CV4102 – Advanced Steel Structures

Multi-storey Rigid Frames

Instructor: Lie Seng Tjhen

Office: N1-01c-78
E-mail: cstlie@ntu.edu.sg

Division of Structures and Mechanics

School of Civil & Environmental Engineering
Nanyang Technological University

CV4102 – ADVANCED STEEL STRUCTURES – LIE SENG TJHEN – AY2019/2020 – JULY 2019 1
References:
[1] Schueller W. (1986). High-rise Building Structures,
2nd edition, Wiley, New York, USA.
[2] Schueller W. (2016). Design of Building Structures,
Revised Edition, Vols. 1 & 2, Prentice Hall, New Jersey,
USA.
[3] Trahair NS, Bradford MA, Nethercot DA, and Gardner L.
(2008). The Behavior and Design of Steel Structures to
EC3, 4th edition, Taylor & Francis, Abingdon, UK.

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Outlines:
1. Introduction
2. Lateral load resisting systems
3. Approximate analysis of frames
- Portal frame method

Shears Tower, Chicago

1974

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1. Introduction
1.1 Famous tall buildings in the world

Burj Khalifa

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1.2 Design considerations of tall buildings • Most modern tall buildings are lightweight and
(a) Overall framing they designed to have high stiffness.
• Column spacing (optimum number of
• This is to prevent excessive sway which can
columns) cause motion sickness.
• Continuity of columns (connection rigidity)
• Use of plate girders (long span and heavy • The sources of lateral loads are mainly due to
load transfer) wind load and earthquake.
(b) Flooring
• The dynamic wind velocity consists of a constant
(c) Stability (overturning) and sway
mean wind velocity and a varying gust velocity.
(d) Design methods
(e) Fire protection
(f) Foundations
• Raft
• Piles

1.3 Lateral loads

• As building heights increase, importance of

lateral force action rises exponentially.

• Beyond a certain height, lateral sway governs

design, i.e. stiffness rather than strength is the
criterion.

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• The wind pressure (EC1 Part 1-4) acting on • Sway or lateral deflection can be reduced by
an external surface is given by viscous damping:

we = qp(ze)  cpe (i) Viscous dampers.

where
qp(ze) is peak velocity pressure at height ze
ze is reference height for external pressure
cpe is the external pressure coefficient
It is a mass spring system to absorb the
energy due to lateral movement of the
building, it was used in the old Twin Tower
World Trade Centre.

• The other lateral load is seismic which is due to

vibration of the earth caused by an
earthquake.

• For moderate earthquake, ground accelerations

can be between 0.2g to 0.3g and for severe
earthquake > 0.4g.

• The structural dynamic characteristics of a

building affect its response to earthquake; e.g. a
flexible building with long natural periods shows
less acceleration relative to the ground.

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(ii) Base Isolation dampers.

The building is supported or resting on base

isolator damper so as to reduce the horizontal
ground movement due to earthquake.

(iii) Tuned mass dampers.

Works by absorbing the vibration energy when

the mass damper matches the frequency of the
building such as that used in Taipei 101
skyscraper.

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Taipei 101 Tower in ROC

Taipei 101 Tower – 730-Ton Steel Damper

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 Truss supported by external bracing
and internal frame

Exterior bracing and internal steel

frame system

Old World Trade Centre – Twin Tower – Construction 1960-1970

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2. Lateral load resisting systems
2.1 Shear walls 2.2 Shear cores

• Horizontal forces are distributed through the
floor structure to the shear walls.
• Shear walls respond to shear and flexure
because of their high rigidity as deep beams.
• Use vertical transportation systems (e.g.
elevators, stairs, toilets, mechanical shafts) to
form a core to provide shear resistance.

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2.3 Bracing • There are other types of bracing solutions

• Transfers lateral forces and moment by (i) Each storey fully braced
tension/compression of the braces. (ii) Bracing runs across several stories
(iii) K-bracing used along columns
• Type of bracings are diagonal bracings, (iv) Horizontal portal bracing along beams
cross-bracings, K-bracings and eccentric
bracings.

