MODULE 4

Nature and Composition of Crop Plants

Overview
This module features the plant cell functions, structure, and parts. It
also classifies the different plant tissues. In addition, plant different organs
were also discussed.

Time Allotment (1 Week)

Objectives
Upon the successful completion of this module, you are expected to:

1. Enumerate the parts of a plant cell and their functions.

2. Distinguish the different anatomical regions of the plant.
3. Discuss the functions of the different plant organs.

Pre-Assessment (Optional)
Before you proceed to the discussion section of this module, I want you to answer the
questions based on what you have learned in biology or grade school science subjects
about cell. Register first using your clsu2 email as student in the
https://www.thinglink.com. Upon clicking the answer, once it is in red colored it means
incorrect, while in white colored is the correct one. Kindly open the pre-assessment
(optional), once you are already ready.

Discussion

This section begins with the detailed discussion of the plant cells, differences between
prokaryotic cells to eukaryotic cells. It then moves on the presentation of the different
plant cells parts and its functions. Moreover, classification of plant tissues was also
presented. The last part of this section provides the different plant organs.
PLANT CELL
The plant cell is the basic structural and physiological unit of plants in which most
reactions characteristic of plant life occurs. Particularly, the vitally important functions
include manufacture, transport and storage of food, uptake and transport of water,
provision of structural strength, suppression of water loss and division to attain new
forms. These cells with specialized forms and functions develop from a pool of fairly
simple embryonic cells through the process of cell differentiation, forming tissues that
make up the organ and the entire plant.

Types of Plant Cells Based On Structure

1. Prokaryotic cells – have no separate subcellular units (nuclear material is not
enclosed in a membrane); these cells are found in bacteria and blue-green algae.

2. Eukaryotic cells – cells made up of compartments bounded by membranes with

specialized structure and functions. Plant cells are eukaryotic cells.

Fig. 1. Differences of eukaryotic to prokaryotic

Plant Cell Parts and Functions

Fig. 2. Plant cell parts

1. Cell wall – the non-living portion of a cell; made up of cellulose, pectic substances
and lignins. It protects the protoplast, provides external structure and in some tissues
(e.g. bark and wood) may act as strong support to the plants (Fig.3).

Figure 3. Image of cell wall under microscope

2. Protoplasm – the living portion of a cell. It contains the following:

2.1. Nucleus – the cell governor. Within the nucleus are the chromosomes, long length
of DNA and associated proteins, which contain the DNA information coding for
cell function, differentiation of the organism and for reproduction. During cell
division, a set of chromosomes is passed on to each daughter cell assuring
continuity of genetic information (Fig.4).

Fig. 4. Nucleus
2.2. Cytoplasm – the liquid matrix of the cell with the following organelles:

2.2.1. mitochondria – produce the energy-rich compound ATP.

2.2.2. ribosomes – granular structures responsible for protein synthesis.
2.2.3. endoplasmic reticulum –further processes proteins then transports them to
their destination.
2.2.4. Golgi bodies or dictyosomes – multi-layered complexes important in
secretory activities
2.2.5. lysosomes – contain hydrolytic or digestive enzymes
2.2.6. plastids such as;

2.2.6.1. chloroplast – the green plastid responsible for photosynthesis. It

contains also other pigments, lipids and starch. Within the
chloroplast light energy is captured.
 2.2.6.2. chromoplast – contains the various plant pigments including
chlorophyll.
2.2.6.3. leucoplast – colorless storage plastid that stores oil, starch and
proteins.
2.2.7. Microtubules – elongated tubular structures associated with movement.

