They are used to explain why something happens.

Clauses of reason are introduced by:

BECAUSE She won a gold medal because she came in first place. Because she
came in first place, she won a gold medal.
AS / SINCE She stayed at home as / since she wasn’t feeling well.
As / since she wasn’t feeling well, she stayed at home.
THE REASON FOR + NOUN / +ING The reason for his delay was the stormy weather.
The reason for his being late was the stormy weather.
THE REASON WHY + SUBJECT + VERB The stormy weather was the reason why he was late.
The reason why he was late was the stormy weather.
BECAUSE OF / ON ACCOUNT OF / DUE TO / IN VIEW OF + NOUN All flights were delayed because of / on account of / due to / in
/ PRONOUN view of the thick fog.
BECAUSE OF / ON ACCOUNT OF / DUE TO / IN VIEW OF THE They took the underground because of / on account of / due to / in
FACT THAT + SUBJECT + VERB view of the fact that there was a huge traffic jam.
NOW (THAT) + SUBJECT + VERB Now (that) she is eighteen, she can get her driving licence.
FOR (=because) The company is not hiring, for all positions are currently full.
It is used in formal writing and comes after a comma.
ON THE GROUNDS THAT + SUBJECT + VERB William was fired on the grounds that his work performance was
insufficient.

EXERCISES

Underline the correct item.

1. He was quiet all day, for / due to he had a lot of on his mind.
2. Bob was broke now / because he had lost his job.
3. Because / Due to the heavy snowfall, several roads were closed.
4. Some power lines fell down last night because of / due strong winds.
5. Do you know the reason for / the reason why Betty left so early?
6. Since / For it was getting dark, Alison turned on the lights.
7. I can’t come out due to / as I have to study for finals.
8. Now that / Because of Mrs Williams is on holiday, she can finally relax.

Fill in: the reason for, the reason why, due to, now that, since.

1. Please tell me _____________________________ the delay.

2. All flights were cancelled _____________________________ the ice storm.
3. ________________________ you are all sitting quietly, I can hand out the test papers.
4. I can’t see my sick cousin Frank ______________________ he isn’t allowed any visitors.
5. _________________________ I’m late is because there was an accident on the motorway.
Join the sentences using the words in brackets.

1. We have graduated from university. We can find a job (now that)

______________________________________________________________________________________.
2. The music was turned up too loud. She couldn’t concentrate on her assignment. (because)
_____________________________________________________________________________________.
3. Zack stayed at home. He was feeling ill. (due to the fact)
_____________________________________________________________________________________.
4. Tonia couldn’t go swimming. She didn’t have her bathing suit. (since)
_____________________________________________________________________________________.
5. The opera singer postponed her performance. She had a sore throat. (because of)
_____________________________________________________________________________________.
6. I can’t visit Kevin. He is away on holiday. (as)
_____________________________________________________________________________________.
7. They cancelled their picnic. I was raining. (due to)
_____________________________________________________________________________________.
8. She didn’t buy those shoes. They were too expensive. (the reason why)
_____________________________________________________________________________________.
9. They decided to stay at home. The weather was bad. (on account of)
_____________________________________________________________________________________.