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

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2.5 Rigid frames

• Rectangular grid of horizontal and vertical

beams/columns connected by rigid joints.

• Practical up to about 30 storeys due to excessive

deflections.

• Rigid frame responds to lateral loads by flexure of

beams and columns.

Bending moments of columns and beams for

frame under lateral loading

• Joints must transfer moments and provide

continuity and they are relatively expensive to
fabricate.

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3. Approximate analysis of frames
3.1 Background

• Rigid frames are statically indeterminate, and

hence it is not easy to perform by hand
calculations.
• Approximate methods have been developed in
the past to ease calculations
The portal method makes the assumptions:
• They are very useful as a check or preliminary
sizing of members (i) Lateral forces are resisted entirely by the
frame. Stiffening from walls, etc is neglected.
• Two common methods are:
(i) Portal method (discussed later) (ii) Inflection points are at the mid-height of
columns and mid-spans of beams.
(ii) Cantilever method (not covered in CV4102)
(iii) The frame at each bay is divided into as a
3.2 Portal method series of independent portals.
A rigid frame deforming under lateral loads has (iv) Each portal carries a horizontal load
inflection points close to the mid-spans of beams proportional to its span.
and columns, as shown below.
(v) Secondary forces/moments are neglected.

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Inflection point is a point on a curve at which the curve changes direction
from being concave to convex, or vice versa.
A point of inflection is a point on the curve at which the curvature changes its
sign from positive to negative and vice versa.

Plot of y = x³ with inflection point of (0,0),

also a saddle point.

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For example, a three-bay, one-storey frame is
considered as a series of three individual portals. V2 V’2

Pins are introduced at mid-spans/mid-heights,

making the structure statically determinate.

Assuming that each portal carries a load proportional

to its span,
W1 W2 W3 W
  
W L1 L2 L3 B
W1 W WL1
  W1 
L1 B B
W2 W WL2
  W2 
L2 B B
W3 W WL3
  W3 
L1 L2 L3
L3 B B
Taking moment about the hinge of the right column of
the 1st portal frame,
Free bodies of the three individual portals taken at h
mid-heights are shown below. W1  N1 L1
2
or
W1h Wh
 N1  
2 L1 2 B

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Similarly, The same result can be obtained by taking moments
about the hinge (you can try it as an exercise):
W2 h Wh
N2  
2 L2 2 B
W h Wh
and N 3  3 
2 L3 2 B

It can be seen that based on the assumptions of the

portal method, interior columns do not carry any The total shear of each column (from left to right) is
axial loads, and hence,
1st column, V1
The applied moment is resisted only by the
external columns.
2nd column, V2  V1 'V2
To find the column shears, it is easiest to exploit
symmetry, so that shear is divided equally between
3rd column, V3  V2 'V3 '
columns of each portal:
4th column, V4
1 1 WL1
V1  V1 '  W1 
2 2 B
1 1 WL2
V 2  V 2 '  W2 
2 2 B
1 1 WL3
V3  V3 '  W3 
2 2 B

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3.3 Example 1 Step 1
Introduce hinges at mid-spans and mid-heights of all
A frame is subjected to horizontal loads as shown
the columns and beams. Divide the entire frame into a
below. Determine the axial loads and shear forces of series of individual portals.
the beams and columns.
Step 2
4m 8m 4m Start with highest bay. Divide the shear force so that
4 kN they are proportional to span (see below):
3m
Step 3
8 kN Moments are taken by outer columns only.
Equate external and resisting moments:
4m
4(1.5)  (4  8  4)Y11
3
Y11  kN
8

1 kN 2 kN 1 kN

1.5 m

X11 X12 X13 X14 X15 X16

Y11 Y12 Y 13 Y 14 Y 15 Y 16

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Note that: 1
VChigh
4  X 16  kN
Y11 = Y12 = Y13 = Y14 = Y13 = Y15 = Y16 2

