Introduction to Chemistry for Engineers

 A scientific theory is an explanation of the general cause of a phenomenon, in which the explanation is supported
by considerable evidence.
 A scientific hypothesis is a tentative explanation for a set of observations that can be tested by further
experimentation.
 A scientific law is a statement describing a relationship between phenomena that is always the same under the
same conditions.

What is Chemistry?

 The study of matter and the chemicals that make it up is the focus of the scientific subdiscipline of chemistry.
The characteristics of these chemicals and the processes they go through to produce new compounds are also
covered.

Atoms, ions, and molecules, which in turn make up elements and compounds, are the main subjects of chemistry.
Through chemical bonding, these chemical species frequently communicate with one another. It is essential to
remember that the study of chemistry also examines how matter and energy interact.

Branches of Chemistry

 Inorganic Chemistry
- studies the structure, properties and reactions of non - carbon chemical compounds or those that do not
contain carbon-hydrogen bonds.
- In other words, it is one of the branches of Chemistry which deals with chemicals that are ‘non-organic’ in
nature. The subject includes the synthesis and behavior of inorganic or organometallic chemical compounds
found in the earth’s crust and non-living matter.
 Organic Chemistry

- is one of the most important branches of chemistry that studies chemical compounds containing carbon
elements combined with ‘carbon-hydrogen’ bonds (hydrocarbons).

- often known as the ‘Chemistry of Life’ that deals with the structure, properties and reactions of organic
compounds.

- A study of Organic Chemistry helps students to identify and classify the various naturally occurring compounds
and to create one with desired properties and functions. Graduates can work in several industries such
as pharmaceuticals, fuel, rubber, cosmetics, plastic, detergents, agrochemicals and coating industries.

 Physical Chemistry
- covers the ‘physical properties’ of chemical compounds using law and various concepts of Physics, such
as motion, energy, force, time, statistical mechanics, quantum chemistry and thermodynamics.
- This is one of the most exciting branches of Chemistry which allows students to understand the physical
characteristics of chemical compounds like temperature, volume, pressure, conductivity, plasticity, strength,
 surface tension in liquids, solubility, viscosity, boiling point, melting point and colour. The subject is studied
using various mathematical models and formulas.
 Analytical Chemistry

- is one of the quantitative branches of Chemistry that deals with the ‘identification, separation and
quantification’ of chemical substances. The knowledge of Analytical Chemistry enables chemists and scientists
to determine the amount of chemical substances in a given material. The subject has been further classified
into the following two categories:

- Qualitative Analysis: It involves processes that are carried out to identify a chemical substance in a given sample.

- Quantitative Analysis. It involves finding out the concentration or amount of the substance in the given sample.

 Biochemistry

- studies the biological structure, composition and chemical reactions at the cellular and molecular level. This
covers a range of living organisms such as planta, insects, viruses, microorganisms, etc.

- Biochemistry is an amalgamation of Biology with Organic, Inorganic and Physical Chemistry. Various topics
covered in this subject include issues related to diseases, the chemical basis of heredity and how living
organisms derive energy from food.

Science is a framework for gaining and organizing knowledge. Science is not simply a set of facts but also a plan of action
– a procedure for processing and understanding certain types of information. The process that lies at the center of
scientific inquiry is called the scientific method.

Scientific Method

 It is a process that is used to find answers to questions about the world around us.

Scientist conducts their study following this cycle of observation, predicting and experimenting. After an experiment, a
new observation will be form that will undergo again of the cycle.

Making observations

Observations may be qualitative or quantitative. A qualitative observation does not involve a number. For example, the
outside air temperature is cooler during the winter season, table salt is crystalline and dissolving a penny in a dilute
nitric acid forms a blue solution and a brown gas. While quantitative observation (called a measurement) involves both
number and a unit. For example, the melting point of crystalline sulfur is 115.21 oC, and 35.9g of table salt dissolve in
100g of water at 20oC.

Formulating Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a possible explanation for an observation. The hypothesis may not be correct, but it puts the scientist’s
understanding of the system being studied into a form that can be tested. For example, the observation that we
experience alternating periods of light and darkness corresponding to observed movements of the celestial bodies is
consistent with either two hypotheses: Earth rotates on its axis every 24 hours and the sun revolves around the Earth
every 24 hours.

