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UNIT 7 - Completa!!!!
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Cultura II
Notes - Unit 7 - 2023
Rocío Oviedo
nit 7:
U
A. The Educational System
B. Architecture and the Visual Arts
Topics:
- the Educational System
A
1. Conceptualisation ☐
2. History ☐
3. Main developments ☐
4. Latest trends ☐
-Architecture and the Visual Arts.
B
1. Architecture
The tradition of the skyscraper in New York ☐
Intercultural topic: César Pelli ☐
2. The Visual Arts: Painting
War Painters (Great Britain) ☐
Social Realism and Pop Art (United States) ☐
Education in Great Britain
What is Education?
It is the process of facilitating learning and the acquisition of knowledge, as well as skills, values, beliefs and habits.
Educationisthewise,hopefulandrespectfulcultivationoflearningandchangeundertakeninthebeliefthatweallshould
have the chance to share in life.It is differentfrom schooling.
● Deliberate and hopeful
It is learning that we set out to make happen in the belief that we all can ‘be more’.
○ Deliberate: We act with a purpose – to build understanding and judgment and enable action. We may do this for
ourselves,forexample,learningwhatdifferentroadsignsmeansothatwecangetalicensetodrive(self-education).We
bringthatprocessandunderstandingintoplaywhenweneedtoact.Wealsoseektoencouragelearninginothers(while
being open tolearningourselves).Exampleshereincludeparentsandcarersshowingtheirchildrenhowtouseaknife
andforkorrideabike.Sometimesaseducators,wehaveaclearideaofwhatwe’dliketoseeachieved;atothers,wedo
not and should not.Inthecaseoftheformer,wemightbeworkingtoacurriculum,haveasessionorlessonplanwith
clear objectives, and have a high degree of control over the learning environment (formal education).Inthelatter,for
example, when working with a community group, the setting is theirs and, as educators, we are present as guests
(informaleducation).Withinthistypeofeducation,twothingshappen:1)thegroupmaywellbeclearonwhatitwantsto
achieve e.g. putting on an event, butunclearaboutwhattheyneedtolearntodoit;and2)thislearningactivityworks
largely through conversation (rather than the curricula). In both forms, educators set out to create environments and
relationships where people can explore their, and other’s, experiences of situations, ideas and feelings.
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Notes - Unit 7 - 2023
Rocío Oviedo
Hopeful:weinvitepeopletolearnandactinthebeliefthatchangeforthegoodispossible.Thepurposeofeducation
○
isfilledwiththehopethateducatorscanmakeachangeinstudentsandthatchangehastodowithmakingstudentsnot
onlymore proficient but also better persons.
● Informed, respectful and wisel A process of inviting truth and possibility
○ Respectful: The process of education flows from a basic orientation of respect – respect for truth, others and
themselves,andtheworld.Itisanattitudeorfeelingwhichiscarriedthroughintoconcreteaction,intothewaywetreat
people,forexample.First,weexpecteducatorstoholdthetruthdearly.Weexpectthattheywilllookbeneaththesurface,
trytochallengemisrepresentationandlies,andbeopentoalternatives.Theeducatorshouldlookforinformationthatis
valuable, accurate, and for that the educator needs to evaluate the sources of information.Second,educatorsshould
display fundamental respect for others (and themselves). Peopledeserverespectjustbecausetheyarepeople–free,
rationalbeings.Alongsiderespectforotherscomesrespectforself.Withoutit,itisdifficulttoseehowwecanflourish–
andwhetherwecanbeeducators;itistodowithourintrinsicworthasapersonandasenseofourselvesasmattering.
Third,educatorsshouldrespecttheEarth.Eachpersonfindsidentity,meaning,andpurposeinlifethroughconnectionsto
the community, to the natural world, and to spiritual values such as compassion and peace. Respect for the world is
central to the thinking of those arguing for a more holistic vision of education.
○Informed:Tofacilitatelearningwemusthavesomeunderstandingofthesubjectmatterbeingexplored,andtheimpact
studycouldhaveonthoseinvolved.Itcaninvolveparticularaspectsofknowledgeandactivitysuchasthoseassociated
withmathorhistory.However,itisalsoconcernedwithhappinessandrelationships,theissuesandproblemsofeveryday
lifeincommunities,andquestionsaroundhowpeoplearebesttolivetheirlives.Insomerespects,itiswisdom(notso
muchinthesensethatweknowalotorarelearned)butratherweareabletohelppeoplemakegoodjudgementsabout
problems and situations. We also expect teachers and educators to knowhow to help people learn.
○ Wise: wisdom entails: appreciating what can make people flourish; being open to truth in its various guises and
allowing subjects to speak to us; developing the capacity to reflect; being knowledgeable, especiallyaboutourselves,
around‘whatmakespeopletick’andthesystemsofwhichweareapart;beingdiscerning–abletoevaluateandjudge
situations.
● Grounded in a desire that all may flourish and share in life
It is a cooperative and inclusive activity that looks to help us to live ourlivesaswellaswecan.Educationshouldbe
undertakeninthebeliefthatallshouldhavethechancetoshareinlife;itinvolvescommitmenttothegoodofallandof
each individual.
‘Equity’ in Education
chools are tasked with educating all members ofthepublic,regardlessofincome,levelofability,nativelanguage,or
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prior education. For this reason, equity iscriticallyimportanttopubliceducation.Inschool,equalityisoftenassociated
withaccessandoutcomes.Equalityassertsthateverystudentshouldhavethesameaccesstoahighqualityeducation
regardless of where they come from. It also requires that all students be held to the same standards and objectives
regardless of their circumstances, abilities, or experiences. Equity recognizes that different students need different
resourcestoachievethesamegoalsastheirpeers.Ittakesintoaccountthefactthatastudentwithadisabilityrequires
differentphysicalsupportatschoolthanapeerwhodoesn’thaveadisability.Equalityfocusesonwhatisfairwithinthe
group.Equityhighlightswhatisfairfortheindividual.Inpubliceducation,bothgroupandindividualneedsareimportant.
All studentsshouldhaveequalaccesstohighqualityeducationandoncetheygetit,theyshouldbeaffordedequitable
support to achieve success.
What is ‘equality’?
quality is the provision of equal treatment and accesstoresourcesandopportunities.Essentially,everyonegetsthe
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same thing, regardless of where they come from or what needs they might have.
What is ‘equity’ in education?
quityistheprovisionofpersonalizedresourcesneededforallindividualstoreachcommongoals.Inotherwords,the
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goals and expectations are the same for all students, but the support needed to achievethosegoalsdependsonthe
students’ needs.
‘Equity’isdefinedas‘thesituationinwhicheveryoneistreatedfairlyandequally'.Theimplicationisthatequitydepends
on equality of treatment. But, in general, people value fairnessoverequivalence.Therearesituationsinwhichpeople
viewequaltreatmentasfair,butothersituationsinwhichtheyviewunequaltreatmentasfair.Thissuggeststhat,whenit
comes to ‘equity', fairness trumps equality.
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Notes - Unit 7 - 2023
Rocío Oviedo
hen is equal treatment fair? Equal distribution is considered fair when there is no obvious basis for differentially
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distributing resources. Under these conditions, everybody is considered equally deserving and unequal distribution is
considered unfair.
Whenisunequaltreatmentfair?Peopleconsiderunequaldistributionfairwhenitisbasedondifferencesinmeritorneed.
E.g,peoplegenerallybelievethatunequalremunerationforworkisfairifitrewardsdifferinglevelsofexpertise,effortor
contribution. Under these conditions, some individuals are considered more deserving than others and unequal
distribution is considered fair.
Inschooleducation,an‘equitable'systemcouldbedefinedasoneinwhichallstudentsaretreatedequally–forexample,
a system in which all students are given the same opportunities, exposed to the same school curriculum, taught by
teachers with equivalent expertise, held tothesamelearningexpectations.However,asinotherareasoflife,equityin
school education is likelytobeassociatedwithequaltreatmentinsomesituations(wherethereisnoobviousbasisfor
differential treatment),and unequal treatment in others.
here is still another important concept to understand → Standardization: the process of making something [or
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someone]conformtoastandard.TheUSpubliceducationsystemwasbuiltaroundstandardization.Everyonesharesthe
samegoalsandexpectations.Teachersdeveloptheirlessonsaroundstateadoptedstandards.Studentsarerequiredto
demonstrate proficiency on standardized tests, normed on the standard scores of kids in other districts and states.
Schoolsarestandardized.Itisimportanttonotethatstandardizededucationcanbeequal.Everystudentisexpectedto
meetthesamesetsofstandards,goals,andobjectivesastheirgrade-levelpeers.Whileequalityandstandardizationcan
coexistpeacefully,theburningquestionis:Canastandardizededucationsystemalsobeequitable?Myopinion:inmost
ofthecases,yes,aslongastheresourcesrequiredtoaddressstudents'needsareprovided.However,therearesome
cases in which a student cannot conform to the standard for their age, e.g., because they have a particular type of
disability. Then, in those cases, the system should adopt aflexibleapproachinorderforthestudentto,atleast,learn
something (though not all to reach the standard level).
Primary Education
IntheperiodprevioustotheIndustrialRevolutionthepoorhadbeenleftunprovidedforinmattersofeducation.In1803a
group of Dissenters formedthe“BritishandForeignSchoolsSociety”toraisefundsforthispurpose,mainlyinthenew
industrial towns. The Church of England in turn organised the “National Society for the Education of the Poor in the
PrinciplesoftheChurchofEngland”withthesameaim.Thirtyyearslater(1 833),duringthefirstGreatEraofReform,for
thefirsttimethegovernmentgranted£20,000toaidthesesocieties.Thegrantwasgraduallyincreasedfromyeartoyear.
In 1839 the system was improved through the appointment of inspectors, whose taskwastoseethatthemoneywas
being properly used. Further contribution to the improvement of the system took place in 1858 when a commission
recommended the setting up of local Education Boards.Asystemof“paymentbyresults”wasintroducedin1861(the
biggest grants wenttotheschoolsthatcouldgetmostchildrenuptoagiventeststandard).However,therewaslittle
progress towards a national system of public education.
Cultura II
Notes - Unit 7 - 2023
Rocío Oviedo
The development of industrial Britain was making it essential for all to have a minimum
education. People could nolonger live andwork effectively without education.Schools were no
longeraluxury;theybecameanecessity.Thisneedforeducationwasgrowingandbecomingclearerduetothefact
that England had to face competition from other countries.
It wastheReformBillof1867whichgavethefirstrealimpetustothecreationofanational
systemoffreeandcompulsoryeducation.Englishworkersnowhadthevote.Therefore,theidea
that “we must educate our masters” spread.
heReformBillgrantedthevotetourbanworkingmen(allmiddleclassmenandsomeofthelowerclasses)whometthe
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propertyqualification(thosewhopaidrentof£10ayearormore)wereenfranchised.Itreducedthepropertythresholdin
thecountiesandgavethevotetoagriculturallandownersandtenantswithverysmallamountsofland.→Anextended
franchise demanded a better educated electorate which, in turn, made further extensions of the franchise
feasible. Besides, thedevelopmentofindustrialBritainwasmakingitessentialforalltohaveaminimumofeducation.
People could no longer live and work effectively without it. Schools were no longer a luxury; they became a necessity.
heyear1870constitutesanimportantlandmarkinthehistoryofEnglisheducation.AmajorEducationActwaspassed
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then,alsoknownasForster’sEducationAct,inwhichthefoundationsofanationalsystemofeducationwerelaid,
sinceitmadeprovisionsforthesettingupofelementaryschoolsatpublicexpense.ThisActdividedthecountryinschool
districts,basedontheboroughsandparishes.Inthedistrictswheretherewereenoughchurchschools,thesewerenot
replaced.Thenewschoolswouldbepaidforpartlybygrantsfromthegovernment,partlyoutoflocalrates,andafeewas
also fixed. The existing church schools would continue to be aided by the government.
The 1880 and 1891 Acts also meant very important steps forward in education because they
“opened the door of opportunity”
ateractsofParliamentextendedelementaryeducation.In1880attendancewasmadecompulsoryforallchildrenunder
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the age of 12. In 1891 education was made free.
ntil1899alleducationalmattershadbeenunderthechargeoftheVice-PresidentofthePrivyCouncil,thegovernment
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bodythatsupervisedpublicservices.TheDepartmentofEducationwaspartofthePrivyCouncil.In1899theformersplit
awayfromthelatterandbecametheBoardofEducation.Itsheadwasamemberofthegovernmentwhowasappointed
as President of the Board. By making education an independent aspectinthepolicyofgovernment,theBritish
were reflecting their awareness of the importance of education in their everyday life and activities.
o what extent was the ideal of"wemustcompelourfuturemasterstolearntheirletters"achievedaftereach
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educational reform?
RobertLowe(Britishstatesman,wasapivotalconservativespokesmanwhohelpedshapeBritishpoliticsinthelatterhalf
ofthe19thcentury)pointedoutthepoliticalneedindiscussingthe1867ReformAct.Nowthatskilledworkingmenhad
thevote“wemustcompelourfuturemasterstolearntheirletters.”Thepeoplearethemasters,theycanvoteandelect
the government so they must be educated in order to vote conscientiously.
To what extent has the concept of equity been the ruling concept in educational reform in Great Britain?
If we think everychildshouldhavethechancetobeeducated,thentheconceptofequityisbeingapplied.Butifwe
●
thinkthatnoteveryonehasthechancetoenteruniversity,thenthereistheopportunitytogeteducatedbutequityisnot
being applied in the sense that they’re not being prepared for higher education.