Step 4 Axial forces in columns at higher bay

To find shear, exploiting symmetry, 3
1  Y11 
N Chigh kN (tension)
1 8
X 11  X 12  kN 3 3
2 N Chigh
2  Y12  Y13    0 kN
2 8 8
X 13  X 14   1 kN 3 3
2 N Chigh
3  Y14  Y15    0 kN
1 8 8
X 15  X 16  kN 3
2 N Chigh
4  Y16  kN (compression)
8
Step 5
Axial forces/shear of columns/beams at higher bay
can be found by summing up the contributions. Axial forces in beams are easy to determine, e.g.
Shear force of columns at higher bay for the left span,
1
1  X 12 
1 N Bhigh kN
V high
C1  X 11  kN 2
2
1 3 Shear forces in the beam can subsequently be
VChigh
2  X 12  X 13  1  kN found, e.g. for left span
2 2
1 3 3
VChigh
3  X 14  X 15  1  kN V Bhigh
1  Y11  kN
2 2 8

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Step 6 9
Analysis of lower bay is as shown below. The dotted Y21  kN
portion is to facilitate analysis as a free body 4
diagram. Again, note that
Y21 = Y22 = Y23 = Y24 = Y23 = Y25 = Y26

1 kN 2 kN 1 kN

3/8 kN 3/8 kN 3/8 kN

1.5 m
1/2 kN 1 kN 1/2 kN
1/2 kN 1 kN 1/2 kN

3/8 kN 3/8 kN 3/8 kN 1.5 m

2 kN 4 kN 2 kN

2m

X21 X 22 X 23 X 24 X25 X 26
Y21 Y22 Y23 Y24 Y25 Y26

Step 7 Step 8
Again equate external moments to moments For each portal, external shear (including the top
resisted by outer columns: bay) is divided equally at the bases:
4(3  2)  8(2)  (4  8  4)Y21 1 2 3
X 21  X 22   kN
2 2

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 24 9 9
X 23  X 24   3 kN N Clow2  Y22  Y23    0 kN
2 4 4
1 2 3 N Clow3
9 9
 Y24  Y25    0 kN
X 25  X 26   kN
2 2 4 4
9
Step 9 N Clow4  Y26  kN (compression)
Axial forces/shear of columns/beams at lower bay can 4
be found by summing up the contributions. To determine the axial force for say the left beam,
3 1
1  X 22  X 12 
N Blow   1 kN
Shear force of columns at lower bay
2 2
3
1  X 21 
VClow kN Shear forces in the beam can subsequently be found,
2 e.g. for left span,
3 9
2  X 22  X 23 
VClow  3  kN 15
2 2 1  Y21  Y11 
VBlow kN
8
3 9
3  X 24  X 25
VClow  3   kN
2 2 For centre span,
3 15
4  X 26 
VClow kN 2  Y24  Y14 
VBlow kN
2 8
Axial forces in columns at lower bay After all the axial/shear forces have been determined,
9 the bending moment diagram can be drawn for the
1  Y21 
N Clow kN (tension) frame as follows.
4

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 3/2
3/4 3/4
3/4 9/4 9/4
3/4
3/4 3/4
3/2

15/2
15/4 15/4
3 9 9
3/4 3
9/4 9/4 3/4
15/4 15/4
15/2

3 9 9 3

Bending Moment Diagram of the Frame

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Note that if the base of the columns is not fixed but For frames more than two storeys, the procedure is
pinned, then the analysis for the higher bay is again similar, starting from the top level and working
identical, but for the lower bay, we should not downwards until the bottom level.
introduce a pin at midpoint of the columns, and the
analysis is similar as before, but using the structure
shown below.

