocity of the center of mass of the
system of two balls does not change. When the two balls collide, the forces that come into play are internal forces,
on one ball from the other. Such forces do not contribute to the net force Fnet , which remains zero. Thus, the center
of mass of the system, which was moving forward before the collision, must continue to move forward after the
collision, with the same speed and in the same direction.
Solid Body. Equation 9-14 applies not only to a system of particles but also to a solid body, such as the bat of
Fig. 9-1b. In that case, M in Eq. 9-14 is the mass of the bat and Fnet is the gravitational force on the bat. Equation 9-14
 
then tells usthat acom = g. In other words, the center of mass of the bat moves as if the bat were a single particle of mass M,
with force Fg acting on it.
Exploding Bodies. Figure 9-10 shows another interesting case. Suppose
The internal forces of the
that at a freworks display, a rocket is launched on a parabolic path. At a
explosion cannot change
certain point, it explodes into fragments. If the explosion had not occurred,
the path of the com.
the rocket would have continued along the trajectory shown in the fgure.
The forces of the explosion are internal to the system (at frst the system is
just the rocket, and later it is its fragments); that is, they are forces on parts
of
 the s ystem from other parts. If we ignore air drag, the net external force
Fnet acting on the system is the gravitational force on the system, regardless

of whether the rocket explodes. Thus, from Eq. 9-14, the acceleration acom
of the c enter of mass of the fragments (while they are in fight) remains

equal to g. This means that the center of mass of the fragments follows the
same parabolic trajectory that the rocket would have followed had it not
Figure 9-10 A freworks rocket explodes
exploded. in fight. In the absence of air drag, the
Ballet Leap. When a ballet dancer leaps across the stage in a grand center of mass of the fragments would con-
jeté, she raises her arms and stretches her legs out horizontally as soon as tinue to follow the original parabolic path,
her feet leave the stage (Fig. 9-11). These actions shift her center of mass until fragments began to hit the ground.
upward through her body. Although the shifting center of mass faithfully
follows a parabolic path across the stage, its movement relative to the body decreases the height that is attained by
her head and torso, relative to that of a normal jump. The result is that the head and torso follow a nearly horizontal
path, giving an illusion that the dancer is foating.
Path of head
Path of center of mass
Figure 9-11 A grand jeté. (Based on The Physics of Dance, by Kenneth Laws, Schirmer Books, 1984.)
Proof of Eq. 9-14

Now let us prove this important equation. From Eq. 9-8 we have, for a system of n particles,

Mrcom = m1r1 + m2 r2 + m3 r3 + + mn rn , (9-16)

in which M is the system’s total mass and rcom is the vector locating the position of the system’s center of mass.
Differentiating Eq. 9-16 with respect to time gives

Mvcom = m1v1 + m2 v2 + m3 v3 + + mn vn . (9-17)
   
Here vi (= dri /dt ) is the velocity of the ith particle, and vcom (= drcom /dt ) is the velocity of the center of mass.
Differentiating Eq. 9-17 with respect to time leads to

Macom = m1a1 + m2 a2 + m3 a3 + + mn an . (9-18)
   
Here ai (= dvi /dt ) is the acceleration of the ith particle, and acom (= dvcom /dt ) is the acceleration of the center of
mass. Although the center of mass is just a geometrical point, it has a position, a velocity, and an acceleration,
as if it were a particle. 

From Newton’s second law, mi ai is equal to the resultant force Fi that acts on the ith particle. Thus, we can rewrite
Eq. 9-18 as

Macom = F1 + F2 + F3 + + Fn . (9-19)
Among the forces that contribute to the right side of Eq. 9-19 will be forces that the particles of the system exert
on each other (internal forces) and forces exerted on the particles from outside the system (external forces).
By Newton’s third law, the internal forces form third-law force pairs and cancel out in the sum that appears on the
right side of Eq. 9-19. What remains is the vector sum of all the external forces that act on the system. Equation 9-19
then reduces to Eq. 9-14, the relation that we set out to prove.
CHECKPOINT 3
Two skaters on frictionless ice hold opposite ends of a pole of negligible mass. An axis runs along it, with the origin at the center
of mass of the two-skater system. One skater, Fred, weighs twice as much as the other skater, Ethel. Where do the skaters meet
if (a) Fred pulls hand over hand along the pole so as to draw himself to Ethel, (b) Ethel pulls hand over hand to draw herself to
Fred, and (c) both skaters pull hand over hand?
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.08

Motion of the com of three particles
If the particles in a system all move together, the com y

moves with them—no trouble there. But what happens F1 F2
when they move in different directions with different 3
4.0 kg 45°
accelerations? Here is an example. 2
The three particles in Fig. 9-12a are initially at rest. com 8.0 kg
Each experiences an external force due to bodies outside 1
the three-particle system. The directions are indicated, 0 x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
and the magnitudes are F1 = 6.0 N, F2 = 12 N, and F3 = 14 N.
What is the acceleration of the center of mass of the sys- –1
4.0 kg
tem, and in what direction does it move? –2
F3
The com of the system
–3
will move as if all the (a)
KEY IDEAS mass were there and y
The position of the center of mass is marked by a dot in the net force acted there. F2 Fnet
the fgure. We can treat the center of mass as if it were a 3
M = 16 kg
real particle, with a mass equal to the system’s total mass 2
M = 16 kg. We can also treat the three external forces as F1 θ acom
if they act at the center of mass (Fig. 9-12b). 1 com F3
0
Calculations:
 We can now apply Newton’s second law x
 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
(Fnet = ma ) to the center of mass, writing (b)
  Figure 9-12 (a) Three particles, initially at rest in the positions
Fnet = Macom (9-20)
shown, are acted on by the external forces shown. The center
    of mass (com) of the system is marked. (b) The forces are now
or F1 + F2 + F3 = Macom transferred to the center of mass of the system, which behaves
like a particle with a mass Mequal to the total mass of the sys-
   
 F1 + F2 + F3 tem. The net external force Fnet and the acceleration acom of the
so acom = . (9-21) center of mass are shown.
M

Equation 9-20 tells us that the acceleration acom of the Along the y axis, we have
center of mass is in the same direction as the net external
force Fnet on the system (Fig. 9-12b). Because the parti- F1 y + F2 y + F3 y
acom,y =
cles are initially at rest, the center of mass must also be M
at rest. As the center of mass then begins to accelerate,
 it 0 + (12 N) sin 45° + 0
 = = 0.530 m/s2 .
must move off in the common direction of acom and Fnet. 16 kg
We can evaluate the right side of Eq. 9-21 directly on 
a vector-capable calculator, or we can rewrite Eq. 9-21 in From these components, we fnd that acom has the magnitude

component form, fnd the components of acom, and then

fnd acom. Along the x axis, we have acom = (acom,x )2 + (acom,y )2
= 1.16 m/s2 ≈ 1.2 m/s2 (Answer)
F1x + F2 x + F3 x
acom,x = and the angle (from the positive direction of the x axis)
M
−6.0 N + (12 N) cos 45° + 14 N acom,y
= = 1.03 m/s2 . θ = tan −1 = 27°. (Answer)
16 kg acom,x
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.09

Displacement of com of two particle system
At time t = 0, forces begin to act on particles A and B, Substituting this into Eq. 9-22, along with t = 6.0 s and
which are initially at rest. the fact that the particles have initial velocities of zero,
we fnd
Particle Mass Force acting on the particle
1  2.0 4.0  2
A 2.0 kg 2i rcom = 0t +  i+ j  (6)
2  6.0 6.0 
B 4.0 kg 4j
= (6.0 m)i + (12.0 m)j (Answer)
What is the displacement of the com of the two-particle
Component calculations: We can also do component
system at t = 6.0 s?
calculations. The acceleration of the com has an x
component
KEY IDEA
Fx 2.0
We can treat the com of the system as being a single a=
x = m/s2 .
particle with the total mass M of the system and expe- m 6.0

riencing the net force Fnet of the forces applied to the Thus, Eq. 2-15 gives
individual particles. Because the forces are constant,
 1
the acceleration acom of the com is also and thus the rcom, x = v0, x t + a x t 2
constant-acceleration equations of Chapter 2 can be 2
applied.  1   2.0  2
= 0 +    (6) = 6.0 m.
Vector calculations: We can recast the constant-  2   6.0 
acceleration equations into vector notation to fnd the
 Fy 4.0
displacement vector rcom of the com. In particular, Similarly, a= = m/s2 .
y
Eq. 2-15 becomes m 6.0
  1 and we also have
rcom = v0, com t + acom t 2 . (9-22)
2 1
rcom, y = v0, y t + a y t 2
   2
To fnd acom, we apply Newton’s second law (Fnet = macom )
to the system’s com, as if it were a real particle with mass  1   4.0  2
= 0 +    (6) = 12.0 m.
M = 6.0 kg.  2   6.0 

2.0i + 4.0j = 6.0acom Putting these components into unit-vector notation gives
us (again)
 2.0 4.0 
acom =  i+ j  m/s2 .
 6.0 6.0  rcom = (6.0 m)i + (12.0 m)j.(Answer)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.10

velocity and acceleration of com of two particle system
Particles A and B move along an x-axis. Particle A has KEY IDEA

mass mA = 4.0 kg and its position is given by xA = 3.0t
Velocity is the time derivative of the position function.
in meters and seconds. Particle B has mass mB = 2.0 kg
Acceleration is the time derivative of the velocity f unction.
and its position is given by xA = 3.0t + 6.0t2. What are
the velocity vcom and acceleration acom of the com of the Velocity: The position function of the system’s com is
two-particle system at t = 3.0 s? given by Eq. 9-2:
mA x A + mB xB So, at t = 3.0 s, the velocity of the com is

xcom =
mA + mB vcom = 14.0 m/s (Answer)
(4.0)(3.0)t + (2.0)(3.0 + 6.0t )
2
Acceleration: Taking the time derivative of Eq. 9-23, we
=
4.0 + 2.0 obtain
= 2.0t + 1.0t + 2.0t 2 .
acom = 4.0 m/s2.
Taking a derivative with respect to time, we fnd
Because the result does not depend on t, the accelera-
d tion is constant. If we wanted, we could now apply the
vcom = xcom
dt constant-acceleration equations of Chapter 2 as if the
= 2.0 + 4.0t. (9-23) com is a real particle.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.11

System com stationary while objects move
Figure 9-13 shows the position of an armadillo at one end article is at the center of the slab at some coordinate x1.
p
of a uniform slab on a frictionless foor. The armadillo has Initially, the system com is given by Eq. 9-2:
mass m1 = 10 kg; the slab has mass m2 = 20 kg. Relative to
an x axis on the foor, the armadillo moves 1.0 m in the m1 x1 + m2 x2
xcom = .
positive direction. How far does it move relative to the m1 + m2
slab?
When the armadillo walks 1.0 m rightward to a new coor-
dinate x1′ , the slab’s center moves to a new coordinate x2′ .
Armadillo So,
Slab
m x ′ + m2 x2′
xcom = 1 1 .
m1 + m2
x (m)
0 Because the system’s com cannot move, we have
1.0 m
m1 x1′ + m2 x2′ m1 x1 + m2 x2
0.5 m = ,
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
Figure 9-13 Position of an armadillo at one end of a uniform
slab.
which can be manipulated to be
m1 ( x1′ − x1 ) = −m2 ( x2′ − x2 ).

KEY IDEA
Inserting m1 = 10 kg, m2 = 20 kg, and x1′ − x1 = 1.0 m, we
(1) The forces between the armadillo and the slab are fnd
internal to the armadillo-slab system and thus cannot
move the system’s center of mass. (2) The armadillo and x2′ − x2 = − 0.50 m.
the slab can each be replaced with a particle at their indi-
vidual center of mass, as if all their mass is concentrated Thus, the slab moves 0.50 m leftward in the fgure while
in the particles. the armadillo moves 1.0 rightward. The distance the
armadillo moves over the slab is therefore
Calculations: In the fgure, the armadillo particle is
represented by a dot at some coordinate x1. The slab 1.0 m + 0.50 m = 1.50 m. (Answer)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.12

Motion of come of system of man on a raft
A man of mass m1 is located on a raft of mass m2 which where r1 and r2 are the position vectors describing the
is foating on the surface of a lake. The man travels a dis- positions of the center of mass of the man and the raft
tance l on the raft and then stops. The resistance of the relative to a certain point on the shore. From this equal-
water is negligible. Find the corresponding displacement ity, we fnd the relationship between the change of the
of the raft and displacement of the man relative to the vectors r1 and r2 as
ground.  
m1 ∆r1 + m2 ∆r2 = 0
KEY IDEA
The vectors ∆r1 and ∆r2 represent the displacements of
If you have ever walked on a stationary raft or boat, you the man and the raft with respect to the shore. Also, the
can imagine that as you go forward the raft goes back- displacement of the man relative to the shore may be
ward. represented in the form ∆r1 = ∆r2 + ∆r1′ , where ∆r1′ is the
Although the problem is given only in terms of the displacement of the man relative to the raft, l.
displacements, it cannot be solved by kinematics equa- We can fnd the displacement of the raft using all
tions as function of the man’s displacement is unknown. above relations and rearranging them as
In this case, the resultant of all external forces acting on
the “man-raft” system is equal to zero; the force of inter-  m1
∆r2 = ∆r1′
action between man and raft is an internal force. m1 + m2
Calculations: The velocity of center of mass of the sys-
tem will remain zero even when man walks on the raft,  m1
so, ∆r2 = − l
  m1 + m2
m1v1 + m2 v2 = 0
Learn: It can be seen from this that the displacement ∆r2
where v1 and v2 are the velocities of the man and the raft of the raft does not depend on the nature of the man’s
with respect to the shore. motion, that is, on the function ∆r1′ (t ). Thus, he may have
This means that the position of the center of mass of walked in any pattern at any speed, the displacement of
the given system does not change in the process of motion the raft will be same if he stops at the other end. If we
of the man (and the raft), that is, make m2  m1, then as we expect, answer should be zero
  because the man will not be able to move the infnitely
m1r1 + m2 r2 = constant heavy raft.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.13

com of displacement of system of mass sliding down a wedge
A block of mass m slides down the wedge of mass M as (2) You may want to proceed directly by calculat-
shown in Fig. 9-14a. Find distance moved by wedge when the ing acceleration and then displacements. In fact if
block reaches ground. Assume all surfaces are frictionless. you have time go ahead do it; may be when you have
gone through that painful and tedious solution you
KEY IDEA will be able to appreciate concept of momentum
better.
(1) It can be imagined with the help of Fig. 9-14b that
when block slides down on the wedge, the wedge will Calculations: Since no external force will act in horizon-
start moving towards left. The horizontal component of tal direction, so momentum of the system consisting of
the normal contact force due to the block will push the the block and wedge remains conserved. Since initially
wedge toward left. both the bodies are at rest, the velocity of center of mass
m 
∆ x1 is the x component of the displacement of the
π
wedge with respect to ground. Considering direc-

 
M tion along right to be positive, ∆x1 = − x. ∆ x2 is the xπ
component of the displacement of the block with respect


to ground, given by ∆x2 = (l cos θ − x).
M m Putting the values of Δx1 and Δx2, we get
m l
x
M 0 -Mx + m(l cos θ – x) = 0
q
l cos q
ml cos θ = x(M + m)
(a) (b)
ml cos θ
Figure 9-14 (a) A block kept on a smooth wedge. (b) Movement x=
of block on the wedge and simultaneously the wedge also (M + m)
shifts.
Learn: If we make θ = 0 , we get same result as in the

initially is zero and its x component will remain zero. previous example because the wedge becomes raft. If
Hence, displacement of the center of mass along x will we make M ≅ m, then as we expect, answer should be
remain zero. Thus, similar to the previous example, we zero because the small block will not be able to move the
 
can say that M ∆x1 + m∆x2 = 0. infnitely heavy wedge.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.14

com of a system of missile being fred from a submarine
A missile fred into the air suddenly explodes into several did not explode, it would continue to move along the
fragments as shown in Fig. 9-15. parabolic path indicated by the dashed line in the fgure
and would have landed at a distance R from its launch
point.
Calculation: Because the forces caused by the explosion
are internal, they will not affect the motion of the center
of mass of the system (the pieces). Therefore, even after
the explosion, the center of mass of the fragments follows
the same parabolic path that the projectile would have
followed if no explosion had occurred.
(b) Suppose the explosion splits it into two pieces of mass
ratio 1:2. Lighter piece lands at a distance 3R from the
Figure 9-15 A missile being fred from a submarine.
launch point. Where does the heavier piece land?
Calculation: As discussed in part (a), the center of mass
(a) What can be said about the motion of the center of of the two-piece system lands at a distance R from the
mass of the system after the explosion? launch point. One of the pieces lands at a further dis-
tance 2R from the landing point (or a distance 3R from
the launch point) to the right in the fgure. Applying
KEY IDEA
the equation for locating the center of mass of the two
Neglecting air resistance, the only external force on the piece system, Mxcom = (M/3)x1 + (2M/3)x2 considering the
missile is the gravitational force. Therefore, if the missile launch point as origin.
9.4 | LINEAR MOMENTUM

Key Concept

◆ For a single particle, we defne a quantity p called its linear momentum as
 
p = mv,
which is a vector quantity that has the same d
irection as the particle’s velocity. We can write Newton’s s econd law
in terms of this momentum:
 
dp
Fnet = .
dt
Here we discuss only a single particle instead of a system of particles, in order to defne two important quantities.
Then we shall extend those defnitions to systems of many particles.
The frst defnition concerns a familiar word—momentum—that has several meanings in everyday language but

only a single precise meaning in physics and engineering. The linear momentum of a particle is a vector quantity p
that is defned as
 
p = mv (linear momentum of a particle), (9-24)

in which m is the mass of the particle and v is its velocity. (The adjective linear is often dropped, but it serves to

distinguish p from angular momentum, which is introduced in Chapter 11 and which is associated with rotation.)
 
Since m is always a positive scalar quantity, Eq. 9-24 tells us that p and v have the same direction. From Eq. 9-24, the
SI unit for momentum is the kilogram-meter per second (kg ⋅ m/s).
Force and Momentum. Newton expressed his second law of motion in terms of momentum:
The time rate of change of the momentum of a particle is equal to the net force acting on the particle and is in the direction
of that force.
In equation form this becomes
 
dp
Fnet = . (9-25)
dt
 
In words, Eq. 9-25 says that the net external force Fnet on a particle changes the particle’s linear momentum p.

Conversely, the linear momentum can be changed only by a net external force. If there is no net external force, p
cannot change. As we shall see in Section 9.7, this last fact can be an extremely powerful tool in solving problems.

Manipulating Eq. 9-25 by substituting for p from Eq. 9-24 gives, for constant mass m,
  
dp d  dv 
F=net = (=mv ) =
m ma.
dt dt dt
   
Thus, the relations Fnet = dp/dt and Fnet = ma are equivalent expressions of Newton’s second law of motion for a particle.
CHECKPOINT 4
The fgure gives the magnitude p of the linear momentum versus time t for a particle moving p
along an axis. A force directed along the axis acts on the particle. (a) Rank the four regions
2
indicated according to the magnitude of the force, greatest frst. (b) In which region is the
particle slowing? 1 3
4
t
9.5 The Linear Momentum of a System of Particles 353
9.5 | THE LINEAR MOMENTUM OF A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES

Key Concept
◆ For a system of particles, the relations for linear momentum and force become

   dP
= P Mv = com and Fnet .
dt
Let’s extend the defnition of linear momentum to a system of particles. Consider a system of n particles, each with
its own mass, velocity, and linear momentum. The particles may interact with each other, and external forces may
act on them. The system as a whole has a total linear momentum P, which is defned to be the vector sum of the
individual particles’ linear momenta. Thus,

P = p1 + p2 + p3 + + pn

= m1v1 + m2 v2 + m3 v3 + + mn vn . (9-26)
If we compare this equation with Eq. 9-17, we see that
 
P = Mvcom (linear momentum, system of particles), (9-27)
which is another way to defne the linear momentum of a system of particles:
The linear momentum of a system of particles is equal to the product of the total mass M of the system and the velocity of
the center of mass.
Force and Momentum. If we take the time derivative of Eq. 9-27 (the velocity can change but not the mass), we fnd
 
dP dvcom 
= M = Macom.(9-28)
dt dt
Comparing Eqs. 9-14 and 9-28 allows us to write Newton’s second law for a system of particles in the equivalent form

 dP
Fnet = (system of particles), (9-29)
dt

where Fnet is the net
 external force acting on the system. This equation is the generalization of the single-particle

equation Fnet = dP /dt to a system of many particles. In words, the equation says that the net external force Fnet on
a system of particles changes the linear momentum P of the system. Conversely, the linear momentum can be
changed only by a net external force. If there is no net external force, P cannot change. Again, this fact gives us an
extremely powerful tool for solving problems.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.15

Obtaining momentum vector from time-dependent position vector
A 0.200 kg particle’s position is given by KEY IDEA

Momentum is the product of mass and velocity as given
r = 50t i − 20t 2 j  
by Eq. 9-22 ( p = mv).

in meters and seconds. What is the particle’s momentum p?
Calculations: We obtain the velocity from the position in meters per second. The momentum is then
vector by taking a derivative with respect to time:

dr d p = mv = (0.200 kg)(50i − 40tj)
v= = (50t i − 20t 2 j)
dt dt = (10i − 8.0tj) kg ⋅ m/s (Answer)
= 50i − 40tj
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.16

Boat moving at constant speed, change of momentum
A boat is moving at constant speed through the water. Calculation 1: This effect is the same one as the man walk-
The passengers on the boat want to arrive at the shore ing on the raft that we just discussed. The boat—passengers
early. They decide to try to speed up the boat by gather- system is isolated. If all the passengers start running one
ing at the front and running together toward the back of way, the speed of the boat increases the other way. So, cor-
the boat. rect answer is (a).
(1) While they are running toward the back, is the speed Calculation 2: Once the passengers stop running, the
of the boat (a) higher than it was before, (b) unchanged, momentum of the system is the same as it was before
(c) lower than it was before, or (d) impossible to deter- they started running; you cannot change the momentum
mine? (2) The passengers stop running when they reach of an isolated system by means of internal forces. So, cor-
the back of the boat. After they have all stopped run- rect answer is (b).
ning, is the speed of the boat (a) higher than it was Reasoning: One may think that the passengers could
before they started running, (b) unchanged from what run to the back of the boat repeatedly to take advantage
it was before they started running, (c) lower than it of the speed increase. However, it must be remembered
was before they started running, or (d) impossible to that they will slow the ship down every time they return
determine? to the front of the boat.
CHECKPOINT 5
In Sample Problem 9.16, what happens to the work done by the passengers?
Internal Forces and Momentum of System

If we pull a rod from one end (Fig. 9-16a) then at any point on the rod at a distance x from the left end, there will be
a tension (internal force) driving the remaining body (Fig. 9-16b).
F  m  
T= ×  x .
m  l  
From Sample Problem 9.16, we can understand that momentum of a system depends only on external forces and inter-
nal forces cannot affect net momentum of system. But internal forces can still contribute in changing energy of system
T
F
F
x
(a) (b)
Figure 9-16 (a) Rod being pulled by a force. (b) Free-body diagram of left part of the rod.
9.6 Impulse and Momentum 355
and momentum of parts of system. For example, in chin—up exercise on horizontal bar, force is required to generate
momentum in vertical direction but it is not doing work. Increase in potential energy during rising up is due to work
done by internal force of body. But internal forces alone cannot change momentum of the body.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.17

Man lying on a surface of negligible friction shoves stone
A 91 kg man lying on a surface of negligible friction ms

ms vs + mm vm = 0 ⇒ vm = vs .
shoves a 68 g stone away from himself, giving it a speed mm
of 4.0 m/s. What speed does the man acquire as a result?
We take the axis to be positive in the direction of motion
KEY IDEA of the stone. Then
This problem deals with momentum conservation. ms 0.068 kg

vm = − vs = − (4.0 m/s)
Since no external forces with horizontal components mm 91 kg
act on the man-stone system and the vertical forces = −3.0 × 10 −3 m/s
sum to zero, the total momentum of the system is
conserved. or vm = 3.0 × 10 3 m/s.
Calculations: Since the man and the stone are initially
at rest, the total momentum is zero both before and after Reasoning: The negative sign in vm indicates that
the stone is kicked. Let ms be the mass of the stone and vs the man moves in the direction opposite to the motion
be its velocity after it is kicked. Also, let mm be the mass of the stone. Note that his speed is much smaller
of the man and vm be his velocity after he kicks the stone. (by a factor of ms/mm) compared to the speed of the
Then, by momentum conservation, stone.
9.6 | IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM

Key Concepts
◆ Applying Newton’s second law in momentum form to ◆ When a steady stream of bodies, each with mass m
a particle-like body involved in a collision leads to the and speed v, collides with a body whose position is
impulse–linear momentum theorem: fxed, the average force on the fxed body is
    n n
pf − pi = ∆p = J , Favg = − ∆p = − m ∆v,
∆t ∆t
  
where pf − pi = ∆p is the change in the body’s linear where n/∆t is the rate at which the bodies collide
momentum,
 and J is the impulse due to the force with the fxed body, and ∆v is the change in velocity
F (t ) exerted on the body by the other body in the of each colliding body. This average force can also be
collision: written as
 tf  ∆m
J = ∫ F (t ) dt. Favg = − ∆v,
ti ∆t
 where ∆m/∆t is the rate at which mass collides
◆ If Favg is the average magnitude of F (t ) during the
with the fxed body. The change in velocity is ∆v = −v
collision and ∆t is the duration of the collision, then
if the bodies stop upon impact and ∆v = −2v if they
for one-dimensional motion
bounce directly backward with no change in their
J = Favg ∆t. speed.

