General questions

1) Explain four factor formula:

 K = = ϵpfη
( )
Here, ϵ = fast fission factor p = Resonance absorption while slow down
f = Absorption by non-fuel η = fission production
K −1
 Reactivity, ρ = K

2) Why need to do experiment, can CFD works?

 For integral study, CFD can’t be worked as the nodal requirement will be too high for CFD
study.
 Further, many local phenomena will not be well modelled in CFD, e.g. pool swell phenomena,
CHF, etc. Thus, modelling of this phenomena will be difficult in CFD.

3) Open vs Closed fuel cycle

 Open cycle is once through cycle where in closed cycle spent fuel is reprocessed to recycle
fissile and fertile content.

4) List of nuclear reactor in India including research reactor with their type:
Sr. Reactor Name Electrical Reactor Type
No. capacity
1 TAPS 1&2, Tarapur 160 MWe Thermal - BWR (GE)
2 RAPS 1&2 200 MWe Thermal - PHWR (Doungles – AECL, Canada)
3 MAPS 1&2 200 MWe Thermal – PHWR
4 NAPS 1&2 220 MWe Thermal – PHWR
5 KAPS 1&2 220 MWe Thermal – PHWR
6 RAPS 3&4 220 MWe Thermal – PHWR
7 KGS 1&2 220 MWe Thermal – PHWR
8 TAPS 3&4 540 MWe Thermal – PHWR
9 RAPS 5&6 220 MWe Thermal – PHWR
10 KGS 3&4 220 MWe Thermal – PHWR
11 VVER 1&2 1000 MWe Thermal – PWR
12 KAPS 3 700 MWe Thermal – PHWR

Following are the nuclear reactor under construction

Sr. Reactor Name Electrical Reactor Type
No. capacity
1 KAPS 4 700 MWe Thermal -PHWR
2 VVER 3&4, VVER 5&6 1000 MWe Thermal - PWR
3 KGS 5&6 700 MWe Thermal - PHWR
4 RAPS 7&8 700 MWe Thermal - PHWR
5 GAPS 1&2 700 MWe Thermal - PHWR
6 PFBR 500 MWe Fast breeder reactor
 Following are the nuclear research reactor:
Sr. Reactor Name Thermal Reactor Type
No. output
1 PURNIMA II 100 mW Thermal Reactor
2 PURNIMA I 1W Fast Reactor
3 PURNIMA III 1W Vertical tank type thermal reactor
4 KAMINI 30 kW Thorium Based thermal Reactor (Vertical tank)
5 ZERLINA 100 kW Vertical tank type thermal reactor
6 APSARA 1 MWth Swimming type pool reactor
7 APSARA Upgrade 2 MWth Swimming type pool reactor
8 FBTR 40 MWth Fast Reactor
9 CIRUS 40 MWth Vertical tank type thermal reactor
10 DHURVA 100 MWth Vertical tank type thermal reactor

5) Indian reactor with fuel, coolant and moderator configuration:

Sr. Reactor Fuel Coolant Moderato Neutron
No. r flux
1 PHWR Nat UO2, clad: Zr-4 Heavy water Heavy
Water
2 BWR TAPS UO2- 2.44 % Enriched uranium, Clad: Zr-2 Light water Light
Water
3 VVER UO2- 3.92 % Enriched uranium, Clad: Zr- Light water Light
1% Nb Water
4 IPWR UO2- 4.5 % Enriched uranium, Clad: Zr- Light water Light
1% Nb Water
5 AHWR Inner ring (12 pins):UO2-ThO2-3.0% U233 Light water Heavy
equilibrium Middle ring (18 pins):UO2-ThO2-3.75% Water
core U233
Outer ring (24 pins) - PuO2- ThO2- 4%
and 2.5% Pu, Clad: Zr-2
6 AHWR LEU Inner ring (12 pins) - UO2- ThO2- 30% Light water Heavy
(LEU – LEU Water
19.75% U Middle ring (18 pins) -UO2- ThO2- 24%
235) LEU
Outer ring (24 pins) - PuO2- ThO2- 18%
and 14% LEU, Clad: Zr-2
7 PURNIMA II Uranyl Nitrate solution Light water Light
water
8 PURNIMA I PuO2 pellet type, clad: SS Air NA
9 PURNIMA U-233 Al clad Light water Light
III water
10 KAMINI U233 – Plate type Al clad Light water Light 1.0X 1012
water
11 ZERLINA Nat Uranium metallic rod, Al clad Heavy water Heavy
Water
11 APSARA Enriched uranium in Al clad - plate type Light water Light 1.0X 1013
water
 12 FBTR UC- PuC, (PuC – 70%) Clad – SS 316 Liquid Na NA 3.5X 1015
13 CIRUS Natural uranium metallic rod type Light Water Heavy
Water
14 Dhruva Natural uranium in Al clad – Rod cluster Heavy water Heavy 1.8X 1014
type FA Water
15 PFBR UO2+PuO2 –(PuO2 – 29%), clad: Alloy D9 Liquid Na NA
stainless steel

6) Comparison of BWR, PWR and PHWR:

