nry;ypay;

(Cytology/Cell

 nry;Yyh vd;gJ xU yj;jpd; 1. $l;L Ez;Nzhf;fp

nrhy;> mjd; mh;j;jk; : xU 2. kpd;dZ Ez;Nzhf;fp
rpwpa miw 3. nrd;l;hp gpA+[;
 uhghl; `Pf; 1665 : nry;iy 4. fNyhhp nkl;hp
Kjypy; fz;lwpe;jhh;. 5. ];ngf;l;Nuh Nghl;Nlh nkl;hp
 jf;ifapd; rpWgFjpia mth; 6. FNuhNkhl;Nlh nkl;hp
fz;lwpe;j Ez;Nzhf;fpd; 7. vyf;l;NuhNghurp];
%yk; ghh;j;j NghJ Njd;$L 8. fjph; ,af;f Kiwfs;
Nghy ,Ug;gijg; ghh;j;jhh;.
 nry;iyg; gw;wpg; gbg;gjw;F
gpd;tUk; topKiwfs;
ifahsg;gLfpd;wJ.

Microscopy at a Glance
Year Discoverer Country
1558 Contrad Gesner Switzerland
1590 Hans Janssen and Zacharias Netherland
Jansseen
1610 Galileo Galilei Italy
1758 Athanasius Kircher ......
1661 Marcello Mapighi Italy
1665 Robert Hooke England
1674 Antoni van Leeuwenhock Netherland
1877 E Abbe ............
1900 Zigmondy ...........
1932 M.knoll and E. Ruska Germany
1935 F. Zernicke .........

Page 1
 jhtutpay;;

caph; nghUs; rhaq;fs; : Nfhy;if cWg;G> FNuhNkhl;bd;

 capUs;s nry;iyg;gw;wp gbf;f> ,io
mit nfhy;yghlkNyNa rpy 3. fhq;Nfh rptg;G (Gongo red B)
rhaj;ij Vw;Wf; nfhs;Sk; <];l;
jd;ikahy; gbg;gJ 4. mNahbd; (Iodene) - ghf;Bhpah
vspjhfpd;wJ. 5. ,Nahrpd;(Eosin)-
1. N[d]; gr;ir B (-janes green- irl;Nlhgpshrk;
B) ikl;Nlhfhd;l;hpah 6. rptg;G Nrg;uhdpd; (Red safranin)
2. kPijypd; GS (Methylene blue) 7. cl;fU

Name coiner –
nry; cWg;Gfs; Discoverer - fz;lwpe;jth;
ngahpl;lth;
nry; uhgh;l;`Pf; - Robert Hook 1665
nry; Ez; cWg;Gfs; Md;ld;yhd; yP]d;Vhf; 1668
cl;fUkzp ghd;lhdh - Fontana 1781
epA+f;spNahy];

epA+f;spa]; uhgh;l; gpuTd; 1840

ikl;Nlhfhz;l;hpah Nfhy;ypf;fh; - Kollikar 1880 ngd;lh Benda 1897
nrd;l;NuhNrhk; thd; ngdbd; - Van Beneden nghNthp Bouari 1888
1880
irl;Nlhgpshrk; ];l;uh];gh;fh; - Strasburger 1882

FNshNuh gpsh];l; ];fpk;gh; - Schiimper1888

FNuhNkhNrhk; thy;Nlah; - Waldeyer 1888

iyNrhNrhk; C.B. LNy - C. De duve 1898

GNuhl;Nlhgpshrk; Gh;fpd;[p - J.E.purkinje (animal) L[hh;bd; Dujardin

thd;Nkhy; - Voh mohl (plant)
hpNghNrhk; fpshl; & ghyl; Claude and
Palade
nrd;l;Nuhkpah; thy;Nlah; - Waldeyer 1903
vz;Nlhgpshr tiy Nghh;l;lh; - Portar 1945
(E.P. Veticulum)

Page 2
 jhtutpay;;

nry; nfhs;if : 7. rpy rkaq;fspy; rpy ,we;j

 1839 - n[h;kd; mwpQh;fs; - nry;fSk; nray;jpwd;
cs;sitahf ,Uf;Fk;. (v-fh)
nry;nfhs;if $wpath;fs;
jhtuq;fspy; iryf; Foha;fs;,
N[f;fg; ];ypgd; kw;Wk; jpNahlh; l;uf;fPLfs; tpyq;Ffspy; Kl;fs;
];thd; Nghd;w nry;fs;.
 nry;Nfhl;ghL %yk; nry;ypay;
midj;J caphpdq;fSf;Fk; nry;fNs
Njhd;wpaJ.
mbg;gil myFfs; :
 nry; kw;Wk; mtw;wpd; cs;Ns
 nry;fs; mjd; mikg;ig
cs;s rpWrpW clyq;fisAk;
nghWj;J ,U tifahf
nry; gphpjy; Mfpad gw;wpa
gphpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
mwptpay; gphpT nry;ypay;.
1. A+Nfhpahl;Lfs;
nry;ypay;:
 khw;wq;fSld; $ba 2. GNuhNfhpahl;Lfs;
nry;nfhs;if ‘nry; tpjp’ (m)  ngah; itj;jth; - `hd;];
‘nry; Nfhl;ghL’ vdg;gLk;. hp]; Hans Ris
 gphpj;jth; - nls`hh;b
nry;tpjp:
1. midj;J caphpdq;fSk; Douharti
nry;fshy; Mdit.
2. Vw;fdNt cs;s nry;fspy; GNuhNfhpNahl;Lfs;:
,Ue;J Gjpa nry;fs; 1. GNuhNfhpNahl;Lfs; nry;fspy;
Njhd;Wfpd;wd. kugpay; jfty;fs; ikaj;jpy;
3. caphpdj;jpd; mbg;gil mike;Js;s tl;l tbt, jdpj;j
myfhfj; jpfo;tJ nry;. DNA %yf;$wpy; mike;Js;sJ
4. nry; kugpay; jfty;fis ,g;gFjpia ,d;]pgpad;l;
nfhz;Ls;sJ. nry; gFg;gpd; epA+f;spa]; (m) epA+f;spaha;L
NghJ ,J xU nry;ypypUe;J vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
kw;nwhU nry;Yf;F 2. xU FNuhNkhNrhk; jtpu rpy
flj;jg;gLfpwJ. ghf;bhpaq;fs; rpwpa tl;l
5. Ntjpj; jd;ikapYk; tsh;rpij tbtkhd, FNuhNkhNrhk;
khw;wr; nray;fspYk; midj;J my;yhj DNA it ngw;Ws;sd
nry;fSk; xj;jit. ,jw;F gpsh];kpl; vd;W ngah;.
6. nry;ypd; mikg;igAk;
nray;fisAk; fl;Lg;gLj;JtJ A+NfhpNahl;fs;:
DNA MFk;.  midj;J jhtu tpyq;F cyfpd;
caphpdq;fis cs;slf;fpaJ.

Page 3
 jhtutpay;;

gz;G GNuhNfhpNahl;Lfs; A+NfhpNahl;fs;

msT ngUk;ghyhdit kpfr; ngUk;ghyhdit nghpar;
rpwpait rpy 50 mm Itplg; nry;fs; (10mm) rpy
nghpait 150 mm Itplg; nghpait
nghJg; gz;Gfs; ngUk;ghyhdit rpy Ez;Zaphpfs;. gy
Ez;Zaphpfs;. xU nry;yhy; nghpa caphpfs;
Mdit my;yJ $l;likT midj;Jk; rt;tpdhy;
cilait. epA+f;spaha;L #og;gl;l epA+f;spai]
rt;tpdhy; cilait.
#og;gl;bUg;gjpy;iy.
nry; gFg;G ikl;lh]p];> kNah]p]; ikl;lh]p];> kNah]p];
fpilahJ. ,uz;lhfg; tifahd nry; gFg;G
gpsj;jy; Kiw my;yJ eilngWk;
nkhl;L mUk;Gjy; (budding)
Kiw fhzg;gLk;
ghy; ,dg;ngUf;fk; ngUk;ghyhditfspy; mNefkhditfspy;
fpilahJ. rpytw;wpy; kuGg; cz;L fUTWjypy; ngz;>
nghUs; khw;wk; (xU top Mz; ,uz;Lf;Fk; rk
kl;Lk;) toq;fp nry;ypy; gq;F cz;L.
,Ue;J ngWk; nry;Yf;F
eilngWfpwJ.
tsh;r;rp ,ul;ilka irNfhl;bypUe;J kNah]p]; %yk;
cUthf;fk; gy nry;fs; Njhd;Wtjpy;iy xw;iwaKk;
jpR NtWghLk; njspthff; irNfhl;bypUy;J
fpilahJ. ,ul;ilakaKk;
cz;lhfpwJ. gy nry;
caphpfs; njspthd jpR
NtWghl;ilg; ngw;Ws;sd.
firapio tif rpytw;wpy; vspa 9 + 2 tif firapio
ghf;Bhpahtif firapio fhzg;gLfpwJ.
cz;L. ,J xU
Ez;zpioahy; MdJ.
nry; Rth; ngg;bNlhfpisf;fhd; jhtuq;fspy;
(kpA+f;Nfhngg;ilL) y; nry;YNyh]pdhy; Md
Mdit nry;YNyh]; nry; RtUk; G+Q;irapy;
fpilahJ. ifl;bdhy; Md nry;
RtUk; cs;sJ.
Ez; cWg;Gfs; vz;Nlhgpshrtiy> Nfhy;[p vz;Nlhgpshr tiy>
cWg;Gfs; Nfhy;if cWg;Gfs;>
ikl;Nlhfhz;bhpaq;fs;> ikl;Nlhfhz;bhpaq;fs;>
gRq;fdpq;fs; gRq;fzpfq;fs;
thf;FNthy;fs; Nghd;w thf;FNthy;fs; Nghd;w
rt;tpdhy; #og;gl;l rt;tpdhy; #og;gl;l
Ez;ZWg;Gfs; fpilahJ. Ez;ZWg;Gfs; cs;sd.
iuNgh Nrhk;fs; iuNghNrhk;fs; rpwpait 70 iuNghNrhk;fs; nghpait

Page 4
 jhtutpay;;

S tif (S vd;gJ ];tPl;ngh;f; 80 S tif

myF. ,J my;l;uhnrd;bhp
G+[pd; NghJ ngw;wg;gLk;
iuNghNrhkpd; tPo;gbT vz;
MFk;.)
b.vd;.V kuGg; nghUl;fs; (b.vd;.V) kuGg; nghUl;fs; ed;F>
fl;like;j fl;like;j
FNuhNkhNrhk;fspy; FNuhNkhNrhk;fspy;
fhzg;glhJ. fhzg;gLk;.

 nry;Rth; ,y;iy  nry; Rth; cz;L

 ntspvy;iy - gpsh];kh rt;T
 gRq;fzpfk; ,y;iy
 Ez;Fkpo; - rpwpaJ
 nrd;l;NuhNrhk; cz;L
 Nrkpg;G nghUs; - fpisNfh[d;
 Nfhy;if cWg;G - ey;y
tsh;r;rp cz;L
 hpNghNrhk; 55 S, 80 S tif
 ikl;Nlhfhz;Bhpah fphp];Nl
tif
 ntsp vy;iy - nry;Rth;
 gRq;fzpfk; cz;L
 Ez; Fkpo; nghpaJ
 nrd;l;NuhNrhk; ,y;iy
 Nrkpg;G nghUs; - ];lhh;r;
 Nfhy;if cWg;G - ey;y
tsh;r;rp ,y;iy.
 hpNghNrhk; 70 S, 80 S tif
 ikl;Nlhfhz;;Bhpah cUis
tif

Page 5
 jhtutpay;;

nry; mikg;Gk; msTk; :  nry; Rth; %d;W mLf;Ffshy;

 kdpj clypy; nry;fspd; MdJ.
vz;zpf;if 6>50>00>000  Kjd;ik mLf;F

 midj;J caphpdq;fSk;  ,uz;lhk; mLf;F - %d;W

gFjpfs; cz;L S1, S2, S3
(itu]; jtpu) nry;fshy;
 %d;whk; mLf;F
Mdit.
 ,tw;wpd; nry;fs; fhy;rpak; -
 nry; caphpdq;fspd; mikg;G
ngf;Nll; nghUs;fshy;
kw;Wk; nray; myF.
,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
 nry;fs; → jpRf;fs; → cWg;G
kz;lyq;fs; → caphpfs;  ,jw;F kj;jpa Nynky;yh

vYk;G nry; cWjp kw;Wk; nghUs; Ntjpapay; myF

cliy jhq;Fjy; nry;YNyh]; FSf;Nfh];
euk;G nry; euk;G J}z;liy n`kpnry;YNyh]; irNyh];>
flj;jy; NkNdh];>
$k;Gnry;> Fr;rp ghh;it> epwj;ij Nfyf;l;Nlh];
nry; czUk; ypf;dpd; Nfhdpngiuy;
jl;L vgpjpypak; tbtk;> ghJfhg;G My;f`hy;
nry; fPA+l;bd; nfhOg;G
ej;ij $L (nrtp) xyp miy mkpyq;fs;
nry; czUk; ngf;bd; FSf;NfhNuhdpf;
Rug;gp nry; Ruj;jy; mkpyk;
jir nry; RUq;fp tphpjy; RNghpd; nfhOg;G mkpyk;
nfhOg;G nry; nfhOg;G
Nrkpf;Fk;
nry; tbtk;
euk;;G el;rj;jpuk;
Rlh; Foy;
Rug;gp fdrJuk;
jl;L vgpjpypaypk; gy;Nfhzk;
J}z; vgpjpypak; cUis
,uj;jk; ePs;tbtk;
jir ehh; ePs;tbtk;
Fly; J}z; tbtk;
(Middle lamella) vd;Wngah;.
nry; Rth;
 fz;lwpe;jth; : ,uhgh;l;`Pf;  ,ij Kjypy; fz;lwpe;jth;
1665. ];l;uh];ngh;fh; Strasburger 1901
 jhtuq;fspy; kl;Lk; fhzg;gLk;.  ,it nry;gFg;gpd; NghJ KbT
 jhtu nry;ypd; ntspAiwahf epiyapd; (Telo phase) NghJ
mike;Js;sJ. cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wd.

Page 6
 jhtutpay;;

gzpfs; : 2. myFgly Nfhl;ghL

 nry;Yf;F tbtj;ijf; (Unit Membrane concept)
nfhLf;fpd;wJ.  tpthpj;jth; : uhgh;l;rd;
nry;ypd; cl;nghUs;fisg; (Robertson) 1953
ghJfhf;fpd;wJ.
gpsh];kh rt;tpd; jbkd; 75 A
gpsh];kh rt;T (m) nry; rt;T
 jhtuk; kw;Wk; tpyq;F nry;fspy;
Gwvy;iy kw;Wk; tbtj;ijf;
nfhLf;fpd;wJ.
 ,it 60% Gujk;> 40% nfhOg;Gg;
nghUs;fshy; MdJ.
 xU nry; rt;Tk; mLj;j nry;
rt;Tk; nl];NkhNrhk;];
(Desmosomes) vd;w
,izg;gpdhy; ,izf;fg;
gl;Ls;sJ.
tbtk; :
 gy;NtW tpjkhd tbtq;fs; gy
g;@apL nkhirf; khly; (Fluid-
mwpQh;fshy;
vLj;Jiuf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. mosaic model )
1. gl;lh; - rhz;ltpr; khly; (Butter –  tpthpj;jth; : rpq;fh; & epf;fy;rd;
(Singer & Nicholson) 1972
sandwich model)
 njhlh;r;rpahd ,ul;il nfhOg;G
 tpthpj;jth; : Nldpay; &
mLf;Ff;F ,ilNa Guj
Nlt;rd; (Danielli & Davson) %yf;$Wfs; fhzg;gL fpd;wd.
1935
 ,uz;L Guj mLf;Ffspy; gzpfs; :
kj;jpapy; ,uz;L  xU rpy nghUl;fis kl;Lk;
%yf;$Wfshy; Md flj;Jtjhy; ,jw;F Njh;T
nfhOg;G mLf;fpdhy; MdJ flj;jp rt;T (m) miu flj;jp
vd;wdh;. rt;T vd;W ngah;.
 czT vLj;J nfhs;Sk; Kiw :
vd;Nlhirl;Nlhrp];
(Endocytosis)
o nry; tpOq;Fjy; - jplg;;
nghUs; - NgNfhirl;Nlhrp];
(Phagocytosis )