The momentum p of any particle-like body cannot change unless a net external force changes it. For example, we
could push on the body to change its momentum. More dramatically, we could arrange for the body to collide with a
baseball bat. In such a collision (or crash), the external force on the body is brief, has large magnitude, and s uddenly
changes the body’s momentum. Collisions occur commonly in our world,

but before we get to them, we need to c onsider a simple collision in which
a moving particle-like body (a projectile) collides with some other body
(a target).
Photo by Harold E. Edgerton. © The Harold and Esther Edgerton
Single Collision
Let the projectile be a ball and the target be a bat. The collision is brief,
and the ball experiences a force that is great enough to slow, stop, or even
reverse its motion. Figure
 9-17 depicts the collision at one instant. The
Family Trust, courtesy of Palm Press, Inc.
ball experiences a force F (t ) that varies during the collision and changes

the linear momentum p of the ball. That change  is related to the force by

Newton’s second law written in the form F = dp/dt. By rearranging this
second-law expression, we see that, in time interval dt, the change in the
ball’s momentum is
 
dp = F (t ) dt. (9-30)
We can fnd the net change in the ball’s momentum due to the collision if
we integrate both sides of Eq. 9-30 from a time ti just before the collision
The collision of a ball with a bat collapses to a time tf just after the collision:
part of the ball. tf  tf 
∫
ti
dp = ∫ F (t ) dt. (9-31)
ti
  
The left side of this equation gives us the change in momentum: pf − pi = ∆p.
F (t) The right side, which is a measure of both the
x  magnitude and the duration
of the collision force, is called the impulse J of the collision:
Bat Ball
  tf 
Figure 9-17 Force F (t ) acts on a ball as J = ∫ F (t ) dt (impulse defned). (9-32)
ti
the ball and a bat collide.
Thus, the change in an object’s momentum is equal to the impulse on the object:
 
∆p = J (linear momentum–impulse theorem). (9-33)
This expression can also be written in the vector form

  
pf − pi = J (9-34)
and in such component forms as

∆px = Jx(9-35)
tf
and pfx − pix = ∫ Fx dt. (9-36)
ti
 
Integrating the Force. If we have a function for F (t ), we can evaluate J (and thus the change in momentum)
by integrating the function. If we have a plot of F versus time t, we can evaluate J by fnding the area between the
curve and the t axis, such as in Fig. 9-18a. In many situations we do not know how the force varies with time but we
do know the average magnitude Favg of the force and the duration ∆t (= tf − ti) of the collision. Then we can write the
magnitude of the impulse as
J = Favg ∆t.(9-37)
The average force is plotted versus time as in Fig. 9-18b. The area under The impulse in the collision
that curve is equal to the area under the curve for the actual force F(t) is equal to the area under
in Fig. 9-18a because both areas are equal to impulse magnitude J. the curve.
Instead of the ball, we could have focused on the bat in Fig. 9-17. At F
any instant, Newton’s third law tells us that the force on the bat has
F(t)
the same magnitude but the opposite direction as the force on the ball. J
From Eq. 9-32, this means that the impulse on the bat has the same
magnitude but the opposite direction as the impulse on the ball.
t
ti tf
CHECKPOINT 6 ∆t
A paratrooper whose chute fails to open lands in snow; he is hurt slightly. Had (a)
he landed on bare ground, the stopping time would have been 10 times shorter
and the collision lethal. Does the presence of the snow increase, decrease, or F
leave unchanged the values of (a) the paratrooper’s change in m omentum, The average force gives
(b) the impulse stopping the paratrooper, and (c) the force stopping the the same area under the
paratrooper? curve.
Favg
J
Series of Collisions t
ti tf
Now let’s consider the force on a body when it undergoes a series of ∆t
identical, repeated collisions. For example, as a prank, we might adjust
(b)
one of those machines that fre tennis balls to fre them at a rapid rate
directly at a wall. Each collision would produce a force on the wall, but Figure 9-18 (a) The curve shows the
that is not the force we are seeking. We want the average force Favg on magnitude of the time-varying force F(t)

the wall during the bombardment—that is, the average force during a that acts on the ball in the collision of
large number of collisions. Fig. 9-13. The area under the curve is equal
to the magnitude of the impulse J on the
In Fig. 9-19, a steady stream of projectile bodies, with identical mass
 ball in the collision. (b) The height of the
m and linear momenta mv, moves along an x axis and collides with a
rectangle represents the average force Favg
target body that is fxed in place. Let n be the number of projectiles acting on the ball over the time interval ∆t.
that collide in a time interval ∆t. Because the motion is along only the x The area within the rectangle is equal to the
axis, we can use the components of the momenta along that axis. Thus, area under the curve in (a) and thus is also

each projectile has initial momentum mv and undergoes a change ∆p equal to the magnitude of the impulse J in
in linear momentum because of the collision. The total change in linear the collision.
momentum  for n projectiles during interval ∆t is n ∆p. The resulting
impulse J on the target during ∆t is along the x axis and has the same
magnitude of n ∆p but is in the opposite direction. We can write this
relation in component form as
J = −n ∆p,(9-38)
where the minus sign indicates that J and ∆p have opposite directions.
Average Force. By rearranging Eq. 9-37 and substituting Eq. 9-38, v
we fnd the average force Favg acting on the target during the collisions: Target x
Projectiles
J n n
Favg = = − ∆p = − m∆v. (9-39)
∆t ∆t ∆t
Figure 9-19 A steady stream of projectiles,
This equation gives us Favg in terms of n/∆t, the rate at which the with identical linear momenta, collides with
projectiles collide with the target, and ∆v, the change in the velocity of a target, which is fxed in place. The average
those projectiles. force Favg on the target is to the right and
Velocity Change. If the projectiles stop upon impact, then in Eq. 9-39 has a magnitude that depends on the rate
we can substitute, for ∆v, at which the projectiles collide with the tar-
get or, equivalently, the rate at which mass
∆v = vf − vi = 0 − v = −v,(9-40) collides with the target.
where vi (=v) and vf (=0) are the velocities before and after the collision, respectively. If, instead, the projectiles
bounce (rebound) directly backward from the target with no change in speed, then vf = −v and we can substitute
∆v = vf − vi = −v − v = −2v.(9-41)
In time interval ∆t, an amount of mass ∆m = nm collides with the target. With this result, we can rewrite Eq. 9-39 as
∆m
Favg = − ∆v. (9-42)
∆t
This equation gives the average force Favg in terms of ∆m/∆t, the rate at which mass collides with the target. Here
again we can substitute for ∆v from Eq. 9-40 or 9-41 depending on what the projectiles do.
CHECKPOINT 7
The fgure shows an overhead view of a ball bouncing from a vertical wall without any y

change in its speed. Consider the change ∆p in the ball’s linear momentum. (a) Is ∆px
⋅
positive, negative, or zero? (b) Is ∆py positive, negative, or zero? (c) What is the direction

of ∆p?⋅
θ θ
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.18

Two-dimensional impulse, race car–wall collision
Figure 9-20a is an overhead view of the path taken by a We could evaluate the right side of this equation directly
race car driver as his car collides with the racetrack wall. on a vector-capable calculator because we know m is
 
Just before the collision, he is traveling at speed vi = 70 m/s 80 kg, vf is 50 m/s at −10°, and vi is 70 m/s at 30°. Instead,
along a straight line at 30° from the wall. Just after the here we evaluate Eq. 9-43 in component form.
collision, he is traveling at speed vf = 50 m/s along a x component: Along the x axis we have
straight line at 10° from the wall. His mass m is 80 kg.

(a) What is the impulse J on the driver due to the c ollision? Jx = m(vfx − vix)
= (80 kg)[(50 m/s) cos (−10°) − (70 m/s) cos 30°]

KEY IDEAS
=
−910 kg∙m/s
We can treat the driver as a particle-like body and thus
apply the physics  of this module. However, we can- y component: Along the y axis,
not calculate J directly from Eq. 9-32  because we do
not know anything about the force F (t ) on the driver Jy = m(vfy − viy)
during
 the collision. That is, we do not have a function  =
(80 kg)[(50 m/s) sin (−10°) − (70 m/s) sin 30°]
of F (t ) or a plot for it and
 thus cannot integrate to fnd J.
However, we can fnd J from the change in the driver’s =
−3495 kg ∙ m/s ≈ −3500 kg ∙ m/s.
  
linear momentum p via Eq. 9-34 ( J = pf − pt ).
Impulse: The impulse is then
Calculations: Figure 9-20b shows the driver’s m
omentum

pi before the collision (at angle 30° from the positive
 J = (−910i − 3500j) kg ⋅ m/s, (Answer)
x direction) and his momentum pf after the collision
 
(at angle −10°). From Eqs. 9-34 and 9-24 ( p = mv), we which means the impulse magnitude is
can write
      
J = pf − pi = mvf − mvi = m(vf − vi ). (9-43) J = J x2 + J y2 = 3616 kg ⋅ m/s ≈ 3600 kg ⋅ m/s.
The collision The impulse on the car

y changes the y y
is equal to the change
pi
momentum. in the momentum.
Wall Jx
30°
x x x
30° Path pf –105°
10° 10°
J Jy
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 9-20 (a) Overhead view of the path taken by a race car and its driver as the car slams into the racetrack wall. (b) The initial
 
momentum pi and fnal momentum pf of the driver. (c) The impulse J on the driver during the collision.

The angle of J is given by Calculations: We have
Jy J 3616 kg ⋅ m/s
θ = tan −1 , (Answer) Favg = =
Jx ∆t 0.014 s
which a calculator evaluates as 75.4°. Recall that the = 2.583 × 10 5 N  2.6 × 10 5 N. (Answer)
physically correct result of an inverse tangent might be
Using F = ma with m = 80 kg, you can show that the
the displayed answer plus 180°. We can tell which is cor-
magnitude of the driver’s average acceleration during
rect here by drawing the components of J (Fig. 9-20c).
the c ollision is about 3.22 × 103 m/s2 = 329g, which is
We fnd that θ is actually 75.4° + 180° = 255.4°, which we
fatal.
can write as
Surviving: Mechanical engineers attempt to reduce
θ = -105°.(Answer)
the chances of a fatality by designing and building
(b) The collision lasts for 14 ms. What is the magnitude racetrack walls with more “give,” so that a collision
of the average force on the driver during the collision? lasts longer. For example, if the collision here lasted
10 times longer and the other data remained the
KEY IDEA same, the magnitudes of the average force and aver-
age acceleration would be 10 times less and probably
From Eq. 9-37 (J = Favg ∆t), the magnitude Favg of the survivable.
average force is the ratio of the impulse magnitude J to
the duration ∆t of the collision.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.19

Moving car, impulse, average force
A 1400 kg car moving at 5.3 m/s is initially traveling KEY IDEA

north along the positive direction of a y axis. After
The momentum of the car changes as it turns and collides
completing a 90° right-hand turn in 4.6 s, the inatten-
with a tree. Let the initial and fnal momenta of the car
tive o
perator drives into a tree, which stops the car in     
be pi = mvi mvi and pf = mvf , respectively. The impulse
350 ms. In unit-vector notation, what is the impulse on
on it equals the change in its momentum:
the car (a) due to the turn and (b) due to the collision?      
What is the magnitude of the average force that acts on J = ∆p = pf − pi = m(v f − v i ).
the car (c) during the turn and (d) during the collision?
(e) What is the direction of the average force during The average
 force over the duration ∆t is given by
the turn? Favg = J /∆t.
Calculations: (a) The initial momentum of the car is and its magnitude is

= =
pi mvi (1400 kg)(5.3 m/s)j. Favg = (1600 N) 2 = 2.3 × 10 3 N.
and the fnal momentum after making the turn is
(d) The average force during the collision with the tree is
pf = (7400 kg ⋅ m/s)j (note that the magnitude remains
the same, only the direction is changed). Thus, the
impulse is
∆p J ′ (−7400 kg ⋅ m/s)i
′
Favg = = =
∆t ∆t 350 × 10 −3 s
J = pf − pi = (7.4 × 10 3 N ⋅ s)(i − j). = (−2.1 × 10 4 N)i
(b) The initial momentum of the car after the turn is 
pi′ = (7400 kg ⋅ m/s)j and the fnal momentum after collid- ′ = 2.1 × 10 4 N.
and its magnitude is Favg

ing with a tree is p′f = 0. The impulse acting on it is
(e) As shown in (c), the average force during the turn, in
unit vector notation, is Favg = (1600 N)(i − j). The force is
J ′ = pf − pi = (−7.4 × 10 3 N ⋅ s)i.
45° below the positive x axis.

(c) The average force on the car during the turn is Reasoning: During the turn, the average force Favg is in

the same direction as J, or ∆p. Its x and y components
∆p J (7400 kg ⋅ m/s)(i − j)
⋅
Favg = = = have equal magnitudes. The x component is positive and

∆t ∆t 4.6 s the y component is negative, so the force is 45° below the
= (1600 N)(i − j) positive x axis.
CHECKPOINT 8
A block of mass m is hanging from an inextensible string and another block of mass m is hanging from a spring as shown. When
a particle of mass m is fred towards the block with velocity v0, it immediately sticks to the larger block. Find the velocity of
combined mass immediately after this collision in both the cases?
m m
v0 v0
q
m m
(a) (b)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.20

Force on the wall due to avalanche
An engineer has been hired to design wall to protect a would be the magnitude of the average force on the wall
hillside home from a possible snow avalanche. The engi- from the snow?
neer makes these assumptions: Snow in an avalanche has
a density ρ of 500 kg/m3, would hit the wall perpendicu- KEY IDEAS
larly at a speed of 20 m/s and then stop, and would hit The snow hits the wall as a steady stream of bodies, as in
it at the rate of 1000 m3/s. For these assumptions, what Fig. 9-19.
9.7 Conservation of Linear Momentum 361
Thus, we can use Eq. 9-42 to fnd the magnitude of the dm dV

average force on the wall. However, because the snow or, =ρ
dt dt
hits in a continuous fow, we take a differential limit of
∆m/∆t and write
Substituting -v for ∆v and ρ dV/dt for dm/dt in Eq. 9-44,
dm we fnd
Favg = − ∆v (9-44)
dt
Calculations: Because the snow stops on hitting the wall, dV
Favg = ρ = (500 kg/m 3 )(20 m/s)(1000 m 3 /s)
we use Eq. 9-40 (∆v = -v) for the change ∆v in the veloc- dt
ity of the snow. We are given the volume rate dV/dt = = 10 × 10 7 N (Answer)
1000 m3/s at which snow collides with the wall. We can
fnd the mass rate dm/dt from The answer suggests why avalanches typically fatten
mass mass volume homes and other structures in their paths.
= ×
second volume second
9.7 | CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

Key Concepts
◆ If a system is closed and isolated so that no net
 external ◆ This conservation of linear momentum can also be
force acts on it, then the linear momentum P must be written in terms of the system’s initial momentum and
constant even if there are internal changes: its momentum at some later instant:
  
P = constant (closed, isolated system). Pi = Pf (closed, isolated system).
 
Suppose that the net external force Fnet (and thus the net impulse J) acting on a system of particles is zero (the
system is isolated)
 and that no particles leave or enter the system (the system is closed). Putting Fnet = 0 in Eq. 9-29
then yields dP /dt = 0, which means that

P = constant (closed, isolated system). (9-45)
In words,

If no net external force acts on a system of particles, the total linear momentum P of the system cannot change.
This result is called the law of conservation of linear momentum and is an extremely powerful tool in solving
problems. For solving problems we usually write the law as
 
Pi = Pf (closed, isolated system). (9-46)
In words, this equation says that, for a closed, isolated system,
 total linear momentum   total linear momentum 

 = .
 at some initial time ti   at some later time t f 
Caution: Momentum should not be confused with energy. In the Sample Problems of this section, momentum is
conserved but energy is defnitely not.
Equations 9-45 and 9-46 are vector equations and, as such, each is equivalent to three equations corresponding
to the conservation of linear momentum in three mutually perpendicular directions as in, say, an xyz coordinate
system. Depending on the forces acting on a system, linear momentum might be conserved in one or two directions
but not in all directions. However,
If the component of the net external force on a closed system is zero along an axis, then the component of the linear
momentum of the system along that axis cannot change.
While solving a problem, how can you know if linear momentum can be conserved along, say, an x axis?
Check the force components along that axis. If the net of any such components is zero, then the conservation
applies. As an example, suppose that you toss a grapefruit across a room. During its flight,  the only external
force acting on the grapefruit (which we take as the system) is the gravitational force Fg , which is directed
vertically downward. Thus, the vertical component of the linear momentum of the grapefruit changes, but since
no horizontal external force acts on the grapefruit, the horizontal component of the linear momentum cannot
change.
Note that we focus on the external forces acting on a closed system. Although internal forces can change the
linear momentum of portions of the system, they cannot change the total linear momentum of the entire system.
For example, there are plenty of forces acting between the organs of your body, but they do not propel you across
the room (thankfully).
The Sample Problems in this section involve explosions that are either one-dimensional (meaning that the
motions before and after the explosion are along a single axis) or two-dimensional (meaning that they are in a
plane containing two axes). In the following sections we consider collisions.
CHECKPOINT 9
An initially stationary device lying on a frictionless foor explodes into two pieces, which then slide across the foor, one of them
in the positive x direction. (a) What is the sum of the momenta of the two pieces after the explosion? (b) Can the second piece
move at an angle to the x axis? (c) What is the direction of the momentum of the second piece?
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.21

Determination of velocity from conservation of momentum after a collision
(a) Consider a block of mass M kept on a rough surface Calculation: Impulse of µmg (frictional force) is negligi-
being hit by a particle of mass m moving with speed v0 ble thus momentum is conserved just after collision.
(Fig. 9-21a). Find the velocity of combined mass immedi- According to conservation of momentum, initial momen-
ately after the particle sticks with the block. tum = fnal momentum.
Initially block of mass M is stationary, so its initial
velocity is zero while velocity of block of mass m is v0.
M F After collision, both the blocks are stuck and move with
v0 F a common fnal velocity v. Therefore,
m
µmg
(a) (b) mv0 + 0 = (m + M )v
mv0
Figure 9-21 (a) A block of mass M hit by a particle of mass m. ⇒v=
(b) Free-body diagram. M+m
(b) Consider a block of mass M connected to a spring kept

on smooth surface being hit by a particle of mass m mov- M
v0 F F
ing with speed v0 (Fig. 9-22). Find the velocity of combined m
mass immediately after the particle sticks with the block
Calculation: Spring force will be very small and impulse (a ) (b)
by it is negligible, thus momentum is conserved just after Figure 9-22 (a) A block of mass M connected to a spring and
collision. Therefore, kept on a smooth surface being hit by a particle of mass m.
mv0 (b) Free-body diagram.
v=
M+m
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.22

One-dimensional explosion, relative velocity, space hauler
One-dimensional explosion: Figure 9-23a shows a

The explosive separation can change the momentum
space hauler and cargo module, of total mass M, trav- of the parts but not the momentum of the system.
eling along an x axis in deep space. They have an initial

velocity vi of magnitude 2100 km/h relative to the Sun. vi vMS vHS
With a small explosion, the hauler ejects the cargo mod-
ule, of mass 0.20M (Fig. 9-23b). The hauler then travels
Hauler
500 km/h faster than the module along the x axis; that is, 0.20M 0.80M
Cargo module
the relative speed vrel between the hauler and the module
 x x
is 500 km/h. What then is the velocity vHS of the hauler
(a) (b)
relative to the Sun?
Figure 9-23 (a) A space hauler, with a cargo module, moving at

KEY IDEA initial velocity vi . (b) The hauler has ejected the cargo module.

Now the velocities relative to the Sun are vMS for the module
Because the hauler–module system is closed and isolated, 
and vHS for the hauler.
its total linear momentum is conserved; that is,
 
Pi = Pf , (9-47)
where the subscripts i and f refer to values before and after where the frst term on the right is the linear momen-
the ejection, respectively. (We need to be careful here: tum of the module and the second term is that of the
Although the momentum of the system does not change, hauler.
the momenta of the hauler and module certainly do.) We can relate the vMS to the known velocities with
Calculations: Because the motion is along a single axis,

we can write momenta and velocities in terms of their  velocity of   velocity of   velocity of 
     
x components, using a sign to indicate direction. Before  hauler relative  =  hauler relative  +  module relative  .
the ejection, we have  to Sun   to module   to Sun 
     
Pi = Mvi .(9-48)
Let vMS be the velocity of the ejected module relative to In symbols, this gives us
the Sun. The total linear momentum of the system after
the ejection is then vHS = vrel + vMS(9-50)
Pf = (0.20M)vMS + (0.80M)vHS ,(9-49) or vMS = vHS − vrel .