Characteristics PWR BWR PHWR
Type Thermal light water Thermal light boiling Thermal pressurised
pressurised reactor water reactor heavy water reactor
Coolant Light water Light water Heavy water
Moderator Light water Light water Heavy water
Fuel Enriched uranium Enriched uranium Natural uranium
Core vessel Pressurized reactor Pressurized reactor Pressure tube
vessel vessel
Pressure 15.7 MPa 7.0 MPa 10.0 MPa
Secondary Yes Yes No
system
Average Burrup 40000 – 50000 MWd/T 40000 – 50000 MWd/T 6000-7000 MWd/T
Characteristics  Top entry control rod  No steam generator  Shop fabricated
 Heat generated Fewer component pressure tube
through indirect cycle  Heat generated  Void coefficient of
 Coolant is in single through direct cycle reactivity – positive
phase  Bottom entry control  Heat generated through
rod indirect cycle
 Coolant is two phase  Moderator loop is
mixture at exist. separate
 BWR have high
thermal efficiency
 Core volume of BWR
is higher
 Coolant is
contaminated

7) Explain reprocessing of spent fuel:

 Reprocessing of spent is carried out to recover useful elements; fissile isotope and fertile
isotopes.
 The spent fuel first chopped and dissolved in HNO3 to remove hull.
 Then it is extracted with TBP to recovery uranium and plutonium (PUREX process).
 Uranium is recovered as U3O8 and plutonium recovers as plutonium nitrate.

8) What is thermal and fast reactor?

 In thermal reactor fission take place by the slow or thermal neutron (0.01 eV to 1 eV). In fast
reactor, fission take place by fast neutron (>10 keV).
 Thermal reactor required moderator to reduce neutron energy level.
  In fast reactor, U238 can be converted into fissile Pu239.

9) 1 eV
 1 eV is defined as the energy gained by an electron when it has been accelerated by a potential
difference of 1 volt, hence 1 eV = 1.602X10-19

10) Critical point of water

The critical pressure and temperature of water are 221.2 bar and 374 C.

11) Explain Nucleate boiling:

 Nucleate boiling is a condition in which bubbles of vapour nucleate at points (nuclear site) on a
heated surface.
 When boiling occurs on a heater surface at low superheat, bubbles can be seen to form
repeatedly at preferred positions called nucleation sites.
 Nucleate boiling is takes place when the heater surface temperature is higher than the
saturated fluid temperature by a certain amount but where the heat flux is below the critical
heat flux.
 Nucleate boiling can occur in Pool Boiling and in flow Boiling. The heat transfer coefficient in
nucleate boiling is very high.

12) Explain two phase flow

 Two-phase flow refers to the interactive flow of two distinct phases with common interfaces in
a channel, with each phase having certain mass or volume.

13) Explain different types of vessel head:

Sr Head Characterises
No
1 Elliptical  It is a most widely used Pressure Vessel Heads. It has wider Radial section
head is available for pressure distribution.
 It can withstand maximum pressure as compared to other heads.
 Generally most used Ellipsoidal Heads Configuration is as per 2:1
Ellipsoidal Section.
 Ellipsoidal Heads required more time of forming as compared to Flat Heads
and Torispherical Heads.
 It is Most Economical Pressure Vessels Heads.

2 Torisphe  It is also most widely used heads. It also has more radial section for
rical pressure distribution so it also withstands maximum pressure but lower
head than ellipsoidal Heads.
 So that it is less economical than ellipsoidal heads but it also widely use due
to lower time required for forming than the ellipsoidal heads.
  For the same design condition, Torispherical Heads Thickness is nearly
1.77 times the Shell Thickness for same Design Pressure and Temperature.

ID = Inside Diameter (ID), CR= Crown Radius (C.R), KR = Knuckle Radius (K.R),
H = Dish End Total Height (H) and SF = Straight Face (SF).
3 Hemisph  This Head or Dish end is also used in pressure vessels fabrication. It has
erical Maximum Radial Section is available than the other types of heads. Due to
head this it has maximum pressure distribution area is available.
 So that, for Same Design Condition Hemi spheric Heads Thickness is
approximately half of the shell Thickness for same pressure and
Temperature.
 It is most economical Heads than the other types of Heads but it required
maximum time of forming.

4 Flat head  It is the simplest form of the pressure vessels heads but it has less pressure
withstanding capacity than the other types of heads due to lower radial
section is available for pressure distribution.

Here, ID =Flat Head Inside Diameter (ID),

R = Knuckle Radius (R),
H = Dish End Total Height (H)
SF=Straight Face (SF).

14) Explain Reynolds number:

 Reynolds number = = =

 For pipe flow; L = d → N = WhenN < 2100, flow is laminar and N > 4000,
flow is turbulent

15) Explained Indian nuclear three stage program:

  In the first stage of the program, natural uranium fueled pressurized heavy water
reactors (PHWR) produce electricity while generating plutonium-239 as by-product.
 In the second stage, fast breeder reactors (FBRs) would use a mixed oxide (MOX) fuel made
from plutonium-239, recovered by reprocessing spent fuel from the first stage, and natural
uranium. In FBRs, plutonium-239 undergoes fission to produce energy, while the uranium-238
present in the mixed oxide fuel transmutes to additional plutonium-239. Thus, the Stage II
FBRs are designed to "breed" more fuel than they consume. Once the inventory of plutonium-
239 is built up thorium can be introduced as a blanket material in the reactor and transmuted
to uranium-233 for use in the third stage.
 In third stage, a self-sustaining series of thorium-232–uranium-233 fueled reactors. This
would be a thermal breeder reactor, which in principle can be refueled – after its initial fuel
charge – using only naturally occurring thorium.