1 kN 2 kN 1 kN
3/8 kN 3/8 kN 3/8 kN
1.5 m
1/2 kN 1 kN 1/2 kN
1/2 kN 1 kN 1/2 kN
3/8 1.5 m
2 kN 3/8 4 kN 2 kN 3/8
kN kN
4m

X21 X 22 X 23 X 24 X25 X 26
Y21 Y22 Y23 Y24 Y25 Y26

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4. Stability of frames
4.1 P-delta effect
The deformation or deflection of a structure, if large
enough, can influence the internal forces and
moments. These effects are called P-delta; it is
caused by the eccentricity of gravity loads, as shown
below:

In the above, the force P is shifted by a distance ,

P
Δ P resulting in an additional moment
M2 = P
H
But  is roughly proportional to P, let us write

Δ   P

Hence,
M2  P2

which implies that the additional moment is roughly

proportional to P2, hence it is called a second-order
effect.

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4.2 Second order P-delta analysis
• A first order (linear elastic) analysis assumes small
deflections; the resulting member forces and
moments do not account for the effect of
deformation of the structure under the applied loads.
4.3 Preliminary assessment of importance of
P-delta
How do we know in advance whether P-delta is
significant, and if we need to carry out a second-
order analysis? Clause 5.2.1

• A higher order analysis can take account of the Using approximate procedure, calculate the elastic
nonlinear effects due to deformation, known as
buckling load factor cr,
geometric nonlinearity.

• A special case of higher order analysis common in H  h 

civil engineering is the second order P-delta  cr   Ed   
analysis, not covered in this course. However, only  VEd   H,Ed 
an approximate method is covered in this course.
for every storey where
• A P-delta analysis is accurate up to only second-
order, and there are several methods. HEd = horizontal force at the bottom of the storey
• One method requires an initial analysis, and the VEd = vertical force at the bottom of the storey
additional “P-delta” loads/moments are added and
the analysis is repeated with further iteration using h = storey height
the additional loads. There are also non-iterative
H,Ed = relative horizontal displacement between top
methods.
and bottom of storey

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 4.4 Moment amplification method
Clause 5.2.3
Increase the applied moment by
1
 amp 
1
1
 cr
where cr is the smallest for all storeys.

amp
For elastic analysis,

• cr  10  “Non-sway”, no need to consider P-

delta.

• cr  3  “Sway-sensitive”, need to conduct a full

second-order analysis.

• 3  cr  10  can allow for sway using the

approximate “moment amplification method”.

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4.5 Example 2
100 kN 100 kN
A frame is shown below. The lateral deflections at
every floor level due to horizontal loads are given. 1kN 1.6 cm
Calculate cr and state the need for a second-order 3.5 m
100 kN 100 kN
analysis 1kN 1.3 cm
3.5 m
Solution 100 kN 100 kN
Tabulate the variables for every storey as shown in 2kN 0.7 cm

the table. The most critical (smallest) cr is 2.92. 3.5 m

100 kN 100 kN
2kN 0.3 cm
Since cr  3, one need to conduct a full second-order
3.5 m
analysis
0

Storey HEd (kN) VEd (kN) HEd / VEd h (m) H,Ed (cm) h / H,Ed cr
4 1 200 0.005 3.5 0.3 1167 5.83
3 2 400 0.005 3.5 0.6 583 2.92
2 4 600 0.0067 3.5 0.4 875 5.83
1 6 800 0.0075 3.5 0.3 1167 8.75

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4.6 Example 3
Calculate cr
The frame that was considered in Example 1 is Total vertical load per level = 80  (4 + 8 + 4)
shown. All columns are made of 203203UC 60 = 1280 kN
Grade S275 steel, which is a Class 1 section. All
beams carry factored loads of 80 kN/m. Check According to the Table below,
Column A for buckling due to combined bending and most critical cr = 3.75
axial compression. You may assume that the
Since 3  cr  10  can use moment amplification
member is not susceptible to lateral torsional
buckling, and that the interaction factors are 1. State method.
any other assumptions clearly.
Calculate forces/moments in Column A
4m 8m 4m Note: frames are highly indeterminate structures,
0.45 cm
4 kN
and in practical design, computer programs are
3m used to solve the member forces/moments. But for
0.2 cm the purpose of tutorial/examination, one usually
8 kN
4m
make some assumptions to simplify the problem.
Column A

Storey HEd (kN) VEd (kN) HEd / VEd h (m) H,Ed (cm) h / H,Ed cr
2 4 1280 0.00313 3 0.25 1200 3.75
1 12 2560 0.00469 4 0.2 2000 9.38

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Effect of horizontal loads Being an indeterminate structure, the bending
moments depend on the relative flexural rigidity of
Member forces/moments due to horizontal loads are
the beams and columns.
calculated using the portal method.