Performing Experiments

Experiments are systematic observations or measurements, preferably made under controlled condition in which a
single variable changes. An experiment is carried out to a test a hypothesis. This involves gathering new information
that enables a scientist to decide whether the hypothesis is valid – that is, whether it is supported by the information
learned from the experiment. Experiments always produce new observations, and this brings the process back to the
beginning again. For example, in dinosaur’s extinction, iridium concentrations were measured worldwide and
compared.

Scientific Law vs Scientific Theory

• Scientific Law – “what happens”

 - Predicts the results of certain initial conditions

e.g. might predict the unborn child’s possible hair colors, how far a baseball travels when launched at a certain angle,

• Scientific Theory – “why it happens”

- Provides the most logical explanation about why things happen as they do

e.g. might invoke dominant and recessive genes to explain how brown-haired parents ended up with a red-headed child,
or use gravity to shed light in the parabolic trajectory of the baseball

Theory represents a hypothesis which has been confirmed through repeated testing. Generally, a theory is an
interpretation or a possible explanation of why nature behaves in a particular way. Theories are evolving as more
information becomes available. For example, the motions of the sun and stars have remained virtually the same over
the thousands of years during which humans have been observing them, but the theories for these motions have
changed greatly since ancient times.

Whereas theory explains why a phenomena happened, a law simply states what happens, it is a verbal or mathematical
description of a phenomenon that allows for general predictions. For example, Pascal’s law refers an equation that
describes differences in pressure based on height.

Matter

• anything that has mass and occupies space. It can be classified either with respect to its physical phase or with
respect to its composition.

Matter

Physical Chemical

Pure
Rigid Fluid Mixture
Substance

Heteroge- Homoge-
Com-
Solid Liquid Gas Element neous neous
pound Mixture Mixture

Non-
Metal Metalloid Solution Alloy
Metal

According to Phase

• Matter can be either rigid (meaning unbending or inflexible) or fluid (substance have tendency to flow).

• A solid is rigid form of matter so that it maintains its shape when subjected to outside force.

• A liquid and gas are a fluid form of matter which occupies the space of the container.

According to Composition

• Matter can be classified according to its composition: either pure substance or mixture
 • Pure substance cannot be separated by physical means. It has a fixed composition and a unique set of
properties. Pure substances are either elements or compounds.

• An element is a type of matter that cannot be broken down into two or more pure substances by breaking
bonds.

• A compound is a pure substance that can be broken down into two or more elements by chemical meals.
Compounds have fixed compositions.

• Mixture contains two or more substances combined in such a way that each substance retains its chemical
identity. There are two types of mixtures: homogeneous and heterogeneous.

• Homogeneous or uniform mixtures are ones in which the composition is the same throughout. Another name
for a homogeneous mixture is a solution, which is made up of a solvent most commonly a liquid. While solid
homogeneous are alloys.

• Heterogeneous or non-uniform mixtures are those in which the composition varies throughout. Its part can be
easily separated through different methods such as filtration, distillation and etc.

Measurements and Instruments

A coffee maker’s instructions tell you to fill the coffeepot with 4 cups of water and use 3 scoops of coffee. When you
follow these instructions, you are measuring. When you visit a doctor’s office, a nurse checks your temperature, height,
weight, and perhaps blood pressure the nurse is also measuring.

Chemists measure the properties of matter using a variety of devices or measuring tools, many of which are similar to
those used in everyday life. Rulers are used to measure length, balances (scales) are used to measure mass (weight),
and graduated cylinders or pipettes are used to measure volume.

Chemistry is a quantitative science. The lessons and calculations throughout this subject always involves measured
quantities with specified numerical values. Scientific measurements are expressed in the metric system. This is a decimal
system in which all of the units of a particular quantity are related to one another by factors of 10. The common prefixes
usedMeasurements made using these devices/equipment are expressed as quantities.

• A quantity is an amount of something and consists of a number and a unit.

• The number tells us how many (or how much), and the unit tells us what the scale of measurement is.

• A physical property that can be measured and described by a number is called physical quantity.

• Examples:

Mass of a person is 65 kg.

Length of a table is 3 m.

Area of a hall is 100 sq.m.

Temperature of a room is 300 K

Types of Physical Quantities

1. Fundamental quantities:

The physical quantities which do not depend on any other physical quantities for their measurements are known as
fundamental quantities.