16) Merits and demerits of PHWR:

Merits:
1. The major advantage of this reactor is that the fuel need not be enriched.
2. The reactor vessel may be built to withstand low pressure; therefore, the cost of the vessel is
less.
3. The moderator can be kept at low temperature which increases its effectiveness in slowing
down neutrons.
4. Heavy water being a very good moderator, this type of reactor has higher multiplication
factor and low fuel consumption.
5. A shorter period is required for the site construction compared with PWR and BWR.

Demerits:
1. The cost of heavy water is extremely high.
2. The leakage is a major problem as there are two mechanically sealed closures per fuel channel.
3. The power density is considerably low (10.0 kW/litre) compared with PWR and BWR,
therefore, the reactor size is extremely large.
4. Positive void coefficient of reactivity.

17) Why PHWR have positive void coefficient of reactivity;

 The physical characteristics of PHWR, i.e. the low temperature heavy water moderator, the
high temperature heavy water coolant, and the natural uranium fuel, lead to a positive coolant
void coefficient.
 This results from a small shift in the neutron spectrum on coolant voiding, which affects the
absorption rates in the thermal and epithermal range, and from loss of neutron scattering
which affects the absorption rates at high energies.
 These result in the increase of all four factors involved in the effective multiplication factor.

18) AHWR fuel can be used in PHWR

Yes AHWR fuel can be used in PHWR, Reactor physics, thermal hydraulic and refuelling will be
change.

19) What will happened if we used enriched uranium in PHWR:

If enriched uranium used as fuel, heat generation will be high (flux will be high)

20) PHWR vs AHWR:

Characteristics AHWR PHWR
Type of Reactor Pressure tube type heavy Pressure tube type heavy water
water moderated, Boiling moderated and heavy water cooled,
light water cooled, horizontal reactor
vertical reactor
Fuel Th + U233O2 +PO2 (Zr UO2 (Zr clad)
clad)
Coolant Flow Natural circulation Forced circulation
Void coefficient of Negative Positive
reactivity
No of channel 452 channel 220 MWe – 306 channels
540/700 MWe – 392 channels
Steam Separated in stem drum Generated in steam drum
PCP No primary pump Four PCPs
Active core height 3.5 m 540 MWe – 6.44 m
220 MWe/700 MWe – 5.94 m
Fuel pin 54 pins (12,18,24) 220 MWe – 19 pins (1,6,12)
540/700 MWe – 37 pins (1,6,12,18)
Clad Zircaloy-2 Zircaloy-4
Burnup (MWd/t) 24000 7000
Linear heating rate (kW/m) 10.6 kW/m 27-28 kW/m
Power density 9.3 MW/m3 10.0 MW/m3
Coolant flow 2145 kg/sec 220 MWe – 3530 kg/sec
540/700 MWe – 7813 kg/sec
Suppression pool GDWP (8000 m3) at 220/540 MWe – Suppression pool at
elevation of 136 m bottom
700 MWe – Containment spray system
ECCS System Direct injection in fuel 220/540 MWe – Selected header
cluster injection
700 MWe – Simultaneous all header
Two stage injection: injection
1. Accumulator injection
(MHT Pr< 50 bar). 220MWe – Three stage injection
2. GDWP water injection 1. Accumulator D2O injection (MHT
(MHT Pr< 3 bar) Pr< 55 bar).
2. Medium pressure light water
injection (MHT Pr< 32 bar)
3. Low pressure light water
circulation from suppression pool

540/700 MWe – Two stage injection

1. Accumulator H2O injection (MHT
Pr< 40 bar).
2. Low pressure light water
circulation.
Decay Heat Removal Isolation Condenser 220 MWe/540 MWe – Fire water
System injection
700 MWe – PDHRS
Containment isolation Passive Isolation & Closing of inlet and outlet ventilation
Closing of inlet and outlet dampers
 ventilation dampers
Containment cooling Passive containment 220 MWe/540 MWe – RB Cooler
cooler 700 MWe - Containment spray system

21) Whether AC power will work for FRCS and pump?

 No, because for AC power have three phase of equal rating that needs to connect for power
supply. This is not possible with two FRCS.
 Pumps generally runs on AC power.

22) Difference between carbon steel and stainless steel:

Following is the difference between carbon steel and stainless steel
Carbon steel Stainless steel
Carbon steel has less than 10.5% chromium stainless steel must be equal to or greater than
content 10.5% chromium content (Rust resistance)
Carbon steel has carbon content; at up to Less than 1.2% carbon
2.1% of the metal’s weight. The carbon
component is the ingredient that makes the
steel stronger.
Brittle, not easily bent or moulded Strong and highly durable
More susceptible to rust and corrosion Its corrosion free

23) Role of Ni in Stainless steel:

 Nickel is an austenite stabilizer and widens the austenite region and contracts the ferrite
region in steel.
 Nickel improves the resistance against the corrosion and oxidation at elevated temperatures.
 Nickel improves the toughness and strength by refining the grain size

24) How PHWR/AHWR can have different power in different channel:

Peripheral channel have more neutron loss so the fission reaction is low. Thus, power of
peripheral channel will be less compared to inside channel.