Vacuoles – serve as storage reserve for water-soluble pigments, anthocyanin (blue and
red pigment) inorganic salts, alkaloids and other toxic products (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. Vacuole

Plant development depends solely on patterns of cell division,

cell enlargement and cell differentiation.
 Cell division and growth in plants are active in the following plant parts: the root
tips, the stem tips, the cambium in dicotyledons, and the intercalary meristem in
monocotyledons.
 Cell enlargement and differentiation. Some cells do not achieve full size
immediately following cell division. In the young apple fruit for example, cell
division takes place for about 6 weeks after fertilization, producing most of the
cells that will be found in the mature fruit. For many weeks thereafter, the fruit
continues to grow, not by cell division but by expansion of the small cells already
formed. The same situation occurs in many leaves; a very young leaf at the stem
tip contains most of the cells it will have at maturity.
 The ultimate appearance and function of each cell depend on the changes
it undergoes during differentiation. As a result, certain cells of a plant may have
thin walls and function in food production or storage. Other cells may become
specialized as conducting components; still others may develop thick cell walls that
collectively furnish strength and rigidity to the plant. Many of the cells in a mature
plant are dead but still are functional, e.g., the hollow water-conducting
components (the xylem) of leaves, stems, and roots.
Although the differentiation of cells is usually irreversible, living cells
sometimes change their function. For example, the apical cells of a stem may
initiate leaf primordia for a time, after which they may assume the function of floral
precursors that give rise to the various parts of a flower. The cells of the cortex
or the phloem may become cork cambium, which, by division, produces the cork
of woody plants. Furthermore, the parenchyma cells around a wound often
become meristematic and divide to form wound tissue.

PLANT TISSUE
It is an organized group of cells with common origin and functions.

Classification of Tissues
1. Meristematic tissue – composed of cells whose main function is dividing. These
cell factories occur in developing embryos in the tips of roots and stems and in the
leaves and floral primordia. They are found in three regions of the plant (Fig.6):
1.1. Apical meristem – located at the tip of roots and stems, produces cells resulting
to longitudinal or primary growth of the plant.
1.2. Lateral meristem – located in the cambium region and is responsible for the
annual increase in plant diameter.
1.3. Intercalary meristem – found at the base of the grass leaf and internode, and
is important for regrowth after defoliation as in grazing or ratooning of rice.

Fig. 6. Different regions of meristematic tissue

2. Permanent tissue – tissue composed of cells in which growth and differentiation
has been completed. These permanent tissues constitute the conducting tissue
(tracheids, vessels, sieve and companion cells), the ground tissue (pith and cortex),
and the dermal tissue (epidermis and bark). They are further classified, based on
number of types of cells making up the permanent tissue, into:

Fig. 7-9. Permanent tissues

2.1. Simple tissue – tissue that contains only one type of cell; examples are:
2.1.1. parenchyma – occurs in all parts of the plant and perform a variety
of metabolic functions. Important in wound healing and regeneration of
 roots in cuttings. ex. nectaries in flower, latex, cortex of carrots, pith of
sugarcane.
2.1.2. collenchyma – a special type of parenchyma cells.
2.1.3. sclerenchyma – with thick lignified walls and their function is for
conduction, mechanical support and protection.

2.2. Complex tissue – consists of two or more types of cells. Examples of this are the
xylem tissue and the phloem tissue, which both contain parenchyma,
collenchyma and sclerenchyma cells.
2.2.1. xylem tissue – specialized cells in plants that transport water and
minerals from the soil through the plant.
2.2.2. phloem tissue – specialized cells in plants through which
carbohydrates and other nutritive substances are translocated

2.3. Tissue system – consists of two or more tissues working together in a single
function
2.3.1. Dermal tissue system – the epidermis and bark
2.3.2. Ground tissue system – pith and cortex
2.3.3. Vascular tissue/conducting tissue - composed of the phloem and
xylem tissues.
2.3.4. Secretory tissues of plants
2.3.4.1. Those found outside the plant.
2.3.4.1.1. Nectaries - Occur on various parts of the plant. In flowers, they
are called floral nectarines and they secrete nectar that attracts
insects for pollination.

Fig. 10. Nectary

2.3.4.1.2. Hydathodes - Secrete pure water. Droplets of water may form
along leaf margins of certain plants due to secretory activities.
 Fig. 11. Hydathodes

2.3.4.1.3. Salt glands - Found in plants that grow in desert or brackish

areas.