● Everyone has the chance to be educated buttheeducationthateveryonereceivesisnotofthesamequalitysonot
everyone has the same opportunity.
Cultura II
Notes - Unit 7 - 2023
Rocío Oviedo
Secondary Education
"Ifwearetoholdourpositionamongmenofourownraceoramongthenationsoftheworld
we must make up the smallness of our numbers by increasing the intellectual force of the
individual."
t the beginning of the last century, England still lagged behind Germany and France for the government had not
A
provided schools supplying the next stage in education. It was this need which was met with the passing of the
Education Actin1902.
TheBalfour’sEducationActmadeprovisionsforthesettingupofsecondaryschools.Theseweretobepaidfor,asin
the caseofelementaryschools,outoflocalrateswiththehelpofgrantsfromthecentralgovernmentandafee.Atthe
same time, the Act did a lot to simplify the verycomplicatedsystemofeducationaladministration.TheSchoolBoards
were now abolished and their functions transferred to the new local authorities: the County Councils and the County
BoroughCouncils.Thus,thelocalauthoritieswouldcontrolbothelementaryandsecondaryeducation,theywouldusethe
rates to maintain the voluntary schools as well, and they would have a large measure of control over them.
The Balfour Act was indeed of utmost importance as the second great step in the process of the democratisation of
education.TheBalfourActbroughtintoexistencewhatwascalled'theeducationalladder.Itwasnow
ossibleforthecleverchildofpoorparentstopassfromtheelementaryschool–whichwasfree-tothesecondaryschool
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by winning a scholarship or free place, and to go on from there, by means of scholarships or grants, to the universities.
In 1918, the Fisher Education Act was passed (though put into practice in 1921). It stated that fees at elementary
schools were completely abolished and the school-leaving age was fixed at 14 in order to put an end to theabusive
businessof“part-timers”startingworkat11or12.Inaddition,localauthoritieswereencouragedtoestablishnursery
schools for children under the normal school age, but very few actually did this. Local authorities were also
asked to provide better opportunities for older pupils through day-continuation schools which would impart
additional education up to 16, but, since attendance was not compulsory, this part of the act was a failure.
In 1944, the Butler Education Act was passed. It provided freesecondaryeducationforallpupils.Itestablishedthat
schools attended by children under11becameknownasprimaryschools,whilethoseattendedbychildrenover11as
secondaryschools.Theterm“elementary”waslefttodescribethestageofeducationaldevelopmentcomprisingprimary
and secondary education. Secondary education was established for all children as an integral part of an
educational system. The school leaving age was raised to15(thoughthiswasnotimplementeduntil1947).Alllocal
authorities were required to prepare and submit development plans to the new Ministry of Education which now had
power to control and direct the implementation of educational policies.
heActof1902followedontheBoerWar,thatof1918waspassedintheclosingstagesoftheGreatWar,whilethe1944
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Act was passed in the last year of the Second World War. There are two reasons:
1)Inwartime,aspirationsareheightenedand,asthewholepopulationisinvolved,andthereistothisextentequalityof
sacrifice, there is therefore much wider awareness of the justiceofprovidingequalityofopportunity.Ifmaximumeffort
duringthewaristobemaintained,thenitmustseemworththateffortintermsofwhatthecountrywillofferitspeoplein
the future, and so governments are stimulated to work out plans.
2)Inwartimethereisoftenrapidscientificandindustrialchange,sothattheneedforeducationalchangeisseeninanew
light.
he 1944EducationActdidnotactuallylegislateforthedivisionsofsecondaryeducation.Thesedivisionssprangfrom
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the logic of the Hadow and Spens Reports and were confirmed by the Norwood Committee in 1943.
The interwar period is characterised in terms of education by the development of different types of secondary
schools and of methods of differentiating between children within each type of school (streaming). Ontheonehand,
someofthosewhowishedtoseetheschoolingofthemajorityextendeddidnotnecessarilyconsideritdesirableforallto
go to a secondary school of theexistingtype,withanacademiccurriculumlargelydictatedbyuniversityrequirements.
Differentformsofsecondaryschoolseemedmoredesirabletothem,bothfromthepointofviewofsocialneedsandthe
welfare of the children. On the other hand, some saw the dangers of further differentiation and called for a unified
Cultura II
Notes - Unit 7 - 2023
Rocío Oviedo
econdary school, incorporating a variety of forms of education. This unified school later became known as the
s
“multinational” or “many-sided” school.
heHadowReportwasdevelopedin1926.Itcondemnedtheone-schoolsystemandrecommendedthat,attheageof
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11, children should be sorted out and sent to either secondary, i.e. grammar-type schools –following a predominantly
literary or scientificcurriculum-,ortoseniorelementaryschools.By1939,mostauthoritieshadreorganisedelementary
education into two main stages: primary or elementary, and post-primary or secondary for children over11.Themain
importance of the Hadow Report lay in the fact thatit recommended the break at 11.
t the same time, some organs advocated a new kind of secondary school, multilateral in character. Hence, a
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Consultative Committee wasagainaskedtoreportonsecondaryschools.TheSpensReportwasdeliveredin1938.It
recommended that secondary education shouldbeprovidedinthreetypesofschools.Thistripartitesystemincluded:
the grammar school, the technical school and the modern school.
"Theseparationintothreetypesofschoolis...boundtoperpetuatetheclassificationofchildren
intoindustrialaswellassocialstrata...Solongasthisstratificationofchildrenattheageof
elevenremains,itis,inpractice,uselesstotalkofparityineducationorequalityofopportunity
in later life."
he Norwood Committee Report on “Curriculum and Examinations in Secondary Schools” issued in 1943
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recommended thatforthreegroupsofpupilsthreedifferenttypesofsecondaryschoolswereneeded:grammar(forthe
pupilwhoisinterestedinlearningforitsownsake,andcanfollowapieceofconnectedreasoning),technical(forthepupil
whose interests and abilities lieinthefieldofappliedscienceorappliedart)andmodern(forpupilsthatdealbestwith
concrete things, rather than ideas).
In consequence, after the passing of the 1944EducationAct,mostlocalauthoritiesprovidedthreetypesofsecondary
schools:
Grammar T
hey provided a liberal and scientific educationuptotheageof18,preparingstudentsfortheGeneral
Certificate of Education, which students took at the age of 16 and qualified them for middle-class
occupations,andinsomecasesforUniversityentrance.Inordertostudyintheseschoolschildrenhadto
pass an examination–the eleven-plus. Most grammar schools were maintained by the LocalEducation
Authorities; others were independent and self-supporting; and others received direct grants from the
MinistryofEducation.Somereceivedpupilswhopaidfeesandsome(atleast25%)whodidnot.Someof
these schools were academically among the best in England.
Modern hey provided general education, including some practical instruction, up to the age of 15. Students
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preparedfornon-professionaloccupations.Theseschoolswereadaptedfortheneedsofthechildrenofa
less academic disposition. There was streaming within the secondary moderns: A (GCE), B (another
certificate, known as Certificate of Secondary Education) and C (children of the least academic type;
practicalworkandotheractivitieswhichcouldbestdevelopthecapacitiesofthechildrenwhowereplaced
there).
Technical T
hey were schools whichprovidedteachinguptotheageof18butconcentratedontechnicalsubjects.
Someofthemprovidedanextendededucationandanavenuetotheuniversities.However,theseschools
were never successful enoughandneverreallydevelopedtoreachthesamestatusasthegrammaror
the secondary modern schools.
hegrammarschoolshadenabledlowerclasschildrentoclimbuptheeducationalladderandhaveaUniversitydegree.
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But there was still a huge mass of wasted academic ability among the lower classes. The deeply embedded idea of
aristocratic tradition had not been left aside. Consequently, both the grammar school and the 11+ examination came
under increasing attack on the grounds that they were elitist and deepened class divisions.
hebitterestcriticismcamefromtheLondonCountyCouncil,whichin1947decidedtoreorganiseoncomprehensive
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lines. Other counties followed suit. Comprehensive schools gather together in a single institution children of all
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Notes - Unit 7 - 2023
Rocío Oviedo
intellectual levels, instead of segregating them into academic and practical by the 11+ examination. They provide a
commoncurriculumforallstudentsuptotheageof13or14.Someusethedeviceofstreamingwithintheschool;some
leavestudentstochooseamongseveralcourses;someotherscombinethetwomethods.Inthisway,thecomprehensive
schoolswereconceivedasverylargeschoolsprovidinggrammar,technicalandmodernstreamsforthedifferenttypesof
children.
few comprehensive schools, however, were established in the 40s. The tripartite system continuedtobedominant,
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eventhoughthisnewtypeofschoolwastakingwell-definedshape.Duringthe50s,comprehensivesstartedgrowingbut
someofthembroughtnewproblems.Thehugeschoolswithbigclasseseasilygotoutofcontrolwhentherewasnota
stronghead.Thenewschoolsneededstabilityandtime,butthehecticchangesandturnoverofteachers–particularlyin
big cities- constantly demoralised them.
InJanuary1965theLabourgovernmentbeganapolicyofactivelyencouragingcomprehensivesecondaryschoolswith
theaimofcateringforchildrenofallabilities.Inthatyear,Circular10/65wasissuedtoalllocalauthoritiesdeclaringthe
government’s intention “to end selection at eleven-plus and to eliminate separatism in secondary schools”. Local
authoritieswereaskedtosubmit,withinayear,plansforreorganisationoncomprehensivelines.Thispressuretowards
comprehensives came not just from Labour, but also from parents, who were furious when their children were not .
"No one wants to agree to a set of standards whichthey knowexcludes their ownchild.No
ambitious parentwhopaid taxes withinademocracywouldbereadytotoleratethedemotion
of his child at the age of 11, which was not only wasteful but inequitable.”
espite the changes of government, the number of comprehensive schools grew rapidly. Within comprehensives,
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traditional subjects such as Classics gave way to new ones such as Liberal or Social Studies, while at all levels of
education formal methods of teaching were giving way to informal ones. The old master-student relationship was left
aside and a new attitude was adopted in which students were encouraged to find out things for themselves, through
experiments, experiences, examples and discoveries.
tpresent,althoughalmostallstatesecondaryschoolsarecomprehensive,theequalisingpurposehasnotyetbeen
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achieved. Moreover, while some people admit that the comprehensive does do something for the 80% of pupils that
within the former system would have had to attend a secondary modern,it tends to have a levelling effect.
"The comprehensive school should have focused on every pupil reaching their full potential
instead of developing an unfortunate association with rigid mixed-ability teaching."
utwhathappenedtothegrammarschools?Inthe1960sand1970s,politicianscouldnolongerjustifysubsidisingthis
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kindoféliteasthemovementstowardscomprehensivesgatheredweight.TheDonnisonReportwasdrawnupin1970
to the Labour government.
"Grammarschoolsofthetraditionaltypecannotbecombinedwithacomprehensivesystemof
education…Wemust choosewhat wewant. Fee-payingis notcompatiblewithcomprehensive
education."(Sampson 136).
inally, in 1976, when Labour returned to power, the government decided to withdrawthedirectgrantsfromgrammar
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schools. They had to choose whether to convert themselves into comprehensives or to become full fee-paying
(independent) schools. Many of them chose the second course, and there followed the most ironic consequence of
reform:therewerenowmorefee-payingschoolsthaneverbefore,whiletheladdersbywhichpoorerchildrenhad
climbed to success were completely suppressed.
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Notes - Unit 7 - 2023
Rocío Oviedo
Education Reform Act 1988
●
In 1988, a most important Education Act was passed as part of Thatcher’s policy of “rolling back the frontiers of
Socialism”.WhattheConservativegovernmentwastryingtodothroughthisactwastobringeducationmoreunderthe
controlofthecentralgovernmentandlessundertheinfluenceofthelocalauthoritiesofthedifferentareas.Theideawas
toremovepowerfromlocalauthorities(closelyassociatedwiththeLabourParty).Andtheydiditbymeansofthreesets
of measures:
1) LOCAL MANAGEMENT OF SCHOOLS: An individual school could take control of its operations, particularly as
regards budget. Headteachers were in charge of the academic part, the money and decision on resources, which
includedthemanagementofpeopleaswell,i.e.theheadteacheralsodecideduponsalaries.Howmuchdidtheschool
getfromthegovernment?Foreachpupil,thegovernmentgavetheschool£1,280fortheyear.Thismeantthat+pupils=
+ money from the government. There was competition among schools of thesameareaandthusthestandardswere
raised.
2)ABILITYOFSCHOOLSTOOPTOUTOFTHELEA:Thegovernmentwasofferingmoneytoanyschoolthatwanted
to take itself out of the Local Education Authorities. This had to be done with the agreement of the parents and the
teachers of the school. They optedoutoflocalcontrolandbecameundercentralcontrol.Thus,theeducationalsystem
became more centralised.
3) THE NATIONAL CURRICULUM: Until 1988, the only compulsory subject had been Religious Education.Afterthat
year,theNationalCurriculumcontainedanumberofcoresubjectsandanumberofoptionalones.Theformer,whichare
an essential part of every school’s curriculum, are Mathematics, English, Science andaForeignLanguage.Thelatter
group includes a number of subjects from whichthestudentcanchooseacertainnumber.Someofthemare:History,
Geography, Religion, Social studies, etc.
Blair Administration (1997-2007)
uringBlair’sadministration,therewasashiftineducation:thefocuswasnolongeregalitarianism(aneducationsystem
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inwhichallchildrenaretreatedequallyinthesamecircumstances,e.g.samecurriculumforall)butefficiency.Now,the
industries determined what studies will get more funding, which were Math, Science, English, and IT. This was so
because these were the areas more demanded for work. This measure can be related to the concept of “life-long
learning”, as what the individual studies at schools continues to develop at work.