25) Nusselt number for laminar and turbulent equations

Nusselt number; N = = =

Local nusselt number; Nu = , average nusselt number; Nu =

/
Local nusselt number over plate for laminar flow; Nu = 0.332 Re Pr /
(Pr > 0.6)
/
Average nusselt number over plate for laminar flow; Nu = 0.664 Re Pr / (Pr > 0.6)
Dittus–Boelter equation for turbulent flow ((0.6≤Pr≤150), ReD>10000,L/D>10);
/
Nu = 0.023 Re Pr (n = 0.4 for heating and 0.3 for cooling)
Sieder–Tate equation for turbulent flow ((0.7≤Pr≤16700), ReD>10000,L/D>10);
/ μ .
Nu = 0.027 Re Pr .
μ
Sieder–Tate equation for laminar flow (ReD<2100)
 D . μ .
Nu = 1.86 Re Pr
L μ
Forced convection laminar flow; for uniform temperature Nu = 3.66
For uniform heat flux, Nu = 4.36

26) Explain Homogenous model for two phase flow:

 The main assumption of the homogeneous flow model is that the liquid and vapor/gas phase
flow with the same velocity and they are well mixed; so, they can be treated as if there is only
one phase.
 This model works better for two-phase flow near the critical point, where the differences
between the properties of the liquid and vapor are insignificant, or when the mass velocity of
the two-phase flow is very high so that the flow regime is either bubbly or misty flow.

27) Why Clad thickness kept minimum:

 Less thickness will have low neutron absorption. So, clad thickness is kept minimum.

28) K-type thermometer:

 Most common thermocouple and have wide range of measurement. The cable used is chromel
and alumel.

29) Pressure transmitter:

 Pressure transmitter is a mechanical device that converts the expansion force of a liquid or gas
sample into an electrical output. The device converts the pressure into an electrical signal by
means of a transducer.

30) Orifice meter:

 Orifice meter is one type of variable head meter, following is the characterise of orifice meter
w.r.t. other variable head meter
 Pressure loss – higher, Accuracy – Higher, Straight length requirement – higher, cost of
installation – lower, reverse flow – can be measured, contaminated fluids – chances of
blockage.

31) For which phenomena stored heat is important:

 For reactor transient or unsteady state study; Rewetting, LOCA & ECCS injection,

32) Drift flux model:

 The drift flux model treats the mixture as a pseudo single fluid, yet it allows a slip between the
liquid and the gas. The drift flux model consists of four partial differential equations: continuity
equation for one phase (usually the gas) and three conservation equations for the mixture
(continuity, momentum and energy).
 The equations are solved for the following independent variables: G, the mixture mass flux; C,
the in situ gas concentration in the mixture; P, the mixture pressure and H, the mixture
enthalpy.

33) Zr alloy used in reactor with their key Characterises:

Zr have low absorption cross sectional area for thermal neutron (0.18 barn).
Material Used Characterises
Zr-2 BWR and AHWR clad, CT of 220 Resistance to corrosion in oxidating
MWe PHWR environment
 Zr-4 PHWR clad, CT of 540 MWe Hydrogen absorption is smaller
PHWR
Zr- 1% Nb VVER and IPWR clad
Zr – 2.5% Nb Pressure tube

34) Limit for Zr

35) Important material:

Fuel Metal, oxide, carbide of U, Pu
Coolant Water, Heavy water, CO2, liquid sodium
Moderator Graphite, Light water, Heavy water
Clad Al, SS, Zr-2, Zr -4
Pressure tube Zr – 2.5% Nb
Calandria tube Zr-4%
Annulus gas CO2
Cover gas Helium
Calandria vessel SS 304 L
SG vessel CS
SG tube Inconel 800
Control rod Cadmium, Halfnium
Liquid poison gadolinium nitrate

36) Properties of DM water:

Dissolved solid Less than 20 ppb
Electric conductivity 0.06-0.15 μS/cm
pH 6-7
Cl Less than 10 ppb
Dissolved oxygen Less than 20 ppb

37) Negative vs positive void coefficient of reactivity:

 A positive void coefficient means that the reactivity increases as the void content inside the
reactor increases due to increased boiling or loss of coolant; for example, if the coolant acts
predominantly as neutron absorber.
 Negative coefficient reduces reactivity in case of pressure decreasing or LOCA for BWR.
  Following are the coefficient of reactivity for reactor.
AHWR – Negative void coefficient of reactivity
PHWR – Positive void coefficient of reactivity
BWR – Negative void coefficient of reactivity
PWR – Highly negative void coefficient of reactivity
RBMK – Positive void coefficient of reactivity

38) Different material for fuel with their key characteristics:

Fuel Characterises
Metal fuel High thermal conductivity
Lower melting point
Oxide fuel Melting point is higher
It cannot burn as it is in oxide form.
Thermal conductivity is low
Nitrile fuel Better thermal conductivity
Required N15
Carbide fuel High conductivity and high melting point
More prone to swelling

39) Xenon problem in reactor:

 Xe135 is the most powerful known neutron absorber, with a cross section for thermal neutrons
of 2.6×106 barns, so it acts as a "poison" that can slow or stop the chain reaction after a period
of operation.
 When reactor power is decreased or shut down by inserting neutron-absorbing control rods,
the reactor neutron flux is reduced and the equilibrium shifts initially towards higher 135Xe
concentration.
 The 135Xe concentration peaks about 11.1 hours after reactor power is decreased.
Since 135Xe has a 9.2-hour half-life, the 135Xe concentration gradually decays back to low
levels over 72 hours. The temporarily high level of 135Xe with its high neutron absorption
cross-section makes it difficult to restart the reactor for several hours.
 The neutron-absorbing 135Xe acts like a control rod, reducing reactivity. The inability of a
reactor to be started because of 135Xe is sometimes referred to as xenon-precluded start-up,
and the reactor is said to be "poisoned out".
 The period of time that the reactor is unable to overcome the effects of 135Xe is called the
"xenon dead time".