Page 7
 jhtutpay;;

o nry; Fbj;jy; - jputg;  nghpal;lth; : Nfhy;ypfh;

nghUs;gpd;Ndhirl;Nlhrp];  xj;j $Wfs; cila n[y;yp
(Pinnocytosis ) Nghd;w nghUs;.
 fopT nghUs; ntspNaw;Wk;  ntsp> cs; vd ,uz;L
Kiw : vf;N]h irl;Nlhrp]; gFjpfs; cs;sd.
(Exocytosis)  nfhOg;G> Gujk;>
rt;T+L guty;: fhh;Nghi`l;Nul; > jhJf;fs;> ePh;
 ePh; my;yJ fiug;ghd; cs;sJ
%yf;$Wfs; mjd; nrwpT  gy nry; Ez; cWg;Gfs;
mjpfkhd ,lj;jpypUe;J mjd; gjpe;Js;sd.
nrwpT Fiwthd ,lj;Jf;F
Njh;Tflj;J rt;tpd; topNa guTk; gzpfs; :
Kiw.  nry;ypd; cs;Ns nehjpfs;>
czT gut cjTfpwJ.
rt;T+L gutypd; gq;F:
1. Nth;j;J}tpfs; ePiu kz;zpypUe;J  Gujk;> epA+f;spNahilL>
,k;Kiwapy; cwpQ;Rfpd;wd. nfhOg;G mkpyq;fspd;
2. xU nry;ypypUe;J kw;nwhU cw;gj;jpapy; gq;F nfhs;fpwJ.
nry;Yf;F ePiuf; flj;Jjy;. vz;Nlhgpshr tiy
3. rt;T+L guty; tpiwg;gOj;jk;  xd;Wnfhd;W njhlh;Gila
Vw;gl fhuzkhf cs;sJ. (v-fh) rt;tpdhy; Md tiygpd;dy;
,iy Jis jpwj;J %Ljy;. fhy;tha; mikg;G.
 vz;Nlhgpshr tiy vd
GNuhl;Nlhgpshrk; ngahpl;lth; : Nghh;l;lh; 1947
 irl;Nlhgpshrk; kw;Wk; cl;fU  ,J 70 rjtPjk; Gujk; kw;Wk; 30
Nrh;ej
; gFjpahFk;. rjtPjk; nfhOg;G nghUs;fshy;
 $o;kk; Nghd;w jputk; vd;wth; : MdJ.
tpy;rd; (1925)  gpsh];khrt;;itAk;
 ngahpl;lth; : Gh;fpd;[p cl;fUitAk; ,izf;fpd;wJ.
 ,J caphpfspd; ,aw;gpay;  Xt;nthU cl;fU gpstpw;Fk;
myfhFk; gpwF cUthFk;> xU Gjpa
 ,jd; gFjp nghUs;fs; : cl;fU> vz;Nlhgpshr
o ePh; - 75% > tiyiaj; Njhw;Wtpf;fpwJ.
o gFjp nghUs;fs; - 25%  vz;Nlhgpshr tiy %d;W
o O2 – 62% tbtq;fshy; MdJ.
o C - 20% o rP];lh;Nd - 400 - 500A
o H – 10% o bA+g;A+y]; - 500 -1000 A
o N - 3% o ntrpf;fps; - 250 - 5000 A
irl;Nlhgpshrk;  ,J ,Utifg;gLk;
 cl;fU ePq;fyhd
GNuhl;Nlhgpshr gFjp

Page 8
 jhtutpay;;

nrhunrhug;ghd vz;Nlhgpshrtiy
(ROUGH ER):
o ,jpy; iuNghNrhk; xl;b
(irl;Nlhgpshrj;ij Nehf;fp C
face ) fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
totog;ghd vz;Nlhgpshrtiy
(SMOOTH ER) :
o ,tw;wpy; hpNghNrhk;
fhzg;gLtjpy;iy
o nfhOg;Gfs; cw;gj;jp nra;Ak;
nry;ypy; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.

gzpfs; :
 nry;Yf;F xU rl;lfk; Nghd;W
tYT+l;l gad;gLfpd;wJ. (jl;L tbt jl;ilahdit)
 nry;Yf;Fs; flj;jy;; gzpia  Nfhy;if nt]pf;fps;- rpwpa Ez;
Nkw;nfhs;fpd;wJ. Fkpo;fis nfhz;lJ.
 ,ij fz;lwpe;jth; Blobel,  Nfhy;if thf;FNthy;fs; -nghpa
1999y; Nehgy; ghpirg; ngw;whh;. Ez; Fkpo;fis nfhz;lJ.
 RER - Guj cw;gj;jp jskhf gzpfs;
mikfpd;wJ.  iyNrhNrhk;fis
 SER - ];Buhl;L `hh;Nkhd; cUthf;Fjy;
cw;gj;jp nra;J> rh;f;fiug;  nry; Rth; kw;Wk; nry;rt;T
nghUs;fis rpijf;fpd;wJ. cUthf;Fjy;. tpe;J nry;fspd;
 nfhOg;G cw;gj;jpf;Fg; mf;NuhNrhk; cUthf;Fjy;
gad;gLfpd;wJ.  Ruj;jy; gzpia
Nfhy;if cWg;G Nkw;nfhs;Sjy;.
 fz;lwpe;jth; : fhkpy;Ny  tsUk; Cirl;Lfspy; fU
Nfhy;if(1898) kQ;rs; czit cUthf;Fjy;.
 ,jd; Gjpangah; : bf;bNahNrhk;.  nul;bNdh (tpopj;jpiu)
 ngahpl;lth; : Perroncito nry;fspy; epwkpfis
(1910) cUthf;Fjy;
 ,it 60 rjtPjk; Gujk; kw;Wk; iyNrhNrhk;
40 rjtPjk; nfhOg;G  Nfhs tbt ig Nghd;w
nghUs;fshy; MdJ. mikg;G
 1.3 µ mlh;j;jp nfhz;lJ.  ngahpl;lth; - fphp];bad; b LNt
 ,it 3 rt;T mikg;Gfis (1955)
nfhz;lJ.  Fwpg;gpl;l tbtk; ,y;yhjit.
 Nfhy;if rp];lh;Nd  0.2 Kjy; 0.8 ikf;uhd; msT
Rug;G ig 60 - 70 A nfhz;lJ. nfhz;lit.

Page 9
 jhtutpay;;

 70 A jbkd; nfhz;lit. gzpfs; :

 ehd;F tifahd tiffs; 1. nry;Yf;F ntspNa md;dpa
fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. nghUs;fisr; nrhpkhdk; nra;Ak;.
o Kjd;ik iyNrhNrhk; (m) 2. nry;Yf;F cs;Ns ,we;j nry;
GNuhl;Nlh iyNrhNrhk; Ez; cWg;Gfis nrhpkhdk;
o Jiz iyNrhNrhk; (m) BNyh nra;Ak;. vdNt mopf;Fk; gil
iyNrhNrhk; tPuh;fs;/ Jg;Guthsh;fs;/ nry;
o Kd; iyNrhNrhk; (m) eph;thfpfs; vdTk;
NgNfhNrhk; miof;fg;gLfpd;wd.
o gpd; iyNrhNrhk; (m) hpNghNrhk;fs;
vQ;rpaJfs;fs; nrhpkhd  ,uj;jr; rptg;gZf;fs; kw;Wk;
nehjpfis nfhz;lJ. vdNt Kjph;ej
; tpe;J nry;fs; ePq;fyhf
nrhpf;Fk; igfs; vd midj;J GNuhNfhpNahl;L kw;Wk
miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ. A+NfhpNahl;L nry;fspy;
 nehjpfshy; (gpw Ez;ZWg;G iuNghNrhk;fs; fhzg;gLk;
fis) KO nry;iyAk;  A+NfhpNahl;bf; nry;fspy; ,it
mopg;gjhy; jw;nfhiy igfs; irl;Nlhgpshrj;jpy; jdpj;Njh
vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ. my;yJ nrhunrhug;ghd
o epA+f;spNahy]; - DNA kw;Wk; vz;Nlhgpshr tiyfspd; ntspg;
RNA it [Puzk; nra;Ak; gug;Gfspy; ,ize;Njh fhzg;
o gh];gl;Nl]; - gh];Ngl; glyhk;.
rq;fpypfis [Puzk; nra;Ak;.  iuNghNrhk;fs;jhd; Guj cw;gj;jp
o ypNgr]; - nfhOg;G ikaq;fshFk;.
nghUs;fis [Puzk; nra;Ak;.  xU nry;ypy; 1 Kjy; -10 kpy;ypad;
o GNuhl;bNar]; - Guj tiu fhzg;gLk;.
%yf;$Wfis [Puzk;  ngahpl;lth; : ghyl; 1955
nra;Ak;.  epA+f;spNah]py;
o fpisf;NfhrpNlr]; - fhh;Ngh cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wJ
`l;Nul;Lfis [Puzk;  xt;ntU hpNghNrhKk; 150 - 250 A
nra;Ak;. tpl;lk; nfhz;lJ.
o ry;gNlr]; - ry;gh;  ,uz;L rpwpa gFjpfisf;
gpizg;Gfis [Puzk; nfhz;lJ.
nra;Ak;.  xU nghpa gFjp miuf;Nfhs
 ,it mkpyjd;ik nfhz;l tbtkhdJ. rpwpa gFjp Kl;il
Clfj;jpy; (5.0 PH) ed;F tbtpy; cs;sJ.
nray;gLk;  rpwpa gFjp nghpa gFjpapy; Nky;
 ,it Nfhy;if cWg;Gfspy; njhg;gpg;Nghy; fhzg;gLk;.
ntrpf;fpspy; ,Ue;J  ,uz;L gFjpfSk; irl;Nlh
cw;gj;jpahfpd;wd. gpshrj;jpy; jdpj;J fhzg;gLk;.
Guj cw;gj;jpapd; NghJ kl;LNk

Page 10
 jhtutpay;;

,ize;J KO hpNghNrhk;fis  tbtk; my;yJ tPo;gbT tPjj;jpd;

cUthf;Ffpd;wd. mbg;gilapy; hpNghNrhk;fs;
 Guj cw;gj;jpapd; NghJ mNef ,uz;L tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
hpNghNrhk;fs; mRNA cld; o 80 s - A+Nfhpahl; nry;
,ize;J ghypngg;ilL o 70s, 80 s - A+Nfhpahl; kw;Wk;
efy;fis vLf;fpd;wd. GNuhNfhpahl; nry;
 ,jw;F ghypNrhk;fs; (m) o S vd;gJ ];tPl;ngh;f; myF
ghyphpNghNrhk; vd;W ngah;

 ngahpl;lth; : Boveri
gzpfs;:
 tpyq;F nry;ypy; cl;fU mUfpy;
 Gujk; jahhpj;jypy; gq;F
Foy; kw;Wk; Fr;rp tbtj;jpy;
vLg;gjhy; - Guj njhopw;rhiy
xU N[hb fhzg;gLk;.
vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 250 A  tpl;lk; nfhz;lJ.
nrd;l;hpNahy;fs; (m) nrd;;l;NuhNrhk;
 fz;lwpe;jth;fs; : Benden 1887

Page 11
 jhtutpay;;

gzpfs; :  ,jpy; tl;l tbtkhd DNA

 ikl;lhrp]; kw;Wk; kpahrp]; (2–6), 70s hpNghNrhk;
nry; gphpjYf;F cjTk;. fhzg;gLk;.
 nry; gphpjypd; NghJ fjph; ,io  Guj;jjhy; Md ,ul;il rt;T
ehh;fisAk;> M];l;uy; nfhz;lJ.
cWg;GfisAk; cUthf;fp  ntsp rt;T - ig Nghd;wJ.
nry;gphpjiy jpl;lkpLfpd;wd.  cl;rt;T - fphp];Nl vd;w
tpuy; Nghd;w ePl;rpfshy; MdJ.
ikl;Nlhfhz;l;hpah  mjpy; F1 Jfs; / Mf;]pNrhk; /
 fz;lwpe;jth; : Nfhypf;fh; 1880 njhlf;f epiy Jfs;
 ikl;Nlhfhz;l;hpah nry;ypd; xl;bf;nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
Mw;wy; ikak; vd  ,ij fz;lwpe;jth; : Fernandez
miof;fg;gLfpwJ. – Moran 1962
 ,ij nrhd;dth; : Seekevitz  ,it irl;Nlhgpshrj;ij
 irl;Nlhgpshr nkhj;j mstpy; Nehf;fp (c - face ) fhzg;gLk;
25 rjtPjk; ikl;Nlfhz;l;hpah  F1 Jfs;fspy; jhd; Rthr
cs;sJ. rq;fpyp mike;Js;sJ. ,jpy;
 jd;idj;jhNd ngUf;fpf; cs;s nehjpfs;> $l;L nehjpfs;
nfhs;Sk; Rakhd Ez; cWg;G. Nrh;eJ
; vyf;l;uhd; Vw;gpfis
 ,io Nghd;w kpjpab tbtk; cUthf;fp ATP %yf;$Wfis
nfhz;lJ. cUthf;fpd;wd.
 ePsk; 3-5 ikf;uhd;> 0.5 ikf;uhd; fzpfk;
mfyk; nfhz;lJ.  fz;lwpe;jth; : `pk;gh; & Nkah;
 %d;W tif fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.  jhtu nry;ypy; kl;Lk;;
 fphp];Nl tif - tpyq;F fhzg;gLk;
nry;  3 tif fzpfq;fs;
 Nfhs tbtk; - jhtu nry; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
 ,ilg;gl;l tbtk; - jhtu  FNshNuhgpsh];l; - gRik
nry; epwk;
 cl;gFjp - Nkl;hpf;]; vd;W ngah;;.  FNuhNkhgpsh];l; - (G+> gok;
epwj;jpw;F fhuzk;.) gRik
epwk; my;yhj Vida
epwkpfs;.
 ypA+Nfhgpsh];l; - epwkpfs;
,y;iy> czit Nrfhpf;Fk;.
%d;W tifg;gLk;.
 mikNyh gpsh];l;
fhh;Nghi`l;Nul;
Nrfhpf;Fk;.

Page 12
 jhtutpay;;

 vyhNah gpsh];l; -  ijyfha;L rt;Tfspy; gr;ira

nfhOg;G Nrfhpf;Fk;. epwkpfs;> nehjpfs;
 mY}A+Nuh gpsh];l; - fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
Gujk; Nrfhpf;Fk;.  gr;ira epwkpfs; cUthf
 %d;W tif fzpfq;fSk; fhuzk; Mg madpfs;
xd;Wf;F xd;W njhlh;GilaJ. gzpfs; :
 ikl;Nlhfhz;bhpahtpy; ATP
cUthFk; tpjj;jpy;
FNshNuhgpsh];l; : gRq;fzpfj;jpYk; ATP
 jhtuq;fspy; gy;NtW cUthfpd;wJ.
tbtq;fspy; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. Ez; Fkpo;fs; (m) thf;fpNahy;fs;
 Nfhg;ig tbtk; : thy;thf;];  irl;Nlh gpshrj;jpy; cs;s Fkpo;
 H tbtk; : fpshkpNlh Nghd;w mikg;G
Nkhdh];  Rw;W ciw - NlhNdh gpsh];l;
 RUs; tbtk; : ];igNuhifuh vdg;gLk;.
 tiy tbtk; : ClNfhdpak;  nry; rhW epuk;gp cs;sJ.
 miuf;fr;ir tbtk; :  nry; cs; mOj;jj;ij
A+Nyhjphpf;]; epiyepWj;JfpwJ.
 tpz;kPd; tbtk; :
rpf;ek
P h
 nyd;R tbtk; : kw;w
jhtuq;fs;
 Vwj;jho 10 ikf;uhd; ePsk;
kw;Wk; 2 ikf;uhd; jbkd;
nfhz;lit.
 cl;gFjp - Nkl;hpf;]; jputk;
vdg;gLk;. Nrkpg;G Jfs;fs; :
 xt;nthU gRq;fzpfj;jpYk; 40-  czthdJ nry;fspy; gy
100 fpuhdh fhzg;gLk;. tpjkhW Nrkpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 mjpy; xU fpuhzj;jpy; 20-50  vz;nza; Jsp
ijyfha;Lfs; ehzak; Nghd;W  fUTzT Jfs;
mLf;fp fhzg;gLk;.  Ruf;fg;gl;l Jfs;
 ,it ];l;Nuhkh vd;w  fpisNfh[d; Jfs;
jsg;nghUspy; gjpe;J cl;fU (epa+f;spa];)
fhzg;gLk;.  fz;lwpe;jth; : uhgh;l; gpuTd;
 ,it xd;Wnfhd;W KO ePsk; (1871)
tsh;r;rp mile;j Nynky;yh  cl;fU nry;ypd; Kf;fpa Jiz
ePl;rpfs; %yk; Ez; cWg;G
,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.