● Education and Skills Act 2008
Itraisedtheschoolleavingageto18forthosebornafterSeptember1997.TheBillintroducedarequirementtoremainin
educationortrainingbeyondthecurrentstatutoryleavingage(whichwas16)andimplementedtherecommendationsof
theLeitchReviewonadultskills.TheBillcontainedmeasurestoencouragemoreyoungpeopletoparticipateinlearning
post-16 and to achieve higher levels of skills and qualifications. The Government proposals went beyond the current
aspirationsothatby2013,all17yearolds,andby2015,all18yearolds,wereparticipatinginsomeformofeducationor
training.The key areas of the Bill are:
●Raisestheageyoungpeoplestayineducationortraining,withadutyonyoungpeopletoparticipateandonparentsto
assist their children to participate.
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Rocío Oviedo
Sets out duties on employers to release young people for the equivalent of one day a week to undertake training
●
elsewhere (where the employer does not provide their own training).
● Introduces a duty on local authorities to ensure that young people participate and to provide the support service
currently known as Connexions.
● Requires local authorities to assess the education and training needs of young people aged 16-19 with special
educational needs.
● Requires the Learning and Skills Council to secure the proper provision of courses for learners over the age of 19.
ife-longlearning:Lifelonglearningistheconceptofpursuingadditionaleducationandthedevelopmentoffurtherskills
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beyondanindividual’sformalorcompulsoryeducation.Lifelonglearningisgenerallyvoluntaryandself-motivatedbased
onapursuittolearnmore,gainnewskillsorsupportprofessionaldevelopment.Oftenlifelonglearningisbasedaround
personal fulfilment or enjoyment. Lifelong learningcanbeconductedinavarietyofdifferentways,whetherit’sthrough
formaltraining(suchasaprofessionalqualification),orsomethingfarlessstructured.Itcanbetakenthroughinstruction
or coaching, but the term also includes any form of self-taught learning. The concept of life-long learning meansthat
educationdoesnotendwithschooling;atpresentitisnotenoughtobespecialistinonearea.Thereisaconstantneedto
keep updated in a globalised world.
University Education
Oxford and Cambridge
herearenostateuniversitiesinBritain;eachoneoftheuniversitieshasitsownindependentgovernment.Fromthe
T
statetheyreceivecharterswhichdefinetheirstatusandgivethemthepowertograntdegrees.Theintermediarybetween
the universities and the Treasury is theUniversityGrantsCommittee.EveryfiveyearstheTreasurytellstheUGChow
much money it intends to make available to the universities in the next five-year period.
Nowadays,thereare25universitiesinEngland,1inWales,5inScotlandand1inNorthernIreland.However,England
hadnootheruniversitiesapartfromOxfordandCambridgeuntiltheXIXcentury.Thetwotraditionaluniversitiesdatefrom
the early Middle Ages, from the XII (1096) and XIII (1209) centuries.
"AuniquecharacteristicofOxfordandCambridgeistheircollegiatesystem.[...]theuniversity
is a sort of federation of colleges."
oth of them are made up of different colleges-like small independent universities-which are parallel and equal
B
institutions,butnoneofthemisconnectedwithanyparticularfieldofstudy. ItseffectiveheadistheVice-Chancellor.The
university prescribes syllabuses, arranges lectures, conducts examinations and awards degrees. Each college is
governedbyitsFellows,ofwhomthereareaboutthirty(1every10studentsapprox.).Theyareresponsibleforteaching
their own students through the tutorial system, i.e. a system of education in which instruction is givenpersonallyby
tutors, who alsoactasgeneraladvisersofasmallgroupofstudentsintheircharge.TheFellowselecttheheadofthe
college, whose title varies from college to college: Master,President,Rector,Provost,Principal.Otherteachersdonot
teachthroughthetutorialsystembutthroughlecturesandtheyarecalledDons.Admissionisonlythroughcollegesand
eachsetsalimittothenumberofundergraduatesitcantakeeachyear.Theytakenoteofthemarkstheapplicantshave
obtained in the General Certificate Examinations, and they call them up for an interviewandsubjectmanyofthemto
special written examinations of their own. The tests are also used for allocating scholarships. The allocation of
scholarships is possible because the colleges are supported partly by endowments (some of them are big owners of
property), partly by fees paid by the students, many of whom get the money from public authorities. Although both
universities offer training in almost every field of study,CambridgeismoredevelopedthanOxfordinscientificstudies,
whereas the latter is more developed in the field of business.
Provincial Universities
ll along the last century,institutionsofhighereducationwerefoundedinmostofthebigindustrialtownsandinafew
A
other centres. For sometimetheycouldnotgivedegreesthemselves,butpreparedstudentsfortheLondonUniversity
examinations."University colleges'[...] were not universities intheirownright.".Theirpurposewasto
rovidehighereducationforpeoplewhocouldnotaffordthecostofgoingawayfromhomefortheirstudies.Onebyone
p
these colleges, as they grew bigger and more solidly established, were given charters and became independent
Cultura II
Notes - Unit 7 - 2023
Rocío Oviedo
niversities. These go by the name of “R
u edbrick” universities (London, Durham, Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham,
Leeds, Sheffield, Bristol, Reading, Nottingham, Leicester, Southampton, Exeter, Hull and Newcastle upon Tyne) to
distinguish the provincial civic universities of the period 1850–1930—as well as London—from “Oxbridge”.
uring the early 60s, many of these new universities were created as the product of a new enthusiasm to expand
D
universities in the 60s and 70s with the idea that Oxford and Cambridge were attracting too high a proportion of the
country’s best brains and were becoming more and more exclusively composed of a certain kind of intellectual élite.
Provincial universities first developed with money provided by private donors (local industrialists); later on, by the state.
ighereducationinBritainalsoincludescollegesofadvancedtechnology,andmedicalschoolsattachedtoteaching
H
hospitals which, together with education within the universities, provide training for doctors and dentists. In 1964, the
CouncilforNationalAcademicAwardswassetup,towhichanycollegeofadvancedtechnologywhichhasdevelopeda
course at universitylevelmayapplyto,askingtohavethecourserecognisedasadegree-levelcourseinitsownright.
The CNAA looks at the structure and content of the courses, the teaching facilities and the proposed system of
examinations;ifitissatisfied,thecollegemaythenorganiseitsownsyllabuses,teachingandexaminations,andstudents
are then awarded CNAA degrees.Thisgaveriseto“P olytechnics”,runbylocalcouncils.TheEducationActof1988
provided for a change in status of polytechnics—they became independent institutions, with a status similartothatof
universities. They gettheirfundsfromfees,thestate(mainsource),grantsfromgovernment-fundedresearchcouncils,
public and private sector organisations, endowments and donations.
Open University
"[The] ideaof acorrespondence universitywas takenup [...]inthemid-sixties;[it]wassetup
under a Tory government [in the early 70s]."
he Open University developed in the 1970s and was devised tosatisfytheneedsofworkingpeopleofanyagewho
T
wished to study in their spare time for degrees. It was the original brainchild of Michael Young, which idea of a
correspondenceuniversitywastakeninthemid-sixties.WhentheToriesreturnedin1970,thenewSecretaryofStatefor
Education, Margaret Thatcher, realised that the OU could provide graduates much more cheaply than conventional
universities.Anyonecanbuythecoursebooksbypostorfromanymajorbookshop.Theircoursesarepresentedonone
oftheBBC’stelevisionchannelsandontheradio.Mostcourseworkisrunbypart-timetutorswhoarescatteredaround
the country, and meet the students to discuss their work at regular intervals. There are alsoshortresidentialsummer
courses. The Open University is an important stepforwardtotheidealofeducationaccessibletoeveryonewho
aspires to it, at every level.
Public Schools
owiseducationconductedinpublicschools?Children’seducationstartsatpreparatoryschoolsattheageof7.The
H
preparatoryschoolsaremostlyprivateinthefullestsense,andareoperatedasprivateenterprises.Suchaschoolisoften
thepropertyofitsheadmaster,whoisnotcontrolledbyanygoverningbody,butworksasanindependentbusinessman.
Theseprepspreparechildrenforpublicschools’CommonEntranceExaminationandforpublicschoollife.Theschoolsin
the state system do not prepare boys for the public schools’ entrance exam. Pupils stay at prepsuntiltheageof13.
Some oftheseschoolsarecloselyattachedtoparticularpublicschools.Theword“public”wasusedtorefertothefact
thattheboyswhoattendedtheseschoolswerenoteducatedprivatelybutinaplaceunderpublicmanagementorcontrol.
Thewordhascomedowntothepresenttoproducearealparadox:apublicschooltodayinEnglandisaveryexclusive
andveryprivateeducationalinstitutionfortheveryfew.Theincomeoftheseschoolsispartlyfromgiftsandendowments,
and mainly from fees paid by parents. In general, these are boarding schools though many of them take some
day-students. Each school has a board of governors separately constituted, who control the financesandappointthe
headmaster who, in his turn, appoints the other teachers. The school is regularly inspected by the inspectors of the
Department of Education and Science.
They have adapted to modern times.Theyarenowmoreartistic,moreinterestedinscienceandengineering,butalso
muchmorecompetitivewitheachotherintheirtrainingforA-levelsanduniversityentrance,whichcutsthemofffromthe
rest of the school system.
Cultura II
Notes - Unit 7 - 2023
Rocío Oviedo
ome history
S
ThefoundationofpublicschoolsinEnglandoccurredtogetherwiththeintroductionofChristianity.Thefirstofthemwas
founded by St. Augustine is known as theKing’sSchool in Canterbury(597 A.D.).
Inthosetimes,educationwasessentiallyinthehandsoftheChurch,andtheseschoolsweretaughtnotbymonks,butby
thesecularclergy.Theyarose,broadlyspeaking,atanyplaceofconsiderableimportancewheretherewasacathedralor
collegiate church. They grew up in large numbers in Anglo-Saxon times, and even the Danes founded them.
Canute is saidto haveinstituted “publicasscolas” incities andtowns,giventhemmastersat
the cost of the State, and sent them “boys of good promise to be taught grammar.” (Darwin 6).
t the end of the XII and beginning of the XIII century, the government of many of these schools passed to the
A
monasteries, but the teaching does not seem to have been done by monks and the schools remained essentially
secular institutions.
here were both song and grammar schools. Although they are found side by side in connection with all the great
T
churches of the great centres of population, they were different:
hesongschoolswereentirelyprofessionalforthosewhoperformedtheservicesinthecathedralorchurch,andto
T
some extent, they seem also to have played the part of elementary schools.
grammar school, on the other hand, wasaschoolwhichtaughtLatinandLiterature.Inageneralway,everyone
A
attendedtothem.Amongtheupperclasses,theeldersonswhoweretobeknightsandsquiresdidnotgo,asarule,
but their younger brothers did. At the other end of the scale, villeins were, intheory,notallowed,butselectvilleins
were, in fact, admitted.
It was another rule that education attheseschoolsshouldbefree.Infact,therewereusuallysomefeessinceoriginal
endowmentswerebecomingtoosmall.Apartfromthis,richparentshadahabitof“tipping”theschoolmaster,whichalso
contributed to the up-keeping of the school.
William of WykehamfoundedWinchester in1382. This founding markedanewdevelopment,
because Winchester may be called thefirst school-college.
inchester College, one of the oldest of the great public schools of England, in Winchester, Hampshire. Its formal
W
name, St. Mary College of Winchester near Winchester, dates from 1382, when it was founded by Bishop William of
Wykeham to prepare boys for his New College, Oxford, known as St. Mary College of Winchester in Oxford. The
organisation of the school, established as a self-governing and sovereign body, was the pattern for Henry VI’s
foundation at Eton College and, more generally, the pattern for other English public schools.
he period of the dissolution of the monasteries marks another era in the history of schools. The endowments of
T
schools under the control of the monasteries were included in theconfiscationofthemonasteriesthemselves,sothat
many ancient schools fell upon hard times and either ceased to exist or struggled on.
lizabeth I’s reign is credited with the foundation of a large numberofschoolsbutmanyofthesewere,infact,much
E
more ancient and had never entirely disappeared. The innovation here was that the schools were now founded and
endowed not by a royal founder orbysomeonebenefactor,butbyabodyofbenefactorsor,asoneauthorsays,by“
joint-stock enterprise”.
heCommonwealthencouragedschools,thoughittemporarilydestroyedtheChurch’sholdonthem.TheRestoration
T
broughtbackthepoweroftheChurch,nowincreasedandstrengthened.BytheXVIIIcentury,someoftheseschools
hadgainedprestigeoverothersandnowbegantoflourish.Thewell-to-dobegantodeserttheirlocalgrammarschools
and, travelling having become easier, they went to schools farther from their homes.
Themiddle of the XIX centurywas a time ofunexampled expansion in public schools. There are two factors:
Cultura II
Notes - Unit 7 - 2023
Rocío Oviedo
The greaterease for communicationdone by railways.
●
● The springing up of a general admiration among parents of the upper middle-class for what isknownasthepublic
schools spirit.These Victorian public schools were used to remove thesons of tradesmen from the taint of trade.
In theXX century, public schools enjoyedrenewed prestige and power.
"Inourcentury,especiallyaftertheSecondWorldWar,publicschoolshadtoovercomeseveral
difficultiesbasedonoppositionandcriticism.However,theyseemtohavegainednewstrength
in the course of time, surviving every attempt to reform or abolish them."