40) Type of stainless steel

1. Austenitic Stainless Steels. These are the most frequently used types of stainless steels.
Austenitic stainless steels tend to have a high chromium content compared to other steel
alloys, giving them a higher resistance to corrosion. Another common characteristic of
austenitic stainless-steel alloys is that they tend to be non-magnetic—though they may become
magnetic after cold working.
2. Ferritic Stainless Steels. The second most common form of stainless steel after austenitic alloys.
As the name implies, ferritic stainless steel is magnetic. These alloys can be hardened through
cold working. They also tend to be less expensive because of their reduced nickel content.
3. Martensitic Stainless Steels. The least common category of stainless-steel alloy. Their corrosion
resistance tends to be lower than either ferritic or austenitic alloys, but they have a high
hardness. Martensitic stainless-steel alloys are often ideal for applications requiring
 extraordinarily high tensile strength and impact resistance. When said applications also
require corrosion resistance, these alloys may be used with a protective polymer coating.
4. Duplex (Ferritic-Austenitic) Stainless Steels. This category of stainless steel derives its name
“duplex” from its composition; it is made of half austenite and half delta-ferrite. These
stainless-steel alloys have better corrosion resistance, especially against chloride pitting, and
higher tensile strength than standard austenitic stainless steels. Due to their physical
properties and chemical resistance, duplex stainless steels are used widely in the oil and gas
industry for pipework systems or as pipelines and pressure vessels in the petrochemicals
industry.
5. Precipitation-Hardening (PH) Stainless Steels. This category of stainless steel is comprised of
durable, corrosion-resistant alloys with exceptional strength. They can be treated to yield
strengths three to four times that of standard austenitic stainless steel. They are most used in
the aerospace, nuclear, and oil and gas industries.

41) Why Aluminium used as clad material for research reactor:

 Because the main purpose of research and test reactors is to produce neutrons, rather than
power, a cladding with a low neutron absorption cross section is desired.

42) Why carbide fuel for FBTR:

 As The fuel used for fast reactors must have higher degree of enrichment compared to those
used in thermal reactors.
 This is required to compensate for lower fission cross section in fast spectrum compared to
that in thermal region. The loss of neutrons from the core for small-sized cores needs to be
considered during the decision on degree of enrichment to be utilized.
 The enrichment level is calculated as the ratio of Pu-239 to the sum of Pu-239 and U-235.
Different enrichment levels required are obtained by varying the quantity of Pu- 239.
Relatively large sized (diameter) reactors like PFBR require an enrichment level of about 0.25
or 25 %, while small reactors require enrichment to the level of 0.7 or 70 %.
 The degree of enrichment too poses a constraint in the choice of fuel. For example, it is
extremely difficult to achieve a degree of enrichment of 0.7 using the metal oxide fuels owing to
the requirement of highly enriched uranium. Hence fast reactors with small cores requiring
higher degree of enrichment will have to be built with carbide or metallic fuels. This is the case
with Indian Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) operating in Kalpakkam with the mixed carbide
(UC-PuC) fuel.

43) Heat generation graph in fuel pin:

44) Heat transfer equation for cylindrical tube:

45) Different types of normal operation condition in reactor:
 Operation of a plant or equipment within specified operational limits and conditions. In case of
nuclear power plant, this includes, start-up, power operation, shutting down, shutdown state,
maintenance, testing and refueling.

46) Barrier for radioactivity escape for PHWR and PWR/BWR

Barrier for radioactive escape for PHWR
First barrier: Fuel matrix
Second barrier: Fuel cladding
Third barrier: Boundary of reactor coolant system (Coolant channel)
Fourth barrier: Containment of reactor

Barrier for radioactive escape for PWR/BWR

First barrier: Fuel matrix and fuel cladding
Second barrier: Boundary of reactor coolant system
Third barrier: Containment of reactor

47) Reprocessing of AHWR fuel

48) Challenge with U232/U233 in reprocessing

  Presence of U232 which in turn decays to hard gamma emitting daughter products Bismuth Bi
212 (gamma 0.7-1.6 MeV) and thallium, Tl-208 (gamma-2.6 MeV) which required heavy
shielding and remote handling facility for transportation.
 Alpha activity of U233 is three orders of magnitude higher than that of HEU and about one
order magnitude less than that of weapons grade Pu

49) What is redundancy?

 Provision of alternative structures, systems, components of identical attributes, so that anyone
can perform the required function regardless of the state of operation or failure of any other.

50) Basic of electricity

 Electricity is the flow of charges. Usually, charges will be carried out by free-flowing electrons.
 There are two types of electricity transport: DC and AC.
 AC power can be easily stepped up or step-down using transformer, AC induction motors are
easy to make and maintain, AC power supply has negligible power loss.
 Generally, 230 V single phase with 50 Hz frequency AC power supply supplied to household.