Page 13
 jhtutpay;;

 A+NfhpNahl;L nry;fspy; kl;Lk; %yk; nry;ypd; midj;J

fhzg;gLk;. tsh;rpij khw;wq;fisAk;
 ,uz;L rt;tpdhy; #og;gl;lJ. fl;Lg;gLj;JfpwJ.
 4 gFjpfshf fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.  ngw;Nwhh;fsplkpUe;J Nra;
 cl;fU glyk; jiyKiwf;F kuGg; gz;Gfs;
 cl;fU gpshrk; flj;jg;gLtij epA+f;spa];
fl;Lg;gLj;JfpwJ.
 cl;fU kzp
 nry; gFg;ig fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; .
 FNuhkhl;bd;
tiygpd;dy;
cl;fU rt;T :
FNuhNkhNrhk;
 ,U mLf;Ffshy; Md cl;fU
 cl;fUtpy; mlh;j;jpahf
ciw nfhz;lJ.
epwNkw;wpf; nfhs;Sk; mikg;G
 Ez; Jis cz;L.
 Kjypy; epA+f;spd; vd
 ,jd; %yk; NtjpnghUs;fs;
ngahpl;lth; : Meischer
cl;fUtpw;Fk;
 epA+f;spf; mkpyk; vd
irl;Nlhgpshrj;jpw;Fk;
flj;jg;gLfpwJ. ngahpl;lth; : Altman
 FNuhNkhNrhk; vd ngahpl;lth;
 90A jbkd; nfhz;lJ. mjd;
: thy;Nlah; (1888)
,ilntsp 100 A nfhz;lJ.
 [Pd; vd ngahpl;lth; :
 cl;fUit ghJfhf;fpwJ.
tpy;n`y;k; [h`hd;rd; (1909)
 rpf;fyhd %yf;$W mikg;G
cl;fU gpshrk; :
 ghuk;ghpaj;jpd; ,aw;gpay; myF
 cl;fU cs;Ns fhzg;gLk;
: FNuhNkhNrhk;fs;;
jputk; ( epA+f;spNah gpshrk;)
 ghuk;ghpaj;jpd; Ntjpapay; myF
 ,j;jputj;jpy; FNuhNkl;bd;
: DNA
tiyg;gpd;dy;, epa+f;spNahy];
 ghuk;ghpaj;jpd;; mbg;gil myF
cs;sJ.
: [Pd;fs;
 vdNt nry; fl;Lghl;L ikak;
 [Pd;fspd; xU KO njhFjp :
vd miof;fg;gLk;.
[PNdhk;.
 kuG gz;Gfis flj;JfpwJ.
 FNuhNkhNrhk;fspy; [Pd;fs;
thpirahf mike;Js;sd vd
cl;fUkzp (epA+f;spNahy];)
nrhd;dth; : gphpl;[]; (1916)
 cl;fU jputj;jpy; cs;s Nfhs
 FNuhNkhNrhk;fspy;
tbt ghfk;
fhzg;gLgit
 vy;iy rt;T ,y;iy
 Gujj;ijr; Nrkpf;f gad;gLfpwJ.
 DNA
cl;fU gzpfs;
 `p];Nlhd; Gujk; : H1,
 Njitahd nehjpfspd;
cw;gj;jpia fl;Lg;gLj;Jtjd; H2A, H2B , H3 , H4

Page 14
 jhtutpay;;

 `p];lNlhd; mw;w Gujk; : (Signals) ngWtjw;Fk;

3 tif RNA (m RNA, T nfhLg;gjw;Fk; gad;gLfpwJ.
RNA, r RNA)  17.5 rjtPjk; [PNdhk; nry;ypd;
 Mg++ nghJthd nray;ghLfspy;
 Ca++ <LgLfpwJ.

 [Pd;fs; gz;Gfis xU Xw;iw

caphpdj;jpd; ngah;
re;jjpapypUe;J kw;nwhU kak;
re;jjpf;F flj;JfpwJ. muhgpNlhgp]; jhypahdh 5
 FNuhNkhNrhk;fs; nry; gphpjypd;
Njhl;lg;gl;lhzp 7
NghJ njspthf njhpAk;.
 [Pd;fSk; nehjpfSf;Fk; ney; 12
,ilNa cs;s njhlh;ig l;hpl;bfk; V];btk; 21
$wpath; gPby; & lhl;lk; ,ij N`hNkh nrg;gpad;]; 23
epA+Nuh];Nghuh jhtuj;jpy;
rpk;ghd;rp 24
fz;lwpe;jhh;.
 ,th;fspd; fz;Lgpbg;G Md fUk;G 40
xU [Pd; xU nehjp XgpNahrpshrk; 631
Nfhl;ghl;Lf;F Nehgy; ghpR
toq;fg;gl;lJ 1958 .  [Pd;fspd; ehd;F gFjpfisg; gw;wp
 ,Jtiu kdpjdpy; 30000 To tpthpj;jth; : ngd;rh;
40000 [Pd;fs;
fz;lwpag;gl;Ls;sd. rp];l;uhd; nray;ghl;L ghypngl;ilL
 kdpj [PNdhk; Vwf;Fiwa 3.2 x myF rq;fpyp
109 epAf;spNahilLfis
cw;gj;jp
nfhz;Ls;sJ.
 kdpj ikl;Nlhfhz;l;hpah nra;Ak;
[PNdhk; 37 [Pd;fisAk; 16>569 kpA+l;lhd; jpBh; khw;w kpA+l;Nln[d;
fhu ,izfisAk; myF Vw;gLk; gFjp
nfhz;Ls;sJ. hPfhd; kWNrh;fi
; f FWf;Nf
 kdpj [PNdhkpy; 38.2 rjtPjk;
myF fyf;Fk; gFjp
caph;Ntjp nray;fspy; mjhtJ
Ez;Zaph; vjph;g;G kw;Wk; cly; XNgud;; [Pd;fspd; xU Fwpg;gpl;l
mikg;G Gujq;fisf; fl;Ltjpy; njhFg;G gzpia
<LgLfpwJ. Kbf;Fk;.
 23.2 rjtPjk; [PNdhikg;
guhkhpf;fTk; gad;gLfpwJ.
 XNgud;; gw;wp tpthpj;jth; :
 21.1 rjtPjk; nry;
N[f;fg; & NkhdhL
nray;ghLfSf;fhd Fwpfisg;

Page 15
 jhtutpay;;

 [Pd;fspd; ,izg;G kw;Wk;  Kjd;ik RUf;fk; nrd;Nuhkpah;

tpyfy; epfo;itg; gw;wp Ma;T kw;Wk; ifdl;NlhNfhh;
nra;jth;fs; : Ngl;rd; & Gd;dl; vd;gtdtw;why; MdJ.
,th;fs; gad;gLj;jpa jhtuk; :  ,uz;L FNuhNkbLfSk;
,dpg;G gl;lhzp (yhj;ju]; nrd;l;Nuhkpah; gFjpfs;
XNlhNul;l];) ,ize;Js;sd.
 FNuhNkhNrhkpy; [Pd;fs;  nrd;ll;Nuhkpah; $l;L
gpize;J ,Ug;gij (Linkage) ,iofshyhd ifdl;Nlh Nfhh;
gw;wp Ma;T nra;jth; : T.H. vd;w mikg;ig nfhz;Ls;sJ.
khh;fd;.  xt;nthU nrd;l;Nuh kpahpYk;
 Fjpf;Fk; [Pd; (m) ,U ifdl;NlhNfhh;;fs;
buhd;];Nghrhd; fz;lwpe;jth; : cs;sd. ,it FNuhNkhNrhkpd;
ghh;guh kf;spd;lhf; fuq;fspy; ePs;thf;fpy;
 jhtu FNuhNkhNrhk;fs;> tpyq;F mike;Js;sd.
FNuhNkhNrhk;fis tpl  ifdl;NlhNfhh; Guj ,iofs;
mstpy; nghpaJ. kw;Wk; Ez; Foy;fshy; MdJ.
 N`hNkh Nyhf;f]; - xj;j  Kjd;ik RUf;fj;ij jtpu
,iz FNuhNkhNrhk;fs;. FNuhNkhNrkpYs;s gpw
 n`l;bNuh Nyhf;f]; - RUf;fq;fs; midj;Jk;
NtWgl;l ,iz ,uz;lhk; epiy RUf;fq;fs;
FNuhNkhNrhk;fs; vdg;gLk;.

F.Nrhk;
NfhpNahilg; nghJngah; caphpay; ngah; nkhj;j
 FNuhNkhNrhk; ,izia vz;zpf;if
l;NuhNrhgpyh
mtw;wpd; rpwg;G gz;Gfis go <
nkyndhfpsh];lh; 8
nfhz;L Fwpg;gJ MFk;. Nfhop
Nfy]; nlhnk];bf] 78
vyp
 Xt;nthU FNuhNkNrhKk; xNu k];K]; Fy]; 40
Fuq;F
nfhhpyh nfhhpyh 48
khjphpahd ,U mikg;Gfisf; kdpjd;
N`hNkh Nrg;gpd;]; 46
ntq;fhak;
nfhz;Ls;sJ. ,it mhprp
Mypak; Nrgh 16
FNuhNkbLfs; vdg;gLk;. Xiurh riltk; 24
kf;fhNrhsk;
rpah ikg;]; 20
 mikg;gpy; xNu khjphpahf fhgp
fhgpah muhgpfh 44
cUis
,Ug;gjhy;> ,it rNfhjhp fpoq;F
nrNyhdk; 48
bA+gNuhrk;
FNuhNkbLfs; vdg;gLk;.
 KOikahd mikg;igf;
 epA+fpspNahy];fs; ,uz;lhk;
nfhz;l FNuhNkhNrhkpy;
epiy RUf;fq;fspypUe;J
FWfpa gFjpfs; cs;sd. mit
cUthfpd;wd. ,it
RUf;fq;fs; vdg;gLk;.
epA+fpspNahy];fs;
 RUf;fq;fs; ,U tifgLk;.
cUthf;fpfs; vdg;gLk;.
(Kjd;ik RUf;fk; kw;Wk;
 FNuhNkhNrhkpd; Kjd;ikahd
,uz;lhk; epiy RUf;fk; )
gFjpapypUe;J
Page 16
 jhtutpay;;

BNyhnrd;l;hpf; mf;Nuh nrd;l;hpf; rg;nkl;lhnrd;l;hpf; nkl;lh

nrd;l;hpf;

Nfhy; tbtk; J tbtk;

nrdl;Nuhkpah; kdpjd; 17tJ nrdl;Nuhkpah; V tbtk;
xUKidapy; FNuhNkhNrhk; fpl;ljl;l eLtpy; nrdl;Nuhkpah;
xNu xU if Nfhy; tbtk; NtWgl;l eLtpy;
nrdl;Nuhkpah; xU ,Uiffs; rkkhd
Kidapy; ,Uiffs;
xUFl;ilif xU
ePz;l if
 jdpikg;gLj;Jg;gl;Ls;s
FNuhNkhNrhkpd; rpwpa II. gz;Gfspd; mbg;gilapy;
Edpg;gFjp rhl;biyl;; vdg;gLk;. N`hNkh n`l;bNuh
,J rhl; FNuhNkhNrhk; Nfkpbf; Nfkpbf;
tif
vdg;gLk;. Xj;j NtWgl;l
 FNuhNkhNrhkpd; Edpg;gFjp gz;G gz;G
BNyhkpah; vdg;gLk;. ,J kdpjd; ngz; XX Mz; XY
epiyg;Gj;jd;ikf;F G+r;rp ngz; XX Mz; XO
mtrpakhdJ. gwit Mz; ZZ ngz; ZW

 FNuhNkhNrhkpd; tbtk; III. nrd;l;Nuhkpah; mike;Js;s

gpd;tUk; fhuzpfshy; khWgLk; ,lj;jpd; mbg;gilapy;
1. vz;zpf;if
2. msT IV. nrd;l;Nuhkpah; vz;zpf;if
3. nrd;l;Nuhkpah; ,lk; mbg;gilapy;
4. if ePsk; 1. NkhNdh nrd;l;hpf; - xNu xU
5. 2k; epiy xLf;fk; nrd;l;Nuhkpah;
6. rhl;biyl;L 2. N`hNyh nrd;l;hpf; - njsptw;w
nrd;l;Nuhkpah; v.fh : My;fh>
FNuhNkhNrhk; tiffs;
m];fhhp];
I. gzpfspd; mbg;gilapy; :
Ml;NlhNrhk;fs; : 3. Vnrd;l;hpf; - ,y;iy
 cly; gz;Gfis fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; 4. il nrd;l;hpf; -2
 ghy; eph;zapj;jypy; gq;F ,y;iy nrdl;Nuhkpah; FiwghL cs;s
 vz;zpf;if 44 FNuhNkhNrhk;(epiyahdJ my;y)
V . rpwg;G tif FNuhNkhNrhk;
my;NyhNrhk;fs; :  rpy tpyq;Ffspd; Muk;g tsh;r;rp
 ghy; eph;zapj;jypy; Kf;fpa gq;F. fhyj;jpy; kpf nghpa G+j
 vz;zpf;if 2 FNuhNkhNrhk;; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.

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1. ghypBd; FNuhNkhNrhk; (gy ehz; tisTfs; gf;fthl;bapy;

FNuhNkhNrhk; ) : ePl;rpAw;W fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.

 fz;lwpe;jth; : ghy;gpahdp 1881 3. B FNuhNkhNrhk; / #g;gh; epA+kuhp

 bNuhNrhgpy;yh- ckpo;ePh; Rug;Gfspy; FNuhNkhNrhk;/; Jiz
Kjd;Kjypy; fz;lwpe;jhh;. FNuhNkhNrhk;
 kf;fhNrhsj;jpy;
fhzg;gLfpwJ
 ,J Jiz gaph;
jhtuj;jpd;
tho;ehisf;
 ,q;F DNA njhlh;rr
; pahf Fiwf;Fk;.
,ul;bg;ghfp Nra; DNAf;fs;
gphpahky; Xl;bNa ,Ug;ghjy; gl;il 4. lGs; kpdpl;]; FNuhNkhNrhk;
kw;Wk; ,ilgl;il cUtk;  Gw;WNeha; nry;fspy;
Njhd;Wfpd;wJ. fhzg;gLk;.
 ,e;j Gw;Wnry;fs; kUe;Jfis
 ghypBd; FNuhNkhNrhkpy; nghpa vjph;f;Fk;.
Gilg;ghd gFjp cs;sJ. ,jw;F  nrd;l;Nuhkpah; kw;Wk; BNyhkpah;
ghy;gpahdp tisak; vd;W ngah;. ,y;iy.

FNuhNkhNrhk; gpwl;rpfs;
 Xh; caphpdj;jpd; ,Uka
FNuhNkhNrhk;fspd; vz;zpf;if
my;yJ mikg;gpy; Gyg;glf;$ba
,ay;Gf;F khwhd khw;wk;
2. tpsf;FJ}hpif FNuhNkhNrhk; FNuhNkhNrhk; gpwl;rp vdg;gLk;.
(Lamp Brush Chromosomes)  ehd;F tifg;gLk;
 fz;lwpe;jth; : gpskpq; 1882
 mrplhGNyhpah My;fhtpy; 1. ePf;fk;
fz;lwpe;jhh;.  xU FNuhNkhNrhkpypUe;J xU
 Fd;wy; gFg;gpd; GNuhNg];rpd; Fwpg;gpl;l gFjp ,of;fg;gLjy;
bg;NshBd; epiyapy; ePf;fk; MFk;. ,J EdpapNyh
fhzg;gLfpd;wd. my;yJ ,ilapNyh Vw;glyhk;.
 FNuhNkhNrhk; kpfTk; RUq;fp  FNuhNkhNrhKila Edp
jbg;Gw;W FNuhNkhNrhk; mr;rhf ,of;fg;gl;lhy; mJ Edp ePf;fk;
khWfpwJ. vdg;gLk;.
 mjpf msT RNA  v.fh : LNuhNrhgpy;yh kw;Wk;
kf;fhNrhsk;.
cUthf;fg;gLtjhy; DNA

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 xU FNuhNkhNrhKila ika  xd;W nghpnrd;l;hpf; kw;nwhd;W

gFjpapy; ,og;G Vw;gl;lhy; mJ ghuhnrd;l;hpf; jiyfPo;jpUg;g
,ilePf;fk; vdg;gLk;. jpBh;khw;wk; MFk;.
 ngUk;ghyhd ePf;fk;ngWjy; jpBh;  nghpnrd;l;hpf; jiyfPo;jpUg;g
khw;wq;fshy; caphpdk; ,we;J jpBh; khw;wj;jpd; NghJ
tpLfpwJ. jiyfPohf jpUk;gpa gFjp nrd;l;
Nuhkpahiuf; nfhz;Ls;sJ.
2. ,ul;bg;ghjy;  rpy rkaq;fspy; ,J rpw;wpdj;
 xU FNuhNkhNrhk; gFjpahdJ jpDila ghpzhkj;jpw;F
,UKiw ,Uf;Fkhdhy; mJ fhuzkhf cs;sJ. vLj;J
,ul;bg;ghjy; vdg;gLk;. fhl;lhf> kdpjDila 17tJ
 v.fh xU FNuhkNrhKila FNuhNkhNrhk; mf;Nuhnrd;l;hpf;
[Pd;fs; a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h ,jpy; mNj Ntisapy; rpk;gd;rp
twl;rp fhuzkhf [Pd;fs; g Fuq;fpy; mjw;F ,izahd
kw;Wk h ,ul;bg;ghdhy; FNuhNkhNrhk; nkl;lh
mg;NghJ [Pd;fSila thpir nrd;l;hpf;fhf cs;sJ.
Kiw a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,g,h, vd;W  ghuh nrd;l;hpf; jiyfPo;
,Uf;Fk;. jpUg;gj;jpy;> jiyfPohd jpUk;gpa
 LNuhNrhgpy;yh> kf;fhr;Nrhsk; FNuhNkhNrhk; gFjpfs; nrd;l;
kw;Wk; gl;lhzp Mfpatw;wpy; Nuhkpah; ,Ug;gjpy;iy.
,ul;bg;ghjy; jpBh; khw;wq;fs;
Njhd;Wfpd;wd. 4. ,lk;ngah;jy;
 caphpdj;jpDila ghpzhk  ,j;jifa FNuhNkhNrhk;
tsh;r;rpf;F rpy ,ul;bg;ghjy; gpwl;rpapy; FNuhNkhNrhk;
jpBh; khw;wq;fs; cjTfpd;wd. gFjpfs; ghpkhw;wk; nra;j
nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wd. ,U
3. jiyfPo; jpUg;gk;; ,izNruh NtWgl;l
 ,jd; fhuzkhf FNuhNkh FNuhNkhNrhk; fSf;fpilNa
Nrhkpy; cs;s [Pd;fspd; ghpkhw;wk; eilngw;why; gu];gu
thpir Kiw 180 jiyfPohf ,lk; ngah;jy; my;yJ
khwptpLfpwJ. Kiwaw;w FWf;Nfw;wk; vd;W
ngah;.
 vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf xU FNuhNkh
 ,J n`l;bNuhirf]; ,lk;
Nrhkpy; a b c d e f g h vd;w
ngah;jy; kw;Wk; n`hNkhir];
thpriapy; [Pd;fs; ,Uf;Fk;
,lk; ngah;jy; vd ,U
NghJ> gpwl;rp Vw;gl;lhy;
tifg;gLk;.
[Pd;fspy; thpirKiw a b c d g
h e h khWfpwJ.
 ,uz;L tifahd jiyfPo;
jpUg;g jpBh; khw;wq;fs; cs;sd.