Substituting this expression for vMS into Eq. 9-49, and which gives us
then substituting Eqs. 9-48 and 9-49 into Eq. 9-47, we vHS = vi + 0.20vrel
fnd
or vHS = 2100 km/h + (0.20)(500 km/h)
Mvi = 0.20M(vHS − vrel) + 0.80MvHS,
=
2200 km/h. (Answer)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.23

Two-dimensional explosion, momentum, coconut
Two-dimensional explosion: A frecracker placed inside The explosive separation

a coconut of mass M, initially at rest on a frictionless can change the momentum
foor, blows the coconut into three pieces that slide of the parts but not the
across the foor. An overhead view is shown in Fig. 9-24a. momentum of the system.
Piece C, with mass 0.30M, has fnal speed vfc = 5.0 m/s.
100°
(a) What is the speed of piece B, with mass 0.20M? vfA
vfC
C
KEY IDEA A
First we need to see whether linear momentum is B 130°
conserved. We note that (1) the coconut and its pieces
form a closed system, (2) the explosion forces are internal
vfB
to that system, and (3) no net external force acts on the
(a)
system. Therefore, the linear momentum of the system y
is conserved. (We need to be careful here: Although the
momentum of the system does not change, the momenta vfC
vfA
of the pieces certainly do.)
Calculations: To get started, we superimpose an xy A
C 80°
coordinate system as shown in Fig. 9-24b, with the nega-
tive direction of the x axis coinciding with the direction B
 
of vfA.The x axis is at 80° with the direction of vfC and 50° 50° x

with the direction of vfB . vfB
Linear momentum is conserved separately along each (b)
axis. Let’s use the y axis and write
Figure 9-24 Three pieces of an exploded coconut move off in
Piy = Pfy,(9-51) three directions along a frictionless foor. (a) An overhead view
of the event. (b) The same with a two-dimensional axis system
where subscript i refers to the initial value (before the imposed.
explosion),
  and subscript y refers to the y component of
Pi or Pf . (Note that pfA, y = 0 because of our nice choice of axes.)
The component Piy of the initial linear momentum is Equation 9-51 can now be written as
zero, because the coconut is initially at rest. To get an
expression for Pfy, we fnd the y component of the fnal Piy = Pfy = pfA, y + pfB, y + pfC, y.
linear momentum of each piece, using the y-component
Then, with vfC = 5.0 m/s, we have
version of Eq. 9-24 (py = mvy):
0 = 0 − 0.20MvfB sin 50° + (0.30M)(5.0 m/s) sin 80°,
pfA, y = 0,
pfB, y = −0.20MvfB, y = −0.20MvfB sin 50°, from which we fnd
pfC, y = 0.30MvfC, y = 0.30MvfC sin 80°. vfB = 9.64 m/s ≈ 9.6 m/s. (Answer)
(b) What is the speed of piece A? Equation 9-52 for the conservation of momentum along
Calculations: Linear momentum is also conserved along the x axis can now be written as
the x axis because there is no net external force acting Pix = Pfx = pfA, x + pfB, x + pfC, x.
on the coconut and pieces along that axis. Thus we have
Pix = Pfx,(9-52) Then, with vfC = 5.0 m/s and vfB = 9.64 m/s, we have
where Pix = 0 because the coconut is initially at rest. To 0 = −0.50MvfA + 0.20M(9.64 m/s) cos 50°
get Pfx, we fnd the x components of the fnal momenta, + 0.30M(5.0 m/s) cos 80°,
using the fact that piece A must have a mass of 0.50M
(=M − 0.20M − 0.30M): from which we fnd
pfA, x = −0.50MvfA, vfA = 3.0 m/s. (Answer)
pfB, x = 0.20MvfB, x = 0.20MvfB sin 50°,
pfC, x = 0.30MvfC, x = 0.30MvfC cos 80°.
PROBLEM-SOLVING TACTICS
Tactic 2: Conservation of Linear Momentum For problems involving the conservation of linear momentum, frst
make sure that you have chosen a closed, isolated system. “Closed” means that no matter (no particles) passes
through the system boundary in any direction. “Isolated” means that the net external force acting on the system is
zero. If it is not isolated, then remember that each component of linear momentum is conserved separately if the
corresponding component of the net external force is zero. So, you might conserve one component and not an-
other. Next, select two appropriate states of the system (which you may choose to call the initial state and the fnal
state) and write expressions for the linear momentum of the system in each of these two states. In writing these
expressions, make sure that you know what inertial reference frame you are using, and make sure also that you
include the entire system, not missing
 any part of it and not including objects that do not belong to your system.
Finally, set your expressions for Pi and Pf equal to each other and solve for what is requested.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.24

Conversation of momentum in block-spring system
Figure 9-25 shows two blocks that are connected by an Blocks–spring system
ideal spring and are free to slide along an x axis on a v2 v1
frictionless horizontal surface. Block 1 has mass m1 and
block 2 has mass m2. The blocks are pulled in opposite k
m2 m1 Frictionless
directions (stretching the spring) and then released from
rest.
x
(a) What is the ratio v1/v2 of the velocity of block 1 to the
velocity of block 2 as the separation between the blocks Figure 9-25 Two blocks, which are on a frictionless surface and
decreases? connected by a spring, are pulled away from each other and
then released from rest. The blocks-spring system is indicated.
KEY IDEAS
(2) We can use the law of conservation of linear momen-
(1) The blocks are to be treated as particles as there is no tum. If so, maybe we can relate the velocities of the
requirement to fnd motion as function of time we need blocks by relating their momenta. To make this check,
not attempt the problem from force analyses. we consider the system consisting of the two blocks and
the spring. Then the spring force that accelerates the 2
blocks is internal to the system and so cannot change the K1 1

m v2 m  v 
= − 12 1 12 = 1  1 
total linear momentum P of the system; thus, we need K2 2 m2 v2 m2  v2 
not consider that force. What can change P is an external
force. The only external forces acting on the system are K1 m2
vertical, so the horizontal component of P cannot change = (9-55)
K 2 m1
as the blocks move.
Calculations: We will apply the law of conservation of
Learn: As the blocks move toward each other and the
momentum in the form Pi = Pf , for x components of the stretch of the spring decreases, energy is transferred from
momenta. We let i correspond to the release of the blocks the elastic potential energy of the spring to the kinetic
from rest. Each block has a momentum of zero just then, energies K1 and K2 of the blocks. Although K1 and K2
so Pi = 0. We also let f correspond to any instant as the then increase, Eq. 9-53 tells us that their ratio does not
blocks approach each other. Then the total momentum is change but is preset by the ratio of the masses. After
the sum of momenta m1v1 for block 1 and m2v2 for block 2. the spring reaches its rest length and begins to be com-
For our system, we can now write the conservation law as pressed by the blocks, the energy transfer is reversed, but
0 = m1v1 + m2 v2 (9-53) Eq. 9-55 still holds.
Equations 9-53 through 9-55 apply to other situations
in which two bodies attract (or repel) each other. For
which gives us example, they apply to a stone falling toward Earth. The
v1 m stone corresponds to, say, block 1 in Fig. 9-25, and Earth
= − 2 (9-54)
v2 m1 to block 2. The gravitational force between the stone
and Earth corresponds to the mutual force between the
The minus sign tells us that the two velocities always have blocks that is, provided by the spring in the fgure. Our
opposite signs. Equation 9-53 holds at every instant after reference frame is the frame in which the center of mass
release, no matter what the actual speeds of the blocks of the stone-Earth system is stationary. In this frame,
are. Eq. 9-55 tells us that the magnitudes of the linear
(b) What is the ratio K1/K2 of the kinetic energies of the momenta of the stone and Earth remain equal to each
blocks as their separation decreases? other throughout the fall. Equations 9-52 and 9-53 tell us
that, because m2  m1, the stone has much greater speed
Calculations: The key idea here is that we can fnd the
and kinetic energy than Earth during the fall, again in the
ratio of the kinetic energies by using the defnition of
given frame.
kinetic energy, that is,
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.25

Determining velocity using conservation of energy in a wedge-block system
A block of mass m slides down the wedge of mass M as m m q

shown in Fig. 9-26a. v2
v1
Find speed of the wedge when block of mass m is M M
q q
about to reach the ground, assuming that all surfaces are
(a) (b)
frictionless. Mass of the block and of wedge is 1 kg each.
Length of incline is l = 0.51 m and it is at an angle 37° to Figure 9-26 (a) A block kept on a smooth wedge. (b) Block
the horizontal. comes down and the wedge moves to the right with velocity v1.
(2) As discussed already, solving the problem by calcu-

KEY IDEA lating acceleration and then displacements and velocities
(1) We go back and review Sample Problem 9.13. There is a tedious solution. We will attempt this by conserving
we had to just fnd displacement here we have to fnd momentum and energy; here energy can be conserved as
velocity. no dissipative force is present in the system.
Calculations: Let us say that the block has velocity of mass initially is zero and its x component will remain
v2′ with respect to the wedge and the wedge has veloc- zero.
ity v1 with respect to ground. Considering direction of
motion along right horizontal to be positive value of − Mv1 + m(v2′ cos θ − v1 ) = 0 (9-56)
x component of velocity for block and wedge can be
given as Also, from conservation of energy

v2 x = v2′ cos θ − v1 (of block) 1 1
mgl sin θ = Mv12 + m[(v2′ cos θ − v1 )2 + (v2′ sin θ )2 ]
2 2

and v1x = −v1 (of wedge) From Eq. 9-56, we get v2′ cos θ − v1 = Mv1 /m
Similarly, considering direction of motion along verti-

cally downward positive y axis, we can fnd y component  M+m 
and v2′ =   v1
of velocity for block and wedge that is,  m cos θ 
 Using above results, we get
v2 y = v2′ sin θ (of block)

1 1  M 2 v12 (M + m)2 sin 2 θ v12 
 mgl sin θ = M v12 + m  + 
and v1 y = 0 (of wedge) 2 2  m2 m2 cos2 θ 
Thus, net velocity of block is Solving, we get v1 = 1.2 m/s. (Answer)

Learn: If we make M  m, then as we expect, answer
v22 = (v2′ cos θ − v1 )2 + (v2′ sin θ )2 should be zero because the small block will not be able to
move the infnitely heavy wedge.
Since no external force will act in horizontal direction, The magnitude of normal due to ground FN . It must
so momentum of the system consisting of the block and be less than (M + m)g as the center of mass of the system
wedge remains conserved in horizontal direction. Ini- must be accelerating downwards as the block has a com-
tially both the bodies are at rest the velocity of center ponent of acceleration vertically downward.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.26

Impulsive forces: Relative means after the event
A soldier is belted on a trolley which is traveling at

the speed v0 on a smooth horizontal surface; he is car-
rying a shoulder fred rocket launcher (Fig. 9-27a). The v0
combined mass of soldier, rocket launcher and trol-
ley is M. The launcher has a rocket of mass m (which
makes the total mass as M + m). The muzzle veloc-
ity of rocket is V. What will be the velocities of the
soldier.
KEY IDEA
(1) We know that the recoil of fring will apply a impulse
Figure 9-27 (a) Soldier belted on a trolley travelling at speed u
on soldier toward left. Thus, we should expect him to with rocket launcher on his shoulder.
be moving slowly or moving toward left. (2) Firing will
involve large impulsive forces of explosion which cannot system, then momentum along horizontal direction is
be analyzed directly. Taking soldier and rocket as one conserved.
Calculations: Let us say v2 and v1 are the velocities of

the rocket and soldier, respectively, just after fring v1 v2
(Fig. 9-27b). Muzzle velocity means the velocity of the
projectile with respect to the launcher. But as soon as
the velocity of rocket increases from v0 to v2, the velocity
of the man would also be changed to v1 as the force of
explosion acts simultaneously on both the launcher and
the rocket according to Newton’s third law. So, the equa-
tion of relative velocity is written in terms of velocities
just after fring.
Using Eq. 9-48 and rearranging, we get
v2 − v1 = V Figure 9-27 (b) Motion of soldier and rocket after

rocket is fred.
Taking man and rocket as our system, momentum along
horizontal direction is conserved. Learn: As expected, the velocity of the soldier has
So, (m + M )v0 = Mv1 + Mv2 decreased or if mV/(M + m) > v0 he would be going toward
Solving, we get left. Also, if we assume M to be very large in comparison
to m, then there will be no change in the velocity of the
Mv  mv  soldier. Also, the rocket will have a higher velocity as all
v2 = v0 + and v1 = v0 −   (Answer)
M+m M +m the energy of explosion will be going only to the rocket.
9.8 | COLLISIONS
Key Concepts
◆ Collision is an event in which strong force acts where v1f and v2f are the components of velocities of
between two or more bodies for a short time. colliding points of the bodies 1 and 2, along the line
◆ If the kinetic energy of the system is conserved (it of contact, after collision (with sign); v1i and v2i are
is the same before and after the collision). Such a the components of velocities of colliding points of the
collision is called an elastic collision. bodies, along the line of contact, before collision (with
◆ If the kinetic energy of the system is not conserved (it is sign) and e is the coeffcient of restitution.
always transferred from kinetic energy to other forms of ◆ In general, e has a value between zero and one, but the
energy). Such a collision is called an inelastic collision. physical meaning of these two limits is
◆ According to Newton’s law of collision – For e = 1: Perfectly elastic collision.
– For 0 < e < 1: Inelastic collision.
v2 f − v1 f – For e = 0: Perfectly inelastic collision (bodies will
= −e
v2 i − v1i move together).
In Section 9.6, we considered the collision of two particle-like bodies but focused on only one of the bodies at a
time. For the next several sections we switch our focus to the system itself, with the assumption that the system
 is
closed and isolated. In Section 9.7, we discussed a rule about such a system: The total linear momentum P of the
system cannot change because there is no net external force to change it. This is a very powerful rule because it
can allow us to determine the results of a collision without knowing the details of the collision (such as how much
damage is done).
We shall also be interested in the total kinetic energy of a system of two colliding bodies. If that total happens
to be unchanged by the collision, then the kinetic energy of the system is conserved (it is the same before and after
the collision). Such a collision is called an elastic collision. In everyday collisions of common bodies, such as two
cars or a ball and a bat, some energy is always transferred from kinetic energy to other forms of energy, such as
thermal energy or energy of sound. Thus, the kinetic energy of the system is not conserved. Such a collision is called
an inelastic collision.
9.8 Collisions 369
Collision is an event in which strong force acts between two or more bodies for a short time. Some important
points:
1. In a collision, we consider a situation before and after the collision. The duration of collision is negligible as
compared to the time for which event is observed.
2. In a collision, effect of external non-impulsive forces (e.g., gravity, spring) can be neglected because they are
very small compared to interaction forces and time of collision is very small.
3. When two bodies collide, they exert force on each other through point of contact, which is perpendicular to the
plane of contact. The direction of force of interaction is line of collision.
4. In case of collision, if the external impulsive forces are not acting in a direction of collision, the total momentum
of system in that direction remains conserved:
m1v1i + m2v2i = m1v1f + m2v2f
5. After collision only the components of velocity along the line of collision change, the perpendicular compo-
nents of velocity remain unaffected.
6. According to initial velocities and line of collision, collision can be of two types: head-on collision and oblique
collision.
Head-on collision occurs when the direction of motion of the two colliding particles is along a line passing through
the center of mass of the particles. This line is called the line of collision (Fig. 9-28a). When the motion of one or
both of the particles is at an angle with the line of collision (Figs. 9-28b,
ν1i ν2i
9-28c and 9-28d), the collision is said to be oblique collision.
Consider the two smooth particles 1 and 2 undergoing a head-on A B
collision. Line of
collision
ν1f ν2f
1. Let’s say the particles have the initial momentum as shown in (a)
Fig. 9-28a. Collision will occur if v1i > v2i .
2. During the collision, the bodies must be thought of as deformable or ν1i
non-rigid. The bodies will undergo a period of deformation during
1 2
which they exert an equal but opposite deformation impulse ∫ P dt Line of
collision
⋅
on each other. Thus, their velocities will vary continuously such that ν2i
velocity of particle 1 will decrease and velocity of particle 2 will (b)
increase.
3. When both particles will have a common velocity v, the deformation
of both particles will be maximum. 1 ν1i
ν1i
4. After achieving common velocity, a period of restitution occurs in
2 ν2i ν2i
which the bodies try to return to their original shapes. The equal and
opposite restitution impulse ∫ R dt pushes the particles apart from
⋅
Line of Line of
one another. The deformation impulse is always greater than that of collision collision
restitution, that is, ∫ P dt > R dt. (c) (d)
5. Once the restitution impulse stops acting, the particles will have a
fnal velocity and hence momentum and kinetic energy. Figure 9-28 Head-on and oblique collision.
Let us determine their fnal velocities v1f and v2f . Only the internal impulses of deformation and restitution occur
and no external impulse is acting.
Applying the principle of impulse and momentum to each particle, during the deformation phase for particles 1
and 2, we have
− ∫ P dt = m1v1i − m1v1 f and ∫ P dt = m v2 2i − m2 v2 f
For the restitution phase, we have
− ∫ R dt = m1v1 f − m1v1i and ∫ R dt = m v2 2f − m2 v2 i

The ratio of the restitution impulse to the deformation impulse is called the coeffcient of restitution, e. From the
above equations, this value for particles 1 and 2 is
e=
∫ R dt = v − v 1f
and e=
∫ R dt = v − v
2f
∫ P dt v − v
1i ∫ P dt v − v 2i
If the unknown v is eliminated from the above two equations, the coeffcient of restitution can be expressed in terms
of the particles’ initial and fnal velocities as
v2 f − v1 f
e= (9-57)
v1 f − v2 i
It is important to choose a positive direction and then use it consistently while writing all quantities with sign.
We have defned the positive direction to the right, if a negative value comes as a result of the solution, it indicates
motion is to the left.
When applying the equation, the direction of an unknown velocity can be assumed. If the solution yields a
negative magnitude, the velocity acts in the opposite direction.
Newton’s Law of Collisions

According to Newton’s law of collision
v2 f − v1 f
= −e (9-58)
v2 i − v1i
where v1f and v2f are the components of velocities of colliding points of the bodies 1 and 2, along the line of contact,
after collision (with sign); v1i and v2i are the components of velocities of colliding points of the bodies, along the line
of contact, before collision (with sign) and e is the coeffcient of restitution.
It can also be expressed as
v2f − v1f = e(v2i − v1i )
Relative velocity of receding after impact = e × (Relative velocity of approach before impact)
This law is valid even when momentum of the system is not
4 3
conserved. νe νe
An example of sign convention followed when bodies move
towards each other before collision and in the same direction Line of
after collision is illustrated in Fig. 9-29. 1 2 collision
v2 − v1 ν1 ν2
−e = or v2 − v1 = 7e
(−3) − (+4)
Figure 9-29 Bodies move towards each other before
The collision between bodies moving in same direction before collision and in the same direction after collision.
and after collision is shown in Fig. 9-30.
In general, e has a value between zero and one, and one should
be aware of the physical meaning of these two limits. ν1i ν2i
• For e = 1: Perfectly elastic collision.

• For 0 < e < 1: Inelastic collision.
1 2
• For e = 0: Perfectly inelastic collision (bodies will move
together). ν1f ν2f
Perfectly Elastic Collision (e = 1): If the collision between the Figure 9-30 Bodies move in same direction before
two bodies is perfectly elastic, the deformation impulse ∫ P dt is ⋅ and after collision.
9.9 Inelastic Collisions in One Dimension 371
equal and opposite to the restitution impulse ∫ R dt. Although in reality, the condition e = 1 for an elastic collision
⋅
can never be achieved.