Fig. 12. Example of salt glands

2.3.4.1.4. Osmophores - Secrete fragrance in flowers. The repulsive odor

of aroids is attributed to the amines ammonia secreted by
osmophores.

Fig. 13. Example of osmophores

2.3.4.1.5. Digestive glands - Found in insect-eating (insectivorous) plants,
e.g., pitcher plant
 Fig. 14. Example of digestive glands

2.3.4.1.6. Adhesive cells - Secrete materials that aid attachment between

host and parasite.

Fig. 14. Example of adhesive cells

2.3.4.2. Those found inside the plant.

2.3.4.2.1. Resin ducts - Found commonly in woody species. They secrete
sticky resin.
2.3.4.2.2. Mucilage cells - Slimy secretions found the growing tip of roots
and believed to aid the passage of roots through the soil.
2.3.4.2.3. Oil chambers - Secrete aromatic oils.
2.3.4.2.4. Gum ducts - Cell wall modification results in the production of
gums in certain trees.
2.3.4.2.5. Laticifers - Latex-secreting glands.
2.3.4.2.6. Myrosin cells - Secrete an enzyme called myrosinase, which when
mixed with its substrate, thioglucosides, produces a toxic oil called
 isothiocyanate. This occurs when cells are ruptured by insects or
animals during chewing.

Table I. Major tissue and cell types of flowering plants

Tissue Common Cell
Tissue Description Function
System Types
Dermal Epidermis Epidermal cells, Small living cells; Protection of
guard cells, secrete cuticle; flank internal cells;
hair cells stomata; discourage prevents
predators water loss;
preserve
sterility

Ground Parenchyma Parenchyma Small living cells; Photosynthesis

cells usually thin cell walls and storage

Collenchyma Elongated living Support

Collenchyma cells; thick cell walls
cells
Sclerenchyma Usually extremely Protection,
Sclerenchyma elongated cells; support,
fibers and thick, reinforced cell rigidity,
sclereids walls; usually dead hardness
at maturity

Vascular Xylem Tracheids and Hollow, thick walls of Xylem tubes

vessel elements dead cells conduct water
and minerals

Phloem Sieve tube Elongated living cells Phloem tubes

elements lacking nuclei; thick conduct
cell walls; sieve sugars and
plates with pores other nutrients
connect successive
cells to form sieve
tube
Companion cells Involved in
Small elongated transport by
living cells with phloem’s sieve
nuclei; adjacent to tube elements
sieve tube elements
in phloem
PLANT ORGAN
The plant organ is next higher level of organization above the plant tissue. It is
made up of different types of tissue. The plant organs are the leaf, stem, root, flower,
seed and fruit.
1. Leaf
The leaf is a vital agricultural structure, producing plant foods on which growth
and development depend. There are 5 types of leaves; foliage leaves, budscales,
floral bracts, sepals, and cotyledons. Foliage leaves are the most prominent.
Functions:
 Food synthesis. Leaves manufacture food by the process of
photosynthesis. Foliage leaves do this function.
 Protection. This role is performed by non-foliage leaves (bud scales, floral
bracts, and sepals) through protection of vegetative and floral buds.
 Storage. Cotyledons or seed leaves store food that is used by seeds
during germination.

