Lecture 2:

three problem sets due 9/1/23

Significant figures
Unit conversion
Atoms: concepts and structure
Rules reading significant figures
Exact numbers: 25.4 mm / in
Non-zero integers 544.2
Zeros:
• 4067
• 0.006279
• 7.160
• 007
• 5400
• 5067.030
 Significant digits
All the digits which are certain PLUS
The first digit which has uncertainty.

Population of US: 293,487,356

8/28/2023 at 8:44:00 335,321,179

https://www.census.gov/popclock/
 Operations
• Multiplication and division: answer can’t
have more significant figures than either of
the original numbers
• Addition & subtraction: answer can’t have
more digits to the right of the decimal point
than either of the original numbers
 Rounding
• 73.4652 • 73.5
• 73.4652 • 73.47
• 73.4652 • 73.465
• 73.465000 • 73.465
Conservation of Mass
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory 01
• Robert Boyle (1627–1691): Provided evidence
for the atoms and defined the nature of an
element.

• Joseph Priestley (1733–1804): Isolated oxygen

gas from decomposition of mercury(II) oxide.

• Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794): Showed that

mass of products is exactly equal to the mass of
reactants.
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory 02
• Law of Mass Conservation: Mass is neither
created nor destroyed in chemical reactions.

• Law of Definite Proportions: Different samples

of a pure chemical substance always contain the
same proportion of elements by mass.
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory 03
• John Dalton (1766–1844): Proposed
explanations for the laws of mass conservation
and definite proportions.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory 04
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory 04

• Law of Multiple Proportions:

• When two elements form two different
compounds, the mass ratios are related by
small whole numbers.
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory 05
• Nitrogen & oxygen combine to form NO or NO2:
– In NO the N:O mass ratio is 7:8
– In NO2 the N:O mass ratio is 7:16

• Hydrogen & oxygen combine to form H2O or

H2O2:
– In H2O the H:O mass ratio is 1:8
– In H2O2 the H:O mass ratio is 1:16
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory 06
• Methane and ethane are both constituents
of natural gas. A sample of methane
contains 11.40 g of carbon and 3.80 g of
hydrogen, whereas a sample of ethane
contains 4.47 g of carbon and 1.118 g of
hydrogen. Show that the two substances
obey the law of multiple proportions.
 The Structure of Atoms 01
• Cathode-Ray Tube (Thomson, 1856–
1940):
• Cathode rays
consist of tiny
negatively
charged particles,
now called
electrons.
 The Structure of Atoms 02
• Deflection of electron depends on three
factors:
– Strength of electric or magnetic field
– Size of negative charge on electron
– Mass of the electron

• Thomson calculated the electron’s charge

to mass ratio as 1.758820 x 108 Coulombs
per gram.
 The Structure of Atoms 03
• Oil Drop Experiment (Millikan, 1868–1953):
Applied a voltage to oppose the downward fall of
charged drops and suspend them.

• Voltage on plates place

1.602176 x 10-19 C of
charge on each oil drop.

• Millikan calculated the

electron’s mass as
9.109382 x 10-28 grams.
 The Structure of Atoms 05
• Discovery of Nucleus (Rutherford, 1871 –
1937):
• Rutherford irradiated
gold foil with a beam
of alpha (α) particles
to search for positive
charged particles.
 The Structure of Atoms 05

Discovery of Nucleus (Rutherford, 1871–1937):

Rutherford irradiated
gold foil with a beam
of alpha (α) particles
to search for positive
charged particles.

Atom must be mostly

empty space except
for a central positive
mass concentration.
 The Structure of Atoms 04

• Structure of the Atom:

The Structure of Atoms 05
 The Structure of Atoms 06
• Isotopes: Atoms with identical atomic
numbers, but different mass numbers.

• Average Isotopic Mass: A weighted

average of the isotopic masses of an
element’s naturally occurring isotopes.

• Atomic Mass: A weighted average of the

isotopic masses of an element’s naturally
occurring isotopes.
 The Structure of Atoms 07
75
• The isotope 34Se is used medically for
diagnosis of pancreatic disorders. How
many protons, neutrons, and electrons
75
does an atom of 34Se have?
• An atom of element X contains 47 protons and
62 neutrons. Identify the element, and write the
symbol for the isotope in the standard format.
 The Structure of Atoms 08

• Chlorine has two naturally occurring isotopes: 17 Cl

35

with an abundance of 75.77% and an isotopic

17 Cl
37
mass of 34.969 amu, and with an

abundance of 24.23% and an isotopic mass of

36.966 amu. What is the atomic mass of

chlorine?