Perfectly inelastic collision (e = 0): The collision is said to be perfectly inelastic when e = 0. In this case of collid-
ing bodies, there is no tendency to regain original shape. The event of collision is over when they have maximum
deformation. Thus restitution impulse ∫ R dt = 0, so that after collision both the bodies stick together and move with
a common velocity. In this case, the loss of kinetic energy is maximum as energy is lost during deformation.
From the above discussion it should be clear that the principle of work and energy is not useful for the analysis
of this problem. Using the particle’s velocities before and after collision, the energy lost during collision can be
calculated. This energy loss ∑U1 − 2 = ∑U2 – ∑U1, occurs because some part of the initial kinetic energy of the bodies is
converted into thermal energy as well as creating sound and deformation of the material when the collision occurs.
If the collision is perfectly elastic, no energy is lost in the collision; whereas if the collision is perfectly inelastic, the
energy lost during collision is a maximum.
However, in some situations,we can approximate a collision of common bodies as elastic. Suppose that you
drop a Superball onto a hard foor. If the collision between the ball and foor (or Earth) were elastic, the ball
would lose no kinetic energy because of the collision and would rebound to its original height. However, the actual
rebound height is somewhat short, showing that at least some kinetic energy is lost in the collision and thus that the
collision is somewhat inelastic. Still, we might choose to neglect that small loss of kinetic energy to approximate the
collision as elastic.
The inelastic collision of two bodies always involves a loss in the kinetic energy of the system. The greatest loss
occurs if the bodies stick together, in which case the collision is called a completely inelastic collision or perfectly
inelastic collision. The collision of a baseball and a bat is inelastic. However, the collision of a wet putty ball and a
bat is completely inelastic because the putty sticks to the bat.
9.9 | INELASTIC COLLISIONS IN ONE DIMENSION

Key Concepts
◆ In an inelastic collision of two bodies, the kinetic the equation in terms of velocity components along
energy of the two-body system is not conserved. If the that axis:
system is closed and isolated, the total linear momen-
tum of the system must be conserved, which we can m1v1i + m2v2i = m1v1f + m2v2f .
write in vector form as ◆ If the bodies stick together, the collision is a com-
    pletely inelastic collision and the bodies have the same
p1i + p2 i = p1 f + p2 f ,
fnal velocity V (because they are stuck together).
where subscripts i and f refer to values just before and ◆ The center of mass of a closed, isolated system of two
just after the collision, respectively. colliding bodies is not affected by a collision. In partic-

◆ If the motion of the bodies is along a single axis, ular, the velocity vcom of the center of mass cannot be
the collision is one-dimensional and we can write changed by the collision.
One-Dimensional Inelastic Collision

Figure 9-31 shows two bodies just before and just after they have a onedimensional collision. The velocities before
the collision (subscript i) and after the collision (subscript f ) are indicated. The two bodies form our system, which
is closed and isolated. We can write the law of conservation of linear momentum for this two-body system as
 
 total momentum Pi   total momentum Pf 
  =   ,
 before the collision   after the collision 
which we can symbolize as
   
p1i + p2 i = p1 f + p2 f (conservation of linear momentum). (9-59)
Here is the generic setup In a completely inelastic

for an inelastic collision. collision, the bodies
Body 1 Body 2
stick together.
v1i v2i
Before v1i
x Before v2i = 0
m1 m2 x
m1 m2
Projectile Target
v1f v2f
After
x V
m2 After
m1 x
m1 + m2
Figure 9-31 Bodies 1 and 2 move along
an x axis, before and after they have an Figure 9-32 A completely inelastic collision between two bod-
inelastic collision. ies. Before the collision, the body with mass m2 is at rest and the
body with mass m1 moves directly toward it. After the collision,

the stuck-together bodies move with the same velocity V.
Because the motion is one-dimensional, we can drop the overhead arrows for vectors and use only components
along the axis, indicating direction with a sign. Thus, from p = mv, we can rewrite Eq. 9-59 as
m1v1i + m2v2i = m1v1f + m2v2f .(9-60)
If we know values for, say, the masses, the initial velocities, and one of the fnal velocities, we can fnd the other fnal
velocity with Eq. 9-60.
One-Dimensional Completely Inelastic Collision

Figure 9-32 shows two bodies before and after they have a completely inelastic collision (meaning they stick
together). The body with mass m2 happens to be initially at rest (v2i = 0). We can refer to that body as the target and
to the incoming body as the projectile. After the collision, the stuck-together bodies move with velocity V. For this
situation, we can rewrite Eq. 9-60 as
m1v1i = (m1 + m2)V(9-61)
m1
or V= v1i .(9-62)
m1 + m2
If we know values for, say, the masses and the initial velocity v1i of the projectile, we can fnd the fnal veloc-
ity V with Eq. 9-62. Note that V must be less than v1i because the mass ratio m1/(m1 + m2) must be less than
unity.
Velocity of the Center of Mass


In a closed, isolated system, the velocity vcom of the center of mass of the system cannot be changed by a collision

because, with the system isolated, there is no net external force to change it. To get an expression
 for vcom, let us

return to the two-body system andone-dimensional collision of Fig. 9-31. From Eq. 9-27 ( P = Mvcom ), we can relate

vcom to the total linear momentum P of that two-body system by writing
  
P = Mvcom = (m1 + m2 )vcom. (9-63)
9.9 Inelastic Collisions in One Dimension 373

The total linear momentum P is conserved during the collision; so it is given by either side of Eq. 9-59. Let us use
the left side to write
  
P = p1i + p2 i . (9-64)
 
Substituting this expression for P in Eq. 9-63 and solving for vcom give us
  
 P p + p2 i (9-65)
vcom = = 1i .
m1 + m2 m1 + m2

The right side of this equation is a constant, and vcom has that same constant value before and after the collision.
For example, Fig. 9-33 shows, in a series of freeze-frames, the motion of the center of mass for the completely inelastic
 
collision of Fig. 9-32. Body 2 is the target, and its initial linear momentum in Eq. 9-65 is= p2 i m= 2 v2 i 0. Body 1 is the pro-
 
jectile, and its initial linear momentum in Eq. 9-65 is p1i = m1v1i . Note that as the series of freeze-frames progresses to and
then beyond the collision, the center of mass moves at a constant velocity to the right. After the collision, the common

fnal speed V of the bodies is equal to vcom because then the center of mass travels with the stuck-together bodies.
CHECKPOINT 10
Body 1 and body 2 are in a completely inelastic one-dimensional collision. What is their fnal momentum if their initial momenta
are, respectively, (a) 10 kg ∙ m/s and 0; (b) 10 kg ∙ m/s and 4 kg ∙ m/s; (c) 10 kg ∙ m/s and −4 kg ∙ m/s?
The com of the two

bodies is between
them and moves at a
constant velocity.
x
v1i vcom v2i = 0
Here is the m1 m2
Here is the
incoming projectile.
stationary target.
Collision!
m1 + m2
The com moves at the

same velocity even after V = vcom
the bodies stick together.
Figure 9-33 Some freeze-frames of the two-body system in Fig. 9-32, which undergoes a completely inelastic collision. The system’s

center of mass is shown in each freeze-frame. The velocity vcomof the center of mass is unaffected by the collision. Because the

bodies stick together after the collision, their common velocity V must be equal to vcom.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.27

Conservation of momentum, ballistic pendulum
Here is an example of a common technique in physics. Reasoning step 2: As the bullet and block now swing
We have a demonstration that cannot be worked out as a up together, the mechanical energy of the bullet–block–
whole (we don’t have a workable equation for it). So, we Earth system is conserved:
break it up into steps that can be worked separately (we
have equations for them).  mechanical energy   mechanical energy 
 =  . (9-68)
The ballistic pendulum was used to measure the  at bottom   at top 
speeds of bullets before electronic timing devices were
(This mechanical energy is not changed by the force
developed. The version shown in Fig. 9-34 consists
of the cords on the block, because that force is always
of a large block of wood of mass M = 5.4 kg, hanging
directed perpendicular to the block’s direction of travel.)
from two long cords. A bullet of mass m = 9.5 g is fred
Let’s take the block’s initial level as our reference level
into the block, coming quickly to rest. The block + bullet
of zero gravitational potential energy. Then conservation
then swing upward, their center of mass rising a vertical
of mechanical energy means that the system’s kinetic
distance h = 6.3 cm before the pendulum comes momen-
energy at the start of the swing must equal its gravita-
tarily to rest at the end of its arc. What is the speed of the
tional potential energy at the highest point of the swing.
bullet just prior to the collision?
Because the speed of the bullet and block at the start of
the swing is the speed V immediately after the collision,
KEY IDEAS we may write this conservation as
We can see that the bullet’s speed v must determine the 1
rise height h. However, we cannot use the conservation of (m + M )V 2 = (m + M ) gh. (9-69)
2
mechanical energy to relate these two quantities because
surely energy is transferred from mechanical energy Combining steps: Substituting for V from Eq. 9-62 leads to
to other forms (such as thermal energy and energy to m+M
break apart the wood) as the bullet penetrates the block. v= 2 gh (9-70)
m
Nevertheless, we can split this complicated motion into
 0.0095 kg + 5.4 kg 
two steps that we can separately analyze: (1) the bullet– = 2
 (2)(9.8 m/s )(0.063 m)
block collision and (2) the bullet–block rise, during which  0 .0095 kg 
mechanical energy is conserved. = 630 m/s. (Answer)
Reasoning step 1: Because the collision within the
The ballistic pendulum is a kind of “transformer,” exchang-
bullet–block system is so brief, we can make two import-
ing the high speed of a light object (the bullet) for the
ant assumptions: (1) During the collision, the gravita-
tional force on the block and the force on the block from low—and thus more
easily measurable— There are two events here.
the cords are still balanced. Thus, during the collision,
speed of a massive The bullet collides with the
the net external impulse on the bullet–block system is
object (the block). block. Then the bullet–block
zero. Therefore, the system is isolated and its total linear
momentum is conserved: system swings upward by
height h.
 total momentum   total momentum 
 =  . (9-66)
(2) The collision is one-dimensional in the sense that the
direction of the bullet and block just after the collision is
in the bullet’s original direction of motion.
Because the collision is one-dimensional, the block is
initially at rest, and the bullet sticks in the block,we use
Eq. 9-62 to express the conservation of linear momen-
tum. Replacing the symbols there with the corresponding
symbols here, we have M
Figure 9-34 A ballistic m
m pendulum, used to meas-
V= v. (9-67) h
m+M ure the speeds of bullets. v
9.10 Elastic Collisions in One Dimension 375
9.10 | ELASTIC COLLISIONS IN ONE DIMENSION

Key Concept
◆ An elastic collision is a special type of collision in following expressions for the velocities immediately
which the kinetic energy of a system of colliding after the collision:
bodies is conserved. If the system is closed and iso- m − m2
v1 f = 1 v1i
lated, its linear momentum is also conserved. For a m1 + m2
one-dimensional collision in which body 2 is a target 2 m1
and body 1 is an incoming projectile, conservation and v2 f = v1i .
m1 + m2
of kinetic energy and linear momentum yield the
As we discussed in Section 9.8, everyday collisions are inelastic but we can approximate some of them as being
elastic; that is, we can approximate that the total kinetic energy of the colliding bodies is conserved and is not
transferred to other forms of energy:
 total kinetic energy   total kinetic energy 

 =  . (9-71)
This means:
In an elastic collision, the kinetic energy of each colliding body may change, but the total kinetic energy of the system does
not change.
For example, the collision of a cue ball with an object ball in a game of pool can be approximated as being an
elastic collision. If the collision is head-on (the cue ball heads directly toward the object ball), the kinetic energy of
the cue ball can be transferred almost entirely to the object ball. (Still, the collision transfers some of the energy to
the sound you hear.)
Stationary Target
Figure 9-35 shows two bodies before and after they have a one-dimensional collision, like a head-on collision
between pool balls. A projectile body of mass m1 and initial velocity v1i moves toward a target body of mass m2 that
is initially at rest (v2i = 0). Let’s assume that this two-body system is closed and isolated. Then the net linear momen-
tum of the system is conserved, and from Eq. 9-60 we can write that conservation as
m1v1i = m1v1f + m2v2f (linear momentum). (9-72)
If the collision is also elastic, then the total kinetic energy is Here is the generic setup
conserved and we can write that conservation as for an elastic collision with
a stationary target.
1 1 1 Before v1i
m1v12i = m1v12f + m2 v22 f (kinetic energy). (9-73) v2i = 0
2 2 2 x
m1 m2
In each of these equations, the subscript i identifes the initial veloc- Projectile Target
ities and the subscript f the fnal velocities of the bodies. If we know v1f v2f
the masses of the bodies and if we also know v1i, the initial velocity of After
body 1, the only unknown quantities are v1f and v2f , the fnal velocities x
m1 m2
of the two bodies. With two equations at our disposal, we should be
able to fnd these two unknowns. Figure 9-35 Body 1 moves along an x axis
To do so, we rewrite Eq. 9-72 as before having an elastic collision with body 2,
which is initially at rest. Both bodies move
m1(v1i – v1f) = m2v2f(9-74) along that axis after the collision.
and Eq. 9-73 as*
m1 (v1i − v1 f )(v1i + v1 f ) = m2 v22 f . (9-75)
After dividing Eq. 9-75 by Eq. 9-74 and doing some more algebra, we obtain
m1 − m2
v1 f = v1i (9-76)
m1 + m2
2 m1
and v2 f = v1i . (9-77)
m1 + m2
Note that v2f is always positive (the initially stationary target body with mass m2 always moves forward). From
Eq. 9-76 we see that v1f may be of either sign (the projectile body with mass m1 moves forward if m1 > m2 but
rebounds if m1 < m2).
Let us look at a few special situations.
1. Equal masses If m1 = m2, Eqs. 9-76 and 9-77 reduce to

v1f = 0 and v2f = v1i,
which we might call a pool player’s result. It predicts that after a head-on collision of bodies with equal masses,
body 1 (initially moving) stops dead in its tracks and body 2 (initially at rest) takes off with the initial speed
of body 1. In head-on collisions, bodies of equal mass simply exchange velocities. This is true even if body 2 is
not initially at rest.
2. A massive target In Fig. 9-35, a massive target means that m2  m1. For example, we might fre a golf ball at a
stationary cannonball. Equations 9-76 and 9-77 then reduce to
 2 m1 
v1 f ≈ −v1i and v2 f ≈   v1i . (9-78)
 m2 
This tells us that body 1 (the golf ball) simply bounces back along its incoming path, its speed essentially
unchanged. Initially stationary body 2 (the cannonball) moves forward at a low speed, because the quantity in
parentheses in Eq. 9-78 is much less than unity. All this is what we should expect.
3. A massive projectile This is the opposite case; that is, m1  m2. This time, we fre a cannonball at a stationary
golf ball. Equations 9-76 and 9-77 reduce to
v1f ≈ v1i and v2f ≈ 2v1i.(9-79)
Equation 9-79 tells us that body 1 (the cannonball) simply keeps on going, scarcely slowed by the
collision. Body 2 (the golf ball) charges ahead at twice the speed of the cannonball. Why twice the speed?
Recall the collision described by Eq. 9-78, in which the velocity of the incident light body (the golf ball) changed
from +v to −v, a velocity change of 2v. The same change in velocity (but now from zero to 2v) occurs in this
example also.
Moving Target
Now that we have examined the elastic collision of a projectile and a stationary target, let us examine the situation
in which both bodies are moving before they undergo an elastic collision.
For the situation of Fig. 9-36, the conservation of linear momentum is written as
m1v1i + m2v2i = m1v1f + m2v2f ,(9-80)
* In this step, we use the identity a2 − b2 = (a − b)(a + b). It reduces the amount of algebra needed to solve the simultaneous equations
Eqs. 9-69 and 9-70.
9.10 Elastic Collisions in One Dimension 377
and the conservation of kinetic energy is written as

Here is the generic setup
for an elastic collision with
1 1 1 1
m1v12i + m2 v22i = m1v12f + m2 v22 f . (9-81) a moving target.
2 2 2 2
v1i v2i
To solve these simultaneous equations for v1f and v2f , we frst rewrite Eq. 9-80 as x
m1 m2
m1(v1i − v1f) = −m2(v2i − v2f ),(9-82)
Figure 9-36 Two bodies headed for
a onedimensional elastic collision.
and Eq. 9-81 as
m1(v1i − v1f)(v1i + v1f ) = −m2(v2i − v2f )(v2i + v2f ).(9-83)
After dividing Eq. 9-83 by Eq. 9-82 and doing some more algebra, we obtain
m1 − m2 2 m2
v1 f = v1i + v2 i (9-84)
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
2 m1 m − m1
and v2 f = v1i + 2 v2 i . (9-85)
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
Note that the assignment of subscripts 1 and 2 to the bodies is arbitrary. If we exchange those subscripts in
Fig. 9-36 and in Eqs. 9-84 and 9-85, we end up with the same set of equations. Note also that if we set v2i = 0, body 2
becomes a stationary target as in Fig. 9-35, and Eqs. 9-84 and 9-85 reduce to Eqs. 9-76 and 9-77, respectively.
CHECKPOINT 11
What is the fnal linear momentum of the target in Fig. 9-35 if the initial linear momentum of the projectile is 6 kg ∙ m/s and
the fnal linear momentum of the projectile is (a) 2 kg ∙ m/s and (b) −2 kg ∙ m/s? (c) What is the fnal kinetic energy of the target
if the initial and fnal kinetic energies of the projectile are, respectively, 5 J and 2 J?
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.28

Chain reaction of elastic collisions
In Fig. 9-37a, block 1 approaches a line of two stationary the blocks, we are to conserve linear momentum along
blocks with a velocity of v1i = 10 m/s. It collides with the x axis. For these two reasons, we can apply Eqs. 9-76
block 2, which then collides with block 3, which has and 9-77 to each of the collisions.
mass m3 = 6.0 kg. After the second collision, block 2 is Calculations: If we start with the frst collision, we have
again stationary and block 3 has velocity v3f = 5.0 m/s too many unknowns to make any progress: we do not
(Fig. 9-37b). Assume that the collisions are elastic. What
are the masses of blocks 1 and 2? What is the fnal veloc- v1i
ity v1f of block 1?
x
(a) m1 m2 m3
KEY IDEAS v3f
v1f
Because we assume that the collisions are elastic, we are
(b) x
to conserve mechanical energy (thus energy losses to
sound, heating, and oscillations of the blocks are Figure 9-37 Block 1 collides with stationary block 2, which then
negligible). Because no external horizontal force acts on collides with stationary block 3.
know the masses or the fnal velocities of the blocks. So, just after the frst collision is the same as its velocity
let’s start with the second collision in which block 2 stops v2f (= 5.0 m/s) just before the second collision. Applying
because of its collision with block 3. Applying Eq. 9-76 to Eq. 9-77 to the frst collision and using the given v1f = 10 m/s,
this collision, with changes in notation, we have we have
m2 − m3 2 m1
v2 f = v2 i , v2 f = v1i ,
m2 + m3 m1 + m2
where v2i is the velocity of block 2 just before the collision 2 m1
5.0 m/s = (10 m/s),
and v2f is the velocity just afterward. Substituting v2f = 0 m1 + m2
(block 2 stops) and then m3 = 6.0 kg gives us
which leads to
m2 = m3 = 6.00 kg. (Answer)
1 1
With similar notation changes, we can rewrite Eq. 9-77 =
m1 = m2 (6.0 kg) = 2.0 kg. (Answer)
for the second collision as 3 3
2 m2 Finally, applying Eq. 9-76 to the frst collision with this

v3 f = v2 i , result and the given v1i, we write
m2 + m3
where v3f is the fnal velocity of block 3. Substituting m1 − m2

v1 f = v1i ,
m2 = m3 and the given v3f = 5.0 m/s, we fnd m1 + m2
1
m2 − m2
v2i = v3f = 5.0 m/s. = 3
(10 m/s) = −5.0 m/s. (Answer)
1
3 m2 + m2
Next, let’s reconsider the frst collision, but we have to
be careful with the notation for block 2: its velocity v2f
9.11 | COLLISIONS IN TWO DIMENSIONS

Key Concepts
◆ If two bodies collide and their motion is not along a In component form, the law gives two equations
single axis (the collision is not head-on), the collision that describe the collision (one equation for each of
is two-dimensional. If the two-body system is closed the two dimensions). If the collision is also elastic
and isolated, the law of conservation of momentum (a special case), the conservation of kinetic energy
applies to the collision and can be written as during the collision gives a third equation:
   
P1i + P2 i = P1 f + P2 f . K1i + K2i = K1f + K2f .
When two bodies collide, the impulse between them determines the directions in which they then travel. In particular,
when the collision is not head-on, the bodies do not end up traveling along their initial axis. For such two-dimensional
collisions in a closed, isolated system, the total linear momentum must still be conserved:
   
P1i + P2 i = P1 f + P2 f . (9-86)
If the collision is also elastic (a special case), then the total kinetic energy is also conserved:
K1i + K2i = K1f + K2f .(9-87)
Equation 9-86 is often more useful for analyzing a two-dimensional collision if we write it in terms of components
on an xy coordinate system. For example, Fig. 9-38 shows a glancing collision (it is not head-on) between a projectile
body and a target body initially at rest. The impulses between the bodies have sent the bodies off at angles θ1 and θ2
9.11 Collisions in Two Dimensions 379
A glancing collision
to the x axis, along which the projectile initially traveled. In this situation
y
that conserves
we would rewrite Eq. 9-86 for components along the x axis as
both momentum and v2f
m1v1i = m1v1f cos θ1 + m2v2f cos θ2,(9-88)
kinetic energy.
and along the y axis as
m2 θ2
x 0 = −m1v1f sin θ1 + m2v2f sin θ2.(9-89)
m1 v1i θ1
We can also write Eq. 9-87 (for the special case of an elastic collision) in
terms of speeds:
v1f 1 1 1
m1v12i = m1v12f + m2 v22 f (kinetic energy). (9-90)
2 2 2
Figure 9-38 An elastic collision between Equations 9-88 to 9-90 contain seven variables: two masses, m1 and m2;
two bodies in which the collision is not three speeds, v1i, v1f , and v2f ; and two angles, θ1 and θ2. If we know any four
headon. The body with mass m2 (the
of these quantities, we can solve the three equations for the remaining
target) is initially at rest.
three quantities.
Oblique Collision
When an oblique collision occurs between two smooth bodies, the bodies have velocities of unknown directions
and unknown magnitudes after collision. Provided the initial velocities are known, four unknowns present in the
problem can be calculated. As shown in Fig. 9-39a, these unknowns may be represented either as vAf , vBf , θ2, and f2,
or as the x and y components of the fnal velocities.
If the y axis is taken as the plane of contact and the x axis along the line of collision, the impulsive forces of
deformation and restitution act only in the x direction (Fig. 9-39b). Resolving the velocity or momentum vectors
into components along the x and y axes (Fig. 9-39b), it is possible to write four independent scalar equations in
order to determine vAxf , vAyf , vBxf , and vByf .
1. Momentum of the system is conserved along x direction as no external impulse is acting on the system.
2. The coeffcient of restitution
vBxf − vAxf
e= (9-91)
vAxi − vBxi
relates the relative-velocity components of the particles along the line of collision (x axis).
mA νAyf
mA νAxi ∫Fdt mA νAxf

1 2 1
mA νAyi
y
νAf νBf
mB νByf
A B
θ2 φ2 Line of impact
x mB ν2Bxi ∫Fdt mB νBxf
2 2 2
θ1 φ1
νAi νBi
mB νByi
Plane of contact
(a) (b)
Figure 9-39 Oblique collision (a) Bodies just before collision. (b) Bodies during and just after collision.
3. Momentum of particle A is conserved along the y axis, perpendicular to the line of collision, since no impulse
acts on particle A in this direction.
4. Momentum of particle B is conserved along the y axis, perpendicular to the line of collision, since no impulse
acts on particle B in this direction.
CHECKPOINT 12
In Fig. 9-29, suppose that the projectile has an initial momentum of 6 kg ∙ m/s, a fnal x component of momentum of 4 kg ∙ m/s,
and a fnal y component of momentum of −3 kg ∙ m/s. For the target, what then are (a) the fnal x component of momentum and
(b) the fnal y component of momentum?
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.29

Moving car, impulse, average force
A particle of mass 2.0 m is projected at an angle of 45°

with the horizontal with a speed of 20 2 m/s. After 1.0 s, 202 v
an explosion occurs and the particle is broken into two
equal pieces. One piece is momentarily at rest before
45q
it falls. Find the maximum height attained by the other
piece.
Figure 9-40 Projectile motion if a particle at

KEY IDEA
an angle of 45°.
In a projectile motion (Fig. 9-40), since no acceleration
exists along x direction, the x-component of the velocity
remains constant at all instants. As measured from the point of explosion, the maximum
Calculations: After 1 s, the velocity components are height attained is
1 vy2 (20.4)2
vx = u cos 45° = 20 2 × = 20 m/s = = 21.2 m.
2 2g 2 × 9.8
 1 
vy = u sin 45° − gt =  20 2 ×  − 9.9(1)
 2 The height of the point of explosion as measured from
the ground is
= 10.2 m/s
1 1
Therefore, v = vx + vy = 20i + 10.2j. Applying conservation h = uy (1) − g(1)2 = u sin 45°(1) − g(1)2
2 2
of momentum (at t = 1 s) for before explosion, we get
1 1
= 20 2 × (1) − × 9.8 × 1
pi = 2 mv = 2 m(20i + 10.2j) 2 2
= 15.1 m.
For after explosion, we have
Hence, the maximum height attained (as measured from
pf = m(0) + mv′
the ground) is
pi = p′f

2 m(20i + 10.2j) = m(0) + mv′ (15.1 + 21.2) = 36 m. (Answer)

v′ = 40i + 20.4jj
9.12 C-Frame 381
9.12 | C-FRAME
Key Concepts
◆ The frame of reference attached to the center of pc2
mass of a system is called the center of mass frame of Ksys = Ksys/c +
2M
reference or C-frame of reference.
  ◆ The total kinetic energy of the two particles in the
P = ∑ Pi = 0 (in the C-frame of reference) C-frame is
◆ The kinetic energy of system in ground frame related µ vrel
2
mvc2
Ksys/c = + (where m = m1 + m2)
to kinetic energy in C-frame is 2 2µ
We can attach a frame of reference to the center of mass of a system, this ZL