940s: the general feelingwasthatpublicschoolswerehardeningsocialdistinctions.Hence,theFlemingReportwas
1
passed which proposed that public schools should allocate one fourth of their places freetothestateprimaryschool.
However, despite the general feeling against public schools’ elitism,the plan did not prosper.
963:TheHeadmasters’Conference,theclubof200heads,startedtheirownmagazine,Conference,tocounteractthe
1
damaging impressions given by critics on public school education.
965: the Secretary of State for Education and Science demanded to find ways to integrateintothestatesystemthe
1
independentboardingschools.TheNewsomreportrecommendedthatlocalauthoritiesshouldassisthalfthepupilsgoing
topublicschools,butlocalauthoritiesaswellasheadmastersresistedthescheme.TheLabourgovernmenttaxedpublic
schoolsheavilyandduetothisfactthefeessoared.Manypeoplethoughtthatmiddle-classpenuryaswellascompetition
fromgrammarschoolswouldgraduallycausethepublicschoolstoweakenandfinallydisappear.Butparentsstillfound
the money to pay the increasing fees, and the expansion of comprehensives increased the attraction.
Early 1970s:The 19470s was a period of new strength and self-assurance for public schools.
● TheheadmastersweretoldthattheLabourPartywouldabolishtheirschools.Theheadmastersnowformedtheir
own committee (1972), “carefully notcallingthemselves‘publicschools’,withtheassociationsofsnobberyand
privilege, but ‘independent schools’. → 1972: the Headmaster’s Conference formed the Independent Schools
Information Service which became their lobbying organisation.
● Universitystudents’revoltsof1968and1969:ledstudentstohatetheirheadmastersandprefectswhomthey
associated with figures of military discipline. → 70s’ changes: nearly all schools abolished beating and most
fagging, and many headmastersrelaxedrelationshipswiththeirstudents.Severalheadmastersintroducedgirls
into their sixth forms.
● Whentheoldgrammarschoolsdisappeared(1965-1979),thepublicschoolsfoundanewvacuumtofill.Many
ofthemwouldhavegonebankruptifthegrammarschoolshadremained.Applicationsforentrytopublicschools
increased, while many former grammar schools joined their status as full fee-paying schools. The idea of the
meritocracywiththegrammarschoolatthetopwastorntopieces.Thegrammarschoolshadbeensweptaway
by the comprehensives which became the only roads to the top formostchildren.Itwasthepublicschools
which became the new meritocracy and competed much more systematically for Oxford and Cambridge.
● 1979: with the Conservative Administrationandtheloweringoftax-rates,publicschoolshavebeensecure
against changes.
Latest Developments
UK Department for Education - Press release - 9 Sep 2014 -Children who have early education get higher GCSEs
In 1997 Effective Pre-School, Primary and SecondaryEducation(EPPSE)wasinstigatedastheUK’sfirstmajor
study to focus on the effectivenessofearlyyearseducation.Morethan3,000childrenwereassessedatthestartof
pre-school(atapproximately3yearsold)andtheirdevelopmentmonitoredastheyenteredschooluntiltheymadetheir
post-16 education, trainingoremploymentchoices.Childrenwereassessedatthestartofthestudyandonentering
school at primary ages 6, 7, 10 and 11 and secondary ages 14 and 16. A sample of children with no pre-school
experience was used as acomparisontothemainstudy.Theresearchwascarriedoutbyleadingacademicsatthe
Institute of Education, University of Oxford, and Birkbeck, University of London.
Cultura II
Notes - Unit 7 - 2023
Rocío Oviedo
The findings were the following:
● A child has more chances of getting better exam results and ultimately earning higher wages by receiving
pre-school education.
● Children who go to preschool are projected to earn £27,000 more during their career than those who don’t.
● ChildrenarealsomorelikelytogetbetterGCSEresults.Earlyeducationhelpedyoungpeopletospecificallydo
betterinGCSEEnglishandMath.Theeffectswerebetterifthepre-schoolwasofhighquality,andpre-schoolis
particularly valuable for children from less advantaged backgrounds.
hat are the benefits to society and the individual of pre-school education?
W
Society:
● TheEPPSEstudyisuniquebecauseitprovidesvaluableevidenceinEuropeonthelongtermvalueofpre-school
- no other research has done this.
● High quality early education has enduring benefits for the children who experienceitandalsothesocietythat
invests in it.
● TheEPPSEdatawasusedbytheInstituteforFiscalStudiestopredictthefutureeconomicreturnstosocietyof
investing in early years education. The study found that attending a pre-school setting increased educational
attainment with the resulting increase in lifetime earnings that benefited the Exchequer.
● TheEPPSEfindingshavebeenwidelydisseminatedacrosstheworldandhavebeencitedinreportsbyUNICEF
and UNESCO.
● The EPPSE study changed thinking and practice in preschool entitlement, pedagogy, curriculum and teacher
education in the UK.
● IntheUKthefindingsledtofreeprovisionofhigh-qualitypre-schoolingforallthreeandfour-year-olds.Thishas
been extended to free entitlement of the poorest 40% (approx. 260,000) two-year-olds.
Individual:
● Theresultsareclear—earlyeducationpaysoff,andhighqualitypre-schooleducationgiveschildrentheverybest
start in life.
● Disadvantagedchildrengainedfromhighqualitypre-school.Itreducedtheriskofanti-socialorworriedbehaviour
and improved attainment. It was particularly important for children who had a less stimulating home learning
environment or who were from families where parents had poor or no qualifications.
● During primary and secondary school, children who received high quality pre-school education had higher
attainment (better GCSE results) and better social-behavioural development.
● According to the Institute for Fiscal Studies, attending a high-quality pre-school setting had lifetime earning
benefits to the individual and the household.
● Children who received preschool education were more likely to follow a higher academicrouteafterGCSEs,
rather than vocational one.
overnment’s role: The government funds 15 hours per week of early education for all 3- and 4-year-olds.InAugust
G
2014, the eligibility of 2-year-olds to receive 15 hours per week of free childcare was doubled to include 40% of all
2-year-olds from poorer families. Tax freechildcarehasalsobeenintroduced,whichcouldsaveaworkingfamilyupto
£2,000 per child per year from 2015.
Video Watching: Is private education good for society?
Advantages Disadvantages
It’sfantasticallygoodgettingchildreninschool,especially It is a dilemma for society.
incountrieswherepeoplearemovingaroundalot,which Governments need to concern themselves about equality
is most of the developing world, and where populations and about social mobility, things that the private sector
aregrowingswiftly.Sopoorkidswhowouldotherwisenot discourages rather than encourages.
be getting schooling are all into private schools.
hey tend to increase inequality. When parents are
T
Really high quality of education. allowedtospendmoneyontheirchildren,theywillspend
as much as they can, so obviously richkidsgotobetter
schools.
Cultura II
Notes - Unit 7 - 2023
Rocío Oviedo
Think about the following statement. To what extent do you agree with it?
ive students anideatothinkabout,andtheymaylearnforaday.Teachstudentstothink
G
critically,and they will learn for a lifetime.
o what extent was the ideal of ‘we must compel our future masters to learn their letter’ achieved aftereach
T
educational reform?
Century Reform Yes No Why?
19th 1870 - ✔ saconsequenceoftheReformBill1867,thegovernmentsetupelementaryschools
A
orster's
F atpublicexpense→therewasatleastoneschoolineachschooldistrictfundedbythe
Education government, by local fees, andby a fee.
Act
1880 - ✔ It made educationcompulsoryfor all children between5 and 12-
Elementary
Education
Act
1891 - ✔ It made elementary educationfree→ all children hadaccess to education.
Elementary
Education
Act
20th 1902 - ✔ Itsetupsecondaryeducationandencouragedcouncilstosubsidiseexistinggrammar
alfour
B schoolsandtoprovidefreeplacesforworking-classchildren.Itisthesecondgreatstep
Education in the process of the democratisation of education. It brought into existence the
Act “educational ladder”: it was now possible for the cleverchildofpoorparentstopass
from the elementary school—which was free—to the secondary school bywinninga
scholarshiporfreeplace,andtogoonfromthere,bymeansofscholarshipsorgrants,
to the universities.
1918 - Fisher ✔ telementaryschools,feeswerecompletelyabolishedandtheschool-leavingagewas
A
Education fixed at 14= more children received education.
Act
1944 - Butler ✔ Itestablishedfreesecondaryeducationandthatschoolsattendedbychildrenunder11
Education became known as primary schools, while those attended by children over 11 as
Act secondaryschools.Theschoolleavingagewasraisedto15=morechildrenreceived
education.
1988 - ✗ otconcernedwithwideningthescopeofeducation,butwithwhocontrolledit.
N
ducation
E Itbroughteducationmoreunderthecontrolofthecentralgovernmentandlessunder
Reform Act theinfluenceofthelocalauthoritiesby1)localmanagementofschools,2)optingoutof
the LEA, and 3) common national curriculum.
Cultura II
Notes - Unit 7 - 2023
Rocío Oviedo
21st 2008 - ✔ It raised the school leaving age to 18 for those born afterSeptember1997.TheBill
ducation
E introducesarequirementtoremainineducationortrainingbeyondthecurrentstatutory
and Skills Act leavingage(whichis16),andimplementstherecommendationsoftheLeitchReview
on adult skills. The Bill contains measures to encourage more young people to
participate in learning post-16 and to achieve higher levels of skill and qualification.
To what extent has the concept of equity been the ruling concept in educational reform in Great Britain?
19th N
ot equity but EQUALITY.
●1870 - Forster’s Education Act → set up primary schools (at least one per district).
●1891- Elementary Education Act → elementary education free for all children.
ounterargument: scholarships and free places at thebeginning of the 20th C. (1902), which implies
C
equity for the economically disadvantaged.
20th M
ixture of equality and equity.
Equality:
●1902 - Balfour Education Act → set up secondary schools for all.
●1918 - Fisher Education Act → fees were completely abolished, so all had access.
●1944 - Butler Education Act → free secondary education for all.
●1988 - Education Reform Act → same curriculum for everyone.
quity:
E
●Different types of schools (grammar, technical and modern) → each had its own subjects and were directed to
different types of students.
● 2008 - Education and Skills Act: Requires local authorities to assess the education and training needs of
young people aged 16-19 with special educational needs
Education in the US
Is education a means to an end or is it an end in itself?
ntheonehand,educationisseenasatoolorameanstoachievespecificgoalsoroutcomes.Inthisview,theprimary
O
purposeofeducationistoprepareindividualsforfuturesuccessintheircareers,improvetheireconomicprospects,and
equip them with theskillsandknowledgeneededtocontributetosociety.Educationisseenasapathwaytoachieving
personal and societal objectives such as better job opportunities, financial security, and societal progress.
On the other hand, some argue that education has intrinsic value and is an end in itself. In this view, the pursuit of
knowledge,intellectualgrowth,andpersonaldevelopmentareregardedasfundamentalgoalsofeducation.Educationis
valued for its ability tocultivatecriticalthinking,promoteadeeperunderstandingoftheworld,encouragecuriosity,and
fosterpersonalgrowthandfulfilment.Fromthisperspective,theprocessoflearningandthejoyofdiscoveryareseenas
ends in themselves, regardless of practical outcomes.
Is education moral teaching / teaching of religion?
ducation may include moral teaching, but it is not limited to these aspects. Education is a broad concept that
E
encompasses a wide range of knowledge and skills,anditscontentcanvarysignificantlydependingonthegoalsand
values of educational institutions and societies.
Has education been a means to grant equality of opportunities to all Americans?
ducation has been a key driver of social and economic mobility in the United States. Over the centuries, various
E
educational reforms and policies have aimed to expand accesstoeducation,reducediscrimination,andprovideequal
opportunities to all Americans. For example, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and subsequent legislation helped to
desegregate schools and promote equal educational opportunities regardless of race or ethnicity.
HighereducationhasbeenapathwaytosocialandeconomicmobilityformanyAmericans.ProgramsliketheGIBillafter
World War II and the expansion of financial aid have helped more people access college and university education.
However, the rising cost of higher education and student loan debt have created barriers for some individuals.
While education has been a means to advance equality ofopportunityintheUnitedStates,significantchallengesand
disparities remain. Achieving true equality of opportunity in education requires ongoing efforts to address systemic
inequalities,improveaccesstoqualityeducation,andensurethatallstudentshavethesupportandresourcestheyneed
to succeed, regardless of their background.
Cultura II
Notes - Unit 7 - 2023
Rocío Oviedo
o what extent was the ideal of"wemustcompelourfuturemasterstolearntheirletters"achievedaftereach
T
educational reform? To whatextenthastheconceptofequitybeentherulingconceptineducationalreformin
the USA?
C. REASON Yes No EXPLANATION LEGISLATION
Historical χ mericaneducationhasbeencharacterisedby
A lessy v. Ferguson (1896):This Supreme
P
inequalities significantinequities,suchasracialsegregation Court case upheld racial segregation in public
and disparities in funding. While efforts were facilities, including schools, with the "separate
made to address these issues,itwasn'tuntil but equal" doctrine, perpetuating racial
the mid-20th century that substantial legal inequities.
and policy changes began to challenge
B these disparities.
e
f First steps ✔ Intheearlycolonialperiod,educationwasoften ld Deluder Satan (1647):State mandated
O
o towards limitedtothewealthyelite.However,theideaof that towns of 50 families had to hire and
r community compulsory education began to take shape maintain a teacher to teach children reading,
e schooling with the Massachusetts Education Law of writing, religion and arithmetics; towns of more
1647, also known as the Old Deluder Satan than 100 families had to set up a community
t Act, which required towns with a certain school to prepare students to attend Harvard.
h population to establish schools to teach → Basic principles for public education.
e children to read and write. While this was a
significant step, it did not guarantee
20 universal literacy, as access to education
t was still limited for many.
h
Compul- ✔ any states passed compulsory education
M ompulsory School Attendance Laws
C
sory laws in the late 19th andearly20thcenturies. (1852/65 - 1945):these laws were passed first
attendance Theselawsrequiredchildrenofacertainageto in Massachusetts and later on taken up by
attend school for a specified number of years. other states. The first one (1952) stated that
students had to attend 3 months to the school
and that 6/12 weeks had to be consecutive
(there were exceptions). Later on, it was
believed that schools could take immigrants out
of the streets, factories, gangs and unhealthy
housing, so they were passed. At school,
immigrants would be taught English, skills to
enter the labour market, and the democratic
values of American society.