Modified Leaves – these leaves perform functions other than photosynthesis or

these leaves carry on photosynthesis under unusual environments. Leaf
modifications are the following:
 Glands. For secretion.
 Spines or thorns. For protections against herbivores.
 Storage tissue. For food storage, as in bulbs (e.g., onions).
 Thickened leaf surface. To reduce moisture loss under xeric (dry)
conditions.
 Thin cuticle and gas chamber. For survival under submerged conditions.
 Tendrils. String-like structures for additional support. The terminal leaflet
of the trifoliate leaf of pea may be modified into a tendril.
Internal Structure Of The Leaf And Functions Of Parts
 Cuticle - a layer of wax-like material called “cutin”. It protects the leaf
and prevents evaporative loss through the epidermis.
 Epidermis - a layer of cells that form the outer protective layer of the leaf.
 Mesophyll - a layer of cell beneath the epidermis.
 Vascular bundle - Comprised of the conducting tissues, xylem and phloem.
 Bundle sheath - A ring of cells around the vascular bundles of leaves of
certain species. May be involved in storage of photosynthates. Involved
in photosynthesis of C4 plants.
 Stomata - Pores in the epidermal layer defined by two special cells called
guard cells. The closing and opening of the guard cells regulate the rate
of movement of carbon dioxide and water between the leaf and the
atmosphere (Fig.15).
 Fig. 15. Parts of leaf
2. Stem
The stem is the central axis of the shoot of plants. The initial stem develops
from the embryonic bud or plumule. The stem may be herbaceous or woody.
Functions:
 Provision of mechanical support to hold branches, leaves, and
reproductive structures. It is important that the leaves are well displayed
to maximize light interception for photosynthesis.
 Conduct water and minerals up to leaves, and assimilates from leaves to
other parts of the plant. This function occurs through the vascular system.
 Useful as material for crop propagation (e.g., in taro and Irish potato,
cassava, sugarcane and some forage grasses).
 Modified stems for food storage that are of economic value in crops (e.g.,
Irish potato and taro).

Types Of Stem:
 Trunk – main axis of the stem system.
 Branch – lateral portion of the tree and originates from the trunk or from
another branch.
 Shoot – composed of stem and leaves developed from the bud.
 Twig – shoot that attained one year of growth and the leaves have fallen.
 Terminal bud – special meristem that become inactive.
 Spurs – short stems that bear leaves or fruits and leaves.
Modified Stems:
 Rhizome – An unusually thickened and horizontally growing underground
stem. example: ginger
 Stolon – An unusually slender and prostrate above-ground stem as in
Bermuda grass
 Runner. example: strawberry
 Tuber– example: Irish potato
 Bulb - a stem modified as bulb example: onion, tulip
 Crown – modified stem with very short internodes (ex. Pineapple, most
forage grasses
 Tendril – slender stem above the ground use for climbing

Fig. 16. Examples of modified stem

Internal Structure of the Stem and its Function
 Epidermis: Outer protective layer of the stem. It is usually one-cell thick
and often bears trichomes.
 Vascular bundles: Comprised of the conducting tissues, xylem and
phloem.
 Ground tissue: Mostly parenchyma tissue that occurs in two regions in
dicots:
 Cortex: Ground tissue that occurs between the epidermis and the ring of
vascular tissue.
 Pith: Ground tissue in the center of the stem. It is specialized for storage.
Not readily discernable in monocots.

3. Root
The root is the underground vegetative organ of plants.
 Functions:
 Roots anchor plants in the soil, holding stems upright and preventing
toppling by wind.
 Roots absorb the nutrients and water used by plants in photosynthesis
and other physiological functions.
 Modified roots have storage roles, as occurs in sweet potato where they
are the economic part of the plant. Aerial roots occur in certain species,
where they provide additional support for the plant through attachment
to physical support.

Modified Roots:
 aerial roots – orchids
 prop roots – corn
 storage roots – sweet potato

Two Basic Root Systems:

 Taproot System. In this root system, there is a primary root consisting of
a large central axis and several lateral roots. The taproot is usually deeply
penetrating and is found in dicots and gymnosperms. Sometimes, it is
swollen and is harvested as the economic part (e.g., carrot and sugar
beet).
 Fibrous Root System. Fibrous roots occur in the grass family. This root
system lacks a dominant central axis and is shallowly penetrating. Fibrous
roots have more soil-binding effect and are used in erosion control in soil
conservation practices.

Fig. 17-18. Basic Root Systems

Types Of Roots According To Origin:

 Seminal roots – derived from the seeds of grasses.
 Adventitious roots – derived from other parts of the plant such as stems
and leaves.
Parts of the root:
 Root cap – found at the root tip for protection.
 Root hairs – tiny extensions of root epidermal cells that absorb water and
minerals from the soil.