ZC
is called the center of mass or C-frame of reference (Fig. 9-41). Relative to
this frame, the center of mass is at rest (vcom = 0) and according to equation C -frame

P = Mvcom , the total momentum of a system of particles in the C-frame of
reference is always zero.
  YC
P = ∑ Pi = 0 (in the C-frame of reference) (9-92) XC
The C-frame is important because many situations can be more simply

Ground frame
analyzed in this frame. It is clear that the C-frame moves with a velocity
XL YL
vcom relative to the ground frame. When no external forces act on a system,
the C-frame becomes an inertial frame. Figure 9-41 C-frame of reference.
Let us fnd relation between kinetic energy of a system from ground
frame and C-frame. We have a system c onsisting of many particles; let us
say that the speed of the ith particle is vi. Then kinetic energy of system, K, in ground frame will be summation of
individual kinetic energies.
1 
Ksys = ∑  mi vi2 
2 
Now, v1 = vi/c + vc
where vi is velocity of the ith particle in ground frame, vi/c is velocity of the ith particle in reference to frame attached
to the center of mass and vc is velocity of center of mass in ground frame.
1  
Ksys =
2
∑ mi (vi / c + vc )
1  1  1  
Ksys = ∑ mi vi2/ c + ∑ mi vc2 + × 2 ( ∑ mi ⋅ vi / c ⋅ vc )
2 2 2
1  1   
Ksys = ∑ mi vi2/ c + ( ∑ mi ) vc2 + ( ∑ mi ⋅ vi / c ) vc
2 2
we can take vc out of summation in second and third term as it is constant. Now, third term becomes zero, as
 
∑ mi vi / c = Mvc / c (9-93)
where vc/c is velocity of center of mass in frame of com, which is zero. Also, it represents momentum of system in
C-frame which is zero.
1 2 
 ∑ mi vi / c  = Ksys/c
2 
Thus, we get
1
Ksys = Ksys/c + mvc2 (9-94)
2
where Ksys/c means kinetic energy of system in C-frame. This important conclusion will be useful again in rotational
dynamics; we can do little manipulation to write the equation as
pc2
Ksys = Ksys/c + (9-95)
2M
A System of Two Particles


Suppose the masses of the particles are equal to m1 and m2 and their velocities in the K reference frame be v1 and

v2 , respectively. Let us fnd the expressions defning their moment and the total kinetic energy in the C-frame. The
momentum of the frst particle in the C-frame is
   
P1/ c = m1v1/ c = m1 (v1 − vc )
where vc is the velocity of the center of mass of the system in the ground frame. Substituting in this formula e xpression
 
 m v + m2 v2
vc = 1 1
m1 + m2
  
P1/ c = µ (v1 − v2 ) (9-96)
where µ is the reduced mass of the system, given by
m1m2
µ=
m1 + m2
Similarly, the momentum of the second particle in the C-frame is
  
P2 / c = µ (v2 − v1 ) (9-97)
Thus, the momenta of the two particles in the C-frame are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction; the
modulus of the momentum of each particle is

P1/ c = µ vrel (9-98)
 
where vrel = v1 − v2 is the velocity of one particle relative to another. Finally, let us consider kinetic energy. The total
kinetic energy of the two particles in the C-frame is
 
P2 P2
Ksys/c = K1 + K 2 = +
2 m1 2 m2
We know that
m1m2 1 1 1
µ= or + =
m1 + m2 m1 m2 µ
2
P µ v2
Then Ksys/c = = rel
2µ 2
as Ksys = Ksys/c + Kc (9-99)
we get
µ vrel
2
mvc2
Ksys/c = + (where m = m1 + m2)(9-100)
2 2µ
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.30

Velocity of two particles relative to center of mass using C-frame reference
The velocities of two particles of masses m1 and m2 rel- the observer and the velocity of each particle relative to
ative to an observer in an inertial frame are v1 and v2. the center of mass.
Determine the velocity of the center of mass relative to
9.12 C-Frame 383
Calculations: From defnition ZL

v1
dr 1 dr ∑m v i i
v12
vcom = com =
dt
∑
M i
mi i =
dt
i
M
v1
v2
v2
m2
The velocity of the center of mass relative to the observer m1 com
is O YL
m v + m2 v2
vcom = 1 1
m1 + m2
XL
The velocity of each particle relative to the center of Figure 9-42 Velocity of two particles relative to
mass (Fig. 9-42) using the relative motion equations for center of mass.
velocities is
m1v1 + m2 v2 Thus, in the C-frame, the two particles appear to be

v1′ = v1 − vcom = v1 − moving in opposite directions with velocities inversely
m1 + m2
proportional to their masses.
m (v − v ) m2 v12 Also relative to the center of mass, the two particles
= 2 1 2 =
m1 + m2 m1 + m2 move with equal but opposite momentum since
m1 (v2 + v1 ) m1v12
v2′ = v2 − vcom = =− m1 m2 v12
m1 + m2 m1 + m2 p1′ = m1v1′ = = p2′
(m1 + m2 )
where v12 = v1 - v2 is the relative velocity of the two Note: The expressions for two particle problems are much
particles. simpler when they are related to the C-frame of reference.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.31

Kinetic energy in a perfectly inelastic collision
Two particles of mass m1, m2 moving with initial veloc- attain same velocity, thus relative velocity becomes
ity u1 and u2 collide head-on (Fig. 9-43). Find minimum zero.
kinetic energy that system has during collision. Thus, When an isolated system has minimum kinetic energy
prove that maximum kinetic energy is lost in perfectly in C-frame, it will also have minimum kinetic energy
inelastic collision in ground frame, as velocity of center of mass is con-
Calculations: In C-frame, initial kinetic energy of sys- stant. Thus, minimum kinetic energy during collision
tem is is
1
1 (m1 + m2 )vc2
µ (u2 − u1 )2 2
2
m1 m2 (m1u1 + m2 u2 )
where µ= where vc =
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
During collision, at the instant of maximum deformation, Learn: In a perfectly inelastic collision, since both the
we get minimum kinetic energy in C-frame as particles particles move together, the relative velocity becomes
zero. Thus, fnal kinetic energy is, 1/ 2 ms vc2 (ms = m1 + m2 )
u1 u2
as velocity of center of mass is constant. This is the min-
m1 m2 imum possible kinetic energy that a system will have
because in all other cases there will be one more term
Figure 9-43 Particles moving with velocities adding in the kinetic energy of system because of parti-
u1 and u2 in the same direction. cles having relative velocity.
9.13 | IMPULSE MOMENTUM EQUATION FOR CONTINUOUS PROCESSES

Momentum and the Flow of Mass
Analyzing a system having mass fowing in or out may become really confusing if we try to apply Newton’s laws
directly. A rocket is the best example of such a system.
These problems can be handled easily using F = dP/dt, provided that we keep clearly in mind exactly what is
included in the system. When this equation is applied in the integral form,
tb
∫ Fdt = P(t ) − P(t ) (9-101)

ta
b a
it is essential to deal with the same set of particles throughout the time interval ta to tb; that is, all the particles which are
originally in the system are taken in account. Thus, the mass of the system does not change during the time of interest.
9.14 | SYSTEMS WITH VARYING MASS: A ROCKET

Key Concepts
◆ In the absence of external forces a rocket accelerates and vrel is the fuel’s exhaust speed relative to the rocket.
at an instantaneous rate given by The term Rvrel is the thrust of the rocket engine.
◆ For a rocket with constant R and vrel, whose speed changes
Rvrel = Ma (frst rocket equation), from vi to vf when its mass changes from Mi to Mf ,
in which M is the rocket’s instantaneous mass (includ- Mi
vf − vi = vrel ln (second rocket equation).
ing unexpended fuel), R is the fuel consumption rate, Mf
So far, we have assumed that the total mass of the system remains constant. Sometimes, as in a rocket, it does not.
Most of the mass of a rocket on its launching pad is fuel, all of which will eventually be burned and ejected from the
nozzle of the rocket engine. We handle the variation of the mass of the rocket
as the rocket accelerates by applying Newton’s second law, not to the rocket The ejection of mass from
alone but to the rocket and its ejected combustion products taken together. the rocket's rear increases
The mass of this system does not change as the rocket accelerates. the rocket's speed.
Finding the Acceleration System boundary
Assume that we are at rest relative to an inertial reference frame, watching M v

a rocket accelerate through deep space with no gravitational or atmospheric
drag forces acting on it. For this one-dimensional motion, let M be the mass of
the rocket and v its velocity at an arbitrary time t (see Fig. 9-44a).
Figure 9-44b shows how things stand a time interval dt later. The rocket x
now has velocity v + dv and mass M + dM, where the change in mass dM is a (a )
negative quantity. The exhaust products released by the rocket during interval
dt have mass −dM and velocity U relative to our inertial reference frame. System boundary
Conserve Momentum. Our system consists of the rocket and the exhaust
products released during interval dt. The system is closed and isolated, so the –dM M + dM v + dv
linear momentum of the system must be conserved during dt; that is, U
Pi = Pf ,(9-102)
where the subscripts i and f indicate the values at the beginning and end of x
(b )
time interval dt. We can rewrite Eq. 9-102 as
Mv = −dM U + (M + dM)(v + dv),(9-103) Figure 9-44 (a) An accelerating rocket
of mass M at time t, as seen from an
where the frst term on the right is the linear momentum of the exhaust prod- inertial reference frame. (b) The same
ucts released during interval dt and the second term is the linear momentum but at time t + dt. The exhaust products
of the rocket at the end of interval dt. released during interval dt are shown.
9.14 Systems with Varying Mass: A Rocket 385
Use Relative Speed. We can simplify Eq. 9-103 by using the relative speed vrel between the rocket and the exhaust
products, which is related to the velocities relative to the frame with
 velocity of rocket   velocity of rocket   velocity of products 
 = + .
 relative to frame   relative to products   relative to frame 
In symbols, this means
(v + dv) = vrel + U,
or U = v + dv − vrel.(9-104)
Substituting this result for U into Eq. 9-103 yields, with a little algebra,
−dM vrel = M dv.(9-105)
Dividing each side by dt gives us
dM dv
− vrel = M . (9-106)
dt dt
We replace dM/dt (the rate at which the rocket loses mass) by −R, where R is the (positive) mass rate of fuel
consumption, and we recognize that dv/dt is the acceleration of the rocket. With these changes, Eq. 9-106 becomes
Rvrel = Ma (frst rocket equation). (9-107)
Equation 9-107 holds for the values at any given instant.

Note the left side of Eq. 9-107 has the dimensions of force (kg/s ⋅ m/s = kg ⋅ m/s2 = N) and depends only on design charac-
teristics of the rocket engine—namely, the rate R at which it consumes fuel mass and the speed vrel with which that mass is
ejected relative to the rocket. We call this term Rvrel the thrust of the rocket engine and represent it with T. Newton’s sec-
ond law emerges if we write Eq. 9-107 as T = Ma, in which a is the acceleration of the rocket at the time that its mass is M.
Finding the Velocity

How will the velocity of a rocket change as it consumes its fuel? From Eq. 9-105, we have
dM
dv = −vrel .
M
Integrating leads to
vf M f dM
∫vi dv = −vrel ∫Mi M ,
in which Mi is the initial mass of the rocket and Mf its fnal mass. Evaluating the integrals then gives
Mi
vf − vi = vrel ln (second rocket equation) (9-108)
Mf
for the increase in the speed of the rocket during the change in mass from Mi to Mf . (The symbol “ln” in Eq. 9-108 means
the natural logarithm.) We see here the advantage of multistage rockets, in which Mf is reduced by discarding successive
stages when their fuel is depleted. An ideal rocket would reach its destination with only its payload remaining.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.32

Rocket engine, thrust, acceleration
In all previous examples in this chapter, the mass of a KEY IDEA

system is constant (fxed as a certain number). Here is
Thrust T is equal to the product of the fuel consumption
an example of a system (a rocket) that is losing mass. A
rate R and the relative speed vrel at which exhaust gases
rocket whose initial mass Mi is 850 kg consumes fuel at
are expelled, as given by Eq. 9-107.
the rate R = 2.3 kg/s. The speed vrel of the exhaust gases
Calculations: Here we fnd
relative to the rocket engine is 2800 m/s. What thrust
does the rocket engine provide? T = Rvrel = (2.3 kg/s)(2800 m/s)
= 6440 N ≈ 6400 N. (Answer)
(b) What is the initial acceleration of the rocket? To be launched from Earth’s surface, a rocket must
have an initial acceleration greater than g = 9.8 m/s2.
KEY IDEA That is, it must be greater than the gravitational accel-
eration at the surface. Put another way, the thrust T of
We can relate the thrust T of a rocket to the magnitude a the rocket engine must exceed the initial gravitational
of the resulting acceleration with T = Ma, where M is the force on the rocket, which here has the magnitude Mi g,
rocket’s mass. However, M decreases and a increases as which gives us
fuel is consumed. Because we want the initial value of a
(850 kg)(9.8 m/s2) = 8330 N.
here, we must use the intial value Mi of the mass.
Calculation: We fnd Because the acceleration or thrust requirement is not
met (here T = 6400 N), our rocket could not be launched
T 6440 N from Earth’s surface by itself; it would require another,
=
a = = 7.6 m/s2 . (Answer)
Mi 850 kg more powerful, rocket.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.33

Freight car with varying mass
Consider the following two situations for freight car flled Let us consider the freight car, the sand inside it and
with sand and moving with uniform velocity V0. small amount of sand which is going to fall in time Dt onto
(a) Sand falls from a stationary hopper onto a freight car the car as one system. This small amount of the sand is
which is moving with uniform velocity V0. The sand falls in midair, falling freely and does not have any horizontal
at the rate m (Fig. 9-45). How much force is needed to component of velocity. Thus, momentum of the system in
keep the freight car moving at the speed V0? horizontal direction at time t is:
Pi = (M0 + µ t ) V0 + µ∆t(0)
m Once the small amount of the sand joins the remaining
sand in the car, it will have same velocity as the car due
F to impulsive friction. Thus, momentum of the system in
M horizontal direction at time (t + ∆t) is
V0 Pf = (M + µ∆t ) V0
dp Pf − pi
Using F= =
dt ∆t
Figure 9-45 Freight car with a stationary hopper, moving with
uniform velocity V0. or F ∆t = Pf − Pi
F ∆t = µ∆tV0
KEY IDEA
(1) Although the velocity of the cart is constant but it may The required force is
not remain so when the sand falls in it. The falling sand F = µV0
will apply force of friction on the cart; to counter this force
In Case of: What would happen if the upper surface of
we have to apply equal and opposite force on the cart.
the freight car was slippery?
(2) The required force on the cart cannot be calculated
Calculation: Here the required force is F = 0 because
using F = ma as the force on the cart due to sand is
sand particles will not move and fall down as there is no
unknown. This problem will be solved by taking falling
friction, hence no force. In this case, the initial speed of
sand and cart as one system.
the sand is zero.
Calculations: At time t, the total mass of the freight car
(b) Now consider a related case. The same freight car
including the mass of sand present inside it is M.
is leaking sand at the rate m (Fig. 9-46); what force is
M = M0 + µt needed to keep the freight car moving uniformly with
where M0 is the initial mass. speed V0?
9.15 Some Derivations Pertaining to com of Objects 387
freight car is same as that of its initial velocity, and its

F momentum does not change.
Thus, momentum of the system in horizontal direction
V0 at time (t + ∆t) is:
m
Pf = {M0 − µ (t + ∆t )} V0 + µ∆t V0 = (M0 − µ t ) V0
Figure 9-46 Freight car moving with constant velocity V0 and dP ∆P

Using F= =
sand leaking at the rate m. dt ∆t
KEY IDEA Pf − Pi
or =
The required force on the cart cannot be calculated using ∆t
F = ma as the force on the cart due to sand is not known.
F ∆t = Pf − Pi
This problem will be solved by taking falling sand and
cart as one system. F ∆t = 0
Calculations: At time t, the total mass of the freight car
including the mass of sand present inside it is M. Since dP/dt = 0, no force is required. The sand does
change its momentum when it hits the ground, and there
M = M0 − µ t is a resulting force on the ground, but that does not affect
Let us consider the freight car and the sand inside it as the motion of the freight car.
one system. Thus, momentum of the system in horizontal The required force is zero.
direction at time t is Pi = (M0 - µt) V0. Now consider small Learn: The falling sand need not apply any force on the
amount of the sand leaving the cart in time ∆t, having cart while leaving it, so the required force on the cart is
mass µ∆t. However, the velocity of sand after leaving the zero. Although the mass is varying but no force is required.
9.15 | SOME DERIVATIONS PERTAINING TO COM OF OBJECTS

Key Concepts
◆ Position coordinates of com of thin hemispherical ◆ The com of a uniform solid cone of height h and
shell of mass M and radius R, assuming uniform mass semi-angle α is
distribution is
3h
R ycom =
= xcom 0= and ycom 4
2
◆ The com of a hemispherical object of uniform density
◆ The com of a uniform hollow cone of height H and
has radius R
semi-vertex angle α is
2H 3R
ycom = (from the tip of cone) =
xcom = , ycom zcom = 0
3 8
y
Position of com of Thin Hemispherical Shell
R cos θ
Consider a thin hemispherical shell of mass M and radius R as shown in Fig. 9-47.
Assuming the mass distribution to be uniform, consider a small circular strip of ds Rdθ
thickness ds. This thickness of ring subtends angle dθ at the center of the hemi-
sphere as shown in Fig. 9-47. Radius of ring element is R cos θ. dθ
R sin θ
Mass of the element is
θ x
dm = Mass per unit area × Area of circular strip
M
= × (2π R cos θ )Rdθ Figure 9-47 Thin hemispherical
2π R 2 shell.
Then xcom = 0 from symmetry of diagram and

π /2
1
ycom =
M ∫ dm R sinθ
0
Substituting the value of dm, we get

π /2
1 M
ycom =
M ∫ 2π R
0
2
× (2π R cosθ Rdθ )R sin θ
π /2
R
= R ∫ sin θ cosθ dθ =
0
2
The com of a Uniform Hollow Cone

x
Consider a uniform hallow cone of height H and semi-vertex angle α as shown α
in Fig. 9-48. Mass per unit area:
dx
M H
r
L
σ=
π RL
Consider a small elemental ring of thickness dx and radius r, then mass of the
elemental ring,
dm = α × (2π r dx); y = x cos θ ; dy = dx cos θ ; r = y tan θ
R
H  M 
∫
0
y  × 2π rdx 2 H
 π RL 
Figure 9-48 Uniform hollow cone.
ycom = = (from the tip of cone)
M 3
The com of a Uniform Solid Cone

Consider a uniform solid cone of height ‘h’ and semi-angle α, as shown in Fig. 9-49. y α
We place the apex of the cone at the origin. It is clear that the center of mass will r dy
lie along the y-axis. We divide the cone into disk of radius r and thickness dy. The h
volume of such a disk is
dV = π r2 dy = π (y tan α)2 dy
R
The mass of the elemental disk is dm = ρ dV. First, let us determine the
total mass of the cone M, where y goes from 0 to h, that is, the total height Figure 9-49 Uniform solid cone.
of cone.
h
M = ∫ dm = πρ tan 2 α ∫ y2 dy
0
h3
= πρ tan 2 α (9-109)
3
The position of the com is given by

1 h 1 h
ycom = ∫
M 0
y dm = πρ tan 2 α ∫ y3 dy
M 0
4

1 h
= πρ tan 2 α (9-110)
M 4
From Eq. 9-109 and Eq. 9-110, we have
3h
ycom =
4
This explains element of solid cone as disk and compares it with next problems element as ring.
Review and Summary 389
The com of a Hemispherical Object

Consider a hemispherical object with uniform distribution of mass as shown in y dx
Fig. 9-50. Let us prove by integration that the com of a hemispherical object of
uniform density has radius R and center of mass lies along its axis of symmetry
at a distance 3R/8 from the center of the plane surface. As shown in Fig. 9-50, we
choose a coordinate system with the origin at the center of the fat face and we R
x
let the yz plane be the plane of the face.
We now imagine slicing the hemisphere into disks parallel to the yz plane. A disk
of thickness dx, located at a distance x from the plane face, has a radius R 2 − x 2 .
Therefore, the mass of the disk dm = π ρ(R2 − x2)dx, where r is the mass density of the
hemisphere. The center of mass of the hemisphere has an x c oordinate xcom given by
x
R
xcom =
∫ 0
x dm
Figure 9-50 Hemispherical object
R
∫ dm 0
of uniform density.
R
∫ πρ x( R − x ) dx
2 2
= 0
R
∫ πρ ( R − x ) dx
2 2
0
R
 x 2 R2 x 4 
 − 
 2 4 0 R 4 /4 3R
= R
= =
 2 x3  2R3 / 3 8
 xR − 
 4 0
ycom = zcom = 0
REVIEW AND SUMMARY

Center of Mass The center of mass of a system of n particles Linear Momentum of a System of Particles For a system of
is defned to be the point whose coordinates are given by particles, the relations for linear momentum and force become
  
1 n 1 n 1 n  dp
xcom = ∑
M i −1
mi xi , ycom = ∑
M i −1
mi yi , zcom = ∑ mizi , (9-5)
M i −1
= P Mv = com and Fnet
dt
. (9-27, 9-29)
Impulse and Momentum Applying Newton’s second law in