51) Zoning around nuclear power plant

 Exclusion zone: 1.6 km/1 km – No habitation
 Natural growth zone: 5 Km – Natural growth zone
 Emergency planning zone (EPZ) – 16 km

52) Characteristic curve of centrifugal pump

53) Neutron energy spectrum

 10 4
103
U-238 Fission
10 3
U-238 (n,)
102
10 2
101

Cross-section (barn)
Cross-section (barn)

10 1

10 0 100

10 -1 10-1

10 -2 10-2

10 -3 10-3
U-235 Fission
10 -4
10-4 U-235 (n,)
10 -5
10-5
10 -6
10 -3 10 -2 10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108
Energy (eV) Energy (eV)

54) Breeding ratio:

 An important concept for a breeder reactor is how much fissionable fuel is being produced
compared to how much fuel is being used.
 This is known as the breeding ratio. For example, for the breeding of plutonium, the ratio
would be the amount of plutonium produced to the amount of uranium-235 used.

55) Moderation power for water and heavy water:

 Absorption cross section of heavy water (0.00052 barn)is less than normal water (0.332 barn)
( 1 barn = 10-28)
 Migration length is high for heavy water (1.01 m) compared to normal water (0.059)
 This is known as the breeding ratio. For example, for the breeding of plutonium, the ratio
would be the amount of plutonium produced to the amount of uranium-235 used.

56) Electrical power supply details for nuclear power plant:

Class IV power supply: The supplies which are not in any way connected with reactor safety but are
necessary for power production. They are supplied directly by main generator or the external grid.
Class III power supply: These loads can tolerate interruption of a minute or so but must be provided
by an emergency source like diesel generators. Examples are; Main loads are fire-fighting pumps,
emergency BFPs, PHT pressurizing pumps etc
Class II power supply: Loads cannot be interrupted any time. Normally they are provided from
class-3 power supply and backed up by battery bank.
 Class I power supply: The most reliable supply in the entire scheme is class 1 DC supply. Normally
supplied through class 3 but backed up by DC battery banks.

57) Thickness calculation as per ASME VIII:

Cylindrical vessel under internal pressure

Spherical vessel under internal pressure

58) Skin friction vs form friction

Skin friction is the friction due to friction in the pipe. Form friction is the friction due to localized
loss.

59) Fanning friction factor calculation

f= forlaminarflow (Not a function of wall roughness)
.
f = 0.046N forturbulentflow (Valid for smooth pipe upto 105)
.
f = 0.0791N forturbulentflow (Valid for smooth pipe upto 107)

60) Power density

 Power density can be defined as the energy extracted from the fissile material per unit coolant
volume per unit time.
 Lower power density helps in control.

61) Energy equation:

Rectangular coordinates (x,y,z):

ρC + v + v + v =k + + + Q̇
For conduction only:ρC = k∇ T + Q̇
For one dimension conduction:ρC =k + Q̇
̇
Here, Q = Volumetric heat generation rate

Cylindrical coordinates (r, θ, z):

ρC + v + + v =k + + + Q̇
For one dimension coordinates (Liquid flowing through pipe):
ρC + v =k + + Q̇

62) Cladding material for nuclear fuel:

  The thin-walled metal tube that forms the outer jacket of a nuclear fuel rod. It prevents
corrosion of the fuel by the coolant and the release of fission products into the coolant.
Aluminium, stainless steel, and zirconium alloys are common cladding materials.
 Zr alloys as cladding material limits the service temperature to less than 400 C
 The cladding material is a zirconium alloy, traditionally Zircaloy-2 for the BWR fuel rods and
Zircaloy-4 for PWR. The main difference is the presence of nickel in Zircaloy-2 and not in
Zircaloy-4. For Zr-4 in a PWR, the tin content is an important parameter to control the
corrosion rate in-pile.
 Clad should be transparent to neutrons, so that it doesn’t absorb neutrons that could be used to
induce further fission. It should have a high thermal conductivity, and not have a high thermal
expansion coefficient.
 Clad should have less hydrogen embrittlement due to (n, p) reactions inside cladding and
should not swell due to release of fission product gases.
 Austenitic stainless steels present good creep resistance to higher temperatures coupled with
reasonable corrosion/oxidation resistance, being a candidate material for fuel cladding of
SWRC and LFR reactors for temperatures up to 600 C. Thus, it is used in fast reactor.
 Aluminium alloys are chosen as clad materials in research reactors because of their good
corrosion resistance, low thermal neutron captured cross section, and fair mechanical
properties. Despite their low melting points, aluminium alloys have the desired low neutron
absorption and have a high thermal conductivity. Aluminium alloy cladding undergoes
oxidation in water, developing a protective oxide layer (Al2O3). This reaction will be elevated
at high temperature. That’s why it is not used in power reacto

63) Dhruva Reactor important parameters:

 Thermal power: 100 MW
 Coolant, moderator, reflector: Heavy Water (Moderator and coolant are intermixed)
 Fuel: Natural uranium in metallic form
 Clad: Aluminium
 Maximum flux: 1.8X1014 n/cm2 s
 Channel: 146
 Fuel pin: 127 (multi pin cluster)
 Heat exchange: Three loops; Heavy water, Normal water, Sea water
 Use: Neutron beam research, isotope production, neutron activation analysis, material testing

64) Thermocouple:
 EMF is generated in a circuit of two dissimilar metals when the junctions are different
temperatures. The EMF is proportional to the temperature difference between the junctions

65) RTD:
 Resistance of metals or alloys changes with change in temperature.
  Most metals show an increase in Resistance with increased Temperature
The relation is given by
Rt = R0 (1 + αΔT)
α is resistance temperature coefficient
 Platinum, copper and nickel are the most commonly used elements used as RTDs.