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FNuhNkhNrhk; vz;zpf;ifapy;
gpwl;rpfs;
 Xt;nthU
caphpdj;jpd;
rpw;wpdq;fspy;
cly; nry;fspy;
Fwpg;gpl;l
vz;zpf;ifapy;
FNuhNkhNrhk;fs;
cs;sd.
 ,Uka FNuhNkh Nrhk;fspd;
vz;zpf;ifapy; khw;wk; Vw;gby;>
 n`l;bNuhirf]; ,lk;
mJ FNuhNkhNrhk; vz;zpf;if
ngah;jypy; ,U ,iz FNuhk
gpwl;rp my;yJ gpsha;b
Nrhk;fspy; xd;W ,ay;ghfTk;
vdg;gLk;.
kw;nwhd;w ghkhw;wk; nra;J
 ,Utifahd gpsha;bfs;
nfhs;sg;gl;l gFjpAld;
Njhd;W fpd;wd. mit
fhzg;gLk;.
A+gpsha;b kw;Wk; md;A+gpsha;b
vd;gdthFk;.

 Mdhy; N`hNkhirf]; ,lk;

ngah;jypy; ,uz;L ,izfspd;
,U FNuhNkhNrhk;fspYk; ,lk;
khw;wk; ngw;w gFjpfs;
fhzg;gLk;.

 ,lk; ngah;jy; jpBh; khw;wk;

rpw;wpdq;fspd; NtWghl;bw;F
fhuzkhf cs;sJ. ,j;jifa
,lk; ngah;jy; guk;giu
Neha;fis Njhw;Wtpf;fpd;wd.

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gpsha;bd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;  A+gpsha;b kw;Wk; md;A+g;gpsha;b

 jhtug;gaph; ngUf;fk; kw;Wk; %ykhf kdpjh;fSf;F
Njhl;lf;fiyapy; ghypgpsha;b gpwg;gpNyNa cz;lhFk; Neha;fs;
Kf;fpa gq;fhw;WfpwJ. Vw;gLfpd;wd.
 ,Ukaj;ij tpl gd;ka  Mg;gps;> Nghp> jpuhl;ir kw;Wk;
epiyapYs;s jhtuq;fs; mjpf jh;G+rzp Mfpatw;wpd;
Ntfkhd tsh;r;rpAld; nghpa ghypgpsha;b ufq;fs; nghpasT
mstpyhd kyh;fs;> fdpfs; fdpia cw;gj;jpnra;fpd;wd.
Mfpatw;iw Njhw;Wtpf;fpd;wd.
vdNt ,it nghUshjhu gpsha;bia J}z;Lgit:
hPjpahf Kf;fpaj;Jtk;  cah; ntg;gepiy Kiw
ngw;wjhFk;.  X –ray Kiw
 ,J Gjpa rpw;wdq;fspd;  Nfy]; cUthf;Fk; Kiw
Njhw;wj;jpy; Kf;fpa gq;fhw;W  fyg;G,dngUf;f Kiw
fpwJ.  Ntjpapay; Kiw
 kyh;fs; kw;Wk; fdpfs; Njhd;Wk; o FNshNuhghh;k;
gUtfhyj;jpy; khw;wj;ij o FNshnuy; i`l;Nul;
Vwg;Lj;JfpwJ. o fhy;rpirapd;
 Gjpa tho; ,lq;fspy; ghyp o Mf;rpd; (IAA, NAA)
gpsha;bj; jhtuq;fs; ed;whf o [pg;nuy;ypd;
Cd;wp tsh;fpd;wd o epf;Nfhl;bd; ry;Ngl;
 ghypgpsha;b tpisthf Neha;
vjph;g;Gj; jpwDld; mjpf epA+f;spf; mkpyq;fs;
kf#y;fis juty;y ufq;fs; DNA - BMf;]p hpNgh epA+f;spf;
cz;lhfpd;wd. mkpyk;
 nll;uhgpsha;b Nfh];> kw;Wk;  Kjypy; epA+f;spd; vd
jf;fhsp Mfpatw;wpy; mjpf ngahpl;lth; : Meischer
msT m];fhh;gpf; mkpyk;  epA+f;spf; mkpyk; vd
cs;sJ. nll;uhgpsha;b kf;fh
ngahpl;lth; : Altman
Nrhsj;jpy; mjpf msptpy;
 DNA vd ngahpl;lth; : Zacharis
tpl;lkpd; A cs;sJ.
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 DNA %yf;$iw Kjypy; Fthidd; + B Mf;rp hpNgh]; = B

gbj;jth;fs; : Wilkins and Mf;rp FthNdhird;+ gh];Ngl; = B
Franklin (X- Raycrystallography) Mf;rp Fthidypf; mkpyk;
 DNA %yf;$iw Kjypy; irl;Nlhrpd; + hpNgh]; = irl;bild;;
tpthpj;jth;fs; : Watson and + gh];Ngl; = irl;bilypf; mkpyk;
Crick (1953) Nobel prize in 1962 irl;Nlhrpd; + B Mf;rp hpNgh]; = B
 gpa+hpd;> gphpkpbd; tpthpj;jth; : Mf;rp irl;bild; + gh];Ngl; = B
Kossel, 1910 Mf;rp irl;bilypf; mkpyk;
 caphpfspy; kuG nghUs; MFk; A+uhrpy; + hpNgh]; = A+hpild;
 kdpjdpy; nkhj;j ePsk; - 2 kP + gh];Ngl; = A+hpilypf; mkpyk;
MFk;. ijakpd;; + B Mf;rp hpNgh]; = B
 xU %yf;$wpapy; Mf;]p hpNgh]; Mf;rp ijakpbd;; + gh];Ngl; = B
rh;f;fiu> ehd;F tpjkhd Mf;rp ijakpilypf; mkpyk;
iel;u[d; fhuq;fs; fhzg;gLk;. DNA tiffs;
 mit : mbidd;> jakpd;>  ,ul;il ,iofs; nfhz;l DNA
Fthidd;> irl;Nlhird; Ie;J tpjkhd tbtq;fspy;
 4.3 kpy;ypad; epA+f;spNlhilL fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.
fshy; MdJ.  tyJ ifthl;lj;jpy; Roy;git :
 epA+f;spNahilLfs;> epA+f;spNah
DNA RUs; ,ul;il ,ilg;gl;l tpl;lk;
irLfshy;; MdJ. ePsk; gpizg;G J}uk;
vz;zpf;if
epA+f;spNah irL = Mf;]phpNgh]; 28 11 23
A 2.56 A
rh;f;fiu + iel;u[d; fhuk; A A
epA+f;spNah ilL = epA+f;spNahirL 34 10 20
B 3.4 A
+ gh];Ngl; njhFjp A A
C 31 9.33 3.32 A 19
iel;u[d; fhuk; ,U tifg;gLk; A A
mbddd; A D 24.2 8 3.03 A 19
Fthddd; G A A
gpa+hpd;
gphpkpbd; irl;Nlhrpd; C  ,lJ ifthl;lj;jpy; Roy;git :
ijakpd; T
o Z- DNA
o fz;lwpe;jth; : Rich
epA+f;spNahilLfspd; tiffs; :
mbidd; + hpNgh]; = mbNdhird; o RUs; ePsk; : 45.6 A
+ gh];Ngl; = mbidypf; mkpyk; o tpl;lk ; : 18.4 A
mbidd; + B Mf;rp hpNgh]; = B o gpizg;G vz;zpf;if : 12
Mf;rp mbNdhird; + gh];Ngl; = B  Palindromic DNA
Mf;rp mbidypf; mkpyk; o xd;Wf;nfhd;W Neh; vjpuhd
Fthidd; +hpNgh]; = FthNdhird; [Pd; thpirfisf; nfhz;lJ.
+ gh];Ngl; = Fthidypf; mkpyk; o tpthpj;jth;: Wilson &
Thomas

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 A = T N[hbAk; C G N[hbAk;
T A G A C G C G T C T A rkvz;zpf;ifapy; ,Uf;f
           
Njitapy;iy
A T C T G C G C A G A T
 tpl;lk; 20 A
thl;rd; & fphpf; - B - DNA khjphp :  mLj;jLj;j ,U RUs;
 ,uz;L ghyp epA+f;spNahilL ,ilntsp - 34A
rq;fpyp nfhz;lJ.  ,U RUs; ,ilNa [Pd;
 ,uz;L rq;fpypfSk; xd;W vz;zpf;if - 10
nfhd;W Neh; vjpuhdJ.  ,U [Pd; ,ilJ}uk; 3.4 A
 ,ul;il ,iofshy; Md Xh;  thl;rd; & fphpf; DNA khjphpia
mikg;G> ,ul;il jpUF RUs; Kjd; Kjypy; Ecoli
mikg;G cUthf;fpwJ. ghf;Bhpaj;jpy; ep&gpj;jth;:
 ,it gh];Ngh - il - v];lh; kPry;]r; d;
,izg;Gfshy; ,izf;fg;
gl;Ls;sJ. DNA ,ul;bg;ghjy;
 xU ,ioapy; 3’–5’’,izg;ghfTk;  DNA ngUf;fj;jpd; NghJ
kw;nwhU ,ioapy; 5’–3’’ cUthFk; mjpRUf;f
,izg;ghfTk; ,izf;fg; RUs;fis tpLtpg;gJ (m)
gl;Ls;sJ. gphpg;gJ : NlhNgh INrhkNu];
 ,uz;L ,iofSf;F ,ilNa  DNA ,uz;L ,iofisAk;
i`l;u[d; gpizg;Gfs; fhzg; gphpf;Fk; nehjp : n`ypf;Nf];
gLfpd;wJ. (Helicase)
 ,it iel;u[d; fhuq;fSf;F  ghjp DNA (m) ngw;Nwhh; DNA
,ilNa cs;sJ. ghJfhf;fg;gLfpwJ.
 mbidd; ijakpd; cld;  Gjpa ,iofs; DNA ghypkNu];
,izAk; (,ul;il i`l;u[d; (I,II,III) %yk; cUthf;fg;gLfpwJ.
gpizg;G)
 irl;Nlhrpd; Fthidd; cld;  ,e;j DNA ghypkNuh]; nray;gl
,izAk; (%d;W i`l;u[d;
Template DNA NjitgLk;
gpizg;G)
(2 ,iofs;)
 ,ij tpthpj;jth; : Chargaff
(A = T), (C G )

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nfhz;lJ. (xw;iw ,io

mikg;G)

 iel;u[d; fhuk; :
 gpa+hpd; mbddd; A
Fthddd; G
 gphpkpbd; irl;Nlhrpd; C
ijakpd; U

 mbddd; msT A+uhrpy; msT

rkk; ,y;iy.

 Fthddd; msT irl;Nlhrpd;

msT rkk; ,y;iy.

RNA tpd; tiffs; :
 ,jd; %yk; Gjpa DNA ,io
1. kuG RNA (m) ituy; RNA
Njhw;Wtpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
o DNA fhzg;glhj epiyapy;
Ntiyfs; : RNA kugpay; flj;jy;
Ntiyfis nra;Ak;.
 nry;ypd; vy;yh nraiyAk;
fl;LgLj;JfpwJ. o v.L : hpNah itu];> TMV,
 gz;Gfis jiyKiwf;F QB ghf;BhpNah Ng[;
flj;JfpwJ. 2. kuG my;yhj RNA
 DNA xU mRNA it o hpNghNrhky; RNA - r RNA
cUthf;fpwJ. mJ Gujk; o khw;Wk; RNA - t RNA
cUthfpd;wJ. o J}Jth; RNA - m RNA
 ,e;j epiykhw;wj;ij r-RNA (iuNghNrhk; RNA /
fz;lwpe;jth; : gpulhpf; fphpg;gpj; Ribosomal RNA) :
RNA (Ribo Nucleic Acid)  nkhj;j RNA mstpy; 80
 RNA tbtk; DNAit xj;Jf; rjtPjk; cs;sJ.
fhzg;gl;lhYk; xU rpy  ,it hpNghNrhkpy; xl;b
fhuzq;fshy; khWgLfpd;wJ. fhzg;gLk;
 75 Kjy; rpy Mapuk; nfhz;l  kpfTk; epiyahdit.
epA+f;spNahilLfshy; MdJ.  GNuhNfhpNahl; 3 tif - 16S,
mit : 23S, 5S
 B Mf;]p hpNgh];  A+NfhpNahl; 4 tif - 18S,
rh;f;fiuf;F gjpy; hpNgh]; 28S, 5.8S, 5S
rh;f;fiu fhzg;gLk;.  Guj cw;gj;jpapd; NghJ m RNA
 ijkDf;F gjpyhf it cg;G ,izg;Gfs; %yk; t
A+Nuhrpy; fhzg;gLk;. RNA Tld; xl;b nfhs;s
 xNu xU ghyp nra;fpwJ.
epA+f;spNahilL rq;fpyp

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 t RNA hpNghNrhkpd; nghpa o epidT tisak;

myFlDk; mRNa rpwpa  NfhlhDf;F vjph;gjk; myF
myFlDk; ,izfpd;wJ. Md;bNfhlhd; vdg;gLk;.