• Examples:
 Mass Time

Length Temperature

2. Derived quantities:

• The physical quantities which depend on one or more fundamental quantities for their measurements are
known as derived quantities.

Examples:

Area Speed

Volume Force

• The standard used for the measurement of a physical quantity is called a unit.

Examples:

• metre, foot, inch for length

• kilogram, pound for mass

• second, minute, hour for time

• fahrenheit, kelvin for temperature

Seven Fundamental Units

Chemistry is a quantitative science. The lessons and calculations throughout this subject always involves measured
quantities with specified numerical values. Scientific measurements are expressed in the metric system. This is a decimal
system in which all of the units of a particular quantity are related to one another by factors of 10. The common prefixes
used to express these factors are listed in below.
 Factor Prefix Abbreviation Factor Prefix Abbreviation

1024 yotta Y 10-1 deci d

1021 zetta Z 10-2 centi c

1018 exa E 10-3 milli m

1015 peta P 10-6 micro μ

1012 tera T 10-9 nano n

109 giga G 10-12 pico p

106 mega M 10-15 femto f

103 kilo k 10-18 atto a

102 hector h 10-21 zepto z

101 deca da 10-24 yecto y

Properties of Matter

• Physical properties

- Characteristics that can be measured without changing the composition of the sample under study

- Mass, color, volume (amount of space occupied by a sample)

- Can be extensive or intensive

- Physical properties can be extensive or intensive.

 Extensive properties vary with the amount of the substance and include mass, weight, and volume

 Intensive properties do not depend on the amount of the substance; they include color, melting point,
boiling point, electrical conductivity, and physical state at a given temperature.

For example, elemental sulfur is a yellow crystalline solid that does not conduct electricity and has a melting point of
115.2 °C, no matter what amount is examined. Scientists commonly measure intensive properties to determine a
substance’s identity, whereas extensive properties convey information about the amount of the substance in a sample.

The Difference between Extensive and Intensive Properties of Matter

Because they differ in size, the two samples of sulfur have different extensive properties, such as mass and volume.
In contrast, their intensive properties, including color, melting point, and electrical conductivity, are identical.
 • Chemical Properties

- Describe the characteristic ability of a substance to react to form new substances

- E.g. flammability and susceptibility to corrosion

- All samples of a pure substance have the same chemical and physical properties. For example, pure copper is
always a reddish-brown solid (a physical property) and always dissolves in dilute nitric acid to produce a blue
solution and a brown gas (a chemical property).

Mass and volume are extensive properties.

Density, an intensive property, is defined as mass per unit volume and is usually expressed in grams per cubic centimeter
(g/cm3).

As mass increases in a given volume, density also increases.

• Solubility - referred to as the process by which a solute dissolve in a solvent, and is ordinarily a physical rather
than a chemical change.

Concentration Units

Energy and Chemistry

In the past, huge quantities of carbon-based fossil fuels have been available for the taking. This abundance of fuels has
led to a world society with a voracious appetite for energy, consuming millions of barrels of petroleum every day.

• Energy is the capacity to do work or to produce heat

• Law of conservation of energy states that energy can be converted from one form to another but can be neither
created nor destroyed

“energy of the universe is constant”

 • Energy exist in potential, kinetic, thermal, electrical, chemical, nuclear, or other various forms.

• Energy can be transferred in one of two ways – as heat, or as work.

• Heat is the term given to energy that is transferred from a hot object to a cooler object due to the difference in
their temperatures.

• Work is the term given to energy that is transferred as a result of a force applied over a distance.

What is the difference between heat and temperature?

Temperature is a property that reflects the random motions of the particles in a particular substance.

Heat, on the other hand, involves the transfer of energy between two objects due to a temperature difference. Heat
is not a substance contained by an object, although we often talk of heat as if this were true.

Heat involves a transfer of energy.

In rolling to the bottom of the hill shown, ball A will always lose the same amount of potential energy. However, the
way that this energy transfer is divided between work and heat depends on the specific conditions—the pathway. For
example, the surface of the hill might be so rough that the energy of A is expended completely through frictional heating;
A is moving so slowly when it hits B that it cannot move B to the next level. In this case, no work is done. Regardless of
the condition of the hill’s surface, the total energy transferred will be constant. However, the amounts of heat and work
will differ. Energy change is independent of the pathway; however, work and heat are both dependent on the pathway.