4. Flower
Flowers are modified or specialized leaves that enclose the reproductive organs
of seed plants. Flowers exhibit great diversity within the seed plants, which make
them of great aesthetic and taxonomic value. Of greater significance, however, is
their role in sexual reproduction and the development of seeds and fruits, which are
essential for human and animal nutrition and the perpetuation of cultivated and native
plants (Fig.19).
Kinds of flowers:
 Regular - all the petals are of the same size and shape
 Irregular - the petals are not alike in size and shape
 Complete - contains all the floral parts
 Incomplete - missing one or more of the floral parts
 Perfect - contains both stamen and pistil
 Imperfect - missing either stamen or pistil. Flowers with the stamen only
are called staminate, and those with pistil only are called pistillate. Plants
with both staminate and pistillate flowers on the same plant, such as corn,
are said to be monoecious, and those with them in different plants, such
as papaya, strawberry and date palm, are said to be dioecious.

Fig. 19. Differences of complete to incomplete flower

There are many different flower structures, but all flowers have certain
structures in common. A flower is carried on a stalk called a pedicel, the apex of
which is enlarged to produce a receptacle.
 The receptacle carries four types of structures: Flowers having these parts
are commonly found in dicot plants
1. Sepal- collectively called calyx
2. Petals- collectively called corolla; the calyx and the corolla are collectively called
perianth.
3. Stamens- collectively called androecium; contains the anther and filament.
4. Pistil - collectively called gynoecium; contains the stigma, style and ovary.

Cereals and grasses lack both petals and sepals. In the grass flower (called a
floret), these structures are replaced by two bracts, the lemma and palea. The
spikelets are grouped together to form the inflorescence.

Fig. 20. Flower parts of cereals

Functions:
 The botanical functions of the flower include attracting pollinators (e.g.,
insects, bats) by their color or the scents they exude.
 The floral parts also develop into the fruit and seeds.
 In ornamentals like cutflower, the flower is the economically useful part.
 The flower is the most useful part in crop improvement

5. Seed
The seed is a propagational unit of a flowering species and the economic part in
grain crops. Even though seeds of different species vary greatly in size and
structure, they all consist of embryo with associated reserves encased in a
protective seedcoat.
General parts of the seed:
 The seedcoat/testa - covers the seed
 The embryo - the young plant, including the cotyledon
  The endosperm - a nutritive substance which provide the embryo with energy
and raw materials for its development

Classes of seed based on its viability:

 Orthodox seeds - these are the seeds that can be kept for long periods
provided they are properly dried and stored.
 Recalcitrant seeds - these seeds cannot be kept viable for long time. They
cannot withstand drying and should not be permitted to dry out before
planting.

6. Fruit
The fruit of a plant is its mature ovary, to which is attached a variety of
associated parts which are the residues of the floral parts.
Function:
The fruit protects the seed and aids in its dissemination. For example, the pits of
fruits such as plums will germinate and grow after an animal or a human being has
eaten the fruit and discarded the pit.

Classification of fruits:
a. Based on the origin

1. Multiple fruit - is a fruit resulting from the development of separate flowers

in a compact inflorescence. Examples: jackfruit (langka), pineapple, durian,
ficus
2. Aggregate fruit - arises from the development of separate pistils in one
flower. Examples: atis, guyabano, strawberry, ilang-ilang
3. Simple fruit - arises from a single ovary. Examples: chico, papaya
 Fig. 21. Different classification of fruits based on origin
b. Based on the pericarp texture
1. Fleshy fruits – pericarp fleshy and poor texture
1.1. Berry – the ovary wall is fleshy, has one or more carpels and many seeds;
examples; pepper, tomato, eggplant, banana, star apple, chico.
1.1.1. Pepo - is a berry with hard rind; example, squash, cucumber, upo,
papaya.
1.1.2. Hesperidium- is a berry with leathery rind; example, oranges,
calamansi, dalandan, suha, santol.