Local χ ducation in the U.S. is highly decentralised,
E an Antonio Independent School District v.
S
control with significant control at the local and state Rodriguez (1973):In this Supreme Court case,
levels. This decentralisation has often led to the Court ruled that disparities in school funding
disparities in educational resources, quality, based on local property taxes did not violate
and outcomes, as well as variations in the the Constitution, allowing for significant
implementation of equity-focused policies. disparities in education funding to persist.
ivil Rights
C ✔ heCivilRightsMovementwasaturningpoint
T rown v. Board of Education (1954):This
B
Movement in American education, leading to landmark landmark Supreme Court decision declared
SupremeCourtdecisionsthatdeclaredracially state laws establishing separate public schools
segregated schools unconstitutional. These for black and white students to be
eventsusheredinaneweraoflegalandpolicy unconstitutional, striking down legal racial
changes aimed at promoting equity. segregation in public education.
Desegrega- ✔ ollowing the Civil Rights Movement, various
F lementary and Secondary Education Act
E
tion and federal and state policies were enacted to (1965) →After separate-but-equal ended, there
Equal desegregate schools and ensure more was a wide gap in relation to achievement
Funding equitable funding. between Whites (educated the most) and
Blacks (un/undereducated due to
discrimination), which resulted in increased
poverty. Thus, Lyndon Johnson passed this act,
which provides federal funding to primary and
secondary education, to expand access to
education for ALL and to increase the
academic development of historically
discriminated students in order to end poverty.
More access to education, more people being
educated.
Cultura II
Notes - Unit 7 - 2023
Rocío Oviedo
Special ✔ hildren with disabilities receive a free
C Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
education appropriate public education. The U.S. (IDEA) (1975):IDEA mandated that children
educational system aims to address historical with disabilities receive a free appropriate
inequities in the treatment of students with public education, ensuring equitable treatment
disabilities. and educational opportunities for students with
disabilities.
20
t University χ he high cost of college education, including
T
h costs tuition, fees, and related expenses, can be a
significantbarriertoaccessformanystudents,
particularly those from low-income
backgrounds. The rising costofeducationhas
been a concern for equity, as it can limit
opportunities for those who cannot afford it.
Selective χ Economic and political power for the nation N
ational Defense Education Act (NDEA)
focus haped education in the US.
s (1958):The NDEA was indeed influenced by
the national security imperative of the time. The
launch of the Soviet satellite Sputnik in 1957
had heightened concerns in the United States
about the nation's scientific and technological
capabilities, and there was a perceived need to
bolster science, mathematics, and foreign
language education to maintain national
security.
ounterargument:it would be an
C
oversimplification to say that it was solely made
to win the space race. The NDEA aimed to
strengthen the U.S. education system as a
whole, not just in the fields directly related to
the space race. It provided funding forteacher
training,curriculum development, and
educational research, all of which were seen as
critical components of improving the quality of
education across various subjects.
Standar- χ he use of standardised testing in education,
T o Child Left Behind Act (2002):While this
N
21 dised which has been a prominent feature of the legislation aimed to improve accountability, it
s Testing education system, has sometimes been placed heavy emphasis on standardised
t criticised for exacerbating inequities. testing, which some argue led to "teaching to
Standardisedtestshavebeenarguedtofavour the test" and potential inequities in resource
studentsfrommoreprivilegedbackgroundsand allocation based on test performance.
can perpetuate disparities.
( E SSAreplaced it and gave states more
flexibility while maintaining a focus on
accountability, including the requirement to
address achievement gaps among student
groups, promoting greater equity).
Education ✔ ducation reform initiatives have focused on
E very Student Succeeds Act (2015) →
E
Reforms holding schools accountable for student Obama sought to reduce the achievement gap
and performance, with an emphasis on closing by providing more equal access to education
Accounta- achievement gaps among different student and equitable resources to tackle
bility groups, thus addressing equity issues. disadvantaged students' needs. → More
access to high-quality education, especially, for
disadvantaged and high-need students.
Colonial Period
The ultimate aim was the teaching of the three Rs:Reading, Writing and Arithmetic.
"The school taughtgirlsto play a supportive role,Blacksto know their places,Indiansto be civilized, andimmigrantsto be
American workers"
Mauk, D. & Oakland, J. , 1995, p. 294
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ew England:Religious indoctrination.
N
Middle colonies:Diverse population.
Southern colonies:Private tutors (only for the elite)
Thecommonviewthatparentswereresponsibleforchildren’seducation:theBritishauthoritiesdidnotprovide
●
moneyforeducation,sothefirstschoolsvariedaccordingtotheinterestlocalsettlershad.Thecolonistsexpectedthe
schoolstoteachreligionandreadingskills,sothatstudentscouldreadtheBible.Writingandarithmeticwerealsocore
subjects.Throughthem,studentswerepreparedforlocalreligious,economicandpoliticallife.→OldDeluderSatan
(1647)
● Higher education also developed in this period. Eg. Harvard College was founded in 1636. Besides, 9colleges
prepared a small elite of men for the ministry and leadership of public life. Although these encouraged religious
toleration, rivalry among them was evident because each one (but two) represented one of the major Protestant
denominations.
● Local responsibility: Church and state were not separate andprivateinstitutionsofhighereducationreceived
publicfunding.Whatismore,buildingasocietyalongthefrontieralsomotivatedtheearlydevelopmentofschools.
Thesettlersdiscoveredthatlaw,orderandsocialtraditionbrokedownunlesspeoplecooperatedtoestablishthebasic
institutions of society. Thus, school-rising became a standard part of cooperative community building.
ARVARD UNIVERSITY
H
Harvard University, established in 1636, is the oldest higher education institution in theUnitedStates,anditwas
named after its benefactor, the Minister John Harvard of Charlestown. It primarily trained congregational and
unitarian clergy men; its curriculum was gradually secularised during the XVIII and XIX centuries. Today this
world-leading university is devoted to excellence in teaching, learning, and research, while developing leaders
across a variety of disciplines.
Between Independence and the Civil War
Initial steps of public schools: Only 5 out of 13 original states included provisions for public schools in the
●
constitutions. In 1830, none offered state-wide, free public education. But support for schools was strong. The
Founding Fathers insistedthatuniversalpubliceducationwasessentialtoproducetheinformedcitizenryonwhicha
democracy depended. By the Civil War, all states accepted the principle of tax-supported,freeelementaryschools.
However, most teachers were still poorly trained and the quality of schools was low, esp. in the South and West.
Besides,itwasillegaltogiveslavesschooling.Also,publicopinionrejectedtheideaofmandatoryschoolattendance,
since parents needed theirchildren’sworkorwagestomakeendsmeet,andbecauseparents(notthegovernment)
should be responsible for the children’s education.
●Compulsory School Attendance Laws
● Church and state became separate: in the North and Midwest, immigrant groups began to establish parochial
privateelementaryandsecondaryschoolstopreservetheirethnicheritageandavoidpressurestoassimilateinpublic
schools.
● Horace Mann’s movement in education: Horace Mann and other reformers publicised the notion that public
schools could reduce growing crime, poverty and vice of the cities by helping to assimilatetheirgrowingimmigrant
population. Mann led a movement to lengthen theschoolyear,add‘practical’subjects,raiseteachers’salariesand
provide professional teacher-training.
●Stateuniversity:Thepatternofhighereducationwastransformedbefore1865.TheSupremeCourtdistinguished
between public and privatecollegesin1819andfreedprivateinstitutionsfromstatecontrol.WiththeMorrillAct,
the state university was created as it gave each state huge landareasforhighereducation.Italsopromotedthe
higher education of larger numbers of students and called for college-level courses in agriculture, technical and
industrial subjects in order to attract students from the working classes. The first colleges to admit African
Americans and womenalso opened.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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"Jefferson envisioned replacing Europe's aristocracy of birth with a school-bredmeritocracyof talent"
Mauk, D. & Oakland, 1995, p. 296
What does this statement mean? Do you agree with this idea? Why (not)?
heconceptofmeritocracywasactuallynotusedbyJeffersonhimself.ButthiswastherulingconceptinAmericaat
T
thetime.TheycomparedthemselvestoEurope,wherethearistocracywasmadeupofpeoplefromthehigherclasses.
TheideaintheUSAwastomakeahighclassoflearnedpeople.Witheducation,theywantedtocreateameritocracy
of talent. Becoming a member of the “aristocracy” (actually no aristocracy in the US) should be thanks to merit.
Did this also happen in Great Britain? When?
es,graduallythisideapermeatedpeople’sbeliefs.Atfirst,inEnglandtheydidnotwanttoeliminatethearistocracy.
Y
Those whocouldpayforeducationweretheoneswhohadthechancetobeinpower.Peoplebegantobelievethat
thosewhowereeducatedshouldalsohavethepossibilityofreachingpositionsofpoweranddecision-making.Withthe
foundation of state schools(primaryandsecondintheVictorianperiod),abrilliantkidfromapoorfamilycouldhave
accesstosecondaryeducation.However,lateron,theworkingclassesdidnothavethemeanstopreparetheirkidsfor
the11+examination(anobstaclethatreinforcedsocialdifferences),onlythechildrenofthebetter-offfamiliespassedit
and entered grammar schools. But they still had the opportunity to access different higher education options.
ORACE MANN
H
HoraceMann,wasanAmericaneducator,thefirstgreatAmericanadvocateofpubliceducationwhobelievedthat,in
a democratic society, education should be free and universal, nonsectarian, democraticinmethod,andrelianton
well-trained professional teachers.
Of the many causes Mann espoused, none was dearer to him than popular education. Nineteenth-century
Massachusetts could boast a public school system going back to 1647. Yet during Mann’s own lifetime, the
quality of education had deteriorated as school control had gradually slipped into the hands of
economy-minded local districts. A vigorous reform movement arose, committed to halting this decline by
reasserting the state’s influence. The result was the establishment of a State Board of Education, charged with
collecting and publicising school information throughout the state. Mann became the first secretary of thisboard.
In1837theStateBoardofEducationwascreated,anditputforthsixfundamentalpropositionsbasedonHorace
Mann's ideas:
● Schools were paid by the state
● Education for all (coeducational higher education)
● People no longer ignorant, but free
● No indoctrination
● Preclude harsh pedagogy
● Well-trained professional teachers
ow significant was Horace Mann?
H
Horace Mann was highly significant in the field of education in the United States. Often referred to as the "Father of
American Education," his contributions had a lasting impacton the American educational system.
uring hisincumbency,schoolappropriationsalmostdoubled.Teacherswereawardedlargerwages,andinreturn
D
they rendered better service. To help them, Massachusetts established three state normal schools, the first in
America.Supervisionwasmadeprofessional.Theschoolyearwasextended.Pu blichighschoolswereaugmented.
Finally,thecommonschool,undertheauthorityofthestatethoughstillbesetbydifficulties,slowlybecametherule.
(Similar campaigns were under way in other areas).
Thepropositionshaveequality(n otequity-everyoneisgiventhesameresources)astheirrulingprincipletosome
extent (w
omen were included but no blacks or native americans). Also, there were advancements in the
achievement of the ideal of "wemustcompelourfuturemasterstolearntheirletters",since,asstatedabove,the
commonschoolwasengenderedinageandwitnessedtheriseofthecommonmanwiththerighttovoteandhold
office. It was a time of overflowing optimism, of dreams of perpetual progress, moral uplift, and social betterment.
After the Civil War
- he principle of tax supported free elementary education was accepted in all the states.
T
- Morrill Act 1862:Foundation of state universities.
- Church and state became separated. Private church-related colleges were founded.
- Objective of school: Assimilation/Americanization & compulsory attendance
______________________________________________________________________________________________
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Turning point: industrialization,immigrationandprinting:intheprintmedia,theimmigrantslumchildbecame
●
thesymbolofthedangersoftheseprocessesandthepublicschoolswereaskedtoremedythesituation.Assimilation
throughschoolsseemedincreasinglynecessaryasimmigrantsfromsouthernandeasternEuropeandAsiaarrivedin
largenumbers.TheschoolswereexpectedtoAmericanizethembyteachingthemEnglish,theprinciplesofAmerican
democracy,andtheskillsneededfortheworkplace.Schoolswouldgetimmigrantchildrenoutofunhealthytenement
housing, off the streets, out of factories and away from gangs. To accomplish these goals compulsory school
attendance lawswere adopted.
● Poor schools and teacher profession: whereas politicians quickly put children in schools, they did not
appropriatemoneyasquicklyforhiringmoreteachersanderectingnewbuildings.Schoolswereovercrowded
andpoorlymaintained,andtherewerestaffshortages.Besides,publicschoolteachingwasnotconsidereda
profession,theaveragesalarywaslowerthanthatofunskilledworkersandteachingwastheleastprestigious
profession.Manyteachershadnomorethanhighschooleducationthemselves.However,progresswasmadein
teacher’s preparation: states set standards for teaching licences, which includes a college degree with courses in
pedagogy.