They are used when you want to indicate the result of an action or situation. Clauses of result are introduced by:
AS A RESULT / THEREFORE / CONSEQUENTLY / AS A The traffic control workers are on strike. As a result / Therefore /
CONSEQUENCE Consequently / As a consequence, all flights have been cancelled.
SO I wasn’t listening, so I don’t know what he said.
SO… THAT I was feeling so hungry that I ate the whole pizza.
SUCH A / AN + (ADJECTIVE) + SINGULAR CONTABLE … It was such a tasty meal that everyone asked for a second helping.
THAT
SUCH + (ADJECTIVE) + UNCOUNTABLE / PLURAL They were such generous people that they donated food and clothing to the
NOUN … THAT poor.
We were having such nice weather that we decided to go for a swim.
SUCH + A LOT OF + PLURAL / UNCOUNTABLE … THAT There were such a lot of people standing in front of us that we couldn’t see
the stage.
There was such a lot of ice on the trees that several branches broke off.
SO +ADJECTIVE / ADVERB… THAT The film was so exciting that I couldn’t sit still in my chair.
She speaks so softly that nobody can hear her.
SO + ADJECTIVE + A(N) + NOUN… THAT It was so bad a day that we stayed in.
SO MUCH / LITTLE + UNCOUNTABLE … THAT There was so little furniture in her flat that it looked empty.
There’s so much traffic that we’ll never get there on time.
SO MANY / FEW + PLURAL NOUN He had made so many mistakes that he failed his exam.
She knew so few guests at the party that she hardly spoke all night.
 OTHER STRUCTURES TO EXPRESS RESULT
MAKE + NOUN / PRONOUN + INFINITIVE WITHOUT TO
MAKE + IT + ADJECTIVE + FOR + NOUN / PRONOUN +
INFINITIVE WITH TO
Often used with the adjectives easy, difficult, possible, impossible.
MAKE + NOUN / PRONOUN + ADJECTIVE
Used with many adjectives describing feeling, attitudes and
characteristics.
CAUSE + NOUN / PRONOUN (+ INFINITIVE WITH TO)
RESULT IN + NOUN (=have as a result)
LEAD TO + NOUN / PRONOUN (=produce as a result)
(WHICH) MEAN THAT + SUBJECT + VERB (= introduces a result
that it is certain)
It was a sad story and it made me cry.
His attitude made it easy for me to relax.
The noise made it impossible for me to concentrate.
That failure made her even more determined to succeed.
Her comments made me angry.
What caused the problem?
Ill health caused him to retire from his job.
The bad weather resulted in an increase in fruit and vegetable
prices.
Smoking can lead to heart disease.
The fact that they are so rich means that they don’t have to worry
about paying their bills.
They’re extremely rich, which means that they don’t have to worry
about paying their bills.

EXERCISES
Fill in: so, such, such a / an.
1. It was _________________ long and boring film that Jason left halfway through.
2. They had ________________ amazing time in Cuba that they planned to return the following year.
3. There was ___________________ a lot of snow that Richard couldn’t move his car.
4. We have ___________________ few eggs that we can’t make a cake.
5. David was having ________________ busy day at work that he decided to stay back an extra hour.

Fill in: so, such, such a / an.

1. A: Why weren’t you at school last week?

B: I had __________________ an awful cold that I stayed at home.
2. A: Did you have fun at Rick’s party?
B: No, he had invited _______________________ few people that it was really boring.
3. A: How was your Caribbean cruise?
B: Unfortunately, we had _________________________ bad weather that we both got seasick.
4. A: I had a great time at Alison’s yesterday.
B: Me too. She is _________________ good host that her parties are always fun.
5. A: Your dress is __________________ elegant that it makes you look like a model.
B: Thank you! It’s new.

Join the sentences using the words in brackets.

1. We were late. We missed the first half of the game. (so… that)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
 2. It was an interesting book. I read it a second time. (such… that)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
3. He is handsome. He can work as a model. (so… that)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
4. They were having a great time at the funfair. They lost track of time. (such… that)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
5. My neighbours were making noise. I couldn’t get any sleep. (so much… that)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
6. It was a nice day. We decided to go for a walk through the park. (such… that)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
7. The fridge is heavy. We need several people to lift it. (so… that)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
8. She is a talented violinist. Many people come to see her play. (so… that)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.

KEY SENTENCE TRANSFORMATION

Bibliography
 Evans, V. & Dooley, J. (2011) Spark 4.Express Publising. (p.98-99)
 Evans, V. (2014) FCE Use of English 1. Express Publishing. (p.51)
 Harrison, M. (2004) First Certificate Skills: Use of English. Oxford University Press. (p.50)