State Function/State Property

• A state function refers to a property of the system that depends only on its present state.

• A state function (property) does not depend in any way on the system’s past (or future).

• A change in this function (property) in going from one state to another state is independent of the particular
pathway taken between the two states.

In other words, the value of a state function does not depend on how the system arrived at the present state; it
depends only on the characteristics of the present state.

Non-scientific Analogy

Every morning, millions of people must decide how to reach their offices. Some opt for taking the stairs, whereas
others take the elevator. In this situation, ∆y, or change in vertical position is the same whether a person take the
stairs or the elevator. The distance from the office lobby to the office stays the same, irrespective of the path taken
to get to your office. As a result, ∆y is a state function because its value is independent of the path taken to establish
its value.
 In the same situation, time, or ∆t, is not a state function. If someone takes the longer way of getting to the office
(climbing the stairs), ∆t would be greater, whereas ∆t would be smaller if the elevator is taken. In this analogy, ∆t is
not a state function because its value is dependent on the path.

A nonscientific analogy that illustrates the difference between a state function and a nonstate function is elevation on
the earth’s surface and distance between two points. In traveling from Chicago (elevation 674 ft) to Denver (elevation
5280 ft), the change in elevation is always 5280 - 674 = 4606 ft regardless of the route taken between the two cities.
The distance traveled, however, depends on how you make the trip. Thus elevation is a function that does not depend
on the route (pathway) but distance is pathway dependent.

Elevation is a state function and distance is not.

Energy is a state function; work and heat are not.

SI Unit: Joule (J) 1 J = 1 kgm2 s-2

1 calories = 4.184 Joules

1 BTU (British Thermal Unit) = 252 calories

1 kWh = 3600 kJ = 3413 BTU = 860 kcal

1 Joule = 1×107 ergs

Forms of Energy

• Potential energy is any form of energy that has stored potential that can be put to future use.

WHERE: m – mass, g – acceleration due to gravity, h – altitude/height

• Chemical energy is energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules.

• Batteries, biomass, petroleum, natural gas, and coal are examples of chemical energy.

• Nuclear energy is energy stored in the nucleus of an atom—the energy that holds the nucleus together. Large
amounts of energy can be released when the nuclei are combined (fusion) or split (fission) apart.

• Nuclear fission, nuclear fusion, and nuclear decay are examples of nuclear energy.

• Kinetic energy is the motion of waves, electrons, atoms, molecules, substances, and objects.

WHERE: m – mass, v – velocity of object

- Radiant energy is electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse waves. Radiant energy includes visible
light, x-rays, gamma rays, and radio waves. Light is one type of radiant energy.
 - Thermal energy, or heat, is the energy that comes from the movement of atoms and molecules in a
substance. Heat increases when these particles move faster. Geothermal energy is the thermal energy in
the earth.

- Electrical energy is delivered by tiny charged particles called electrons, typically moving through a wire.
Lightning is an example of electrical energy in nature. Other forms of energy are also converted to
electrical energy. For example, power plants convert chemical energy stored in fuels like coal into
electricity through various changes in its form.

- Sound Energy is produced when an object is made to vibrate. Sound energy travels out as waves in all
directions. Sound needs a medium to travel through, such as air, water, wood, and even metal. Examples
of sound energy are voices, whistles, horns and musical instruments

- Mechanical energy is the energy a substance or system has because of its motion like machines use
mechanical energy to do work. Another examples are rolling bicycle, moving gears, and running cars.

Conversion of Energy

• Energy conversion, the transformation of energy from forms provided by nature to forms that can be used by
humans. The same amount of energy exists after the conversion as before. Energy conversion obeys the law of
conservation of energy.
Law of Conservation of Energy

It states that although energy can be changed in form it can be neither created nor destroyed, the energy of the
universe is constant.

The total energy of an isolated system remains constant or is conserved within a given frame of reference.

INITIAL POTENTIAL ENERGY + INITIAL KINETIC ENERGY =

FINAL POTENTITAL ENERGY +FINAL KINETIC ENERGY
PE + KE = PE + KE
O O F F
The total amount of energy at the start of a chemical reaction must equal the total amount at the end.