● Separate but equal: compulsory school attendance laws also applied to racial minorities. The Supreme Court’s
Plessy v. Ferguson ruling gave legal backing to the segregation of minority students everywhere into separate
schools. Racial segregation extended to higher education, when colleges forAfricanAmericanswerecreatedinthe
South. A newMorrill Actprovided land for Black publiccolleges that emphasised manual and industrial education.
●Coeducationalhighereducation:collegesforbothmenandwomenbecamethenormduringtheCivilWar,when
womenhadtoreplacemenwhojoinedtheUnionarmies(by1920s,halfofAmericancollegestudentswerewomen).
However, Ivy League universities remained only for men, and so separate women’s universitiesweresetupinthat
region.
●JohnDeweyandprogressiveeducation:somereformersbelievedthatcurriculaandteachingmethodshadtobe
changed. Instead of rote memorization, the schools had to give pupils practical skills and thehabitofself-learning.
“Learning by doing”, personal growth and child centred rather than subject-centred teaching became the goal.
Progressive education introduced physical education, music and fine arts, vocational subjects as electives, and
after-school extracurricular activities. Some immigrantparentscriticisedprogressiveeducationbecausetheyfeltless
demanding electives took time away from academic subjects and they objected to the assumption that immigrant
children did not need academic studies since they would not go on to higher education.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
What was the situation of racial minorities in the period after the Civil War?
he end of the Civil War and the abolition of slavery with the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863 offered hope to
T
formerlyenslavedAfricanAmericansforeducationalopportunities.Manyeagerlysoughteducationasameanstouplift
themselves and their communities. During Reconstruction, numerous schools were founded by religious
organisations,philanthropists,andlocalcommunitiestoprovideeducationtoAfricanAmericanchildren.Theseschools
wereoftenrudimentary,underfunded,andfacedresistancefromwhitesupremacists.TheendofReconstruction,in
1877markedthebeginningoftheJimCrowera,characterisedbyracialsegregationanddiscrimination.Educationfor
African Americanswassegregated,withseparateandunequalfacilities,resources,andcurriculaforBlackandwhite
students. African American schools were underfunded and lacked proper infrastructure and instructional materials.
Teachers often facedlowsalariesandinadequatetraining.Asregardscolleges,somehistoricallyBlackcollegesand
universities (HBCUs) were founded under the 1890 Morrill Act (the second one), providing higher education
opportunities for African Americans.
What was the impact ofPlessy v. Ferguson?
heSupremeCourtcaseofPlessyv.Ferguson(1896)hadaprofoundandnegativeimpactontheUnitedStates,asit
T
established the legal doctrine of "separate but equal." This decision had far-reaching consequences for racial
segregation andcivilrightsinthecountry,particularlyintheSouth.Perhapsoneofthemostenduringanddamaging
effectsofPlessyvs.Fergusonwasitsimpactoneducation.Underthedoctrineof"separatebutequal,"publicschools
for Black children wereconsistentlyunderfundedandprovidedinferiorresourcesandfacilitiescomparedtothosefor
white children. This educational inequality persisted for decades.
JOHN DEWEY - PROGRESSIVE EDUCATION
I believe that education is the fundamental method of social progress and reform
rogressive education was a movement that took form in Europe and the United States during the late 19th
P
centuryasareactiontotheallegednarrownessandformalismoftraditionaleducation.Theprogressiveeducational
ideas and practices developed in the United States, especially by John Dewey, were joined with the European
tradition after 1900. In 1896, Dewey founded the Laboratory Schools at the University of Chicago totestthe
validityofhispedagogicaltheories(heworkedthereuntil1904).Duringtheseyearsotherexperimentalschoolswere
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established around the country, and in 1919 the Progressive Education Association was founded, aiming at
" reforming the entire school system of America.”
Duringthe1920s,Dewey’sinfluencebecameinternationalandhetravelledaroundtheworldadvisinggovernments
onhowtoimprovetheireducationalsystems.Nevertheless,inthe1950s,duringatimeofcoldwaranxietyand
cultural conservatism, progressiveeducationwaswidelyrepudiated,anditdisintegratedasanidentifiable
movement.However,intheyearssince,variousgroupsofeducatorshaverediscoveredtheideasofDeweyandhis
associates, and revisedthemtoaddressthechangingneedsofschools,children,andsocietyinthelatetwentieth
century.
John Dewey envisioned schooling as an extension of the community and as means to:
● maintain and improve society;
● integrate experiences in a natural way
● promote more pragmatic education
● integrate art and physical education
ho was he?
W
He was an American philosopher, also known as the father of progressive education, born in Vermont 1859.He
taught at the Universities of Michigan, Minnesota, Chicago and Columbia. Dewey was dedicatedtoprovidingthe
philosophicalfoundationsformodernAmericanpragmatistthought.Apragmaticphilosopherwhoarguedthatideas
were primarily instruments for shaping human experiences. He emphasised the importance of social life and
education in the student-centred curriculum.
is comparison of education with the factory system and its outcomes
H
Deweysupportedtheideaof“learning-by-doing”,meaningstudentsmustinteractwiththeirenvironmentinorderto
adapt and learn. He compared this approach to the factory system. He said that, in the past,thefactorysystem
relied on the household and the neighbourhood systems, since theyweretheplaceswhereallformsofindustrial
occupationwerecarriedon.Inthosesystems,thechildrenweregraduallyinitiatedintotheprocessandtheygotto
learn little by little. Children acquired knowledge and experience by having first-hand contact with nature and by
realising there was a social need (real motive) and something to doaboutit(realoutcome).Inallthis,therewas
continual training of observation, ingenuity, constructive imagination, logical thought, judgement, attention, and a
senseofreality.Deweybelievedthatthesystemofeducationwaswrongbecausenolessoncouldaffordthe
acquaintance acquired through actual living.
Besides,hebelievededucationandlearning(inthesamewayastheindustrialprocess)havesocialsignificanceas
theykeepsocietygoing.Theschoolshouldbeorganisedasasocialunitwithcommonandproductiveactivity,asin
thiswaysocialorganisationtakesplacespontaneously(thereissthtodo,someactivitytobecarriedout,required
divisionsoflabour,selectionofleaders,cooperation,etc.).Theeffectsofconceivingtheschoolasasocialunitare
active engagement, change from a passive recipiency and restraint to a more active role, social attitude change
involving cooperation, willingness to help and self-satisfaction, free communication and exchange of ideas and
results, etc.
The difference that he found between the factory system and his proposed approach to education is that, inthe
industrial régime, the child shares the work not for the sake of sharing but for getting a product; whereas inthe
school,theactivitiesarefreedforeconomicstressandtheaimisnolongertheeconomicvalueofproductsbutthe
development of social power and insight.
“...generallyfindthemainreasonstobethatsuchworkengagesthefullspontaneousinterestandattentionofthe
children. It keeps them alert and active, instead of passive and receptive; it makes them more useful, more
capable,andhencemoreinclinedtobehelpfulathome;itpreparesthemtosomeextentforthepracticaldutiesof
later life…”
ewey was making reference to the introduction of manual training. He believed that these subjects had been
D
introducednotonpurposebecauseoftheconsciousnessthattheschoolmustnowsupplythemtostudents,butby
instinct, i.e., by finding out that such work gives pupils sththatisnottobegotinanyotherway.Thereasonsfor
manualtraining(statedinthequote)areasinadequateasintroducingitbyimpulse.Eventhoughthesereasonsare
valid,thepointofviewistoonarrow,sincemanualtrainingshouldbethoughtofasamethodoflivingandlearning
and not as distinct studies because of its social significance.
is four ideas to implement in education
H
● Learning-by-doing (or experiential learning): he observed that children learn better when they are actively
engaged, because they are immersed in the present and not a distant future, such as final exams. In biology
studentsdon’treadbooks,butinsteadgrowplants,harvestfruitsandthenfeedthemtosnailstoseewhathappens.
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Rocío Oviedo
ometimesthingsworkout,sometimesaccidentshappen—whatevertheoutcome,thestudentstakenotesoftheir
S
observationsandformrichmemorableexperiences.Attheendofeachclasstheysummarisetheirlearningandturn
to discussions.
● Discussions: The discussionspreparethestudentsforlifeinademocraticsocietywheredecisionsoughttobe
based on reasonable arguments. Through the debates the children learn to formulate their own ideas, convince
others,andlearntoseetheworldfromadifferentpointofview.Inonediscussionsomestartedtoarguethatschool
uniformslimitselfexpression,andthattheyshouldbeabolished.Dewey,whobelievedthatschoolsshouldprepare
children for life itself and serve societyasaforceforinnovationandreform,encouragedthosestudentstostarta
petition to find out for themselves if real social change is possible.
● Interactive classes: Classes are interactive because Dewey believes that interaction with the environment is
essential for the learning process since education is an experience that is subject to constant change. Passive
recipients of knowledge on the other hand, learn very little if anything at all. The group who started the petition
present their ideas to the teacher—and start a dialogue that expands their understanding and underlines their
learning.
●Interdisciplinarylearning:Deweybelievedthatcontinuityiscriticaltocomprehensionandthataninterdisciplinary
education allows students to build on what they alreadyknow—whichstrengthenstheirunderstanding.Whatthey
observedinbiologyisbeingcalculatedinmaths,writtenaboutinEnglishandputintoimagesthroughthearts.This
providesthestudentstheopportunitytolearnhowthingsareconnected.Tothebrain,thisprocessismoreeffective
because it can link new knowledge with previous experiences, and build stronger mental models.
ewey believed that when societiescalculatethepriceofeducation,theyshouldn’tonlylookatthecostofschool
D
buildings, teachers salaries and otherresources.Theyshouldalsoconsiderthecostsofallthehoursinputbythe
children.Becausechildrenarethefutureofoursocietyandhumanprogress,theirtimeinclassoughtnotbewasted.
Itisthustheschool'sresponsibilitytobeaplaygroundtopractiseafuturewewishtosee,sowhenthekidsgrowup,
they can go and create it.
In what ways would the ideas proposed in education lead to social progress and reform?
His ideas became widespread and began to be practised in US schools. Hands-on activities, arts and physical
education,projectwork(learningbasedonexperience).Hisinfluencewasveryimportant.Therearecritics,however,
that say Americans have forgotten about intellectualism and are too much inclined to pragmatism.
“TheCommonCoreStandards,approvedbymoststates,stressrigourbutatthesametimeemphasiseinquiryand
understanding. John Dewey would be moderately pleased with a pragmatic nation that combines traditional
education with the insights of progressives.”
Education in the XX Century - The Post-War Period
Professor Sandra Fadda inEducation in Britainsaid:
“All important [Education] acts came with or after the wars for several reasons.”
o you think the same idea can be applied to the USA?
D
Yes, sinceseveral acts were passed during wars(and the Cold War).
Sputnik1957andeducationasapatrioticactandright:in1957,theSovietsatelliteSputnikwasreleasedandit
●
droveanotherincreaseinthefederalgovernment’sroleinpubliceducation.SchoolswereenlistedintheColdWarand
calledontomeetthechallengesofSoviettechnology.TheNationalDefenseEducationAct(1958)providedfederal
moneyforresearchanduniversityprogrammesinscienceandtechnologyaswellasloanstocollegestudents.Funds
were also allotted for teaching science, mathematicsandforeignlanguagesinhighschools.Thestatealsorequired
teachers to sign “loyalty oaths” as some politicians believed universities were hotbeds of communism.
● Busing: The Supreme Court’s Brown decision (1954) struckdowntheprincipleofseparate-but-equaleducational
facilities, andnowpublicschooldistrictshadtopresentplansforachievingracialbalanceintheirschools.TheCourt
triedtodesegregatepublicschoolsbymeansofbusing.Untilveryrecently,therulewasthatpupilsattendedtheschool
close to their homes. Since Blacks and Whites lived in different residential areas, they attended different school
districts.Residentialsegregationproducedsegregatedschools.Therefore,theSupremeCourtdecidedtobusstudents
to otherdistrictsuntilracialbalanceinallcityschoolshadresulted.TheresultwasthatWhitesfledtothesuburbsin
greater numbers, and the small percentage who could afford to, sent theirchildrentoprivateschools.By1974,the
nation’smoodhadbecomeveryanti-busingandtheSupremeCourtbackeddownsayingtheschoolcontrolhadtobe
in the hands of the local district.
● Federal funds for public schools: state and federal grantstopoorerpublicschoolshavegenerallycomeintwo
ways: 1) laws made the income levelsinlocaldistrictsthebasisfordistributingpublicfunds,solow-incomedistricts
received extra grants and special programmes to attract good teachers;and2)governmentsmorethantripledtheir
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contribution to the general budgets of cities with social and educational problems.
Affirmative action: with the introduction of the principle ofaffirmativeactionbypresidentJohnsonin1965,there
●
wereseveralreforms.Thegovernmentrequirededucationalinstitutionstobecomeequalopportunityemployers,i.e.to
hiremoreminoritygroupsandwomenprofessors.Bylaw,theyhadtoencourageminorityandwomenprofessionalsto
applyforteachingpositions(ifnot,theymightlosegovernmentfunding).Besides,ontheprimaryandsecondarylevels,
there was a redesigning of teaching programmes and textbooks. E.g. Discriminatory references to women and
minoritieshavebeenreplacedbypositiverolemodelsandexamplesofhowtheycontributedtoAmericanhistoryand
culture. Besides, two affirmative action programmes were designed for primary and secondary schools:
- Head Start: provides pre-school tutoring to children in educationally deprived families to help them begin
formal schooling at the same level as other students.