 1 n 
or rcom = ∑ miri , (9-8)
M i −1
momentum form to a particle-like body involved in a collision
leads to the impulse–linear momentum theorem:
where M is the total mass of the system.    
pf − pi = ∆p = J , (9-33, 9-34)
Newton’s Second Law for a System of Particles The   
motion of the center of mass of any system of particles is where pf − pi = ∆p is the change in the body’s linear momen-
 
governed by Newton’s second law for a system of particles, tum, and J is the impulse due to the force F (t ) exerted on the
which is body by the other body in the collision:
   tf 
Fnet = Macom. (9-14) J = ∫ F (t ) dt. (9-32)
 ti
Here Fnet is the net force of all the external forces acting on 
 If Favg is the average magnitude of F (t ) during the collision and
the system, M is the total mass of the system, and acom is the
acceleration of the system’s center of mass. ∆t is the duration of the collision, then for one-dimensional
motion
Linear Momentum and Newton’s Second Law For a single
 J = Favg ∆t.(9-33)
particle, we defne a quantity p called its linear momentum as
  When a steady stream of bodies, each with mass m and speed
p = mv, (9-24)
v, collides with a body whose position is fxed, the average
and can write Newton’s second law in terms of this momentum: force on the fxed body is
  n n
dp Favg = − ∆p = − m ∆v, (9-39)
Fnet = . (9-25)
dt ∆t ∆t
where n/∆t is the rate at which the bodies collide with the If the motion of the bodies is along a single axis, the colli-
fxed body, and ∆v is the change in velocity of each colliding sion is one-dimensional and we can write Eq. 9-59 in terms of
body. This average force can also be written as velocity components along that axis:
∆m m1v1i + m2v2i = m1v1f + m2v2f .(9-60)
Favg = − ∆v, (9-42)
∆t If the bodies stick together, the collision is a completely inelastic
where ∆m/∆t is the rate at which mass collides with the fxed collision and the bodies have the same fnal velocity V
body. In Eqs. 9-39 and 9-42, ∆v = −v if the bodies stop upon (because they are stuck together).
impact and ∆v = −2v if they bounce directly backward with no
Velocity of the Center of Mass The center of mass of a
change in their speed.
closed, isolated system of two colliding bodies is not affected
Conservation of Linear Momentum If a system is isolated 
by a collision. In particular, the velocity vcom of the center of
so
 that no net external force acts on it, the linear momentum mass cannot be changed by the collision.
P of the system remains constant:
 Elastic Collisions in One Dimension An elastic collision
P = constant (closed, isolated system). (9-45) is a special type of collision in which the kinetic energy of
a system of colliding bodies is conserved. If the system is
This can also be written as closed and isolated, its linear momentum is also conserved.
  For a onedimensional collision in which body 2 is a target
Pi = Pf (closed, isolated system), (9-46) and body 1 is an incoming projectile, conservation of kinetic
 energy and linear momentum yield the following expressions
where the subscripts refer to the values of P at some initial
for the velocities immediately after the collision:
time and at a later time. Equations 9-44 and 9-45 are equivalent
statements of the law of conservation of linear momentum. m1 − m2
v1 f = v1i (9-76)
m1 + m2
Collisions Collision is an event in which strong force acts
between two or more bodies for a short time. 2 m1
and v2 f = v1i . (9-77)
If the kinetic energy of the system is conserved (it is the m1 + m2
same before and after the collision). Such a collision is called
Collisions in Two Dimensions If two bodies collide and their
an elastic collision.
motion is not along a single axis (the collision is not head-on),
If the kinetic energy of the system is not conserved (it
the collision is two-dimensional. If the two-body system is
is always transferred from kinetic energy to other forms of
closed and isolated, the law of conservation of momentum
energy). Such a collision is called an inelastic collision.
applies to the collision and can be written as
According to Newton’s law of collision    
P1i + P2 i = P1 f + P2 f . (9-86)
v2 f − v1 f
= −e (9-58) In component form, the law gives two equations that describe
v2 i − v1i
the collision (one equation for each of the two dimensions).
where v1f and v2f are the components of velocities of collid- If the collision is also elastic (a special case), the conservation
ing points of the bodies 1 and 2, along the line of contact, of kinetic energy during the collision gives a third equation:
after collision (with sign); v1i and v2i are the components of K1i + K2i = K1f + K2f .(9-87)
velocities of colliding points of the bodies, along the line of
contact, before collision (with sign) and e is the coeffcient C-frame The frame of reference attached to the center of
of restitution. mass of a system is called the center of mass frame of refer-
In general, e has a value between zero and one, but the ence or C-frame of reference.
physical meaning of these two limits is  
P = ∑ Pi = 0 (in the C-frame of reference) (9-92)
● For e = 1: Perfectly elastic collision. The kinetic energy of system in ground frame related to
● For 0 < e < 1: Inelastic collision. kinetic energy in C-frame is
● For e = 0: Perfectly inelastic collision (bodies will move
pc2
together). (9-95)
Ksys = Ksys/c +
2M
Inelastic Collision in One Dimension In an inelastic colli- The total kinetic energy of the two particles in the C-frame is
sion of two bodies, the kinetic energy of the two-body system µ vrel
2
mvc2
is not conserved (it is not a constant). If the system is closed Ksys/c = + (where m = m1 + m2)(9-100)
2 2µ
and isolated, the total linear momentum of the system must
be conserved (it is a constant), which we can write in vector Variable-Mass Systems: A Rocket In the absence of external
form as forces a rocket accelerates at an instantaneous rate given by
   
p1i + p2 i = p1 f + p2 f , (9-59) Rvrel = Ma (frst rocket equation), (9-107)
where subscripts i and f refer to values just before and just in which M is the rocket’s instantaneous mass (including
after the collision, respectively. unexpended fuel), R is the fuel consumption rate, and vrel is
Problems 391
the fuel’s exhaust speed relative to the rocket. The term Rvrel The com of a uniform hollow cone of height H and semi-
is the thrust of the rocket engine. For a rocket with constant vertex angle α
R and vrel, whose speed changes from vi to vf when its mass 2H
changes from Mi to Mf , ycom = (from the tip of cone)
3
Mi The com of a uniform solid cone of height h and semi-angle α
vf − vi = vrel ln (second rocket equation). (9-108)
Mf 3h
ycom =
Some Derivations Pertaining to com of Objects Position 4
coordinates of com of thin hemispherical shell of mass M and The com of a hemispherical object of uniform density has
radius R, assuming uniform mass distribution radius R
R 3R
=xcom 0=
and ycom =
xcom = , ycom zcom = 0
2 8
PROBLEMS
1. Three particles of mass 1.0 kg, 2.0 kg, and 3.0 kg are placed y
at the vertices A, B, and C, respectively, of an equilateral
triangle ABC of edge 1.0 m (Fig. 9-51). Find the distance x
L
of their center of mass from A.
y L L
Figure 9-53 Problem 3.

4. Figure 9-54 shows a cubical box that has been constructed
from uniform metal plate of negligible thickness. The box is
open at the top and has edge length L = 50 cm. Find (a) the x
coordinate, (b) the y coordinate, and (c) the z coordinate of
x the center of mass of the box.
A B
z

2. Figure 9-52 shows a three-particle system, with masses
m1 = 2.0 kg, m2 = 4.0 kg, and m3 = 8.0 kg. The scales on the
axes are set by xs = 2.0 m and ys = 2.0 m. What are (a) the
L
x coordinate and (b) the y coordinate of the system’s O y
center of mass? (c) If m3 is gradually increased, does the
center of mass of the system shift toward or away from
that particle, or does it remain stationary? x
y (m) Figure 9-54 Problem 4.

m3 5. A uniform soda can of mass
ys 0.140 kg is 12.0 cm tall and
m2 flled with 0.354 kg of soda
(Fig. 9-55). Then small holes
m1 are drilled in the top and bot-
x (m)
0 xs tom (with negligible loss of
metal) to drain the soda. What
x
is the height h of the com of the
can and contents (a) initially
3. In Fig. 9-53, three uniform thin rods, each of length L = 24 cm, and (b) after the can loses all
form an inverted U. The vertical rods each have a mass of the soda? (c) What happens to Figure 9-55 Problem 5.
14 g; the horizontal rod has a mass of 42 g. What are (a) the h as the soda drains out? (d) If
x coordinate and (b) the y coordinate of the system’s center x is the height of the remaining soda at any given instant,
of mass? fnd x when the com reaches its lowest point.
6. In the arrangement shown Hmax reached by the com of the two-particle system?
in Fig. 9-56, mA = 2.0 kg and In unit-vector notation, what are the (b) velocity and
mB = 1.0 kg. The pulley is mass- (c) acceleration of the com when the com reaches Hmax?
less; the string is massless and 12. Richard, of mass 80 kg, and Camelia, who is lighter, are in
long. The system is released at a 30 kg canoe on a lake. When the canoe is at rest in the
t = 0 s. Find (a) the accelera- placid water, they exchange seats, which are 3.0 m apart
tion of the center of mass of the mB and symmetrically located with respect to the canoe’s
blocks, (b) the displacement of center. If the canoe moves 45 cm horizontally relative to a
the center of mass at t = 2.0 s, and mA
pier post, what is Camelia’s mass?
(c) the speed of the center of
13. In Fig. 9-59a, a 4.5 kg
mass when mA strikes the foor.
h = 10 m dog stands on an 18 kg
7. A 1000 kg automobile is at rest fatboat at distance D = D
at a traffc signal. At the instant 6.1 m from the shore. It
the light turns green, the auto- Figure 9-56 Problem 6. (a)
walks 2.4 m along the boat
mobile starts to move with a toward shore and then
constant acceleration of 3.0 m/s2. At the same instant a stops. Assuming no fric- Dog’s displacement dd
2000 kg truck, traveling at a constant speed of 8.0 m/s, tion between the boat and
overtakes and passes the automobile. (a) How far is the the water, fnd how far the
com of the automobile–truck system from the traffc light dog is then from the shore.
at t = 5.0 s? (b) What is the speed of the com then? (Hint: See Fig. 9-59b.) Boat’s displacement db
8. A big olive (m = 0.50 kg) lies at the origin of an xy coor- (b)
14. A 0.70 kg ball moving
dinate system, and a big Brazil nut (M = 1.5 kg) lies at the horizontally at 6.0 m/s Figure 9-59 Problem 13.
point (1.0, 2.0) m. At t = 0, a force Fo = (2.0i + 3.0j)N begins strikes a vertical wall and

to act on the olive, and a force Fn = (−3.0i − 2.0j)N begins rebounds with speed 3.5 m/s. What is the magnitude of the
to act on the nut. In unit-vector notation, what is the dis- change in its linear momentum?
placement of the center of mass of the olive–nut system at 15. A 100 kg motorbike moves along AB at 10.0 km/h, and after
t = 4.0 s, with respect to its position at t = 0? some time, the motorbike turns to travel along BC at the
9. Two skaters, one with mass 75 kg and the other with mass same speed as shown in Fig. 9-60. Find (a) the change in
40 kg, stand on an ice rink holding a pole of length 10 m its kinetic energy and the (b) magnitude and (c) direction
and negligible mass. Starting from the ends of the pole, (relative to +x) of the change in its momentum.
the skaters pull themselves along the pole until they meet.
y
How far does the 40 kg skater move?

10. A shell is shot with an initial velocity v0 of 20 m/s, at an C
angle of θ0 = 60° with the horizontal. At the top of the
trajectory, the shell explodes into two fragments of equal
mass (Fig. 9-57). One fragment, whose speed immediately
after the explosion is zero, falls vertically. How far from
the gun does the other fragment land, assuming that the
terrain is level and that air drag is negligible?
Explosion 60°
x
A B
v0 Figure 9-60 Problem 15.
θ0 16. A ball of mass 50 g moving y

with a speed of 2.0 m/s strikes
a wall at an angle of incidence 2.0 m/s
Figure 9-57 Problem 10. 45° and is refected from the
11. In Fig. 9-58, two particles are y wall at the same angle and
with the same speed. See the 45°
launched from the origin of x
the coordinate system at 2 overhead view in Fig. 9-61. 45°
time t = 0. Particle 1 of mass Calculate (a) the magni-
1 
m1 = 5.00 g is shot directly x tude of the change ∆p in the
⋅
along the x axis on a fric- momentum of the ball, (b) the 2.0 m/s
change in the magnitude of Wall
tionless foor, with constant Figure 9-58 Problem 11. 
speed 10.0 m/s. Particle 2 the momentum p of the ball,
of mass m2 = 3.00 g is shot with a velocity of magnitude and (c) the change in the
20.0 m/s, at an upward angle such that it always stays magnitude of the momentum
directly above particle 1. (a) What is the maximum height of the wall.
Problems 393
17. Figure 9-62 gives an over- y the bullet to stop, (b) the impulse on the log, and (c) the
head view of the path magnitude of the average force experienced by the log.
taken by a 0.150 kg cue ball 21. In a common but dangerous prank, a chair is pulled away
as it bounces from a rail of as a person is moving downward to sit on it, causing the
a pool table. The ball’s ini- victim to land hard on the foor. Suppose the victim falls
tial speed is 2.00 m/s, and by 0.50 m, the mass that moves downward is 75 kg, and
θ1 θ 2
the angle θ1 is 30.0°. The the collision on the foor lasts 0.088 s. What are the mag-
bounce reverses the y com- nitudes of the (a) impulse and (b) average force acting on
ponent of the ball’s veloc- the victim from the foor during the collision?
ity but does not alter the x x
22. A 3.00 kg block slides on a frictionless horizontal surface,
component. What are (a)
Figure 9-62 Problem 17. frst moving to the left at 50.0 m/s. It collides with a spring
angle θ2 and (b) the change
whose other end is fxed to a wall, compresses the spring,
in the ball’s linear momen-
and is brought to rest momentarily. Then it continues
tum in unit-vector notation? (The fact that the ball rolls is
to be accelerated toward the right by the force of the
irrelevant to the problem.)
compressed spring. The block acquires a fnal speed of
18. Until his seventies, Henri LaMothe (Fig. 9-63) excited 40.0 m/s. It is in contact with the spring for 0.020 s. Find
audiences by belly-fopping from a height of 12 m into (a) the magnitude and (b) the direction of the impulse of
30 cm of water. Assuming that he stops just as he reaches the spring force on the block. (c) What is the magnitude of
the bottom of the water and estimating his mass, fnd the the spring’s average force on the block?
magnitude of the impulse on him from the water.
23. In tae-kwon-do, a hand is slammed down onto a target at
a speed of 13 m/s and comes to a stop during the 5.5 ms
collision. Assume that during the impact the hand is inde-
pendent of the arm and has a mass of 0.70 kg. What are
the magnitudes of the (a) impulse and (b) average force
on the hand from the target?
24. A ball of mass 1.00 kg is attached to a loose string fxed
to a ceiling. The ball is released from rest and falls 2.00 m,
where the string suddenly stops it. Find the impulse on it
from the string.
25. Jumping up before the elevator hits. After the cable snaps and
the safety system fails, an elevator cab free-falls from a height
of 36 m. During the collision at the bottom of the elevator
shaft, a 90 kg passenger is stopped in 5.0 ms. (Assume that
neither the passenger nor the cab rebounds.) What are the
magnitudes of the (a) impulse and (b) average force on the
passenger during the collision? If the passenger were to jump
upward with a speed of 7.0 m/s relative to the cab foor just
before the cab hits the bottom of the shaft, what are the mag-
nitudes of the (c) impulse and (d) average force (assuming
the same stopping time)?
26. A 2.5 kg toy car can move along an x axis; Fig. 9-64 gives Fx of
the force acting on the car, which begins at rest at time t = 0.
The scale on the Fx axis is set by Fxs = 5.0 N. In unit-vector
George Long/Getty Images, Inc. 
notation, what is p at (a) t = 4.0 s and (b) t = 7.0 s, and (c) what

Figure 9-63 Problem 18. Belly-fopping into 30 cm of water. is v at t = 9.0 s?
Fx (N)
19. In February 1955, a paratrooper fell 370 m from an air-
plane without being able to open his chute but happened
to land in snow, suffering only minor injuries. Assume that Fxs
his speed at impact was 56 m/s (terminal speed), that his
mass (including gear) was 85 kg, and that the magnitude of t (s)
the force on him from the snow was at the survivable limit 2 4 6 8
of 1.2 × 105 N. What are (a) the minimum depth of snow
that would have stopped him safely and (b) the magnitude –Fxs
of the impulse on him from the snow?
20. A 5.00 g bullet moving at 100 m/s strikes a log. Assume
that the bullet undergoes a uniform deceleration and 27. Figure 9-65 shows a 0.300 kg baseball just before and just
stops after penetrating 6.00 cm. Find (a) the time taken by after it collides with a bat. Just before, the ball has velocity
 33. A space vehicle is traveling at 4800 km/h relative to Earth

v1 of magnitude 12.0 m/s
and angle θ1 = 35.0°. θ1 when the exhausted rocket motor (mass 4m) is disengaged
Just after, it is traveling v2 and sent backward. The relative speed between motor and
v1 command module (mass m) is then 82 km/h. What is the
directly upward with y
 speed of the command module relative to Earth just after
velocity v2 of magnitude
10.0 m/s. The duration of the separation?
x
the collision is 2.00 ms. 34. A 15.0 kg package is moving at a speed of 10.0 m/s ver-
What are the (a) mag- tically upward along a y axis when it explodes into three
nitude and (b) direction fragments: a 2.00 kg fragment is shot upward with an ini-
(relative to the positive tial speed of 20.0 m/s and a 3.00 kg fragment is shot in
direction of the x axis) of the impulse on the ball from the the positive direction of a horizontal x axis with an initial
bat? What are the (c) magnitude and (d) direction of the speed of 5.00 m/s. Find (a) the speed of the third fragment
average force on the ball from the bat? right after the explosion and (b) the total kinetic energy
28. Figure 9-66 shows an approximate plot of force magnitude provided by the explosion.
F versus time t during the collision of a 58 g Superball with 35. In Fig. 9-68, a stationary block explodes into two pieces
a wall. The initial velocity of the ball is 34 m/s perpen- L and R that slide across a frictionless foor and then into
dicular to the wall; the ball rebounds directly back with regions with friction, where they stop. Piece L, with a
approximately the same speed, also perpendicular to the mass of 2.0 kg, encounters a coeffcient of kinetic friction
wall. What is Fmax, the maximum magnitude of the force on μL = 0.35 and slides to a stop in distance dL = 0.15 m. Piece
the ball from the wall during the collision? R encounters a coeffcient of kinetic friction μR = 0.50 and
slides to a stop in distance dR = 0.30 m. What was the mass
Fmax
of the block?
µL µ=0 µR
F (N)
dL dR
0
0 2 4 6
t (ms)

36. A 4.0 kg mess kit sliding on a frictionless surface
29. A 0.25 kg puck is initially stationary on an ice surface with explodes into two 2.0 kg parts: 3.0 m/s, due north, and
negligible friction. At time t = 0, a horizontal force begins 6.0 m/s, 30° north of east. What is the original speed of the
mess kit?
to move
 the puck. The force is given by F = (12 .0 − 3.00t 2 )i,
with F in newtons and t in seconds, and it acts until its mag- 37. Particle A and particle B are held together with a com-
nitude is zero. (a) What is the magnitude of the impulse on pressed spring between them. When they are released, the
the puck from the force between t = 0.750 s and t = 1.25 s? spring pushes them apart, and they then fy off in opposite
(b) What is the change in momentum of the puck between directions, free of the spring. The mass of A is 2.00 times
t = 0 and the instant at which F = 0? the mass of B, and the energy stored in the spring was
30. A 80 J. Assume that the spring has negligible mass and that
particle of unknown mass is acted upon by a force
F = (100e −2 t i ) N. If at t = 0.00 s the particle is at rest, for all its stored energy is transferred to the particles. Once
the time interval t = 0.00 s to t = 2.00 s fnd (a) the impulse that transfer is complete, what are the kinetic energies of
on the particle and (b) the average force on the particle. (a) particle A and (b) particle B?
31. In the overhead view of y 38. A bullet of mass 10 g strikes a ballistic pendulum of mass
v 2.0 kg. The center of mass of the pendulum rises a verti-
Fig. 9-67, a 300 g ball with
v x cal distance of 12 cm. Assuming that the bullet remains
a speed v of 6.0 m/s strikes
a wall at an angle θ of 30° embedded in the pendulum, calculate the bullet’s initial
θ θ
and then rebounds with speed.
the same speed and angle. 39. A 5.20 g bullet moving at 700 m/s strikes a 700 g
It is in contact with the Figure 9-67 Problem 31. wooden block at rest on a frictionless surface. The bullet
wall for 10 ms. In unitvector notation, what are (a) the emerges, traveling in the same direction with its speed
impulse on the ball from the wall and (b) the average force reduced to 450 m/s. (a) What is the resulting speed of
on the wall from the ball? the block? (b) What is the speed of the bullet–block
32. A man of mass m1 = 80 kg is standing on a platform of mass center of mass?
m2 = 20 kg that lies on a frictionless horizontal surface. 40. In Fig. 9-69a, a 3.50 g bullet is fred horizontally at two
The man starts moving on the platform with a velocity blocks at rest on a frictionless table. The bullet passes
vr = 10 m/s relative to the platform. Find the recoil speed through block 1 (mass 1.20 kg) and embeds itself
of the platform. in block 2 (mass 1.80 kg). The blocks end up with speeds
Problems 395
v1 = 0.630 m/s and v2 = 1.40 m/s (Fig. 9-69b). Neglecting v0

the material removed from block 1 by the bullet, Before
A B
fnd the speed of the bullet as it (a) leaves and (b) enters
block 1.
dA
Frictionless
1 2
dB
After
(a) B
A
Y1 Y2
(b)
45. In Fig. 9-72, a ball of mass M vi
m = 60 g is shot with speed m
vi = 22 m/s into the barrel
41. In Fig. 9-70, a 10 g bullet moving directly upward at of a spring gun of mass M =
240 g initially at rest on a Figure 9-72 Problem 45.
1000 m/s strikes and passes through the center of mass
of a 5.0 kg block initially at rest. The bullet emerges from frictionless surface. The ball sticks in the barrel at the
the block moving directly upward at 300 m/s. To what point of maximum compression of the spring. Assume that
maximum height does the block then rise above its initial the increase in thermal energy due to friction between the
position? ball and the barrel is negligible. (a) What is the speed of
the spring gun after the ball stops in the barrel? (b) What
fraction of the initial kinetic energy of the ball is stored in
the spring?
46. In Fig. 9-73, block 2 (mass v1
1.0 kg) is at rest on a 1 2
frictionless surface and
touching the end of an
Bullet Figure 9-73 Problem 46.
unstretched spring of spring
Figure 9-70 Problem 41. constant 230 N/m. The other end of the spring is fxed to a
wall. Block 1 (mass 2.0 kg), traveling at speed v1 = 4.0 m/s,
42. A completely inelastic collision occurs between two balls collides with block 2, and the two blocks stick together.
of wet putty that move directly toward each other along When the blocks momentarily stop, by what distance is the
a vertical axis. Just before the collision, one ball, of mass spring compressed?
3.0 kg, is moving upward at 20 m/s and the other ball, of 47. In Fig. 9-74, block 1 (mass
mass 2.0 kg, is moving downward at 10 m/s. How high do 2.0 kg) is moving right- 1 2
the combined two balls of putty rise above the collision ward at 10 m/s and block 2
point? (Neglect air drag.) (mass 5.0 kg) is moving
43. Block 1 of mass 3.0 kg is sliding across a foor with speed rightward at 3.0 m/s. The Figure 9-74 Problem 47.
v1 = 2.0 m/s when it makes a head-on, one-dimensional, surface is frictionless, and a spring with a spring constant
elastic collision with initially stationary block 2 of mass of 1120 N/m is fxed to block 2. When the blocks collide,
2.0 kg. The coeffcient of kinetic friction between the the compression of the spring is maximum at the instant
blocks and the foor is μk = 0.30. Find the speeds of the blocks have the same velocity. Find the maximum
(a) block 1 and (b) block 2 just after the collision. Also fnd compression.
(c) their fnal separation after friction has stopped them 48. In Fig. 9-75, block A vAi vBi
and (d) the energy lost to thermal energy because of the (mass 1.6 kg) slides into
friction. block B (mass 2.4 kg),
44. In the “before” part of Fig. 9-71, car A (mass 1100 kg) is along a frictionless sur-
stopped at a traffc light when it is rear-ended by car B face. The directions of
(mass 1400 kg). Both cars then slide with locked wheels three velocities before (i) vAf = ? vBf
until the frictional force from the slick road (with a low μk and after ( f ) the collision
of 0.10) stops them, at distances dA = 8.2 m and dB = 6.1 m. are indicated; the corre-
What are the speeds of (a) car A and (b) car B at the start sponding speeds are vAi =
of the sliding, just after the collision? (c) Assuming that 5.5 m/s, vBi = 2.5 m/s, and
linear momentum is conserved during the collision, fnd vBf = 4.9 m/s. What are the