1.2. Drupe or stone fruit - derived from a single carpel, endocarp hard and
one-seeded; example, pili nut, coconut, mango, avocado, olive,
sineguelas.

1.3. Pome – derived from several carpels, receptacle fleshy, outer portion of
pericarp fleshy, inner portion papery; example, apple, pear.

2. Dry fruits – pericarp dry and hard

2.1. Dehiscent fruits - fruits that split open when ripe
2.1.1. Legume or true pod – carpel one, splitting along two sutures;
example, beans, peanut, ipil-ipil, acacia, tamarind.
2.1.2. Follicle – opens along one suture (ventral); example, pandacaqui,
2.1.3. Capsule – carpels two or more, dehiscing in one or four different
ways; example, achuete, cotton, tobacco, okra.
2.1.4. Silique – carpels four; two outer ones, sterile and two inner ones,
fertile; example, Tecoma stans, garlic vine, pechay and radish.

2.2. Indehiscent fruits – fruits that do not split when ripe:

 2.2.1. Achene – one-seeded, seed attached to the seed coat at one point
only; example, cosmos, sunflower.
2.2.2. Caryopsis – one-seeded, pericarp firmly united all around the
testa; example, rice, corn.
2.2.3. Samara – one or two-seeded, pericarp bearing a wing-like
outgrowth; example, narra, apitong, lauan, Chinese parasol.
2.2.4. Schizocarp – carpels two or more, united spitting a apart at
maturity; example, castor oil fruit, para-rubber, celery.
2.2.5. Nut – a hard, one seeded fruit, generally produced from an inferior
compound ovary, and with an involucre; example, acorn of oak,
kasoy, hazelnut, castaña and pestachio.

Summary
 Plant cells vary based on structure, parts and functions.
 Plant tissue can be classified into meristematic tissue or permanent tissue. Each
has a specific location (roots or stem) and functions that is responsible for growth
of a plant.
 Plant organs are composed of root, stem, leaves, flower, fruit, and seed.

Post-Assessment
Acronym Meaning (Tagalog or English). Based on what you have learned in the
module, use the word P-L-A-N-T, and create meaning each letters. It could be a word or
phrase (example: P-roduces fruit). Each letter will be scored 2 points. The file attached
could be access by downloading it before you can edit. It is located in the assessment
activity.
.
RUBRICS: (Content = 10pts; Punctuality = 5pts)
CRITERIA 5 points 2 points O point
CONTENT Completed the The acronym
acronym meaning used was
using appropriate inappropriate
word word (without the
(understandable context of the
and within the topic) or phrase
context of the and misspelled
topic) or phrase word or phrase.
and correct
spelling.
PUNCTUALITY Submit the output Submit the output
on or before the after the deadline
deadline (time and day).
Reference
Acquaah, G. 2002. Principles of Crop Production: Theory, Techniques, and Technology.
Pearson Education Inc., New Jersey, U.S.A.
Barden, J. A., R. Gordon Halfacre, and D. J. Parish. 1987. Plant Science. Mc Graw-Hill
Book Company.
Hartmann, H. T., A. M. Kofranek, V. E. Rubatzky, W. J. Flocker. 1988. Plant Science.
Growth, Development and Utilization of Cultivated Plants. 2nd edition. Prentice
Hall. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Hopson, J. and N. Wessels 1990. Essentials of Biology. McGraw-Hill, Inc., U.S.A.
WALTON, P. D. 1988. Principles and Practices of Plant Science. Prentice Hall.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey
Janick, J. 1972. Horticultural Science. Second Edition. W.H. Freeman and Company San
Francisco. 586pp.

Kipps, M.S. 1976. The Production of Field Crops.

Lantican, R.M. 2001. The Science and Practice of Crop Production. SEAMEO-SEARCA
and UPLB, College, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines.

Parker,R. 1998. Introduction to Plant Science. Delmar Publishers. Albamy, New York.
USA. 704pp