66) Research reactor vs power reactor:

Research reactor Power reactor
Research reactors are small nuclear Power reactor are large and used for electricity
reactors that are primarily used to produce production
neutrons or radio isotope production
Simple design, operates at low temperature Complex design, Operates at high temperature
Flux high Flux low
Velocity of coolant is high Velocity of coolant is low

67) High flux research reactor:

 Power: 30 MW
 Type: Pool type research reactor
 Neutron flux: 4.8 X 10^14
 Fuel: Low enriched uranium dispersed in aluminum matrix
 Coolant and moderator: Light water
 Application: Material irradiation

68) APSARA Upgrade:

 Reactor Type: Swimming pool type/ Thermal Reactor
 Reactor Power (Th): 2 MW (Maximum)
 Fuel Material: Uranium Silicide (LEU) – plates
 Fuel Cladding: Aluminium alloy
 Core Size: 662 mm x 662 mm x 140 mm; 64 lattice positions
 Max Neutron Flux: 6.1X1013 n/cm2/sec
 Moderator: Light water
 Coolant: Light water
 Reflector: Beryllium Oxide
 Shut off rods / Control Rods: Hafnium
 Uses: Basic research, Production of isotopes, Neutron activation analysis, Neutron
radiography, Testing of neutron detectors, Shielding experiments

69) APSARA:
 Reactor Type: Swimming pool type/ Thermal Reactor
 Reactor Power (Th): 1 MW (Maximum)
 Fuel Material: Enriched uranium -aluminium alloy
 Fuel Cladding: Aluminium alloy
 Core Size: 560 mm X 560 mm X 615 mm(H)
 Max Neutron Flux: 1013 n/cm2/sec
 Moderator: Light water
 Coolant: Light water
 Shut off rods / Control Rods: Cadmium
 Uses: Basic research, Production of isotopes, Neutron activation analysis, Neutron
radiography, Testing of neutron detectors, Shielding experiments
70) ZERLINA:
 Reactor Type: Vertical Tank Type / Thermal
 Reactor Power (Th): 100 W (Nominal)
 Fuel Material: Natural Uranium Metal
 Fuel Element: Rods
 Fuel Cladding: Aluminium
 Core Size: 2.29m (D) X 4.35m(H)
 Max Neutron Flux: 0.5x108n/cm2/sec
 Moderator: Heavy water
 Coolant: Heavy water
 Shut off Rods: Cadmium
 Uses: Reactor Lattice studies

71) CIRUS:
 Reactor Type: Vertical Tank Type / Thermal Reactor
 Reactor Power (Th): 40 MW (Maximum)
 Fuel Material: Natural Uranium Metal
 Fuel Element Rods
 Fuel Cladding Aluminium
 Core Size 2.67m (D) X 3.14m (H)
 Max Neutron Flux 6.5x1013n/cm2/sec
 ModeratorHeavy water
 Coolant: Light water
 Shut off Rods: Boron Cadmium
 Uses: Production of isotopes, R & D in reactor technology, Manpower training, Neutron beam
research, Neutron activation analysis, Development and testing of fuel assemblies Testing of
neutron detectors

72) PURNIMA –I :
 Reactor Type: Fast Reactor
 Reactor Power (Th): 1 W (Nominal)
 Fuel Material: Plutonium oxide (plates)
 Fuel Cladding: Stainless Steel
 Core Size: 180 mm(D) X 180 mm(H)
 Max Neutron Flux: ~108n/cm2/sec
 Moderator: None
 Coolant: Air
 Shut off Rods: Molybdenum
 Uses: Fast reactor physics studies

73) PURNIMA –II :

 Reactor Type: Vertical Tank Type / Thermal Reactor
 Reactor Power (Th): 100 mW (Nominal)
 Fuel Material: Uranium-233
 Fuel Element: Uranyl Nitrate Solution
 Fuel Cladding: None
 Core Size: 148 mm(D) X (250-400) cm(H)
 Max Neutron Flux: 107n/cm2/sec
  Moderator: Light water
 Coolant: Light water
 Control Rods: Boron carbide
 Shut off Devices; Cadmium
 Uses: U-233 fuel studies; futuristic reactor evaluation

74) PURNIMA –III :

 Reactor Type: Vertical Tank Type / Thermal Reactor
 Reactor Power (Th): 1 W (Maximum)
 Fuel Material: Uranium-233-aluminium alloy (plates)
 Fuel Cladding: Aluminium
 Core Size: 204 mm X 204 mm X 275 mm (H)
 Max Neutron Flux: ~108n/cm2/sec
 Moderator: Light water
 Coolant: Light water
 Control Elements: Cadmium plates
 Reflector material: Beryllium oxide
 Uses: Mock-up studies for Kamini reactor