the speed of car B just before the collision. (d) Explain (a) speed and (b) direction (left or right) of velocity vAf ?
why this assumption may be invalid. (c) Is the collision elastic?
49. Two titanium spheres approach each other head-on with with stationary block 2, which has mass m2 = 2.00m1. After
the same speed and collide elastically. After the collision, the collision, block 2 slides into a region where the coef-
one of the spheres, whose mass is 250 g, remains at rest. fcient of kinetic friction μk is 0.450 and comes to a stop
(a) What is the mass of the other sphere? (b) What is the in distance d within that region. What is the value of dis-
speed of the two sphere center of mass if the initial speed tance d if the collision is (a) elastic and (b) completely
of each sphere is 2.00 m/s? inelastic?
50. Block 1 of mass m1 slides along a frictionless foor and
into a one-dimensional elastic collision with stationary 1
block 2 of mass m2 = 3m1. Prior to the collision, the center
of mass of the two block system had a speed of 3.00 m/s.
h Frictionless
Afterward, what are the speeds of (a) the center of mass µk
2
and (b) block 2?
51. A steel ball of mass 0.600 kg is fastened to a cord that
is 70.0 cm long and fxed at the far end. The ball is then Figure 9-78 Problem 55.
released when the cord is horizontal (Fig. 9-76). At the
bottom of its path, the ball strikes a 2.80 kg steel block
56. A small ball of mass m is
initially at rest on a frictionless surface. The collision is
aligned above a larger ball
elastic. Find (a) the speed of the ball and (b) the speed of
of mass M = 0.63 kg (with
the block, both just after the collision.
a slight separation, as with
the baseball and basket- Baseball
ball of Fig. 9-79a), and the
two are dropped simulta-
neously from a height of
h = 1.8 m. (Assume the Basketball
radius of each ball is
negligible relative to h.)
(a) If the larger ball
rebounds elastically from
the foor and then the (a) Before (b) After
small ball rebounds elasti-
52. Particle 1 with mass m and velocity v and particle 2 with Figure 9-79 Problem 56.
cally from the larger ball,
mass 2m and velocity −2v are moving toward each other
what value of m results
along an x axis when they undergo a one-dimensional
in the larger ball stopping when it collides with the small
elastic collision. After the collision, what are the velocities
ball? (b) What height does the small ball then reach
of (a) particle 1 and (b) particle 2? What is the velocity of
(Fig. 9-79b)?
the center of mass of the two-particle system (c) before
and (d) after the collision? 57. In Fig. 9-80, puck 1 of mass m1 = 0.25 kg is sent sliding across
a frictionless lab bench, to undergo a one-dimensional
53. Block 1, with mass m1 and speed 3.0 m/s, slides along an
elastic collision with stationary puck 2. Puck 2 then slides
x axis on a frictionless foor and then undergoes a one-
off the bench and lands a distance d from the base of
dimensional elastic collision with stationary block 2, with
the bench. Puck 1 rebounds from the collision and slides
mass m2 = 0.40m1. The two blocks then slide into a region
off the opposite edge of the bench, landing a distance 2d
where the coeffcient of kinetic friction is 0.50; there they
from the base of the bench. What is the mass of puck 2?
stop. How far into that region do (a) block 1 and (b) block
(Hint: Be careful with signs.)
2 slide?
54. In Fig. 9-77, particle 1 of 1 2
mass m1 = 0.30 kg slides 1 2
rightward along an x axis
on a frictionless foor with x (cm)
0 xw
a speed of 2.0 m/s. When it
2d d
reaches x = 0, it undergoes Figure 9-77 Problem 54.
a one-dimensional elastic Figure 9-80 Problem 57.
collision with stationary particle 2 of mass m2 = 0.40 kg.
When particle 2 then reaches a wall at xw = 70 cm, 58. In the two-dimensional collision in Fig. 9-38, the projectile
it bounces from the wall with no loss of speed. At what particle has mass m1 = m, initial speed v1i = 3v0, and fnal
position on the x axis does particle 2 then collide with speed v1 f = 5v0 . The initially stationary target particle
particle 1? has mass m1 = 2m and fnal speed v2f = v2. The projectile is
55. In Fig. 9-78, block 1 of mass m1 slides from rest along a scattered at an angle given by tan θ1 = 2.0. (a) Find angle θ2.
frictionless ramp from height h = 3.00 m and then collides (b) Find v2 in terms of v0. (c) Is the collision elastic?
Practice Questions 397
59. After a completely inelastic collision, two objects of the

same mass and same initial speed move away together at
half their initial speed. Find the angle between the initial
velocities of the objects.

60. A force F acts on two particles of masses m and 4.0m
moving at the same speed but at right angles to each other,
as shown in Fig. 9-81. The force acts on both the particles
for a time T. Consequently, the particle of mass m moves
with a velocity 4v in its original direction. (a) Find the new
velocity v′ of the other particle. (b) Also fnd the change in
the kinetic energy of the system. 62. A 6090 kg space probe moving nose-frst toward Jupiter at
120 m/s relative to the Sun fres its rocket engine, ejecting
ν 4ν 70.0 kg of exhaust at a speed of 253 m/s relative to the
m m
space probe. What is the fnal velocity of the probe?
63. Consider a rocket that is in deep space and at rest relative
to an inertial reference frame. The rocket’s engine is to be
4m 4m
ν fred for a certain interval. What must be the rocket’s mass
ν
ratio (ratio of initial to fnal mass) over that interval if the
rocket’s original speed relative to the inertial frame is to
Before After
be equal to (a) the exhaust speed (speed of the exhaust
Figure 9-81 Problem 60. products relative to the rocket) and (b) 2.0 times the
exhaust speed?
61. In Fig. 9-82, a bob of mass 10m is suspended from an inex- 64. A rocket that is set for a vertical launch has a mass of
tensible string with negligible mass. When the bob is in 50.0 kg and contains 450 kg of fuel. The rocket can have
equilibrium (at rest), two particles each of mass m strike a maximum exhaust velocity of 2.00 km/s. What should
it simultaneously with the speeds indicated. The particles be the minimum rate of fuel consumption (a) to just lift
stick to the bob. Find (a) the magnitude of the net impulse it off the launching pad and (b) to give it an acceleration
on the string due to the collision, (b) the velocity of the of 20.0 m/s2? (c) If the consumption rate is set at 10.0 kg/s,
system just after the collision, and (c) the mechanical what is the rocket speed at the moment when the fuel is
energy lost in the collision. fully consumed?
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Single Correct Choice Type (a) 206 N, downward
(b) 248 N, upward
1. A ball is dropped from a height h on a stationary foor and (c) 248 N, downward
rebounds several times until it stops. If the coeffcient of (d) 165 N, upward
restitution is e, then the total distance covered by the ball
before it stops, would be 4. A ball hits a foor and rebounds after an inelastic collision.
In this case,
 1 + e2   1 − e2  (a) the momentum of the ball just after the collision is
(a)  2 
h (b)  2 
h
 1−e   1+ e  same as that just before the collision.
1+ e   1 + e2  (b) the mechanical energy of the ball remains the same
(c)  2 
h (d)  h during the collision.
 1−e   1 
(c) the total momentum of the ball and the Earth is
2. Which one of the following statements concerning conserved.
momentum is true? (d) the total energy of the ball and the Earth remains the
(a) Momentum is a force. same.
(b) Momentum is a scalar quantity.
5. A 1.0-kg ball has a velocity of 12 m/s downward just before
(c) The SI unit of momentum is kg ⋅ m2/s.
it strikes the ground and bounces up with a velocity of
(d) Momentum and impulse are measured in the same
12 m/s upward. What is the change in momentum of the ball?
units.
(a) zero kg ⋅ m/s
3. A 62.0-kg person, standing on a diving board, dives straight (b) 12 kg ⋅ m/s, downward
down into the water. Just before striking the water, her
(c) 12 kg ⋅ m/s, upward
speed is 5.50 m/s. At a time of 1.65 s after she enters the
(d) 24 kg ⋅ m/s, upward
water, her speed is reduced to 1.10 m/s. What is the net
average force (magnitude and direction) that acts on her 6. A 0.1-kg steel ball is dropped straight down onto a hard,
when she is in the water? horizontal foor and bounces straight up. The ball’s speed
just before and just after impact with the foor is 10 m/s. 12. A space probe is traveling in outer space with a momen-
Determine the magnitude of the impulse delivered to the tum that has a magnitude of 7.5 × 107 kg ⋅ m/s. A retrorocket
foor by the steel ball. is fred to slow down the probe. It applies a force to the
(a) zero N ⋅ s (b) 1 N ⋅ s probe that has a magnitude of 2.0 × 106 N and a direction
(c) 2 N ⋅ s (d) 10 N ⋅ s opposite to the probe’s motion. It fres for a period of 12 s.
7. A stick is thrown in the air and lands at some distance Determine the momentum of the probe after the retro-
from the thrower. The center of mass of the stick will move rocket ceases to fre.
along a parabolic path (a) +5.1 × 107 kg ⋅ m/s (b) +2.4 × 107 kg ⋅ m/s
(a) in all cases. (c) +7.5 × 107 kg ⋅ m/s (d) +9.9 × 107 kg ⋅ m/s
(b) only if the stick is uniform. 13. While a car is stopped at a traffc light in a storm, rain-
(c) only if the stick does not have any rotational motion. drops strike the roof of the car. The area of the roof is
(d) only if the center of mass of the stick lies at some 5.0 m2. Each raindrop has a mass of 3.7 × 10−4 kg and
point on it and not outside it. speed of 2.5 m/s before impact and is at rest after the
impact. If, on average at a given time, 150 raindrops strike
8. Consider a rubber ball freely falling from a height h = 4.9 m each square meter, what is the impulse of the rain strik-
onto a horizontal elastic plate. Assume that the duration ing the car?
of collision is negligible and the collision with the plate is (a) 0.69 N ⋅ s (b) 0.046 N ⋅ s
totally elastic. Then, the velocity as a function of time and (c) 0.14 N ⋅ s (d) 11 N ⋅ s
the height as function of time will be
14. A car weighing 2 × 103 kg and moving at 20 m/s along a
V y main road collide with a lorry of mass 8 × 103 kg which
V1 h emerges at 5 m/s from a crossroad at right angles to the
(a) main road. If the two vehicles lock, what will be their
O t t velocity after the collision?
(a) 4 / 2 m/s, 45° with cross-road.
y
V (b) 4 / 2 m/s, 60° with cross-road.
+ V1 h
(b) (c) 4 / 2 m/s, 60° with main road.
O t
(d) 4 / 2 m/s, 45° with main road.
– V1 t
15. A football player kicks a 0.41-kg football initially at rest;
V y and the ball fies through the air. If the kicker’s foot was in
+ V1
contact with the ball for 0.051 s and the ball’s initial speed
h
(c) O t1 2t 4t1
t after the collision is 21 m/s, what was the magnitude of the
1
– V1 average force on the football?
3t1 t (a) 9.7 N (b) 46 N
(c) 81 N (d) 210 N
(d) None of these
16. A man stands at one end of the open truck which can run
9. A machine gun fres 50-g bullets at the rate of 4 bullets
on frictionless horizontal rails. Initially, the man and the
per second. The bullets leave the gun at a speed of
truck are at rest. Man now walks to the other end and
1000 m/s. What is the average recoil force experienced by
stops. Then, which of the following is true?
the machine gun?
(a) The truck moves opposite to direction of motion of
(a) 10 N (b) 20 N
man even after the man ceases to walk.
(c) 100 N (d) 200 N
(b) The center of mass of the man and truck remains at
10. A particle of mass 1.0 g moving with a velocity the same point throughout the man’s walk.

v1 = (3i − 2j) m/s experiences a perfectly inelastic col- (c) The kinetic energy of man and truck are exactly equal
lision with another particle of mass 2.0 g and velocity throughout the man’s walk.

v2 = (4i − 6j) m/s. Find the magnitude of the velocity vector (d) The truck does not move at all during the man’s walk.

v of the coalesced particles.
17. A stationary bomb explodes in space breaking into a
(a) 2.3 m/s (b) 5.93 m/s number of small fragments. At the location of the explo-
(c) 3.2 m/s (d) 6.4 m/s sion, the net force due to gravity is 0 N. Which one of the
11. A 0.065-kg tennis ball moving to the right with a speed of following statements concerning this event is true?
15 m/s is struck by a tennis racket, causing it to move to the (a) Kinetic energy is conserved in this process.
left with a speed of 15 m/s. If the ball remains in contact (b) The fragments must have equal kinetic energies.
with the racquet for 0.020 s, what is the magnitude of the (c) The sum of the kinetic energies of the fragments must
average force experienced by the ball? be zero.
(a) 0 N (b) 98 N (d) The velocity of any one fragment must be equal to
(c) 160 N (d) 240 N the velocity of any other fragment.
18. The law of conservation of momentum applies to a system (a) 0.56 m/s, to the left (b) 0.56 m/s, to the right
of colliding objects only if (c) 0.28 m/s, to the left (d) 0.28 m/s, to the right
(a) there is no change in kinetic energy of the system. 23. While in Earth’s orbit, an 80-kg astronaut carrying a 20-kg
(b) the coeffcient of restitution is one. tool kit is initially drifting toward a stationary (to her)
(c) the coeffcient of restitution is zero. space shuttle at a speed of 2 m/s. If she throws the tool kit
(d) the net external impulse is zero. toward the shuttle with a speed of 6 m/s as seen from the
19. An object of mass 3m, initially at rest, explodes breaking shuttle, her fnal speed is
into two fragments of mass m and 2m, respectively. Which (a) 1 m/s toward the shuttle.
one of the following statements concerning the fragments (b) 4 m/s toward the shuttle.
after the explosion is true? (c) 1 m/s away from the shuttle.
(a) They will fy off at right angles. (d) 6 m/s away from the shuttle.
(b) They will fy off in the same direction. 24. A person stands in a stationary canoe and throws a
(c) The smaller fragment will have twice the speed of the 5.00-kg stone with a velocity of 8.00 m/s at an angle of
larger fragment. 30.0° above the horizontal. The person and canoe have
(d) The larger fragment will have twice the speed of the a combined mass of 105 kg. Ignoring air resistance and
smaller fragment. effects of the water, fnd the horizontal recoil velocity
20. A 55-kg swimmer is standing on a stationary 210-kg boat- (magnitude and direction) of the canoe. Assume the hori-
ing raft. The swimmer then runs off the raft horizontally zontal component of the velocity of the stone is in the +x
with a velocity of +4.6 m/s relative to the shore. Find the direction.
recoil velocity that the raft would have if there were no (a) 0.119 m/s, +x direction (b) 0.119 m/s, −x direction
friction and resistance due to the water. (c) 0.330 m/s, +x direction (d) 0.330 m/s, −x direction
(a) +1.2 m/s (b) −1.2 m/s 25. On an interplanetary mission, a 58.5-kg astronaut is foat-
(c) +0.60 m/s (d) −2.4 m/s ing toward the front of her ship at 0.15 m/s, relative to the
21. A bullet of mass m is fred at speed v0 into a wooden block ship. She wishes to stop moving, relative to the ship. She
of mass M. The bullet instantaneously comes to rest in the decides to throw away the 2.50-kg book she’s carrying.
block. The block with the embedded bullet slides along a What should the speed and direction of the book be to
horizontal surface with a coeffcient of kinetic friction μ. achieve her goal?
(a) 0.15 m/s, toward the front of the ship.
initial final
v0 (b) 3.5 m/s, toward the back of the ship.
M (c) 3.7 m/s, toward the front of the ship.
(d) 0.30 m/s, toward the back of the ship.
s 26. Two objects of equal mass traveling toward each other
with equal speeds undergo a head on collision. Which one
of the following statements concerning their velocities
Which one of the following expressions determines how
after the collision is necessarily true?
far the block slides before it comes to rest (the magnitude
(a) They will exchange velocities.
of displacement s is as shown in the fgure)?
(b) Their velocities will be zero.
mv02 m  v02  (c) Their velocities will be reduced.
(a) s = (b) s =  
Mµ g m + M  µg  (d) Their velocities may be zero.
22 2 27. A car (mass = 1100 kg) is traveling at 32 m/s when it col-
 m  v0  m  v02
(c) s =   (d) s =   lides head-on with a sport utility vehicle (mass = 2500 kg)
 m + M  2µ g m+M  2µ g traveling in the opposite direction. In the collision, the two
22. A mine car (mass = 440 kg) rolls at a speed of 0.50 m/s on vehicles come to a halt. At what speed was the sport utility
a horizontal track, as the drawing shows. A 150-kg chunk vehicle traveling?
of coal has a speed of 0.80 m/s when it leaves the chute. (a) 11 m/s (b) 14 m/s
Determine the velocity of the car/coal system after the (c) 16 m/s (d) 18 m/s
coal has come to rest in the car. 28. Momentum is conserved in a two-body collision only if
(a) both bodies come to rest.
(b) the collision is perfectly elastic.
150 kg (c) the kinetic energy of the system is conserved.
25.0q
(d)
the net external force acting on the two-body system
0.80 m/s is zero.
29. A completely inelastic collision occurs between two balls
440 kg 0.50 m/s of wet putty that move directly toward each other along
a vertical axis. Just before the collision, one ball, of mass
3.0 kg, is moving upward at 20 m/s and the other ball, of
mass 2.0 kg, is moving downward at 12 m/s. How high do 34. A 50.0-kg boy runs at a speed of 10.0 m/s and jumps onto
the combined two balls of putty rise above the collision a cart as shown in the fgure. The cart is initially at rest. If
point? (Neglect air drag.) the speed of the cart with the boy on it is 2.50 m/s, what is
(a) 2.3 m (b) 2.0 m the mass of the cart?
(c) 2.6 m (d) 2.9 m
2.5 m/s
30. A tennis ball has a velocity of 12 m/s downward just
before it strikes the ground and bounces up with a velocity 10 m/s
of 12 m/s upward. Which statement is true concerning this
v=0
situation?
(a) The momentum of the ball and the momentum of the
earth both change.
(b) Neither the momentum of the ball nor the momen-
tum of the earth changes. (a) 150 kg (b) 175 kg
(c) The momentum of the ball is changed; the momentum (c) 210 kg (d) 260 kg
of the earth is not changed. 35. A student (m = 63 kg) falls freely from rest and strikes the
(d) The momentum of the ball is unchanged; the momen- ground. During the collision with the ground, he comes to
tum of the earth is changed. rest in a time of 0.010 s. The average force exerted on him
31. A railway fat car has an artillery gun installed on it. by the ground is + 18,000 N, where the upward direction is
The combined system has a mass M and moves with a taken to be the positive direction. From what height did
velocity u. The barrel of the gun makes an angle α with the student fall? Assume that the only force acting on him
the horizontal. A shell of mass m leaves the barrel at a during the collision is that due to the ground.
speed v relative to the barrel in the direction of fat car’s (a) 0.15 m (b) 0.21 m
motion. The speed of the fat car so that it may stop after (c) 0.30 m (d) 0.42 m
the fring is 36. A 0.015-kg marble moving to the right at 0.40 m/s has a
mv  Mv  head-on, elastic collision with a 0.045-kg marble sitting at
(a) (b)   cos α
M+m M +m rest on a smooth, level surface. Which of the following are
the correct magnitudes and directions of the velocities of
 mv 
(c)   cos α (d) (M + m)v cos α the two marbles after the collision?
M +m
32. A 3.0-kg cart moving to the right with a speed of 1.0 m/s 0.015-kg marble 0.045-kg marble
has a head-on collision with a 5.0-kg cart that is initially (a) 0.15 m/s, left 0.25 m/s, right
moving to the left with a speed of 2.0 m/s. After the colli-
(b) 0.10 m/s, right 0.30 m/s, right
sion, the 3.0-kg cart is moving to the left with a speed of
1.0 m/s. What is the fnal velocity of the 5.0-kg cart? (c) zero m/s 0.25 m/s, right
(a) zero m/s (d) 0.20 m/s, left 0.20 m/s, right
(b) 0.80 m/s to the right
(c) 0.80 m/s to the left 37. A particle of mass m moving with a velocity v makes an
(d) 2.0 m/s to the right elastic one-dimensional collision with a stationary parti-
33. In the following fgure, pendulum bob on the left side is cle of mass m establishing a contact with it for extremely
pulled aside to a height h from its initial position. After it small time T. Their force of contact increases from zero to
is released, it collides with the right pendulum bob at rest, F0 linearly in time T/4, remains constant for a further time
which is of same mass. After the collision, the two bobs T/2 and decreases linearly from F0 to zero in further time
stick together and rise to a height. T/4 as shown in fgure The magnitude possessed by F0 is
F0
h
t
O T/4 3T/4 T
h h mv 2mv
(a) (b) (a) (b)
2 4 T T
3h 3h 4 mv 3mv
(c) (d) (c) (d)
3 4 3T 4T
38. A 2.5-kg ball and a 5.0-kg ball have an elastic collision. a weight scale. By how much does the scale reading exceed
Before the collision, the 2.5-kg ball was at rest and the the weight of the truck and sand?
other ball had a speed of 3.5 m/s. What is the kinetic (a) 626 N (b) 539 N
energy of the 2.5-kg ball after the collision? (c) 214 N (d) 344 N
(a) 1.7 J (b) 3.4 J 44. A wagon is coasting at a speed vA along a straight and level
(c) 8.1 J (d) 27 J road. When ten percent of the wagon’s mass is thrown
39. A 35-kg girl is standing near and to the left of a 43-kg off the wagon, parallel to the ground and in the forward
boy on the frictionless surface of a frozen pond. The boy direction, the wagon is brought to a halt. If the direction
throws a 0.75-kg ice ball to the girl with a horizontal speed in which this mass is thrown is exactly reversed, but the
of 6.2 m/s. What are the velocities of the boy and the girl speed of this mass relative to the wagon remains the same,
immediately after the girl catches the ice ball? the wagon accelerates to a new speed vB. Calculate the
ratio vB/vA.
Girl Boy (a) 0.49 (b) 1.5
(a) 0.81 m/s, left 0.67 m/s, right (c) 0.58 (d) 2.0
45. A projectile (mass = 0.20 kg) is fred at and embeds itself
(b) 0.17 m/s, left 0.14 m/s, left
in a target (mass = 2.50 kg). The target (with the projectile
(c) 0.18 m/s, right 0.13 m/s, left in it) fies off after being struck. What percentage of the
(d) 0.13 m/s, left 0.11 m/s, right projectile’s incident kinetic energy does the target (with
the projectile in it) carry off after being struck?
40. A particle moving with a velocity of (4i − j) m/ s strikes (a) 2.1% (b) 5.0%
a fxed smooth wall and fnally moves with a velocity of (c) 3.8% (d) 7.4%