From Example 1, Axial force = 9/4 kN (compression)
Top bending moment = 3 kNm (anticlockwise)
Effect of vertical loads
Divide frame into bays. For vertical loads, divide
equally among columns, i.e.
For simplicity, assume that columns are much
stiffer than beams, so that columns act as fixed
ends.
For beams fixed at two ends, bending moment at
ends = wL2/12

Hence, vertical load in column A

w
= 2  4  80 / 2 = 320 kN (compression)

2 storeys 2 columns

wL/2 wL/2

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 Since all columns are the same,
w (EI/L) top / (EI/L) bottom = (1/3) / (1/4) = 1.33

L Since the ratio  1.5, the moment is assumed to be

distributed equally among the top and bottom
wL2/12 wL2/12
columns.

Hence, moment at top of column A

The net moment is distributed to the columns above
and below in proportion to the column stiffness EI/L.
When the ratio of stiffness does not exceed 1.5, then
the moments is divided equally (refer to CV3012 -
Steel Design notes).
= wL2/24 = 80  42 /24 = 53.3 kNm (anticlockwise)
Total forces and moments in Column A
Moment = 53.3 + 3 = 56.3 kN
Axial force = 320 + 9/4 = 322.25 kN

Applying the amplified moment method,

1
wL2/24  amp   1.36
1
1
wL2/12  cr

Effective moment = 1.36  56.3 = 76.77 kNm

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Check for adequacy of Column A LT = reduction for LTB, which is 1 since LTB is not
Refer to CV3012 – Steel Design notes for further governing
information.
kyy, kyz, kzy, kzz are interaction factors, which are
Clause 6.3.3 assumed here to be 1.
For members subjected to combined bending and
axial compression should satisfy (note M1 = 1): We only have major axis moment (all moments in plane,
assume columns are orientated to take moment in the
Major axis buckling major axis). Eq. (6.62) is critical.
N Ed M y,Ed M
 k yy  k yz z,Ed  1 (6.61) Hence, check for
 y N Rk LT M y,Rk M z,Rk
N Ed M
 y,Ed  1
Minor axis buckling z Af y M y,Rk
N Ed M y,Ed M NEd = 322.25 kN, My,Ed = 76.77 kNm and fy = 275 N/mm2
 kzy  kzz z,Ed  1 (6.62)
z N Rk LT M y,Rk M z,Rk
From section tables (Blue Handbook),
Radius of gyration (minor axis), iz = 5.2 cm,
where NEd, My,Ed and Mz,Ed are the applied
Plastic modulus (major axis), Wpl,y = 656 cm3,
compression force, maximum major axis moment and
Cross-section area, A = 76.4 cm2
maximum minor axis moment, and y and z are the
reduction factors due to flexural buckling, For Class 1 section with no LTB,
M y,Rk  Wpl,y f y  180.4 kNm

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Assume pin-jointed boundary conditions
 effective length factor = 1

Column slenderness ratio,

Lcr fy
 Clause 6.3.1.2
i E
where Lcr= 4 m is the buckling length, E = 205 kN/mm2

Hence,  = 0.897

Table 6.2, h/b  1.2, tf  100 mm and S275 steel

 buckling about minor axis (z-z) and use curve ‘c’
 imperfection factor  = 0.49 N Ed M 322.25 76.77
 y,Ed  
z Af y M y,Rk 0.602(7640)(0.275) 180.4
1

     2 (6.49) = 0.68  1

  0.5 1      0.2    2 

Therefore, buckling capacity of Column A is
where
adequate.

Hence,  = 0.602 = z

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