75) AHWR-CF:
 Reactor Type: Vertical Tank Type/Thermal Reactor
 Nominal Reactor Fission Power: 100 W
 Fuel Material: Natural Uranium Metal (cluster)
 Fuel Cladding: Aluminium
 Core Size: 3.3 m (D) x 5.0m (H)
 Neutron Flux (Average): 108n/cm2/sec
 Moderator: Heavy Water
 Shut Off Rods: Cadmium
 Uses: Validation of the reactor physics design of AHWR, Neutron activation analysis, Nuclear
detector testing Assessment of negative reactivity of absorber material

76) Rankin cycle :

 1-2 Isentropic Compression: The pressure of the condensate is raised in the feed pump.
 2-3 Isobaric Heat Transfer: High pressure liquid enters the boiler from the feed pump (2) and
is heated to the saturation temperature (3).
 3-4 Isentropic Expansion: The vapor is expanded in the turbine, thus producing work which
may be converted to electricity.
 4-1 Isobaric Heat Rejection: The vapor-liquid mixture leaving the turbine is condensed at low
pressure, usually in a surface condenser using cooling water.
77) Brayton cycle:

78) Hydrogen embrittlement in zr

 Hydrogen get diffuses into the zirconium alloy cladding forming zirconium hydrides.
 The hydrogen production process also mechanically weakens the rods cladding because the
hydrides have lower ductility and density than zirconium or its alloys, and thus blisters and
cracks form upon hydrogen accumulation.
 This process is also known as hydrogen embrittlement. It has been reported that the
concentration of hydrogen within hydrides is also dependent on the nucleation site of the
precipitates

79) Industrial safety

 This Hot Work Permit is required for any operation involving open flame or producing heat
and/or sparks. This work includes, but is not limited to, welding, brazing, cutting, grinding,
soldering, thawing pipe, torch-applied roofing, or chemical welding.
 Height pass required to work above height of 4 m.

80) Dose limit to public

81) Important isotopes

Isotopes Application
Molybdenum 99 Radiopharmaceuticals for diagnostic and therapeutic procedures
Iodine 131 Diagnose and treat cancers of the thyroid gland
 Samarium Sm 153 To treat pain caused by cancer that has spread to the bone
lutetium-177 To treat adults with gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors that are
somatostatin receptor positive
Iridium Ir 192 brachytherapy to treat tumors
Cobalt 60 As a tracer for cobalt in chemical reactions, Sterilization of medical
equipment, Radiation source for medical radiotherapy for cancer

82) Heat exchanger design

 Selection of heat exchanger
 Material and energy balance
 Fluid allocation
 Selection of heating and cooling
 Calculation mean temperature difference
 Calculate A provided by U assuming
 Design of internal component of heat exchanger
 Calculate tube side heat transfer coefficient
 Calculate shell side heat transfer coefficient
 Calculate overall heat transfer coefficient
 Calculate A required from above calculated U
 Calculate tube side and shell side pressure drop
 Calculate effectiveness of heat exchanger

83) Effectiveness of heat exchanger

The LMTD method is used for the heat exchanger design and the NTU or The
Effectiveness method is used for the heat exchanger analysis. In LMTD method, the fluid inlet and outlet
temperatures are known; but in NTU method these all four temperatures are not available.
The effectiveness (ε), is the ratio between the actual heat transfer rate and the maximum
possible heat transfer rate; ε = . Effectiveness is a dimensionless quantity and its value is
between 0 to 1
Here, q = C (T − T ) = C (T − T )
q = maximum possible heat transfer that can be achieved in a counter-flow heat
exchanger with infinite length. = C (T − T )
C = min ṁ C , ṁ C
q = εC (T − T )

For any heat exchanger; ε = f NTU,

Here, NTU = Number of transfer unit = U = Overall heat transfer coefficient

A = Heat transfer area C =
[ ( )]
Co Current heat exchanger; ε =
[ ( )]
Counter current heat exchanger; ε = [ ( )] For C = 1; ε =

For condensation or phase change; C = 0, ε = 1 − e[ ]

84) PFBR
 The Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) is a 500 MWe fast breeder nuclear reactor
presently being constructed at Kalpakkam, India.
 The Kalpakkam PFBR is designed to use uranium-238 to breed plutonium in a sodium-cooled
fast reactor design. The surplus plutonium (or uranium-233 for thorium reactors) from each
fast reactor can be used to set up more such reactors and grow the nuclear capacity in tune
with India's needs for power.
 The reactor is a pool type LMFBR with 1,750 tonnes of sodium as coolant. Designed to generate
500 MWe of electrical power, with an operational life of 40 years, it will burn a mixed uranium-
plutonium MOX fuel, a mixture of PuO2 and UO2.
 A fuel burnup of 100 GWd/t is expected.

85) FBTR
 The Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) is a breeder reactor located at Kalpakkam, Tamil
Nadu, India
 The reactor was designed to produce 40 MW of thermal power and 13.2 MW of electrical
power.
 The reactor uses a plutonium-uranium mixed carbide fuel and liquid sodium as a coolant. The
fuel is an indigenous mix of 70 percent plutonium carbide and 30 percent uranium carbide.

86) Pressure tube mark in TAPS 3&4

 There are some scratch observed in pressure tube due to bundle movement on upper half
tubes.