(3i + 2j) m/s. The coeffcient of restitution between the 46. A ball is dropped from rest at the top of a 6.10-m-tall
wall and the particle in the collision will be building, falls straight downward, collides inelastically
with the ground, and bounces back. The ball loses 10.0%
(a) 7 (b) 3 of its kinetic energy every time it collides with the ground.
3 7
How many bounces can the ball make and still reach a
(c) 13 (d) 17 windowsill that is 2.44 m above the ground?
17 13 (a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 8
41. The fgure shows two 4.5-kg balls located on the y axis at
1.0 and 9.0 m, respectively; a third ball with a mass 2.3 kg is 47. A 0.10-kg cart traveling in the positive x direction at
located at 6.0 m. What is the location of the center of mass 10.0 m/s collides with a 0.30-kg cart at rest.
of this system? The collision is elastic. What is the velocity of the 0.10-kg
cart after the collision?
(a) +2.5 m/s (b) +5 m/s
10.0 (c) −2.5 m/s (d) −5 m/s
4.5 kg
8.0 48. The head of a hammer (m = 1.5 kg) moving at 4.5 m/s
strikes a nail and bounces back with the same speed after
y (m)
6.0 2.3 kg an elastic collision lasting 0.075 s. What is the magnitude

4.0
of the average force the hammer exerts on the nail?
(a) 6.8 N (b) 90 N
2.0 (c) 60 N (d) 180 N
4.5 kg
0 49. Three blocks are placed on a smooth horizontal sur-
face and along a straight line. Block-1 and Block-3 have
mass m each, and Block-2 has mass M > m. Block-2 and
(a) 4.8 m (b) 5.2 m Block-3 are initially stationary, while Block-1 is initially
(c) 5.6 m (d) 6.0 m moving towards Block-2 with speed v as shown. Assuming
42. During hockey practice, two pucks are sliding across the all collisions are head-on and perfectly elastic, for what
ice in the same direction. At one instant, a 0.18-kg puck value of M/m will Block-1 and Block-3 have the same fnal
is moving at 16 m/s while the other puck has a mass of speed?
0.14 kg and a speed of 3.8 m/s. What is the velocity of the
center of mass of the two pucks? ν 2
1 3
(a) 5.0 m/s (b) 9.0 m/s
(c) 7.0 m/s (d) 13 m/s m M m
43. A dump truck is being flled with sand. The sand falls
straight downward from rest from a height of 2.00 m above (a) 5 + 2 (b) 5 − 2
the truck bed, and the mass of sand that hits the truck per
second is 55.0 kg/s. The truck is parked on the platform of (c) 2 + 5 (d) 3 + 5
50. In the game of billiards, all the balls have approximately 55. Choose the correct statement(s) of the following:
the same mass, about 0.17 kg. In the fgure, the cue ball (a) Force acting on a particle for equal time intervals can
strikes another ball such that it follows the path shown. produce the same change in momentum but different
The other ball has a speed of 1.5 m/s immediately after change in kinetic energy.
the collision. What is the speed of the cue ball after the (b) Force acting on a particle for equal displacements can
collision? produce same change in kinetic energy but different
change in momentum.
(c) Force acting on a particle for equal time intervals can
3.0 m/s 30.0q produce different change in momentum but same
change in kinetic energy.
(d) Force acting on a particle for equal displacements can
produce different change in kinetic energy but same
60.0q change in momentum.
1.5 m/s Linked Comprehension

Paragraph for Questions 56 and 57: A 4.0-kg block slides
(a) 1.5 m/s (b) 1.8 m/s
along a frictionless surface with a constant speed of 5.0 m/s
(c) 2.6 m/s (d) 4.3 m/s
as shown. Two seconds after it begins sliding, a horizontal,
time-dependent force is applied to the mass. The force is
More than One Correct Choice Type removed 8 s later. The graph shows how the force on the block
varies with time.
51. A point mass of 1 kg collides elastically with a station-
ary point mass of 5 kg. After their collision, the 1 kg mass
Force (N)
reverses its direction and moves with a speed of 2 m/s. 4.0 kg 6
Which of the following statements are correct for the sys-
V 3
tem of these two masses?
(a) Total momentum of the system is 3 kg m/s. 0
(b) Momentum of 5 kg mass after collision is 4 kg m/s. 0 2 4 6 8 10
(c) Kinetic energy of the center of mass is 0.75 J. Time (s)
(d) Total kinetic energy of the system is 4 J.
56. What is the magnitude of the total impulse of the force
52. A particle strikes a horizontal smooth foor with a veloc- acting on the block?
ity u making an angle θ with the foor and rebounds with (a) 20 N s (b) 42 N s
velocity v making an angle φ with the foor. The coeffcient (c) 48 N s (d) 54 N s
of restitution between the particle and the foor is e.
(a) The impulse delivered by the foor to the body is 57. What is the approximate speed of the block at t = 11 s?
mu (1 + e) sin θ. (a) 5.0 m/s (b) 16 m/s
(c) 25 m/s (d) 65 m/s
(b) tan φ = e tan θ .
(c) v = u 1 − (1 − e 2 )sin 2 θ . Paragraph for Questions 58 and 59: A comet fragment of
mass 1.96 × 10 13 kg is moving at 6.50 × 104 m/s when it crashes
(d)
The ratio of the fnal kinetic energy to the initial
into Callisto, a moon of Jupiter. The mass of Callisto is
kinetic energy is cos2θ + e2 sin2θ.
1.08 × 1023 kg. The collision is completely inelastic.
53. A non-zero external force acts on a system of particles.
The velocity and the acceleration of the center of mass are 58. Assuming for this calculation that Callisto’s initial momen-
found to be v0 and a0 at an instant t. It is possible that tum is zero kg m/s, what is the recoil speed of Callisto
(a) v0 = 0, a0 = 0. (b) v0 = 0, a0 ≠ 0. immediately after the collision?
(c) v0 ≠ 0, a0 = 0. (d) v0 ≠ 0, a0 ≠ 0. (a) 3.34 × 10−18 m/s (b) 3.58 × 10−12 m/s
(c) 1.27 × 10−14 m/s (d) 1.18 × 10−5 m/s
54. Two balls having linear momentum, p = pi and p = − pi,
1 2
59. How much kinetic energy was released in the collision?
undergo a collision in free space. There is no external force
  (a) 8.28 × 1022 J (b) 3.51 × 1027 J
acting on the balls. Let p1′ and p2′ be their fnal momen-
(c) 7.02 × 1027 J (d) 4.14 × 1022 J
tum. Choose the correct options that do not allow for any
non-zero value of p, a1, a2, b1, b2, c1, and c2. Paragraph for Questions 60—62: A 2.0-kg pistol fres a 1.0-g
bullet with a muzzle speed of 1000 m/s. The bullet then strikes a
(a) p1′ = a1 i + b1 j + c1 k ; p2′ = a2 i + b2 j 10-kg wooden block resting on a horizontal frictionless surface.

(b) p1′ = c1k ; p2′ = c2 k The block and the embedded bullet then slide across the surface.
1000 m/s
(c) p1′ = a1i + b1 j + c1k ; p2′ = a2i + b2j − c1k

(d) p1′ = a1i + b1 j ; p2′ = a2 i + b2 j
60. What is the kinetic energy of the bullet as it travels toward 66.
the block? Relative velocity after collision
(a) 100 J (b) 500 J e (coefficient of restitution) =
Relative velocity before collision
(c) 1000 J (d) 5000 J
61. The explosive charge in the pistol acts for 0.001 s. What
is the average force exerted on the bullet while it is being Column I Column II Column III
fred? (I) e=1 (i) v 2 − v1 (J) The value of e shall
(a) 0.001 N (b) 100 N < u1 − u2 depend upon the
(c) 1.0 N (d) 1000 N extent of loss of kinetic
62. What is the speed of the “bullet + block” system immedi- energy during collision.
ately after the bullet is embedded in the block?
(II) e = 0 (ii) v 2 − v1 > (K) R
elative velocities of
(a) 0.1 m/s (b) 1000 m/s
u1 − u2 two bodies before and
(c) 10 m/s (d) 10 000 m/s
after collision are same.
Paragraph for Questions 63 and 64: A stationary 4-kg shell (III) e < 1 (iii) v2 − v1 = (L) S
ignifes that the two
explodes into three pieces. Two of the fragments have a mass u1 − u2 bodies shall move
of 1 kg each and move along the paths shown with a speed of together with same
10 m/s. The third fragment moves upward as shown. velocity.
(IV) e > 1 (iv) v2 − v1 = 0, (M) S
ignifes that the two
2 kg or v2 = v1 bodies shall not move
together with same
velocity.
(1) What are the characteristics when collision is perfectly

elastic?
1 kg 60q 60q 1 kg (a) (I) (ii) (J) (b) (I) (iii) (K)
(c) (II) (i) (M) (d) (II) (iii) (L)
10 m/s 10 m/s (2) What are the characteristics when collision is perfectly
inelastic?
63. What is the speed of the third fragment?
(a) (I) (iii) (K) (b) (IV) (iii) (L)
(a) zero m/s (b) 10 m/s
(c) (II) (iii) (L) (d) (III) (i) (J)
(c) 1 m/s (d) 5 m/s
(3) What are the characteristics when collision is inelastic?
64. What is the speed of the center of mass of this system after
(a) (III) (i) (K)
the explosion?
(b) (I) (i) (L)
(a) zero m/s (b) 1 m/s
(c) (II) (iv) (L)
(c) 3 m/s (d) 5 m/s
(d) (II) (iii) (M)
67. Consider a man sitting on the cart that is moving with ini-
Matrix-Match tial and fnal velocities.
65. Match the statement in Column I with the statements in

Column II. One or more than one choice from Column II Column I Column II Column III
can match with a statement from Column I. (I) Mass of (i) Mass of (J) I nitial velocity
the man the cart = 2.33 m/s
Column I Column II = 75.2 kg = 38.6 kg Final velocity
(a) In a perfectly elastic (p) some kinetic energy is = 0 m/s
collision, lost. (II) Mass of the (ii) Mass of the (K) Initial velocity
(b) In a perfectly inelastic (q) 0 < e < 1. man = 52 kg cart = 22 kg = 2.3 m/s
collision, Final velocity
= 1 m/s
(c) In a partially elastic (r) e = 1.
collision, (III) Mass of the (iii) Mass of the (L) I nitial velocity
man = 62 kg cart = 23 kg = 2 m/s
(d) In a partially inelastic e = 0.
(s) Final velocity
collision, = 2 m/s
(IV) Mass of the (iv) Mass of the (M) Initial velocity
Directions for Questions 66 and 67: In each question, there is man = 55 kg cart = 36 kg = 2.5 m/s
a table having 3 columns and 4 rows. Based on the table, there Final velocity
are 3 questions. Each question has 4 options (a), (b), (c) and = 1.1 m/s
(d), ONLY ONE of these four options is correct.
(1) Which has 4.54 m/s as the resulting change in speed of the inelastic collision with C. All motions occur on the same
cart? straight line. Then, the fnal speed (in m/s) of the object
(a) (I) (iii) (L) C is _________.
(b) (IV) (i) (M)
(c) (II) (iv) (K) 2m
m m
(d) (I) (i) (J)
A B C
(2) Which has 3.347 m/s as the resulting change in speed of
the cart?
(a) (III) (ii) (L) 69. A block of mass m1 = 150 kg is at rest on a very long fric-
(b) (IV) (iii) (M) tionless table, one end of which is terminated in a wall.
(c) (II) (iii) (K) Another block of mass m2 is placed between the frst block
(d) (I) (i) (M) and the wall, and set in motion towards m1 with constant
speed u2. Assuming that all collisions are completely elas-
(3) Which has 2.238 m/s as the resulting change in speed of tic, fnd the value of m2 (in kg) for which both blocks move
the cart? with the same velocity after m2 has collided once with m1
(a) (III) (iv) (K) and once with the wall. (The wall has effectively infnite
(b) (I) (i) (K) mass.)
(c) (III) (iii) (L)
(d) (I) (ii) (L) 70. A particle of mass 1 kg is projected upwards with velocity
60 m/s. Another particle of mass 2 kg is just dropped from
a certain height. Is, after 2 s, when neither of the particles
Integer Type have collided with ground, the value of the velocity of com
68. Three objects A, B and C are kept in a straight line on (in m/s) is _______.
a frictionless horizontal surface as shown in the fgure. 71. A system of two objects has a total momentum of
These have masses m, 2m and m, respectively. The object (18 kg m/s) i and its center of mass has the velocity of
A moves towards B with a speed 9 m/s and makes an (3 m/s) i . One of the objects has the mass 4 kg and velocity
elastic collision with it. Thereafter, B makes completely (1.5 m/s) i . The mass of the other object (in kg) is _______.
ANSWER KEY
Checkpoints
1. (a) Origin; (b) Fourth quadrant; (c) On y axis below origin; (d) Origin; (e) Third quadrant; (f) origin.
2. At a distance L/9 left of origin.
3. (a)−(c) At the center of mass, still at the origin (their forces are internal to the system an cannot move the center of mass).
4. (Consider slopes and Eq. 9-25) (a) 1, 3 and then 2 and 4 tie (zero force); (b) 3.
5. It is equal to the negative work done by the friction between the ship and feet of the passengers.
6. (a) Unchanged; (b) Unchanged (see Eq. 9-34); (c) Changed (see Eq. 9-37).
7. (a) Zero; (b) Positive (initial py down y and fnal py up y); (c) Positive direction of y.
8. (a) v0cot θ; v0/2.
9. (No net external force; P (with arrow on top) conserved.) (a) Zero; (b) No; (c) −x.
10. (a) 10 kg ⋅ m/s; (b) 14 kg ⋅ m/s; (c) 6 kg ⋅ m/s.
11. (a) 4 kg ⋅ m/s; (b) 8 kg ⋅ m/s; (c) 3 J.
12. 2 kg ⋅ m/s (conserve momentum along); (b) 3 kg ⋅ m/s (conserve momentum along y).
Problems
1. 0.73 m
2. (a) 1.1; (b) 1.4 m; (c) As the mass of m3, the topmost particle, is increased, the center of mass shifts toward that particle. As we
approach the limit where m3 is infnitely more massive than the others, the center of mass becomes infnitesimally close to the
position of m3.
3. (a) 12 cm; (b) −4.8 cm 4. (a) 25 cm; (b) 25 cm; (c) 20 cm
Answer Key 405
5. (a) 6.0 cm; (b) 6.0 cm; (c) 6.0 cm; (d) 4.2 cm 6. (a) −1.1 m/s2; (b) −2.2 m; (c) 2.7 m/s

7. (a) 39 m; (b) 10 m/s 8. (−4.0 m) i + (4.0 m) j 9. 6.5 m 10. 35.3 m

11. (a) 5.74 m; (b) (10.0 m/s) i; (c) (−3.68 m/s2) j 12. 55 kg 13. 4.2 m from the shore.
14. 6.7 kg ⋅ m/s 15. (a) 0; (b) 1732.05 kg ⋅ m/s; (c) Along the direction with the angle θ = 150°.
16. ( a) (0.14 kg ⋅ m/s) i; (b) There is no change in the magnitude of the momentum of the ball; (c) Since the wall remains motionless,
its initial and fnal momenta are zero, and hence there is no change in the magnitude of its momentum.

17. (a) θ = 30.0°; (b) (−0.520 kg ⋅ m/s) j
2
18. 1.0 × 103 to 1.2 × 103 kg ⋅ m/s
19. (a) 1.1 m; (b) 4.8 × 103 kg ⋅ m/s 20. (a) 1.20 × 10−3 s; (b) 0.500 N ⋅ s; (c) 417 N
21. (a) 2.3 × 102 N ⋅ s; (b) ≈2.7 × 103 N 22. (a) 270 N ⋅ s; (b) Rightward; (c) 1.35 × 104 N
23. (a) 9.1 N ⋅ s; (b) ≈1.7 × 10 N 3
24. 6.26 N ⋅ s
25. (a) ≈2.39 × 10 N ⋅ s; (b) ≈4.78 × 10 N; (c) ≈1.76 × 103 N ⋅ s; (d) 3.52 × 105 N
3 5
26. (a) (30 kg ⋅ m/s) i; (b) (38 kg ⋅ m/s) i; (c) (12 m/s) i
27. ( a) 5.86 N ⋅ s; (b) 59.8° measured counterclockwise from the +x axis; (c) ≈2.93 × 103 N; (d) 59.8° measured counterclockwise from
the +x axis.
28. 9.9 × 102 N 29. (a) 4.47 N ⋅ s; (b) (49.1 N ⋅ s) i; (c) (24.5 N) i 30. (a) (49.1 N ⋅ s) i; (b) (24.5 N) i
j j
31. (a) (1.8 N ⋅ s) ; (b) (−180 N) 32. 8.0 m/s 33. 4.9 × 103 km/h
34. (a) 11.1 m/s; (b) 304 J 35. 3.18 kg or about 3.2 kg. 36. 3.9 m/s
37. (a) 27 J; (b) 53 J 38. 3.1 × 102 m/s 39. (a) 1.86 m/s; (b) 5.16 m/s
40. (a) 721 m/s; (b) 937 m/s 41. 0.100 m 42. 3.3 m
43. (a) 0.40 m/s; (b) 2.4 m/s; (c) ≈ 0.95 m; (d) 6.0 J 44. (a) 4.0 m/s; (b) 3.5 m/s; (c) 6.6 m/s
45. (a) 4.4 m/s; (b) 0.80 46. 0.30 m 47. 0.25 m
48. (a) 1.9 m/s; (b) The block continues going to the right after the collision; (c) Since Ki = Kf , the collision is found to be elastic.
49. (a) 83.3 g; (b) 1.00 m/s 50. (a) 3.00 m/s; (b) 6.00 m/s
51. (a) 2.39 m/s; (b) 1.30 m/s 52. (a) (−3v) i; (b) Particle 2 of mass 2m is brought to rest; (c) −vi; (d) −vi
53. (a) d1 = 0.1698 m ≈ 17 cm; (b) d2 = 1.878 m ≈ 1.9 m 54. x = −28 cm
55. (a) 2.96 m; (b) 0.741 m 56. (a) 0.21 kg; (b) 7.2 m 57. 1.3 kg
58. (a) θ2 = 45°; (b) v2 = 2v0 ; (c) The collision is elastic. 59. 120°
60. (a) 1.25v; (b) 8.6 mv 2
61. (a) J = Dp = 2.6mu; (b) 0.14u; (c) 4.9mu 2
62. 123 m/s
63. (a) e1 ≈ 2.7; (b) e2 ≈ 7.4 64. (a) 2.45 kg/s; (b) 7.45 kg/s; (c) ≈4.16 km/s
Practice Questions
Single Correct Choice Type
1. (a)
2. (d)
3. (d)
4. (c)
5. (d)
6. (c)
7. (a)
8. (c)
9. (d) 10. (b)
11. (b) 12. (a) 13. (a) 14. (d) 15. (d)
16. (b) 17. (d) 18. (d) 19. (c) 20. (b)
21. (c) 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (d) 25. (c)
26. (d) 27. (b) 28. (d) 29. (c) 30. (a)
31. (c) 32. (c) 33. (b) 34. (a) 35. (d)
36. (d) 37. (c) 38. (d) 39. (d) 40. (b)
41. (b) 42. (d) 43. (d) 44. (d) 45. (d)
46. (d) 47. (d) 48. (d) 49. (c) 50. (c)
More than One Correct Choice Type

51. (a), (c) 52. (a), (b), (c), (d) 53. (b), (d) 54. (a), (b) 55. (a), (b)
Linked Comprehension
56. (b) 57. (b) 58. (d) 59. (d) 60. (b)
61. (d) 62. (a) 63. (d) 64. (a)
Matrix-Match
65. (a) → (r); (b) → (p), (s); (c) → (p), (q); (d) → (p), (q) 66. (1) → (b); (2) → (d); (3) → (c)
67. (1) → (d); (2) → (b); (3) → (a)
Integer Type
68. 4 69. 50 70. 20 71. 2

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9.1 | WHAT IS PHYSICS? Contents

9.14 Systems with Varying

334 Chapter 9 Center of Mass

9.2 | THE CENTER OF MASS

where M is the total mass of the system.

9.2 The Center of Mass 335

The subscript i is an index that takes on all integer values from 1 to n.

336 Chapter 9 Center of Mass

9.2 The Center of Mass 337

SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.01

Three particles of masses m1 = 1.2 kg, m2 = 2.5 kg, and and

Particle Mass (kg) x (cm) y (cm)

SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.02

338 Chapter 9 Center of Mass

s­ omewhat more mass on the right of the y axis, comP y

Assume that mass mS of disk S is concentrated in Here are those

mS xS + mP xP The com of the composite

9.2 The Center of Mass 339

SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.03

340 Chapter 9 Center of Mass

y (m) Similarly, the y coordinate of the system’s com is given

rod’s center. We can pretend that the mass of the rod

Figure 9-5 (b) The associated particles of two rods.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.04

Figure 9-6 shows a uniform square plate with edge y

9.2 The Center of Mass 341

 33   3  Lower-left rectangle (−1.0 m, −1.5 m) 6m 2

Method 2: Split the remaining plate into four rectangles.  9   9   9   6 

SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.05

Figure 9-7a shows two uniform plates made of the same

The com of a uniform object is at the center of the x (m) x

342 Chapter 9 Center of Mass

SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.06

9.2 The Center of Mass 343

SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.07

344 Chapter 9 Center of Mass

9.3 | NEWTON’S SECOND LAW FOR A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES

9.3 Newton’s Second Law for a System of Particles 345

Fnet, x = Macom, x Fnet, y = Macom, y Fnet, z = Macom, z.(9-15)

346 Chapter 9 Center of Mass

Path of center of mass

Proof of Eq. 9-14

9.3 Newton’s Second Law for a System of Particles 347

SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.08

If the particles in a system all move together, the com y

348 Chapter 9 Center of Mass

SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.09

SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.10

Particles A and B move along an x-axis. Particle A has KEY IDEA

9.3 Newton’s Second Law for a System of Particles 349

mA x A + mB xB So, at t = 3.0 s, the velocity of the com is

SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.11

m1 ( x1′ − x1 ) = −m2 ( x2′ − x2 ).

350 Chapter 9 Center of Mass

SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.12

SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.13

9.3 Newton’s Second Law for a System of Particles 351

wedge with respect to ground. Considering direc-

component of the displacement of the block with respect

Learn: If we make θ = 0 , we get same result as in the

SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.14

352 Chapter 9 Center of Mass

9.14 Systems with Varying

s omewhat more mass on the right of the y axis, comP y

Fnet, x = Macom, x Fnet, y = Macom, y Fnet, z = Macom, z.(9-15)

Pf = (0.20M)vMS + (0.80M)vHS ,(9-49) or vMS = vHS − vrel .

Thus, net velocity of block is Solving, we get v1 = 1.2 m/s. (Answer)