t-RNA (Transfer RNA / Soluble RNA

/ Adapter RNA ) Ntiy
 RNA nkhj;j mstpy; 10 - 15%  Fwpg;gpl;l mkpNdh
cs;sJ. mkpyj;Jld; ,ize;J
 fz;lwpe;jth; : Hogland , mitfis Guj cw;gj;jp
Zemecknike and Stephenson elf;Fk; ,lj;jpw;F ,lkhw;wk;
 fpshth; ,iyaikg;G nra;fpd;wd.
ntspaPl;lth; : R.W .N`hyp m-RNA (J}Jth; RNA / Messenger
 Kg;ghpkhz mikg;ig RNA)
ntspaPl;lth; : Kim ( L Shape)  RNA mstpy; 1 - 5% cs;sJ.
 ,J epa+f;spa]; cs;Ns  fz;lwpe;jth; : Huxley , Volkin &
fhzg;gLk; DNA tpdhy; Astrachan
cw;gj;jpnra;gLfpd;wd.  ngahpl;lth; : Jacob & Monad
 kpfTk; rpwpa RNA ,q;F  Gujj;jpy; cs;s mkpNdh
mkpyq;fspd; thpiria
fhzg;gLfpwJ: 4S
(nkhj;jk; 20) eph;zak; nra;Ak;
 xw;iw rq;fpyp mikg;igf;
kuG jfty;fis Rke;J nry;;Yk;.
nfhz;lJ.
(mbg;gil myF : Nfhlhd;)
 75-85 epA+f;spNahilLfs;
 DNA Nghd;w mikg;G nfhz;lJ.
cs;sJ.
 DNA apd; ,U ,iofspy;
 3’ - Kidapy; %d;W
VjhtJ xd;why; cUthf;fg;gLk;.
epA+f;spNahilLfs;
fhzg;gLfpd;wd.  epA+f;spa]hy;; cUthf;fg;gl;L
irl;Nlhgpshrj;jpw;F
 5’ - Kidapy; vg;nghOJk;
mDg;gg;gLfpwJ.
Fthidd;; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
 mq;F Fwpg;gpl;l Gujkhf nkhop
 tRNA %yf;$whdJ
ngah;f;fg;gLfpwJ.
mjpfg;gbahd iel;u[d;
 Guj;jj;jpd; msT mRNA tpd;
fhuq;fshy; i`l;u[d;
%yf;$W ePsk;> mJ FwpaPL
gpizg;Gfshy; gpizf;fgLk;
nra;Ak; Gujj;ijg;; nghWj;J
nghOJ gy kbg;Gfshf
khWgLk;.
fhzgLfpwJ.
Nfhlhd;
 i`l;u[d; gpizg;G ,y;yhj
 kuG nra;jp myFfs; vdg;gLk;
,lq;fspy; tisaq;fshf
fhzg;gLk;.  4 Guj %yf;$WfSk; 3
fhuq;fSk; Nrh;e;J nkhj;jk; 64
o DHU tisak;
Nfhlhd; nfhLf;Fk; (43 =
o TUC tisak;
4x4x4 = 64)

Page 25
 jhtutpay;;

 64 Nfhld;fs; nkhj;jk; 20
mkpNdh mkpyk; FwpaPL
nra;Ak;.
 bhpg;nyl; Nfhlhd; : xt;nthU
NfhlhDk; 3 epA+f;spNahilL
nfhz;lJ.
 Guj nra;jpapd; Kjy; Nfhlhd; /
Muk;g Nfhlhd; / Starting
Codon : AUG
 KbT Nfhlhd; / mh;j;j kw;w
Nfhlhd; / Non sense Codon
: UAA, UAG, UGA .
 ,it ve;j mkpNdh mkpy
cw;gj;jpapYk; <LgLtjpy;iy.

nry; gphpjy;
 nry; gFg;G xU rpf;fyhd epfo;r;rp  v.L : ghf;Bhpah > mkPgh
 ,jpy; nry; nghUs;fs; Nra;  FNuhNkhl;bd; tiyg;gpd;dy;
nry;fSf;F rkkhf gfph;eJ
; vt;tpj khw;wKk; ,Uf;fhJ.
mspf;fg;gLfpwJ. ikl;lhrp];
 3 tifgLk;  jhtu> tpyq;F cly; nry;fspy;
o Vikl;lhrp]; - Neub elf;fpwJ. tsh;r;rpf;F
nry;gphpjy; fhuzkhf mikfpd;wJ.
o ikl;lhrp]; - kiwKf  Kjypy; fz;lwpe;jth; :
nry;gphpjy; W. ‡g;ngsk;kpq;; 1882
o kpahrp]; - Fd;wy; gphpT  NkYk; tpthpj;jth; :
 fhhpNahifdrp]; - cl;fU gphpT ];l;uh];gh;fh; 1882
 irl;Nlhifdrp]; -  ikl;lahrp]; gphpT 2 epiy
irl;Nlhgpshr gphpT nfhz;lJ.
Vikl;lhrp]; 1) ,ilepiy / xa;Tepiy / Interface
 xU nry; caphpfspy; kl;Lk;  ,U mLj;jLj;j nry;gFg;gpw;F
fhzg;gLfpwJ. ,ilg;gl;l fhyk; epiy

Page 26
 jhtutpay;;

o G1 epiy, S epiy> G2  ,U FNuhNkhbl;fSf;F

epiy eLtpy; nrd;l;Nuhkpah;
G1 epiy : ,Uf;Fk;.
 nry; gphpjYf;F gpd; Jtq;Fk;  2 nrd;bhpNahy; gphpe;J
 Kjy; epiy - nry; tsh;r;rp vjph;vjph; JUtj;ij milAk;.
miljy; .  fjph;,io ehh;fis cw;gj;jpr;
 Njitahd Gujk;> RNA nra;Ak;.
cw;gj;jp Mjy; 2. Metophase ika epiy :
Sepiy :  ehd;F FNuhNkhbl; nfhz;l
 DNA mstpy; mjpfhpf;fpwJ. FNuhNkhNrhk; nry;ypd;
(,ul;bj;jy;) ikag;gFjpf;F te;jilAk;.
G2 epiy :  nrd;l;hpNahy;fspd; ];gpd;by;
 ];gpd;by; ehhpio cw;gj;jpf;F fjph;fs; FNuhNkhNrhkpd;
Njitahd Gujk; cw;gj;jp nrd;lNuhkpah; cld; ed;F
MfpwJ. ,izAk;.
2) ikl;lhrp]; epiy  FNuhNkhNrhk;fs; njspthf
 FNuhNkhNrhk; ,izahf njhpAk;.
Njhw;Wtpf;fg;gl;L jha; nry;ypy; 3. Anaphase / gphpepiy / gpd;diljy;
,Ue;J Nra; nry;Yf;F rkkhf epiy :
gq;fPL nra;ag;gLfpwJ.  gphptile;j FNuhNkhNrhk;fs;
FNuhNkhNrhk; vz;zpf;if vjph; JUtq;fis Nehf;fp
khwhJ mikg;gpy; khWgLk;. efUk;.
vdNt ,J rkd;ghl;L nry;  ];gpd;by; fjph; ePsj;jpy;
gphpjy; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. Fiwe;J gpd;G kiwAk;
 ,J ehd;F epiyfspy;  FNuhNkhNrhk; Rw;wp cl;fU
elf;fpd;wJ. ciw Njhd;w Muk;gpf;Fk;.
o Prophase - njhlf;f 4. Telephase KbT epiy :
epiy  cl;fU rt;T kw;Wk; cl;fU
o Metaphase - ika epiy kzp Njhd;Wk;.
o Ana phase - gpd;diljy;  fjph; ,io ehh;fs; kiwAk;
epiy  FNuhNkhNrhk; ePz;L
o Tels phase - KbT epiy tiygpd;dy; mikg;G
Njhd;Wk;.
ikl;lhrp]; epiy :
1. Prophase (m) njhlf;f epiy
 Kjypy; cl;fU rt;T kw;Wk;
cl;fU kzp kiwAk;.
 FNuhkhl;bd; tiygpd;dy;
RUq;fp Fl;ilahd jbkhdhd
FNuhNkhNrhk; cUthFk;.

Page 27
 jhtutpay;;

 irl;Nlhgpshrk; gphpe;J eLtpy; tpyq;F nry; :

Rth; Njhd;Wk;  gpsT> ntspapy; Muk;gpj;J
 ,U Nra; nry; cz;lhFk;. cs;Nehf;fp tsUk;.
Kf;fpaj;Jtk; :
jhtu nry;  ikl;lh]p]pd; tpisthf
 gpsT> ikaj;jpy; Muk;gpj;J xd;Wf;nfhd;W xj;jpUf;Fk;
ntspNehf;fp tsUk;
 ,uz;L Nra; nry;fs;  FNuhNkhNrhk; vz;zpf;if
Njhd;Wfpd;wd. ,it ghjpahf FiwAk;.
jha;r;nry;iyAk; xj;jpUf;fpd;wd.  kugpay; NtWghL Njhd;Wk;
 ikl;lh]p]; nry; gFg;gpd;  jhtuj;jpy; kpahrp]; epfo;T Vw;gLk;
fhuzkhf Nra; nry;fs; kugpay; ,lq;fs; :
xw;Wikfis mstpYk; gz;gpYk; o kfue;j igapy; kfue;j J}s;
ngw;Ws;sd. cz;lhFk; NghJ
 caphpdq;fspd; njhlh;r;rp o fhkpl;Lfspy; cUthf;fj;jpd;
ikl;lh]p]; %yNk NghJ
rhj;jpakhfpwJ. o irNfhl;L Kisf;Fk; NghJ
 cah; jhtuq;fspy; xl;Lg; NghLjy;  ,UngUk; epfo;Tfisf;
kw;Wk; jpR tsh;g;G Nghd;w cly; nfhz;lJ.
,dg;ngUf;f KiwfSk; 1. kpahrp]; I 2. kpahrp]; II
ikl;lh]p]pd; tpisthfNt Prophase - I Prophase -II
epfo;fpd;wd. Metophase - I Metophase -II
 nry;fs; ngUf;fkile;J mjd; Anaphase - I Anaphase - II
fhuzkhf tsh;r;rpAk; cUj; Telephase - I Telephase - II
Njhw;wKk; gy nry; caphpfspy;
ikl;lh]p]; %yNk epfo;fpwJ. Prophase I
 mope;j nry;fisg; GJg;gpg;gjw;Fk;  5 Jiz epiyfisf; nfhz;lJ
Nrjk; mile;j nry;fis nyg;Nlhl;Bd; :
caph;g;gpg;gjw;Fk; fhaq;fis  nyg;Nlhl;Bd; vd;w thh;j;ij
Mw;WtjpYk; ikl;lh]p];
nky;ypa E}y; vd;W nghUs;
cjTfpwJ.
 FNuhNkhNrhk;fs; gphpe;j ePz;L>
 Xt;nthU rpw;wpdj;jpYk;
FNuhNkhNrhk;fspd; vz;zpf;if nky;ypadthf khWfpd;wd.
epiyahf ,Uf;f ikl;lh]p];  Xt;nthU FNuhNkhNrhKk;
cjTfpwJ. ,uz;L FNuhNkl;bfis
cilaJ.
kpahrp]; / Fd;wy; gFg;G irNfhl;bd;
 ,dngUf;fr; nry;fspy; elf;Fk;.  xj;j FNuhNkhNrhk;fs;
 xU nry; ehd;fhf Mf gphpAk; mtw;wpd; KO ePsj;jpw;Fk;

Page 28
 jhtutpay;;

xd;Wf;nfhd;W mUfhikapy;  ,jd; fhuzkhf ,tw;wpd;

te;j mkh;fpd;wd. ,ul;ilj; jd;ik ed;F
 ,jw;F N[hb Nrh;jy; my;yJ Gyg;gLfpwJ. ,jdhNyNa
rpdhg;rp]; vd;W ngah;. ,e;epiy bg;Nshl;bd;
 ,e;j FNuhNkhNrhk; vd;wiof;fg;gLfpwJ.
N[hbfSf;F ,ul;ilfs; ilahifd]p];
(bivalents) vd;W ngah;.  FNuhNkhNrhk;fs; njhlh;e;J
 N[hb Nrh;ej
; xj;j RUq;Ffpd;wd.
FNuhNkhNrhk;fspd; mUfUNf  fah];khf;fs; KOtJkhf
mikAk; rNfhjhp my;yhj tpyFthjy; N[hb Nrh;ej
;
FNuhNkl;bLfs; (non – sister FNuhNkhNrhk;fs; gphpf;fpd;wd.
chromatids) fah];khf;fs; vd;w  ,t;tpyFjy; nrd;l;Nuhkpah;fsp
rpy Gs;spfspy; ,ize;J ypUe;j njhlq;fp FNuhNkh
fhzg;gLfpd;wd. Nrhk;fspd; Edp Nehf;fp
ghf;fpBd; nry;tjhy; ,jid Edp
 FNuhNkhNrhk;fs; NkYk; RUq;fp miljy; vd;fpNwhk;.
jbj;J Fl;ilahfpd;wd. ,it  epA+f;spNahy]pk; epA+f;spahh;
,g;NghJ kpfj; njspthff; ciwAk; kiwa Muk;gpf;fpd;wd.
fhzg;gLfpd;wd.  fjph;fs; Njhd;w
 Xj;j FNuhNkhNrhk; N[hbfspd; Muk;gpf;fpd;wd.
rNfhjhp FNuhNkl;bLfs;  ,jd; gpwF kpahrp]; I-d;
,g;NghJ njspthfj; Kbtpy; FNuhNkhNrhk;fs;
njhpfpd;wd. xUq;fpize;J xw;iwka
 Xt;nthU ,ul;ilAk; ,g;NghJ epA+f;spai]j;
ehd;F FNuhNkl;bfisf; Njhw;Wtpf;fpd;wd.
nfhz;bUg;gjhy; ,it nll;uL  ,uz;lhtJ kpahrp]; gFg;G
vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wd. vy;yh tpjj;jpYk; ikl;lhrp];
 fah];kh gFjpfspy; xj;j gFg;ig xj;J ,Uf;Fk;.
FNuhNkhNrhk;fspd; mUfUNf  ,jd; Kbtpy; ehd;F xw;iwka
cs;s FNuhkhl;bLfspilNa Nra; nry;fs; cUthfpd;wd.
rpW gFjpfs; ghpkhw;wk;
milfpd;wd. ,e;epfo;r;rp
FWf;Nf fyj;jy; (crossing
over)vd;W ngah;.
bg;Nshl;Bd;
 xj;j FNuhNkhNrhk;fs; NkYk;
RUq;f Muk;gpf;fpd;wd.
fah];kh Gs;spfisj;jtpu kw;w
gFjpfspy; ,it tpyf
Muk;gpf;fpd;wd.

Page 29
 jhtutpay;;

Kf;fpaj;Jtk; :
1. ,dg;ngUf;f nry;fs; cUthf;fk;
2. FWf;Nf fyj;jy; %yk; [Pd;fspd;
kWNrh;f;if elf;fpd;wJ.
3. kugpay; NtWghLfSf;F
fhuzkhfpd;wJ.
4. Gjpa ghpzkj;jpw;F
toptFf;fpd;wJ.

Page 30
 caphpdq;fspd; tifg;ghL
(Classification of Living Organism)

 tifghl;bay; thh;j;ijia Kjypy; tifg;ghl;bd; epiyfs; :

nrhd;dth; : A.P. mf];bd;  mikg;gpy; xj;jj; jd;ik
fhd;Nlhy; 1813. fhzg;gLgit kw;Wk; Nkk;ghl;bd;
mbg;gilapy; tpyq;Ffs;
 Taxis = Orderly arrangement
tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
 Nomos = law
mbg;gil myFfs; :
 Gj;jfk; = Theory of
1. mikg;G epiy : nry;fspd;
Elementary botany
vz;zpf;ifiag; nghWj;J xU
 ,dk; fz;lwpjy;> tpthpj;jy;>
ngahpLjy; kw;Wk; tifg;gLj;Jjy; nry; caphp> gy nry; caphp vd
Mfpatw;iw gw;wp mwpAk; ,uz;L gphpTfs; cs;sJ.
caphpaypd; xU gphpT. 2. fUepiy mLf;Ffs; : gy nry;
 ,J caphpdq;fis fz;lwpAk;> caphpfis Rthpy; fhzg;gLk;
Vw;fdNt tifg;gLj;jg;gl;l mLf;Ffspd; mbg;gilapy;
caphpdq;fisgw;wp njhpe;J <uLf;F> %tLf;F caphpfs; vd
nfhs;sTk; cjTfpwJ. tifg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd.
 tifg;ghl;baypd; xt;nthU
3. rkr;rPh; jd;ik : cly; cWg;Gfs;
myfpw;Fk; Nlf;rhd; (Taxon) vd;W
mike;Js;s jd; mbg;gilapy;
ngah;
 Nlf;rhd; : tpyq;fpdq;fSf;F rkr;rPh; mw;wit> Murkr;rPh;>
Kjypy; nrhd;dth; : mlhy;g; ,Ugf;f rkr;rPh; vd 3 tifahf
Nkah; (n[h;kd; 1926) gphpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. v.L : mkPgh>
 Nlf;rhd; : jhtuq;fSf;F Kjypy; i`l;uh> kz;GO
nrhd;dth; : vr;.n[. Nyd; 4. clw;Fop : clw;Fop ,ay;gpd;
mbg;gilapy; 3 tifahf
Nlf;rhdpd; filrp Suffix for
vOj;Jfs; : taxon gphpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
njhFjp : igl;lh Division: Phyta  clw;Fop mw;wit - ehlhg;GO
Jiz njhFjp : Subject: phytina Nghyp clw;Fop cs;sit -
igl;bdh Class : opside,
tFg;G : Mg;rplh phyceae cUisg;GO - cz;ik clw;Fop
Jiw : ,Nd Order : ales cs;sit - kz;GO
Jiz Jiw: ,Nd Suborder : 5. cly; ntg;g epiy :
FLk;gk; : VrpNa ineae
Jiz FLk;gk; : ntg;gepiyia xOq;FgLj;Jk;
Family : aceae
Ma;bNa Sub family : jpwd; mbg;gilapy; 2 tiffshf
oideae gphpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.