- Upward Bound:supplies remedial teaching, private tutoring and work-study programmes for older children.
However, White males complained because they were denied admission to university programmes because
female and minority-groups applicants were given preferential treatment (reverse discrimination). Therefore,
the Bakke decision of the Supreme Court (1977) declared unconstitutional to increasethenumberofstudentsfrom
racial minorities in university programmes by setting numerical quotas.
Education in the XXI Century
➔
Bush’sadministration:NoChildLeftBehindActof2001(federalfundoneducation+heldschoolsaccountable
for progress).
➔ Obama’s administration:
- DREAMAct(2009):Itisstillabill.Itwouldprovidecurrent,former,andfutureundocumentedhigh-schoolgraduates
and General Educational Development recipients a pathway to U.S. citizenship throughcollege,work,orthearmed
services. The bills outline a three-step process, summarised below:
● Step 1: Conditional Permanent Residence: individuals obtain conditional permanent resident status if they
came to the US as a child, were enrolled in school and hadn’t been convicted of certain crimes.
● Step 2: LawfulPermanentResidence:theycanobtainlawfulpermanentresidencethroughhighereducation,
military service or work.
● Step 3: Naturalisation: after maintaining LPR statusforfiveyears,anindividualcanapplytobecomeaU.S.
citizen through the normal naturalisation process.
- Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA)Program:itwascreatedin2012throughanexecutiveorderby
Obama as a measure to shield from deportationpeoplewhowerebroughtintotheUSaschildrenanddidnothave
citizenship or legal residency. The protection lasts for 2 years at a time, and is renewable. The program does not
provideapathwaytocitizenship.Participationintheprogramcomeswitharangeofbenefits.Alongwithauthorization
to remain in the country, recipients can alsogetworkpermits,andcanobtainhealthinsurancefromemployerswho
offerit.Theabilitytoworklegallyhasalsoenabledrecipientstopursuehighereducation,developcareersandobtain
driver’slicencesinmanystates.Theycanqualifyforin-statetuitionandstate-fundededucationalgrantsandloansin
some states. Depending on where they live, they may also qualify for state-subsidised health insurance.
"Totargettheseyoungpeopleiswrongbecausetheyhavedonenothingwrong.Itisself-defeatingbecausetheywanttostart
newbusinesses,staffourlabs,serveinourmilitary,andotherwisecontributetothecountrywelove.Anditiscruel.Whatif
our kid's science teacher, or our friendly neighbor turns out to be a Dreamer? Where are we supposed to send her? To a
countryshedoesn'tknoworremember,withalanguageshemaynotevenspeak?WhatmakesusAmericanisnotaquestionof
what we look like, or whereournamescomefrom,orthewaywepray.WhatmakesusAmericanisourfidelitytoasetof
ideals that all of us are created equal; that all of us deserve the chance to make of our lives what we will;"
Obama's statement on DACA
-Every Students Succeeds Act 2015
➔
Trump’s administration:
-President Donald Trumpsuspends DACAcalling it unconstitutional.
- Appointed Secretary of Education Betsy DeVos → controversial: she championed reduced federal involvement in
education,proposedbudgetcuts,andoverturnedlandmarkObama-eraschoolguidelines.Shefoughttoallowfederal
dollars to follow students to private and charter schools. And along with President Donald Trump, DeVos insisted
schools reopen during the pandemic.
- Trump repeatedly encountered congressional opposition to his budget requests regarding education: Trump’s first
formalbudgetproposaltoCongresssoughttoredefinetheroleofthefederalgovernmentbydramaticallyreducingits
involvement inmanydomesticareaswhileboostinginvestmentsinsecurity.Itincreaseddefencespending(including
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ilitaryschools)andcutstonon-defensespending,includingeducation,environmentalprotection,healthandhuman
m
services, and foreign aid. E.g. he called for eliminating subsidised student loans.
➔ Biden’s administration:
- HeannouncesStudentLoanReliefforBorrowersWhoNeedItMost→loanforgiveness:aplantohelpworkingand
middle-class federal student loan borrowerstransitionbacktoregularpaymentaspandemic-relatedsupportexpires.
This plan includes loan forgiveness of up to $20,000.
- Invest in high-quality early childhood education, including providing universal preschool for all three and
four-year-olds and access to affordable child care.
- Address the national teacher shortage by improving teacher preparation, strengthening pipelines for
underrepresented teachers, and supporting current teachers. Promoting competitive teacher pay.
-Providing meaningful incentives to examine and address inequalities in school funding systems.
haracteristics of US Education and Types of Schools
C
The education system in the USA is organised as follows:
- Elementary schools (students from 6-12 years old)
- Secondary/middle schools (students from 13-15 years old)
- High school (students from 15-18 years old)
The US education system is managed by local authorities. Generally, each state gives local governments the
responsibilityforschools.Localauthoritiessetupindependentschooldistricts.Eachstateformulatesitsownguidelines
and appoints a state board ofeducation.Thestandardssetintheseboardsareminimumattendance,corecurriculum,
procedures of licensing teachers and administrators, standardised tests, and courses.
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There are differenttypes of schoolsaround the country:
hese types of schools are generally neighbourhood schools paid for by property taxes plus other state and
T
federalgovernmentfunds.Studentsmayattendtheirlocalpublicschoolfreeofchargeandtheschoollocationis
determined by where they live. Since they are publicly-funded, traditional public schools must follow
state-mandatedrulesregardingcurriculumandgovernance.Theseschoolsofferprogramsforgeneraleducation
studentsaswellasstudentswithspecialneeds.Teachersneedtomakesuretheyhavetheappropriatelicensure
to work at a public school.This is usually mandated by the state in which they are located.
It is a publicly-funded school that is privately managed, so it is not necessarily run according to state or
C
district mandates. Teachers and administrators at charterschoolshavemorelocalauthority,meaningthey
H
P can choose their own curriculum and set rules and regulationsthatworkbestfortheirstudentpopulation.
A
U Students must apply to a charter school and are accepted through a lottery system.
R
B Charterschoolsformwhenagroup,organisationorindividualwritesacharterthatthestateapproves.They
T
L generallyfocusonamissionthatsetsthemapartfromlocaltraditionalpublicschools.Forexample,charter
E
I schools may focus on STEM, the arts, project-based learning or college preparation. To have its charter
R
C renewed, a school must show that it has fulfilled its mission and helped its students achieve academically.
heyarepublicschoolsthatfocusonspecificareassuchasSTEM,technologyorthearts.Theyhavebeen
T
M transformed into specialised study environments by the school district. Magnet schools areoftentypesof
A schools seen as gifted and talented programs because they are highly selective and competitive. To be
G admitted to a magnet school, students must apply and demonstrate their abilities in the school’s area of
N specialisation. For example, art students may need to create portfolios or perform musical auditions.
E The main role for teachers in these types of schools is to create educational content. This includes note
T taking, assignments and tests. They also help with developing a custom curriculum dedicated to course
goals, including school-specific objectives for magnet students.
rivate schools are not funded by the government. Instead, they charge attendance fees to their students’
P
families. Independence from government funding allows private schools to follow whatever curriculum they
choose, which generally are flexible and tailored to every student. Private schools can be religious or secular.
Theycanfollowspecificbeliefsystemsoreducationalprograms.Thosethatdonotdesignateanyaffiliationmay
be classified as independent. Private school teachersteachK-12classesinavarietyofprivateschoolsettings.
P Classesaresmallerthanthoseinpublicschools,whichallowsstudentsmoreinteractionnotjustwitheachother,
but also with teachers and faculty.
R
I
V R
A E They are private schools with a religious affiliation and they are often chosen by families who want their
T L children to receive a religious education in alignment with their family values. Religious schoolsareoften
I affiliatedwithreligionsorreligiousorganisationsorassociations.Theymaysettheirowncurriculumandmay
E
G balance religious teaching with secular academics or emphasise one over the other.
I Some religious schools develop a reputation foracademicexcellenceandattractstudentsforthatreason,
O apart from religious affiliation.Theteacherscanprovidedisciplineaccordingtobiblicalstandardsandtrain
U students in righteousness and other godly values into their lives.
S
esides these options, there is also the possibility ofhomeschooling children.
B
Homeschooling: to teach a child at home, usually by parents, rather than sending him or her to school.
venasrecentlyas1980,homeschoolingwasillegalinamajorityofstates—anddidn’tbecomelawfulnationwideuntil
E
1993. But once seen as a fringe practice of families on the extreme right and left—religious conservatives and
hippies—homeschoolingtodayisviewedasasmall,butintegralpartoftheeducationecosystemintheUnitedStatesand
apillaroftheschoolchoicemovement.Homeschoolinghasgainedwiderattentionandmore-mainstreamacceptanceas
thenumbersofstudentslearningathomedoubledinthepastdecade—atrenddriveninsomemeasurebytheexpansion
of online schooling options.
onotice,lowregulation
N
Lowregulation
Moderateregulation
Highregulation
Cultura II
Notes - Unit 7 - 2023
Rocío Oviedo
In the National Household Education Survey (NHES), students are considered to be homeschooled if all of the
followingconditionsaremet:theirparentsreportedthembeingschooledathomeinsteadofatapublicorprivateschool,
theirenrollmentinpublicorprivateschoolsdidnotexceed24hoursaweek,andtheywerenotbeinghomeschooledonly
due to a temporary illness.Homeschooledstudentsincludethoseages5to17withagradeequivalentofkindergarten
throughgrade12.Morestudentswerehomeschooledin2019thanin1999.However,thepercentageofstudentswho
were homeschooled waslower in 2019 than in 2012.
Parentsofhomeschooledstudentswereaskedtoidentifythesinglemostimportantreasontohomeschooltheirchildin
2019. The most common was a concern about school environment, such as safety,drugs,ornegativepeerpressure.
Otherparentsreportedthatthemostimportantreasonwasdissatisfactionwiththeacademicinstructionatotherschools.
There were also parents who reported that the most important reason wasa desire to provide religiousinstruction.
owhatextentdoeshomeschoolingprovideanalternativeforparentsthataredissatisfiedwiththeeducational
T
system?
Advantages Disadvantages
Less expensive:no commuting, no fee (in
● Depriving students of vital contact with children and adults
●
comparison to private schools), the cost from other backgrounds.
difference for materials is minimal. - Loss of social skills
●Safer environment:avoid mass shootings - No contact with diversity
(US) and bullying. - Not prepared for real life
●More flexibility:Classes can be tailored to However, sometimes, tutors organise social and educational
meet children requirements. activities with other home-schoolers and adults.
- Teaching methods: special educational ●Unqualified parents or teachers= not reaching the standard.
needs (SEN) and hands-on learning. ● When homeschooling doesn't work, parents “dump” their children
- Individualise the curriculum for each back in the publicschools, which are thenblamed for the
child and fit… home-schoolers' poor performance.
● special interests or needs ● Itlimits funding on schools→ schools get funds depending on
● the family values, such as the amount of students that attend school. →(however, it reduces
religion. →(however, federal expenditure)
“freedom” of thinking is ● Homeschooling can create anextra burden for administrators
restricted) responsible for enforcing compulsory-attendance laws; violate
● Homeschooled children achieve higher scores health and safety regulationsandprevent the accurate
than the conventionally-educated counterparts. diagnosisof learning disabilities or other conditions requiring
(not always) special attention.
Cultura II
Notes - Unit 7 - 2023
Rocío Oviedo
Supreme Court cases and acts that shaped democratisation
assachusettspassedit,layingthebasisforpublicschoolsinAmerica.ThePuritansvaluedliteracyhighly;theybelievedallindividualsshouldbeabletoreadand
M
interpret the Bible forthemselves.In1642Massachusettshadrequiredparentstoensuretheirchildren’sabilitytoread,andfiveyearslater,inthisact,thestate
mandated community schooling.
Old
1 The act required townstosupportteachersfortheirchildren:Thereligiousbasisoftheactwasexplicit:theactstateditsintentionwastothwart“yeolddeluder,
Deluder 6 Satan” in his goal “to keepe men fromtheknowledgeofyeScriptures.”Tothisend,thelawrequiredeverytownwith50ormorefamiliestohireandmaintaina
Satan 4 teacher to instruct all children in reading and writing. Towns of 100 or more families were required to support a grammar school topreparestudentstoattend
7 Harvard College. Similar acts were soon adopted in the other New England colonies, except Rhode Island.
Actestablishedprinciplesofpubliceducation:thatbasiceducationisapublicorcommunityresponsibility,thatthestatecanrequirecommunitiestoraiseand
expend local funds for schools, that day-to-day responsibility for the operation of schools rests at thelocallevel,andthatschoolsaretobeorganisedinlevels
separating elementary from secondary education.
nacted by the state of Massachusetts, it was the first general law attempting to control the conditionsofchildren.Thelawincludedmandatoryattendancefor
E
Compul-
1 childrenbetween8and14foratleast3monthsoutofeachyear,ofthese12weeksatleast6hadtobeconsecutive.Theexceptiontothisattendanceatapublic
sory
8 schoolincluded:thechild'sattendanceatanotherschoolforthesameamountoftime,proofthatthechildhadalreadylearnedthesubjects,poverty,or
School
5 thephysicalormentalabilityofthechildtoattend.Thepenaltyfornotsendingyourchildtoschoolwasafinenotgreaterthan$20.00andtheviolatorswereto
Attendance
2 beprosecutedbythecity.Thelocalschoolcommitteedidnothavetheauthoritytoenforcethelaw.Althoughthelawwasineffective,itdidkeeptheimportanceof
Laws
school before the public and helped to form public opinion in favour of education.