Thermochemistry

• Thermochemistry is the study of the heat released or absorbed as a result of chemical reactions.

• Chemical reactions involve the conversion of a set of substances collectively referred to as "reactants" to a set
of substances collectively referred to as "products."
• The system is regarded as the reaction products and reactants, whereas the surroundings consist of everything
else in the universe.

• A boundary separates the system from the surroundings.

• A Isolated System which can exchange neither energy nor matter with the surroundings

• A Closed System which can exchange energy but not matter

• An Open System which it can exchange both matter and energy with the surrounding

• Lavoisier and Laplace’s law (1780): The energy change in any transformation is equal and opposite to energy
change in the reverse process.

• Hess' law (1840): The energy change in any transformation is the same whether the process occurs in one step
or many.

• Thermodynamics define as the study of energy and its interconversions. The law of conservation of energy is
often called the first law of thermodynamics and is stated as follows:
 “The energy of the universe is constant.”

Internal energy (E) – sum of kinetic and potential energies of all the “particles” in a system

– Internal energy can be changed by two types of energy flow:

• Heat (q)

• Work (w)

E = q + w

Thermodynamic quantities always consist of 2 parts:

– A number (magnitude of the change)

– A sign (indicates the direction of flow)

• Reflects the systems point of view

In this text, the same conventions also apply to the flow of work. If the system does work on the surroundings
(energy flows out of the system), w is negative. If the surroundings do work on the system (energy flows into
the system), w is positive. We define work from the system’s point of view to be consistent for all
thermodynamic quantities. That is, in this convention the signs of both q and w reflect what happens to the
system; thus we use delta E = q + w. In this text we always take the system’s point of view. This convention is not
followed in every area of science.

For example, engineers are in the business of designing machines to do work, that is, to make the system (the
machine) transfer energy to its surroundings through work. Consequently, engineers define work from the
surroundings’ point of view. In their convention, work that flows out of the system is treated as positive because
the energy of the surroundings has increased. The first law of thermodynamics is then written E = q’- w’, where
w signifies work from the surroundings’ point of view.

Calorimetry

• The device used experimentally to determine the heat associated with a chemical reaction is called a
calorimeter.

• Calorimetry, the science of measuring heat, is based on observing the temperature change when a body absorbs
or discharges energy as heat.
 Known amount of heat = calorimeter constant × T

q = Ccalorimeter × T

Enthalpy

• Enthalpy is a state function. It is a type of chemical energy, sometimes referred to as “heat content”.

• The enthalpy H (H = E + PV), where E is the internal energy of the system, P is the pressure of the system, and V
is the volume of the system.

• At constant pressure (where only PV work is allowed), the change in enthalpy H of the system is equal to the
energy flow as heat.

Internal Energy

• The internal energy E of a system can be defined most precisely as the sum of the kinetic and potential energies
of all the “particles” in the system. The internal energy of a system can be changed by a flow of work, heat, or
both.

• where q represent heat and w represent work

• Work is computed by

• w = - PΔV, for an expanding gas

• w = PΔV when gas is compressed

Heat Capacity

• The heat capacity C of a substance, which is a measure of this property, is defined as

• If the heat capacity is given per gram of substance, it is called the specific heat capacity, and its units are J/°Cg
or J/Kg.

• If the heat capacity is given per mole of the substance, it is called the molar heat capacity, and it has the units
J/°C mol or J/K mol.

Endothermic Reaction

• Endothermic reactions are reactions that require external energy, usually in the form of heat, for the reaction
to proceed.

Example Reaction:

1) Photosynthesis:

6CO2 + 6 H2O + heat ---> C6H12O6 + 6O2

2) Cooking an egg:

Heat energy is absorbed from the pan to cook the egg.

 • They are also generally non-spontaneous, since endothermic reactions yield products that are higher in energy
than the reactants. As such, the change in enthalpy for an endothermic reaction is always positive.

SOURCE: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/exothermic-and-endothermic-processes/

Exothermic Reaction

• Exothermic reactions are reactions or processes that release energy, usually in the form of heat or light.

Example Reaction:

1) Combustion: The burning of carbon-containing compounds uses oxygen, from air, and produces carbon
dioxide, water, and lots of heat.