Page 1
 jhtutpay;;

a) Fsph; ,uj;j gphuzpfs; / khWk;  jhtuq;fis - epyj;jpy;

ntg;g ,uj;j gpuhzpfs; / gha;f;fpNyh tho;git> ePhpy; tho;git vd
njh;kpf; : tifg;gLj;jpdhh;.
 cly; ntg;gepiy> Rw;Wg;Gw  jpNahgpu];l]; fp.K 370 -282 -
#o;epiyf;F jFe;jthW $lNth> jhtutpaypd; je;ij (Father of
FiwaNth nra;Ak; Botany)
v.L : kPd;> jtis  Kjd; Kjypy; 480
b) ntg;g ,uj;j gpuhzpfs; / khwh jhtuq;fis ifg;gLj;jpdhh;
ntg;g ,uj;j gpuhzpfs; / N`hkpNah  Gj;jfk; : `p];Nlhhpah
njh;kpf; : gpshd;lhuk;
 cly; ntg;gepiy> Rw;Wg;Gw  rufh; - Kjyhk; E}w;whz;L
#o;epiyf;F jFe;jthW khwhJ.  340 jhtuq;fis tifg;
xNu khjphp ,Uf;Fk;. gLj;jpdhh;
v.L : gwit> kdpjd;  mth; vOjpa Gj;jfk; : rhuf;
tifg;ghl;bd; Kiwfs; rk;`pjh
1. vz;zpf;if tifg;ghL  gpisdp fp.gp 23-79
2. FNuhNkhNrhk; tifg;ghL  [hd;Nu fp.gp. 1627 -1705
3. Ntjpapay; Kiw tifg;ghL
4. njhy;Yaphpay; tifg;ghL  tpyq;Ffis ,uj;jk; cilait>
5. ngahpLk; Kiw tifg;ghL ,uj;jk; mw;wit vdg; gphpj;jhh;.
6. milahs FwpaPl;L tifg;ghL  vOjpa Gj;jfk; : Historia
tifg;ghl;baypd; tsh;rr ; p Gerenalis plantarum
 tpyq;Ffis gw;wp gbg;gJ :  rpw;wpdk; (species) vd;w
‡ghdh (Fauna) thh;j;ijia
 jhtuq;fis gw;wp gbg;gJ : mwpKfg;gLj;jpdhh;.
‡g;Nshuh (Flora)  n[dPuh (genera) vd;w
 Vwj;jho 600 kpy;ypad; thh;j;ijia
tUlq;fSf;F Kd; tpyq;Ffs; mwpKfg;gLj;jpdhh;.
Njhd;wpd.  fh];gh;L ngsfpd; 1623
 ,J tiu 2 - 30 kpy;ypad; tif  Kjd; Kjyhf ,Unrhy;
caph;fs; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. ngahpLk; Kiwia
 mhp];lhl;b]; - 384 - 322 fp.K - fz;lwpe;jhh;.
tpyq;fpaypd;je;ij  Gj;jfk; : Pinax Theatre
(Father of zoology) Botanica
 Kjd; Kjypy; KJFehz;  khh;nry;nyh khy;gP[p - 1628
cs;sit> KJFehz; jpRtpaypd; je;ij (Father of
mw;wit vd Histology)
tifg;gLj;jpdhh;.  ,uhgh;l; `Pf; 1665 - nry;ypaypd;
je;ij (Father of Cytology)

Page 2
 jhtutpay;;

 Kjd; Kjyhf Ez;Nzhf;fpia itj;Jk; mjd; vz;zpf;if

fz;Lgpbj;jhh;. kw;Wk; gz;Gfs; mbg;gilapy;
 Kjd; Kjyhf nry; (nry;Yyh 24 tFg;Gfspy; gphpj;jhh;.
- yj;jpd;) vdg; ngahpl;lhh;. vdNt ghy;Kiw ,dg;ngUf;f
 Gj;jfk; : ikf;Nuh Ng[pah (Micro tifghL (sexual
phagia) classification) vd
 Md;ld; thd; yP ntd;`hf; 1676 miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
ghf;Bhpahy[papd; je;ij (Father of Gj;jfk; :
Bacteria)  1735 - ]p];lkh Ner;RNu -
 $l;L Ez;Nzhf;fpia Systema naturae
fz;Lgpbj;jhh;.  1737 - n[dpuh
 ghf;Bhpahit fz;lwpe;jhh; gpshz;lhuk; - Genera
 tpyq;Ffspy; RBC plantaurm
fz;lwpe;jhh;.  1753 - ];gP]p];
 tpe;jZf;fis fz;lwpe;jhh;. gpshz;lhuk; - Species
 fNuhy]; ypd;Nda]; 1707 -1778 - plantaurm
tifg;ghl;baypd; je;ij (Father of ,U nrhy; ngahpLk; Kiwapd;
Taxonomy) tpjpfs; :
 Nk 23> 1709 ];tPldpy;  mwptpay; ngah; ,yj;jPd; nkhop
gpwe;jhh;. (m) ,yj;jPd; nkhop ngah;g;gpNyh
 ,thpd; ,aw;ngah; fhh;y; thd; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
ypd;  Nghpdk; ngah; Kd;ghfTk;
 fpopq;F gbepiyia mwpKfg; rpw;wpdk; ngah; gpd;ghfTk;
gLj;jpdhh;. ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
 NguuR → njhFjp →  Nghpdk; ngah; Kjy; vOj;J
tFg;G → Jiw → FLk;gk; nghpajhfTk xNu
→ Nghpdk; → rpw;wpdk; thh;j;ijahfTk; ,Uf;f
Ntz;Lk;
 Kingdom → Phylum → class
 rpw;wpdk; ngah;> rpwpa
→ Order → family →
vOj;JfshfTk;>
Genus → species
jdpthh;j;ijafNth (m)
 caphpdq;fs; nghJ ngah;
$l;Lthh;;j;ijahfNth
nfhz;L miof;fg;gl;ld.
,Uf;fNtz;Lk;
mjdhy; Fog;gk; Vw;glNt
,Unrhy; ngahpLk; Kiwia  mr;rpLk; NghJ rha;thf mr;rpl
eilKiw gLj;jpdhh;. Ntz;Lk;> tyk; rhh;ej ; rpW
(Kjypy; fh];gh;L ngsfpd;) vOj;Jf;fshf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
 ifahy; vOjpdhy; mbf;Nfhbl
 kyhpd; Mz;gFjpia kfue;jk;
Ntz;Lk;.
vd;W itj;Jk; kyhpd; ngz;
gFjpia #yfk; vd;W

Page 3
 jhtutpay;;

 xU njhFg;gpw;F xNu xU 3. Mh;bFNyl;lh

epiyahd ngah; kl;Lk; ,Uf;f 4. NubNal;lh
Ntz;Lk;.  igyk; (phylum) vd;w
 ypd;nda]; ntspapl;l 10tJ thh;j;ijia mwpKfg;
gjpg;G 1758 My; 1st Mf];l; gLj;jpdhh;.
Kd;ghf gad;gLj;jg;gl;l  vl;th;L n[d;dh; 1796
midj;J ngah;fspd;  Father of immunology Neha;
chpikAk; uj;J nra;ag;gl;lJ. vjph;g;G caphpay; je;ij
vdNt 1st AUG tifg;ghl;bay;  Kjd; Kjypy; gR mk;ik
ehs; vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ. Neha;f;F jLg;G kUe;J
 Nll;Nlhepk;]; (Tautonyms ) - fz;lwpe;jhh;.
Nghpdk; ngaUk;> rpw;wpdk;  nge;jk; & `Pf;fh; 1800
ngaUk;; xd;whf ,Ug;gJ. ,J  [hh;[; nge;jk;> N[hrg;
jhtu cyfj;jpw;F nghUe;jhJ. lhy;ld; `Pf;fh;
tpyq;Ffpdq;fSf;F kl;Lk;  ,UtUk; ,q;fpyhe;jpy;
nghUe;Jk;. cs;s fpa+ (kew) muR
 v.L Nkd;[pnguh jhtutpay; g+q;fhtpy;
,d;bfh - kh kuk; gzpGhpe;jdh;.
 eh[h eh[h - ey;y ghk;G  ,th;fs; vOjpa Gj;jfk; -
 ikf;Nfy; Mlk;rd; 1727 -1806 n[dpuh gpshz;lhuk; 1883
 vz;rhh;G tifg;ghl;bay; (3 njhFjp nfhz;l E}y; )
 yhkhh;f; - 1744 -1829  ,jpy; 97205 rpw;wpdq;fs;; 22
 ypd;Nda]; fUj;Jf;fis Jiwfspy; Nrh;f;fg;
Nkk;gLj;jpdhh;. gl;Ls;sJ.
 Gj;jfk; : philosophic epiwfs; :
zoologique (tpyq;fpay;  Neubahf Ma;T nra;ag;
jj;Jtk;.) gl;lJ.
 ghpkhz tsh;r;rpf;F ehd;F  kpfg; gad;ghL cilaJ.
fhuzpfis tpsf;fpdhh;.  ,dk; fhz vspa
1. Rw;Wr;#oy; tifg;ghL.
2. cWg;Gfspd; cgNahfk; Fiwfs;:
3. jdpikg;gLj;jg;gLjy;  [pk;Ndh];ngh;k; jhtuj;ij
 ngw;w gz;Gfs; jiy Kiwf;F ,Utpj;jpiy
flj;jg;gLjy;. jhtuj;njhFjpapy; Nrh;j;jJ.
Ftpah; 1769 -1832  ghpkhz tsh;r;rp njhlh;G
 tpyq;Ffis 4 gphpTfspy; gw;wp nrhy;yg;gl tpy;iy.
tifg;gLj;jpdhh;.  rhh;y]; lhh;tpd; 1809
1. nth;bgpuh  Father of evolution
2. nkhy];fh ghpzhktpay; je;ij

Page 4
 jhtutpay;;

 gpwg;G : R&];ghp> ,q;fpyhe;J  thj;Jf;fOj;J FLit

Feb 12> 1809 Nrhjid %yk; caphpdq;fs;
 ,tUf;F ghpzkj;ijg; gw;wp jhdhf Njhd;wpa jiyKiw
Muha;r;rp nra;a J}z;L Nfhl;ghl;il kWj;jhh;.
Nfhyhf ,Ue;jth;fs; NkYk; mOfpa kq;fpa
rhh;y]; yhay; (Charles lyell), mq;qf nghUl;fspy; ,Ue;J
khy;j]; (Malthus). caphpdk; Njhd;wpaJ
 HMS gPfps; vd;w fg;gypy; vd;gijAk; kWj;jhh;.
(1831) njd;dhg;gphpf;fhtpw;F  kdpjdpy; Nugp]; Neha;f;F
mUfpy; cs;s fNyhNghf]; (ntwpeha;fb) kUe;J
vd;w jPTf;Fr; nrd;W fz;lwpe;jhh;.
Muha;r;rp nra;jhh;.  Nfhopfspy; fhyuh Neha;f;F
 Ie;J tUl Muha;r;rpf;F gpd;G kUe;J fz;lwpe;jhh;.
mth; vOjpa Gj;jfk;  MLfspy; Me;jpuhf;];
rpw;wpdq;fspd; Njhw;wk; Neha;f;F kUe;J fz;lwpe;jhh;.
(Origin of Species) 1859  A.W. va;r;yh; 1861
 ,th; thy]; (Wallace)  Kjd; Kjypy; ghpzhk
vd;gtUld; Nrh;eJ
; tsh;r;rpNahL njhlh;Gg;
caphpdq;fspd; ghpzhk gLj;jp Ie;J gphpTfspy;
Nfhl;ghL > ,aw;if Njh;T jhtu tifg; ghl;bidfis
(Natural selection) je;jhh;.
njspTg;gLj;jpdhh;.  jhNyhigl;lh→gpiuNahig
 mstw;w gpwg;gpj;jy; jpwd; l;lh→ nlhpNlhigl;lh→
- Excess [pk;Ndh];ngh;k;→Md;[pNah
Reproduction ];ngh;k;
 tho;f;ifg; Nghuhl;lk; -  vq;;fsh; & gpuhd;by; 1889
Survival capacity  Gj;jfk; - Die Naturlichen
 gutyhd khWghLfs; - Pflanzen Familen
Frequent different  ,th;fsJ tifg;ghL jhtu
cyfj;jpd; KOikahd
 jFjpahdit jg;gpg;
ghpkhz tsh;r;rpj; njhlh;G
gpioj;jy; - Survival of
nfhz;bUe;jJ.
the fittest
 tP];Nkd; 1890
 Y}ap gh];bah; 1822 - 1895
 NrhNkl;Nlhgpshr (cly;nry;)
 Father of Micro Biology
khw;wkhdJ n[h;k;gpshrj;jpy;
Ez;Zaphpay; je;ij
(,dngUf;f nry;) epfohJ
(n[h;k; nfhs;if)
vd;gij ep&gpj;jhh;.
 jpuhl;ir urj;jpypUe;J
 N`f;fy; 1940
My;f`hy; jahhpf;f <];l;
 %d;W cyf tifg;ghl;L Kiw
fhuzk; vd;gij ep&gpj;jhh;.
Page 5
 jhtutpay;;

caphpdk; (nry; mikg;G)

GNuhl;b];lh gpshd;Nl mdpkhypah

My;fh gy nry; jhtuk; gynry; tpyq;F

ghf;Bhpah
 GNuhl;b];lh vd;w thh;j;ij mwpKfk; nra;ajth; : rp.Ftpah; (Cuvier)

 Nfhg;Nyz;l; - ehd;F cyf tifghL :

4 cyfk;

nkhdpuh Guhl;b];lh gpshd;Nl mdpkhypah

 nkhdpuh vd;w thh;j;ij mwpKfk; nra;ajth; : nls`hh;b & Myd;

 thh;kpq; 1909 c) ePh; Ko;fpa jhtuq;fs;

G+f;Fk; jhtuq;fspd; tifg;ghL ePh;
Njit mbg;gilapy; tifg;gLj;jpdhh;
1. ePh; tho; jhtuq;fs; (Hydrophytes)
Fsk;> Fl;il> Vhp thoplq;fspy;
thOk; jhtuq;fs;.
a) jdpj;J kpjf;Fk; ePh; tho;
jhtuq;fs;
 ePh;gug;gpd; kPJ jdpj;J
kpjf;fpd;wd.
 v.L : Mfhaj; jhkiu
[Nfhh;dpah> gp];bah.
b) Nt&d;wp kjpf;Fk; ePh; tho;
jhtuq;fs;
 Fsj;jpd; mbg;Gw
kz;zpy; Nt&d;wp
,Ue;jhYk; mtw;wpd;
,iyfs; ePh;gug;gpd; kPJ
kpjf;Fk;. v.L my;yp>
jhkiu (ePyk;Ngh)
 KOJk; ePhpy; Ko;fp kz;zpy;
Ng&d;wp ,Uf;Fk; .
 v.L : thyp];Nehpah>
i`l;uypy;yh
d) ePhpy; Nth; Cd;wpa ,Utho;tp
jhtuk;
 v.L : r[pNlhpah> udd;Fy];
2. ,ilepiy jhtuq;fs; :
(Mesophytes )
1) kpjkhd ePh; cs;s ,lq;fspy;
kl;Lk; tsUk; (mjpfk;> Fiwe;j ePhpy;
tsuhJ)
 v.L epy gaph; jhtuq;fs; -
NfhJik> kf;fhNrhsk;> kh>
#hpafhe;jp
 Nth; ey;y tsh;r;rp
 jz;L nghpJ> fpisj;J
fhzg;gLk;
 jdpj;J epw;Fk;
 ,iy - nghpJ> mfyk;

Page 6
 jhtutpay;;