It provided grants of land to states to finance the establishment of colleges specialising in “agriculture andthemechanicarts.”Namedforitssponsor,Vermont
CongressmanJustinSmithMorrill,itgrantedeachstate30,000acresforeachofitscongressionalseats(senatorandrepresentative).Thelandwasthentobesold
1 andthemoneyfromthesaleofthelandwastobeputinanendowmentfundwhichwouldprovidesupportforthecollegesineachofthestates.Fundsfromthesale
8 of the land were used by some states to establish new schools; other states turned the money over to existing state or private colleges to create schools of
Morrill Act 6 agriculture and mechanic arts(knownas“A&M”colleges).Themilitarytrainingrequiredinthecurriculumofallland-grantschoolsledtotheestablishmentofthe
2 Reserve Officers’ Training Corps, an educational program for future army, navy, and air force officers.
This act laidthefoundationforthestateuniversityasthegovernmentsupportededucationdirectly.ItwasamajorboosttohighereducationinAmerica.The
purposeofeducationshiftedfromtheclassicalstudiesandallowedformoreappliedstudiesthatwouldpreparethestudentsfortheworldthattheywould
face once leaving the classroom.
1 lessy v. Fergusonwas a landmark 1896 U.S. Supreme Court decision that upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the “separate but equal” doctrine.
P
lessy vs.
P 8 The case stemmed from an 1892 incident in which African American train passenger Homer Plessy refused to sit in a car for Black people. Rejecting Plessy’s
Ferguson 9 argument that his constitutional rights were violated, the Supreme Court ruled that a law that “implies merely a legal distinction” between white people and Black
6 people was not unconstitutional.
hile World War II was stillbeingfought,theDepartmentofLaborestimatedthat,afterthewar,15millionmenandwomenwhohadbeenservinginthearmed
W
1 services would be unemployed. To reduce the possibility of postwar depression brought on by widespread unemployment, the government studied postwar
G-I- Bill 9 manpowerneedsandinJune1943recommendedaseriesofprogramsforeducationandtraining.PresidentFranklinD.RooseveltsigneditintolawonJune22,
4 1944. It offered Federal aid to veterans to adjust to civilian life and for college education, unemployment insurance, and housing. This act provided tuition,
4 subsistence, books and supplies, equipment, and counselling services for veterans to continue their education inschoolorcollege.HighereducationintheUS
became mass education and was regarded as a right rather than a privilege.
Cultura II
Notes - Unit 7 - 2023
Rocío Oviedo
Brown vs. B
1 rown v. Board of Education of Topeka was a landmark1954SupremeCourtcaseinwhichthejusticesruledunanimouslythatracialsegregationofchildrenin
Board of 9 public schools was unconstitutional. It was one of the cornerstones of the civil rights movement, and helped establish the precedent that “separate-but-equal”
Education 5 education and other services were not, in fact, equal at all.
4
ational
N It was passed in 1958 in response to Soviet acceleration of the spaceracewiththelaunchofthesatelliteSputnikin1957.TheActprovidedfederalmoneyfor
1 research and university programmes in science and technology, as well as loans to college students. The legislation also allocated federal funds for teaching
Defense 9
Education science,mathematicsandforeignlanguagesinhighschools.TheNDEAstandsasamajoractofreform.Itmarkedthebeginningoflarge-scaleinvolvementofthe
5 U.S.federalgovernmentineducation.Itstandsasamajoractofreformanditmarkedthebeginningoflarge-scale(orexpansionof)involvementoftheU.S.
Act 8 federal government in education.
heHigherEducationAct(HEA)isafederallawthatgovernstheadministrationoffederalhighereducationprograms.Itspurposeistostrengthentheeducational
T
1 resourcesofourcollegesanduniversitiesandtoprovidefinancialassistanceforstudentsinpostsecondaryandhighereducation.Itincreasedtheamountoffederal
Higher
9 money given to post-secondary institutions, developed scholarship programs, provided low-interest loans to students, etc. It is generally scheduled for
Education
6 reauthorizationbyCongresseveryfiveyearstoencouragegrowthandchange.TheHEAhasbeenreauthorizedforthelasttimein2008.Theactexpiredin2013
Act
5 andCongresshasbeenunabletoreachanagreementonitsreauthorization.However,ithasbeenrunningontemporaryextensionssincethen,withnow-familiar
programs remaining available.It was a step forward in guaranteeing high-quality education for all citizens.
ItwassignedintolawbyPresidentLyndonB.Johnsonaspartofhis"WaronPoverty".Theactprovidesfederalfundingtoprimaryandsecondaryeducation,with
Elementary
1 funds authorised for professional development, instructional materials, resources to support educationalprograms,andparentalinvolvementpromotion.Theact
and 9 emphasisesequalaccesstoeducation,aimingtoshortentheachievementgapsbetweenstudentsbyprovidingfederalfundingtosupportschoolswithchildrenfrom
Secondary 6 impoverishedfamilies.Thisactbroughteducationintotheforefrontofthenationalassaultonpovertyandrepresentedalandmarkcommitmenttoequal
Education 5 access to quality education.
Act The law has been reauthorized and changed more than half a dozen times since that initiallegislationand,forthemostpart,eachnewiterationhassoughtto
expand the federal role in education.
Goals: 1) to give all students proper teachers; 2) help close all achievement gaps; 3) ensure all students reach proficiency.
.S.federallawaimedatimprovingpublicprimaryandsecondaryschools,andthusstudentperformance,viaincreasedaccountabilityforschools,schooldistricts,
U
andstates.NCLBintroducedsignificantchangesinthecurriculumofpublicprimaryandsecondaryschoolsanddramaticallyincreasedthefederalroleinholding
schoolsresponsiblefortheacademicprogressofallstudents.Underthelaw,stateswererequiredtoadministeryearlytestsofthereadingandmathematicsskillsof
publicschoolstudentsandtodemonstrateadequateprogresstowardraisingthescoresofallstudentstoaleveldefinedas“proficient”orhigherby2014.Teachers
werealsorequiredtomeethigherstandardsforcertification.Schoolsthatfailedtomeettheirgoalswouldbesubjecttograduallyincreasingsanctions,eventually
includingreplacement of stafforclosure.
No Child 2 SupportersofNCLBciteditsinitialsuccessinincreasingthetestscoresofminoritystudents,whohistoricallyperformedatlowerlevelsthanwhitestudents.Critics,
Left Behind 0 however, complained that the federal government was not providing enough funding to implement the law’s requirements and that it had usurped the states’
Act 0 traditional control of education as provided for in the Constitution. Moreover, they charged that the law was actually erodingthequalityofeducationbyforcing
1 schools to “teach to the test” or to lower standards of proficiency while neglecting other parts of the curriculum, such as history, social science, and art.
It updated the Elementary and Secondary Education Act since before NCLB, many schools didn’t focus on the progress of disadvantaged students. For
example,kidswhogotserviceswereoftenshutoutofgeneraleducationorleftoutofstatetests.ThegoalofNCLBwastoprovidemoreeducationopportunitiesfor
students (it focused on four key groups: students in poverty, of colour, receiving specialeducationservices,andthosewhospeakandunderstandlimitedorno
English). Unlike previous versions of ESEA, NCLB held schools accountable for how kids learn and achieve. It did this through annual testing, reporting,
Cultura II
Notes - Unit 7 - 2023
Rocío Oviedo
improvement targets, and penalties for schools.These changes made NCLB controversial, but they alsoforced schools to focus on disadvantaged kids.
ey concepts:
K
AnnualYearly Progress (AYP):the minimum level of improvement that a school district must meet each year.
Required testing: students must do standardised tests in Reading and Math from grades 3 through 8 and once in high school.
State report cards: reporting must include minorities, economic status and more. States need to publicly report on the performance of these tests to the state.
AYP targets:they are set by the state and are different depending on the category of student.
Schoolchoiceforstudents:studentsoffailingdistrictshavethechoiceofattendingotherpublicorcharterschools.Studentsalsohavetherighttoleaveifaschool
is unsafe or the child is a victim of violent crime.
Highly qualified status: teachers must be certified in thesubjecttheyteach.Teachersmustdemonstratemasteryintheirsubjectareabypassinganappropriate
exam (Praxis test).
Corrective actions for not meeting AYP:
2yearsoffailure:schoolisidentifiedas“inneedofimprovement”.Studentsaregiventhechoicetotransfertoanotherschoolandthedistrictmustpayforthe
●
transportation.
●3yearsoffailure:theschoolmustprovideSES(supplementaleducationservices)tothestudents.SESincludesfreetutoring,remedialprograms,andsummer
extra help.
●4yearsoffailure:theschoolentersthe“correctiveaction”improvementstatus.Schoolsmustchooseeitherreplacingstaff,changingcurriculumorappointingan
expert.
● 5 years of failure: school must choose 1) state takeover, 2) replacing school staff and principal responsible for failure, or 3) chartering.
Is it a step towards equal and better education?
Itisasteptowardsbettereducationinthesensethat1)teachersarehighlyqualified,2)childrenaregiventhepossibilityofchoosingbetterschools(i.e.thosewith
higher performance rates), and 3)studentsmustpassstandardisedtestsonMathandReading(so,theyarebettereducatedonthoseareas).However,itisnot
better education in relation to other subjects. Intermsofequality,itdoessomethingtoachieveitsinceALLteachersmustbequalified,ALLstudentsmustpass
standardisedexams,ALLstudentscanhaveaccesstohigh-qualityeducation(disadvantagedstudentsareconsideredandstudentscanchooseanotherschooland
the state pays for transportation), etc.
PROS CONS
● It puts pressure on schools with bad teachers and weak Toomuchemphasisontestscoresanddoesnotappreciateotherimprovements.Thelaw
●
dministrators.
a was eroding the quality of education by forcing schools to “teach to the test” or to lower
●Itincreasesthetestscoresofminoritystudents,whohistorically proficiency standards by neglecting other parts of the curriculum
performed at lower levels than white students. ● The federal government was not providing enough funding to implement the law’s
● Disadvantaged students are taken into account and measures requirements.
are taken for them to improve. ● The federal government usurped the states’ control of education as provided forinthe
● Step forwards better and more equal education. Constitution.
It was signed into law in 2015 and its purpose was to replace and update the No Child Left Behind Act and it reauthorized the Elementary and Secondary Act of
very
E
1965. ESSA extended more flexibility to States in education and laid out expectations of transparency for parents and for communities.
Student
Cultura II
Notes - Unit 7 - 2023
Rocío Oviedo
Succeeds ESSA requires every state to measure performance in Reading, Math, and Science. Each state determines the way students are assessed. Every school in each
●
Act
2 state must inform parents about their standards and their results.
0 ● ESSA requires every state to develop a concise and easily understandable “State Report Card” that is accessible online and provides parents important
1 information on test performance in reading, math, and science. The report cards must also provide data on graduation rates, suspensions, absenteeism, teacher
5 qualifications, and many other areas.
● ESSA increases transparency to empower parents with information to help them make the best choices for their children. For the first time ever, states are
required to report how much money, on average, they spend per student. This is called “per pupil expenditures.” ESSA also requires states to list their lowest
performing 5% of schools. These schools require “comprehensive support and improvement.”
● ESSA extends flexibility for funds to be invested in career and technical education and even toward transportation for students to attend higher performing
schools.
Intercultural Topic: Education in the Argentina
How would you assess the Argentine educational system?
STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES
niversalAccess:Argentinahasmadesignificantprogressinachievinguniversalaccess Q
U uality Disparities:There are significant disparities in the quality of education between
toeducationatalllevels,includingprimary,secondary,andhighereducation.Educationis urban and rural areas, as well as among provinces. Quality issues can be attributed to
free and compulsory from primary to secondary levels. variations in resources, teacher qualifications, and infrastructure.
igherEducation:Argentinaisknownforitsstronghighereducationsystem,withmany T
H eacher Salaries and Training:Low teacher salaries, inadequate teacher training, and a
prestigiousuniversitiesandinstitutions.Itattractsinternationalstudentsandoffersawide lack of professional development opportunities have led to challenges in retaining and
range of academic programs. attracting qualified educators.
ducationalInitiatives:Thecountryhaslaunchedseveraleducationalinitiativesaimedat D
E ropout Rates:High dropout rates at the secondary level remain a concern, particularly
improvingqualityandinclusivity,suchasthePlan"JuanaManso"forteachertrainingand among vulnerable populations. Efforts are needed to improve retention and completion
the "Programa Conectar Igualdad" to provide students with digital devices. rates.
ultural Diversity: Argentina places importance on promoting its cultural diversity P
C olitical Instability: Argentina's education system has been subject to shifts in policy and
through education, including the recognition of indigenous languages and cultures. political instability, which can impact long-term planning and reform efforts.
Do women have access to education in Argentina? c apital in our population reflects our inability to provide complete secondary
es, women have been incorporated into the Argentine education system and
Y education universally, where dropout ratesamongvulnerablegroupsarealarming.
nowadays7outof10women,aged18-24,havecompletedhigh-school.Moreover, As a result, access to higher education is restricted, andupwardsocialmobility
every year, 60% of university graduates are women. for this group is limited. The benefits of getting an education are numerous.
Education serves as a protective shieldagainstunemployment,poverty,and
What is the relation between education and poverty? marginalisation; this shield becomes stronger as the years of education
he tertiary graduation rates in the country are low for a technological and
T increase.
productiveworldthatdemandsgreaterskillsandknowledge.Thelowlevelofhuman
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