CH4 + 2(O2) ---> CO2 + 2H2O + heat

2) Rain: Condensation of water vapor into rain releasing energy in the form of heat is an example of an
exothermic process.

• In an exothermic reaction, energy is released because the total energy of the products is less than the total
energy of the reactants. For this reason, the change in enthalpy, for an exothermic reaction will always be
negative.

SOURCE: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/exothermic-and-endothermic-processes/
Specific Heat

• The specific heat is the amount of heat per unit mass required to raise the temperature by one degree Celsius.

Q = mc ΔT

Where: Q – Heat; m – mass; C – specific heat

ΔT– Change in temperature

• Molar heat capacity is a physical property that describes how much heat is required to raise the temperature of
one mole of a substance by 1°C.

Q = nCp ΔT

Where: Q – Heat; n – number of mole;

Cp – heat capacity at constant

ΔT– Change in temperature

PV Work

A common type of work associated with chemical processes is work done by a gas (through expansion) or work done to
a gas (through compression). For example, in an automobile engine, the heat from the combustion of the gasoline
expands the gases in the cylinder to push back the piston, and this motion is then translated into the motion of the car.
 • Suppose we have a gas confined to a cylindrical container with a movable piston where F is the force acting on
a piston of area A. Since pressure is defined as force per unit area, the pressure of the gas is

• Work is defined as force applied over a distance, so if the piston moves a distance delta h

This gives us the magnitude (size) of the work required to expand a gas V against a pressure P.

What about the sign of the work? The gas (the system) is expanding, moving the piston against the pressure. Thus the
system is doing work on the surroundings, so from the system’s point of view the sign of the work should be negative.

Note that for a gas expanding against an external pressure P, w is a negative quantity as required, since work flows out
of the system. When a gas is compressed, V is a negative quantity (the volume decreases), which makes w a positive
quantity (work flows into the system).
Heat of Reaction (1) – Const. P Calorimetry

Suppose we mix 50.0 mL of 1.0 M HCl at 25.0 oC with 50.0 mL of 1.0 M NaOH also at 25 oC in a calorimeter. After the
reactants are mixed by stirring, the temperature is observed to increase to 31.9 oC. The net ionic equation for this
reaction is:

Calculate the enthalpy change per mole of product formed.

For an approximate result, we will assume that the calorimeter does not absorb or leak any heat and that the solution
can be treated as if it were pure water with a density of 1.0 g/mL.

When these reactants (each originally at the same temperature) are mixed, the temperature of the mixed solution is
observed to increase. Therefore, the chemical reaction must be releasing energy as heat. This released energy increases
the random motions of the solution components, which in turn increases the temperature. The quantity of energy
released can be determined from the temperature increase, the mass of solution, and the specific heat capacity of the
solution. For an approximate result, we will assume that the calorimeter does not absorb or leak any heat and that the
solution can be treated as if it were pure water with a density of 1.0 g/mL.

How much energy would have been released if twice these amounts of solutions had been mixed?

The answer is that twice as much energy would have been produced. The heat of a reaction is an extensive property; it
depends directly on the amount of substance, in this case on the amounts of reactants. In contrast, an intensive property
is not related to the amount of a substance. For example, temperature is an intensive property.
Calorimetry experiments also can be performed at constant volume. For example, when a photographic flashbulb
flashes, the bulb becomes very hot, because the reaction of the zirconium or magnesium wire with the oxygen inside
the bulb is exothermic. The reaction occurs inside the flashbulb, which is rigid and does not change volume.

Under these conditions, no work is done (because the volume must change for pressure–volume work to be performed).
To study the energy changes in reactions under conditions of constant volume, a “bomb calorimeter” (Fig. 6.6) is used.

Weighed reactants are placed inside a rigid steel container (the “bomb”) and ignited. The energy change is determined
by measuring the increase in the temperature of the water and other calorimeter parts.
Since enthalpy is a state function, the change in enthalpy in going from some initial state to some final state is
independent of the pathway. This means that in going from a particular set of reactants to a particular set of products,
the change in enthalpy is the same whether the reaction takes place in one step or in a series of steps.

The principle of Hess’s law. The same change in enthalpy occurs when nitrogen and oxygen react to form nitrogen
dioxide, regardless of whether the reaction occurs in one (red) or two (blue) steps.