 ,iyJis : ,UGwKk; rJg;G epyj; jhtuk; (Halophytes)

fhzg;gLk;  fly; Kfj;J thuj;jpy;
 th];Fyhh; jpR - ey;ytsh;r;rp fhzg;gLk;
mile;J ,Uf;Fk;.  khq;&t; fhL / Re;jutd
fhL / miyahw;wp fhL
3. twz;l epy jhtuq;fs; : (Xero
 kz;zpy; mjpf cg;G
phytes):
,Ug;gjhy; jhtuk; Nky;
 ePh; gw;whf;Fiw> mjpf Nehf;fpa Nth;fis tsu
ntg;gepiy> Ntfkhd fhw;W nra;Ak;. ,it RthrNth; /
#o;epiyapy; tsh;git. nekl;Nlh];Nghh; vdg;gLk;.
 ePuhtpg; Nghf;if jLf;f  ,J tspkz;lj;jpYs;s O2
,iyJisfs; ,UGwKk; ngw;W NtUf;F nfhLf;Fk;.
mKq;fp fhzg;gLk;.  tpij> fPNo tpOe;jhy; cg;G
 Nth;j;njhFg;G ey;y tsh;r;rp jd;ikapy; Kisg;gJ
mile;jpUf;Fk;. jilgLk;. vdNt kuj;jpNyNa
a) twl;rpia jtph;g;git tpijahdJ Gjpa jhtukhf
 FWfpa fhyk; kl;Lk; thOk; Njhw;Wtpf;Fk; ,jw;F
 mjpf nta;apypy; tho;;f;ifia tptpg;nghp vd;W ngah;.
Kbj;Jf; nfhs;Sk;. v.L : iuNrhNghuh> mtprPdpah.
 v.L : Mh;f;fpkhd;> nrhyNdk;  ,e;jpah - Nkw;F tq;fhsk;
re;Njhfhh;gk;  jkpo;ehL - gpr;rhtuk;>
b) twl;rpia jhq;Fgit Nfhbaf;fiu
 ,iyfs; rpwpa Ks; Nghd;W  A.I XNghpd; 1921
fhl;rpaspf;Fk;.  jhtuq;fspd; tifg;ghl;bid
 jz;L rij gw;whd ,iyfshf caph;Ntjpapy; ghpzhkj;NjhL
khwp xspr;Nrh;f;ifapd; %yk; tpsf;fpdhh;.
czit jahhpf;Fk;. vdNt ,J  mth; vOjpa Gj;jk; Oecology of
,iy njhopy; jz;L (gpy;NyhL) plants
vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.  E. Nkah; - 1930
 v.L : mf;Nft;> mNyh  Gj;jfk; : Gjpa tifg;ghl;L
c) twl;rpia vjph;g;igit mikg;G
 ntg;gj;ij vjph;f;f ,iyapy;  rpty; iul; 1930
rpypf;f G+r;R fhzg;gLk; -  kugpay; efh;T > epWtdh; jj;Jtk;
fNyhl;uhgp]; (Genetic drift, founder Pirnciple, )
 Nth;fs; ePiur; Nrkpf;Fk;-  R.H. tpl;Nlf;fh; 1969 (mnkhpf;fh)
m];guhf];  Ie;Jyf tifg;ghl;L Kiw

Page 7
 jhtutpay;;

Ie;Jyf tifg;ghl;L Kiw

nkhdpuh GNuhl;b];lh G+Q;ir jhtuk; tpyq;F

GNuhfhhpahl;Lfs; A+NfhpNahl;Lfs; 1>00>000 gpshz;Nl mdpkypah
v.L : ghf;Bhpah jhtuk; - ghrpfs; gr;irak; cs;sit gy nry;
tpyq;Ffs;
ePygRk;ghrp tpyq;F - GNuhl;NlhNrhth 2>89>640 11>70>000
9000 59>950

jhtu cyfk; gpshz;Nl

G+th jhtuq;fs; G+f;Fk; jhtuq;fs;

fphpg;Nlhfhk;fs; ngdNuhfhk;fs; tpij jhtuk;
1. jhNyhigl;lh
ghrpfs; - Ra[Ptp
G+Q;irfs; - gu[Ptp [pk;Ndh];ngh;k; MQ;rpNah]; ngh;k;

2. gpiuNahigl;lh - hpf;]pah jpwe;j tpij jhtuk; %batpij jhtuk;

epyk; kw;Wk; ePhpy;; tho;gd tpij cz;L tpij #yfigapy;
3.nlhpl;Nlhigl;Lfs; - nguzp ntspNa fhzgLk; fhzg;gLk;
fdp ,y;iy
v.L irf;f]; igd;

xU tpj;jpiy ,Utpj;jpiy
Kisf;Fk; NghJ xU ,iy Kisf;Fk;
Gy;> njd;id> ney; NghJ ,U
,iy
kh> gPd;]>;
Nth;fliy
Kf;fpa mbg;gil gz;Gfs; :  jhtu cly;gFjpfspd;
1. nry;ypd; rpf;fyhd mikg;G cs;sikg;gpay;> kyhpd;
2. czT+l;l Kiw (jw;rhh;G (m) cs;sikg;gpay;> kfue;jtpay;>
gpwrhh;G) fUtpay;> nry;ypay;> kugpay;>
3. cly; mikg;G xU nry; (m) gy caph;Ntjpapay; gz;Gfisf;
nry;) fUj;jpy; nfhz;L Vw;gLj;jg;gl;l
4. FOk ghpzhkk; (m) ghpzhkj; tifg;ghl;bay;.
njhlh;G  Gj;jfk; : kyUk; jhtuq;fspd;
 Mh;jh; fpuhq;fpyp];l; 1919 xUq;fpize;j tifg;ghl;likg;G
mz;ikf;fhy tha;g;ghL : (1983)

Page 8
 jhtutpay;;

itu];fs;: tPhpahd;:
kpf Ez;zpa vyf;lu; hd; Xk;Gaph; nry;Yf;F ntspNa
Ez;Nzhf;fpapdhy; kl;LNk ngUf;fk; mila Kbahj, njhw;Wj;
fhzf;$ba, Nehia cUthf;Fk;, jd;ik tha;ej ; , xU KOikahd
nry;Yf;Fs; thOk; fl;lha itu];fSf;F tPhpahd; vd;W ngah;.
xl;Lz;zpfs; itu];fs; vd;W tPuha;Lfs;:
tiuaWf;fg;gLfpd;wd. Guj ciwaw;w tl;l tbtkhd
 capUs;s kw;Wk; capuw;witfspd; Xhpio RNA Nt tPuha;L.
gz;Gfis ngw;Ws;sJ. gphpahd;fs;:
 bkpl;hp INthNdh];fp itui]  ,it Nehia cz;lhf;fty;y
fz;lwpe;jhh;. nga;[Phpq;f; - (1898) Gujj;Jfs;fs;. kdpjd; kw;Wk;
itu]; mlq;fp rhwpid “njhw;Wj; Vida tpyq;Ffspd; kj;jpa
jd;ik tha;ej ; capUs;s jputk;” euk;G kz;lyj;ijg; ghjpf;Fk; gy
vd mioj;jhh;. ,J gpd;dh;
Neha;fSf;F ,it fhuzkhf
tPhpahd; vd;W miof;fg;gl;lJ.
cs;sd.
(Vision – tp\k;).
 W.M. ];lhd;yp 1935 itu];fis  Xk;Gaphpapd; mbg;gilapy;
gbftbtpy; jd;ikg;gLj;jpdhh;. itu];fs; ehd;F tiffshf
 ituhy[p itu]; gw;wpa mwptpay; tifg;gLj;jg; gl;Ls;sd.
gphpT. 1. jhtu itu];fs; - RNA (m) DNA
 itu];fs; NeNdh kPl;lh; vd;w cilait.
myfpdhy; msf;fg;gLfpd;wd. (1 2. tpyq;F itu];fs; - RNA (m) DNA
NeNdh kPl;lh; = 10-9 kPl;lh;). (kdpj itu];fisAk; ,it
 itu];fs; 20 NeNdh kPl;lh; Kjy; cs;slf;fpait).
30 NeNdh kPl;lh; tiu cs;sd. 3. G+Q;irfspd; itu];fs; - <hpio
 itu];fspd; %d;W Kf;fpa tbtk; RNA it cilait.
1. fdrJu tbtk; (v-fh) 4. ghf;Bhpahtpd; itu];fs; - DNA
mbNdh itu];fs;, HIV cilait.
2. RUs; tbtk; (v-fh) Gifapiy
nkhirf; itu]; (TMV) ,d; ,d;;lh; ‡nguhd;fs;(IFN)
ஃ GSad;rh itu];  ,it Xk;Gaphpf; cUthf;fg;gLk;
irl;Nlhifdpd; tifiar; rhh;e;j
3. rpf;fyhd (m) mrhjhuz
tbtk; Gujq;fshFk;. ,it itu];fspd;
ngUf;fj;ij jil nra;fpd;wd.
(v-fh) ghf;BhpNah ஃNg[;
itu]; jhf;FjYf;F kdpj clypy;
itu];fs; ,uz;L Kf;fpa
ghfq;fis nfhz;Ls;sd. Njhd;Wk; Kjy; vjph;g;G nghUs;
1. Nfg;rpl; vdg;gLk; Guj ciw ,d;lh;‡ nguhd;fs;.
2. epA+f;spf; mkpyk;

Page 9
 jhtutpay;;

itu];fspd; nghUshjhu 2. jPqF

; tpistpf;f$ba G+r;rpfis
Kf;fpaj;Jtk;: xopg;gjhy; ,it caphp
1. itu];fspd; vspikahd mikg;G jPqF
; aph;f;nfhy;ypahf
kw;Wk; Ntfkhfg; ngUFk; jd;ik gad;gLfpwJ.
Mfpatw;wpd; fhuzkhf itu];fs; 3. njhopw;rhiyfspy; itu];fs; rPuk;
caphpay; ty;Yeh;fspd; Kf;fpa kw;Wk; thf;rpd;fs; jahhpg;gpy;
Ma;Tf; fUtpahf gad;gLfpwJ. gad;gLfpwJ.

itu];fspd; caph; gz;Gfs; itu];fspd; capuw;w gz;Gfs;

1. Xk;Gaph; nry;ypDs;Ns ngUf;fkilAk; nry;Y f;
F ntspNa ngUf;fk; milAk;
jpwd; cilait.
jpwd; mw;wit.

2. Nehia cUthf;Fk; jpwd; cilait.

ve;j xU tsh; rpij khw;wKk; mw;wit.
3. epA+f;spf; mkpyk; Gujk; kw;Wk;
nehjpfisf; nfhz;bUj;jy;. GNuhl;Nlh gpshrk; mw;wit.
gbfg;gLj;j KbAk;.
4. jpBh;khw;wk; milAk; jpwd; cs;sit.

ghf;Bhpaq;fs; jPik gaf;Fk; nray;

 Kjy; Kjypy; ghf;Bhpah vd;w  fnkd;ry; vd;gJ ,uz;L Nrh;e;J
nrhy;iyg; gad;gLj;jpath; thOk; caphpfspy; xd;W
Vud;gh;f; (1829). ghf;Bhpaq;fisg; gadilAk; kw;nwhd;W
gw;wp gbf;Fk; gphpTf;F gadilahJ.
ghf;Bhpahy[p (m) ghf;Bhpaapay;.  (v-fh) v];nrhprpah Nfhiy.
 ghf;Bhpah fhw;W, ePh;, kz; kw;Wk;  ghf;Bhpahf;fs; jd;Dila
midj;J jhtu, tpyq;F firapiofs; %yk; Ntjp
clyq;fspYk; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. rkpiQfisf; fz;lwpe;J mjid
 rpy ghf;Bhpaq;fs; nghJthf Nehf;fp efh;fpd;wd.
fnkd;ry; Mf tho;fpd;wd.

ghf;Bhpaq;fshy; jhtuq;fSf;F
cz;lhFk; rpy Neha;fs;
Xk;Gaph; jhtuj;jpd; ngah; Nehapd; ngah; Neha; cz;lhf;Fk; ghf;Bhpaj;jpd;
ngah;
vYkpr;ir rpl;uh]; Nfd;fh; re;Njh Nkhdh]; rpl;hp
ney; ghf;lB; hpa ntg;G re;Njh Nkhdh]; xiuNr
gUj;jp Nfhz ,iyg; Gs;sp re;Njh Nkhdh]; khy;Nt]pNauk;
Nghp jP ntg;G Neha; #Nlh Nkhdh]; NrhyNd]P Nauk;
Nful; nkd; mOfy; vh;tpdpah Nful;NlhNthuh

Page 10
 jhtutpay;;

Xk;Gaph; jhtuj;jpd; ngah; Nehapd; ngah; Neha; cz;lhf;Fk; ghf;Bhpaj;jpd;

ngah;
MLfs; Me;j; uhf;]; Ng]py;y]; Me;juh]p];
khLfs; GUnry; Nyh]p]; GUNry;yh mNghh;l]];
nrk;kwp MLfs; G&nry; Nyh]p]; GNuhnry;yh nkypl; nld;]p];
ghf;Bhpahf;fshy; kdpjDf;F Vw;gLk;
rpy Neha;fs;
Nehapd; ngah; Neha; cz;lhf;Fk;
ghf;Bhpaj;jpd; ngah;
fhyuh tpg;hpNah fhyNu
ilgha;L Rhy;nkhndy;yh ilgp
l;A+gh;FNyhrp]; ikf;Nfhghf;Bhpak;
l;A+gh;FNyhrp];

ghf;Bhpaq;fspd; ed;ik gaf;Fk; iel;iul;;L kw;Wk; iel;Nul;lhf

nray;: khw;Wfpd;wd.
1. fopT ePf;fk;: fopTg; nghUl;fis 3. m]l;Nlhghf;lh;, fpsh];bhpak;
rpijf;fpd;wd. kw;Wk; iuNrhgpak; Nghd;w
2. jhtu tpyq;F vr;rq;fs; iel;u[id epiyg;gLj;Jk;
rpijf;fg;gLjy;: ghf;Bhpaq;fs; tspkz;ly
jhtuq;fs;, tpyq;Ffspd; iel;u[id mq;ff iel;u[dhf
clyq;fs; kl;Fz;zp ghf;Bhpaq; khw;Wfpd;wd.
fshy; rpijf;fg; gLfpd;wd.
,t;tif ghf;Bhpaq;fs; ,aw;if nghUl;fspd; kW Row;rp:
fopT ePf;fpfs;” (,aw;if Njhl;b)  fhh;gd;, Mf;]p[d;, iel;u[d;
vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wd. kw;Wk; fe;jfk; Mfpa
3. kz;tsk;: jdpkq;fspd; Row;rpapy;
1. Ng]py;y]; uhNkh]]; kw;Wk; ghf;Bhpaq;fs; Kf;fpa gq;F
Ng]py;y]; ikfha;l]; Nghd;w tfpf;fpd;wd.
mk;Nkhdpahthf;Fk;
ghf;Bhpaq;fs; ,we;j jhtu,
njhopw;rhiyapy; ghf;Bhpaq;fspd;
tpyq;F clyq;fspypUf;Fk;
gq;F:
rpf;fyhd Gujq;fis
1. ghiyj; japuhf khw;w
mk;Nkhdpahthf khw;wpa gpd;G
Nyf;NlhNgrpy;y]; gy;Nfhpf];
mk;Nkhdpak; cg;Gf;fshf
ghf;BhpaKk; ghyhilf; fl;bahf
khw;Wfpd;wd.
khw;w Nyf;Nlh Ngrpy;y];
2. iel;Nuhghf;lh; kw;Wk;
m]pNlh ஃNghg]; vd;w Nyf;bf;
iel;uNrhNkhd]; Nghd;w
iel;Nul;lhf;Fk; ghf;Bhpaq;fs; mkpy ghf;BhpaKk; gad;gLfpwJ.
mk;Nkhdpak; cg;Gf;fis 2. Gspf;fhb (tpdpfh;) m]pl;Nlh
ghf;lh; m]pl;il ghf;Bhpak;

Page 11
 jhtutpay;;

vj;jpy; My;f`hiy nehjpf;fr; kuGg; nghwpapaypy; ghf;Bhpaq;fspd;

nra;J tpdpfiu cz;lhf;F gq;F:
fpwJ.  kdpj ,d;Rypd; [Pid
3. fpsh];bhpbak; m]pl;Nlh ghf;BhpahTf;F khw;wp tzpf
gpA+l;bypf;fk; vd;w nehjpj;jy; hPjpahf, ngUkstpy; ,d;Rypid
%yk; fUk;Gr; rf;ifapypUe;
cw;gj;jp nra;jy;.
gpA+l;ily; My;f`hy;, nkj;jpy;
caphp jPq;Faph; nfhy;yp ghf;Bhpaq;fs;:
My;f`hy; kw;Wk; mrpl;Nlhd;
 Ng]py;y]; JhpQ;nQd;rp];
Mfpait ngwg;gLfpwJ.
4. rpy ghf;Bhpaq;fs; Njapiy, ghf;Bhpah G+r;rpfs; kw;Wk;
Gifapiy kw;Wk; fhஃgpapd; tz;zj;Jg; G+r;rpfspd;
gjg;gLj;Jjypy; gad;gLfpwJ. GOf;fisf; nfhy;y gad;
gLfpd;wd. ,e;j ghf;Bhpah kw;w
ehh;fis gphpj;;njLj;jy;: jhtuq;fSf;Nfh tpyq;FfSf;Nfh
 fpsh];bhpak; jhtuq;fspypUe;J ve;j xU ghjpg;igAk; Vw;gLj;jhJ.
ehh;fis gphpj;njLf;f gad; G+Q;irfs;
gLfpwJ. ,JNt nul;bq;  G+Q;irfs; gr;irak; my;yhj
vdg;gLfpwJ. A+NfhpNahl;bf; caphpdq;fs;,
fhshd;fs;, NkhyPLfs; kw;Wk;
kUj;Jtj;jpy; gq;F: <];l;Lfs; rhjhuzkhf
 Ez;Zaphp nfhy;ypfs; gy fhzg;gLk; G+Q;irfs;.
ghf;Bhpaq;fspypUe;Nj ngwg;  G+Q;irfisg; gw;wpa mwptpay;
gLfpd;wd. gphpT ikf;fhy[p.
 v.fh gh]pBuh]pd; - Ng]py;y]; jdpg;gz;Gfs;:
rg;by]; ghypkpf;]pd; - 1. nry;Rth; cz;L. ifl;bd;
Ng]py;y]; ghypkpf;rpd; vdg;gLk; mrpl;ily;fSf;Nfhikd;
myFfshy; Md xU ghypkhpdhy;
itl;lkpd;fs;: MdJ.
 kdpj flypy; thOk; 2. gr;irak; fpilahJ. gpw Cl;l
v];nrhp]Pah Nfhiy itl;lkpd; Kiwia cilait.
K kw;Wk; itl;l; kpd; B kl;Fz;zpahfNth,
Mfpatw;iw cw;gj;jp nra;fpwJ. xl;Lz;zpahfNth my;yJ
 fpsh];bhpak; ghf;Bhpah $l;LapuhfNth cs;sd.
rh;f;fiuia nehjpf;fr; nra;J 3. Nk];bNfhikf;Nfhbdh
itl;l ; kpd; B2 it cw;gj;jp G+Q;irfisj; jtpu midj;Jk;
nra;fpd;wJ. efUk; jpwdw;wit.
4. Nrkpg;G nghUs; vz;nza; kw;Wk;
fpisf;Nfh[d;.

Page 12
 jhtutpay;;

5. ];Nghh;fs; kw;Wk; ghypdg; ngUf;fk;  rpy G+Q;irfs; Xk;Gaphpia

fhzg;gLfpwJ. jhf;fp nfhd;W mjd; kPJ
kl;Fz;zpahf tho;fpwJ. ,it
czT cl;l Kiw: khWk; Xl;Lz;zpfs; my;yJ
kl;Fz;zpfs;: jpRr;Nrj caphpfs;
 ,we;j mOfpa nghUl;fspypUe;J vdg;gLfpd;wd.
jq;fs; Cl;lj;ijg; ngWk;  G+Q;irfs; tpyq;Ffisf;
caphpfs; kl;Fz;zpfs;. fhl;bYk; jhtuq;fisNa mjpfk;
kl;Fz;zpfs; ,e;j fdpkg; jhf;Ffpd;wd.
nghUl;fspd; kPJ nehjpfisr;  Xk;Gaphp nry;fspd; nry;Rth;
Rue;J mtw;iw nrhpf;fpd;wd. fis rpijf;f G+Q;irfshy;
czT nrhpj;jy; caphpf;F Ruf;fg;gLk; nehjp ngf;bNd];
ntspNa eilngWfpwJ. fiuaf; (Pectinase).
$bag; nghUl;fs; G+Q;irapd;  fl;lha Xl;Lz;zpfs;
clyj;jhy; cwpQ;rg;gl;L jd; CLUTtjw;Fk; cwpQ;Rtjw;Fk;
kakhf;fg;gLfpd;wd. `h];Nlhhpahf;fs; vd;Wk; rpwg;G
 Cl;lg; nghUl;fspd; kW mikg;ig cUthf;Ffpd;wd.
Row;rpapYk;, kl;fr; nra;tjpYk; ,it i`ghf;fspd; khWgl;l
,it Kf;fpa gq;F tfpf;fpd;wd. tsh;r;rpahFk;. ,it nry;ypd;
,it kl;F (humus) gpsh];kh rt;tpid rpijf;fhky;
cz;lhf;Ffpd;wd. kl;F - Cl;lg; nry;iyAk; mopf;fhky;
nghUl;fis cs;slf;fpa mOfpa nry;Yf;Fs; Eiofpd;wd.
fdpg; nghUl;fspd; glyk;. khWk; Xl;Lz;zpfs;
Xl;Lz;zpfs;: `h];Nlhhpahf; fis cz;lhf;F
 kw;nwhU caphpapd; cs;Ns (m) tjpy;iy.
mjd; Nky; thOk; xU caphpNa $l;Laph; tho;f;if:
Xl;Lz;zp vdg;gLk;. 1. iyf;fd;fs;:
 Xl;Lz;zpf;F czT kw;Wk; My;fh G+Q;irfspilNa
,Ug;gplj;ij mspf;Fk; caphp fhzg;gLk; $l;Laph; tho;f;if.
Xk;Gaphp Xk;Gaphp NtnwhU My;fh gr;ir My;fh (m)
rpw;wpdj;ij rhh;ej
; hFk;. ePyg;gRk; My;fh MFk;. G+Q;ir
Xl;Lz;zpdhy; ,jw;F jPik M];Nfhik rPl;L (m)
tpisfpwJ. ngrpNahik rPl;L tFg;ig
 rpy Xl;Lz;zpfs; capUs;s rhh;ej; it. My;fh xspr;
nry;fspy; kl;LNk tho;e;J Nrh;f;if. %yk; fdpk cw;gj;jp
tsUk; jd;ik nfhz;lit. nra;J G+Q;irf;F toq;FfpwJ.
,it fl;lha Xl;Lz;zpfs; (m) G+Q;irfs; ePh; kw;W jdpkq;fis
caph;rhh;G [Ptpfs; cwpQ;Rtjpy; cjTfpwJ.
vdg;gLfpd;wd. G+Q;irfs; ePiu Nrkpj;Jk;
itf;fpd;wd. ,jd; fhuzkhf

Page 13
 jhtutpay;;

iyf;fd;fs; twz;l epyj;jpYk; ig];Nghuh Nghd;wit

tho KbfpwJ. cz;zf;$ba fshd;fshFk;.
ikf;Nfhiurhf;fs;:  <];Lfs; rh;f;fiuf; fiuriy
 G+Q;irfSf;Fk; rpy cah; jhtu My;f`hyhfTk;, CO2 nehjpf;fr;
Nth;fSf;FkpilNa fhzg;gLk; nra;fpwJ.
$l;Laph; tho;f;if.  epA+Nuh];Nghuh, M];gh;[py;y];
G+Q;irfspd; rpy gads;s Mfpa G+Q;irfs; kugpay;
gz;Gfs;: Muha;r;rpf;F gad;gLfpwJ.
 ngdprpypak; Nehl;Nll;lk; vd;w  G+Q;irfs; fhh;gd; kw;Wk;
G+Q;irapypUe;J ngdprpypd; Vida jdpkq;fspd; Row;rpia
kUe;J mnyf;]hz;lh; epiyepWj;Jfpd;wd.
G+Q;irfspd; jPa tpisTfs;:
ஃg;nsk;kpq; vd;gtuhy; 1928y;
 gof;$opypUe;J Njhy;
fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;lJ. nghUl;fs; tiu tsh;e;J
 <];l;Lfs;, fhshd;fs;, mtw;iw tPzhf;F fpd;wd.
l;uஃgy;fs; kw;Wk; Nkhuy;fs;  fpshtpnrg;]; gh;G+hpah
Nghd;wit czthf G+Q;irapypUe;J LSD
cl;nfhs;sj; jFe;jit. ,it ngwg;gLfpwJ. LSD
Gujq;fs; kw;Wk; itl;lkpd;fs; (d – iynrh;[pf; mkpyk;, il
epue;jit. vjpy; mikL) ,J gfw;fdit
 mfhhpf]; ig];Nghu];, J}z;Ltjhy; gfw;fzit
m.Mh;ntd;]p];, cz;lhf;Fk; G+Q;ir vd
thy;Nthpnay;yhthy;Nt]p, th. miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
 rpy G+Q;ir Neha;fs;

jhtuq;fspd; rpy G+Q;ir NehAz;lhf;Fk; G+Q;irfs;

Neha;fs;
gUj;jpapd; thly; ‡gA+Nrhpak; Mf;]p];Nghuk;
(wilt of cotton)
fliyapd; ,iyg;Gs;sp Neha; Nrh;f;Nfh];Nghuh ngh;nrhNdl;lh
(Tikka disease of ground nut)
fUk;gpd; rpfg;G mOfy; Neha; nfhypl;Nlhbiuf;fk; gy;Nfl;lk;
(Red rot of Sugarcane)

kdpjh;fspd; rpy G+Q;ir Neha;fs; NehAz;lhf;Fk; G+Q;irfs;

cUisg;GO (Bdpah) vg;gpnlh;Nkhigl;lhd;
cUisg; GO (Bdpah) Biuf;Nfhigl;lhd;
Nfd;bbahrp]; Nfd;blh My;gpfd;];

Page 14
 jhtutpay;;

My;fhf;fs;  xU rpy My;fhf;fs; kw;w

 jw;rhh;G czT Cl;lKiw My;fhf;fs; my;yJ Vidaj;
nfhz;lit. gr;irak; cz;L. jhtuq;fspd; kPJ njhw;Wj;
My;fhf;fiyg; gw;wpa mwptpay; jhtuhkhf tho;fpd;wd. ,it
Jiw My;fhy[p (m) ஃigf;fhy[p vg;gpigl;Lfs; vd;W
miof;fg;gLfpd;wd. rpy
vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
My;fhf;fs; ypj;Njhigl;Lfs;
 My;fhf;fspd; clyj;jpy; Nth;,
my;yJ ghiw tho; My;fhf;fs;
jz;L, ,iy kw;Wk; cz;ikahd
MFk;.
jpRf;fs; vd;W NtWghL
 xU nry; My;fhf;fs; fpshkp
fhzg;gLtjpy;iy. ,J Nghd;w
NlhNkhd]; Nghy efUk; jpwd;
clyk; jhy]; vd;W
cs;sjhfNth my;yJ
miof;fg;gLfpwJ. ,it
FNshnuy;yh Nghy efUk;
th];Fyhh; jpRf;fisAk;
jpwdw;Nwh fhzg;gLk;.
ngw;wpUg;gJ ,y;iy.
 raNdhghf;Bhpaq;fs; vd;W
tshplk;
miof;fg;gLk; ePyg;gRk;ghrpfisj;
 ngUk;ghd;ikahd My;fhf;fs;
jtpu midj;J ghrpfSk;
ePhpy; tho;git> ed;dPhpy; my;yJ
A+NfhpNahl;bf; nry; mikg;ig
fly; ePhpy; tho;git. kpfr; rpy
cilait. nry;Rth; nry;YNyh];
My;fhf;fNs epyj;jpy; tho;git.
kw;Wk; ngf;bdpdhy; Mdit.
kpf mhpjhfr; rpy ,dq;fs; mjp
My;fhf;fspy; %d;W tifahd
ntg;g nte;ePh; Cw;WfspYk;> rpy
xspr;Nrh;f;if epwkpfs;
My;fhf;fs; gdp glh;e;j
fhzg;gLfpd;wd. mit
kiyfspYk;> gdpr; rWf;fy;fspYk;
1. gr;ir
fhzg;gLk;.
2. fhNuhl;bdha;Lfs;
 jd;dpr;irahf ePhpy; kpjf;Fk;
3. gpypGujq;fs;.
my;yJ jdpj;J ePhpy; ePe;Jk;
 My;fhf;fspd; efUk;
Ez;zpa My;fhf;fs; igl;Nlh
jd;ikf;F fhuzkhdit
gpshq;f;lhd;fs; vdg;gLk;.
firapiofs; (m) rpypahf;fs;.
 fly;fs;> Vhpfs; Mokw;w fiu xug;
 ePyg; gRk;ghrpfSk; rpfg;G
gFjpfspy; mbapy; xl;b thOk;
My;fhf;fSk; firapiofisg;
My;fhf;fs; nge;jpf;
ngw;wpUg;gjpy;iy.
vdg;gLfpd;wd. rpy My;fhf;fs;
firapioapd; ikaj;jpy;
cah; jhtuq;fSld;
,uz;L Ez;Foy;fSk;
$l;Laph;fshfTk; tho;fpd;wd.
mjidr; Rw;wp xd;gJ cUis
 My;fhf;fspd; rpy rpw;wpdq;fSk;
tbt ,ul;il Ez;Foy;fSk;
G+Q;irfSk; Nrh;e;J fhzg;gLk;
cs;sd. ,J 9+2 tif
jhtug; gphpT iyf;fd;fs;
mikg;G vdg;gLk;. midj;J
vdg;gLfpd;wd.
A+NfhhpNahl;Lr; nry;fspYk;

Page 15
 jhtutpay;;

9+2 mikg;G firapiofNs tsh;f;Fk; NghJ mfhh;-mfhh;

cs;sd. tsh;jskhfg; gad;gLfpwJ.
2. My;[pdf; mkpyk; (Algenic Acid)
My;fhf;fspd; nghUshjhu
 ,J xU $o;kk; gOg;G
Kf;fpaj;Jtk;:
My;fhf;fspypUe;J
 flypy; thof;$ba xNu jhtu
ngwg;gLfpwJ. My;[pd;,
fdkhd My;fhf;fNs fhh;gd;
epiy epWj;jg;gLjypy; Kf;fpa I];fphPk;, mOF rhjdg;
gq;F tfpf;fpwJ. nghUl;fs; jahhpf;f
czthf gad;gLjy;: gad;gLfpwJ.
mNahbd;:
 my;th, yhkpNdhpah, rh;fh]k;
kw;Wk; FNshnuy;yh Mfpa  mNahbd; ‘nfy;g;’ vd;W
My;fhf;fs; czthf miof;fg;gLk; gOg;G
cz;zg;gLfpd;wd. My;fhf;fspypUe;J
ngwg;gLfpwJ.
 fly;ghrp vdg;gLk; yhkpNdhpah,
ilNal;likl;L:
ஃgpA+f;f]; kw;Wk; M];Nfhgpy;yk;
 ilNal;lk; vd;W miof;fg;gLk;
Mfpa My;fhf;fs; tPl;L My;fhf;fspd; rpypf;fh epuk;gpa
tpyq;FfSf;Fk; nry; Rth;fspd; ghiw Nghd;W
fhy;eilfSf;Fk; czthf gbAk; nghUNs ilNal;likl;L
mspf;fg;gLfpd;wd. vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
,tw;wpypUe;J ngwg;gLk;
tptrhaj;Jiwapy;: ilNal;likl;L kzy; mjpf
 M]py;yNlhhpah, mdhgpdh, rpypf;fh epuk;gpajhf cs;sJ.
eh];lhf; kw;Wk; mNyhrpuh ,J jPahy; jhf;fg;glhj
Mfpa ePyg;gRk;ghrpfs; nghUl;fis cz;lhf;FtjpYk;,
tspkz;ly iel;u[id cwpQ;Rk; jpwd; epuk;gpajhfTk;
epiyg;gLj;jp kz;tsj;ij cs;sJ.
mjpfhpf;fpd;wd. fly; ghrpfs; tpz;ntspg;gazj;jpy; My;fhf;fspd;
gaph;fSf;F czthfTk; gq;F:
gad;gLfpd;wd.  CO2 kw;Wk; clypypUe;J
njhopy;Jiwapy;: ntspahFk; fopTg; nghUl;fis
1. mfhh; - mfh;: ntspNaw;w FNshnuy;yh
 ghf;Bhpaq;fs; kw;Wk; ighpdha;Nlhrh vd;w My;fh
G+Q;irfis Ma;Tr;rhiyapy; gad;gLfpwJ.

Page 16
 jhtutpay;;

xw;iwr; nry; Gujk;: gpiuNah ஃigl;Lfs;:

 FNshnuy;yh kw;Wk;
 <uj;ij ek;gp thOk;, th];Fyhh;
];igUypdh Nghd;w xU nry;
jpRf;fsw;w epy tho; jhtuq;fNs
My;fhf;fs; Gujk; nrwpe;J
gpiuNahigl;Lfs;. vdNt ,it
fhzg;gLtjhy; Guj czthf
jhtu cyfpd; ePh; epy tho;td
cz;zg;gLfpwJ.
vd;wiof;fg;gLfpd;wd.

fopT ePf;fk;:
nghUshjhu Kf;fpaj;Jtk;:
 FNshnuy;yh Nghd;w 1. kz; mhpg;ig jLf;fpd;wd.
My;fhf;fs; fopTePh; epuk;gpa 2. ];Ngf;dk; mjpf msT ePiu
Mokw;w njhl;bfspy; cwpQ;rp Nrkpj;Jf;
tsh;f;fg;gLfpd;wd. nfhs;Stjhy; <ukhf
itj;jpUf;f
Njhl;lf;fhuh;fSf;F nghpJk;
jPikfs;:
gad;gLfpwJ.
 cuq;fs;, fopTnghUl;fs;
3. ];Ngf;dk; Nghd;w rpy kh];fs;
Nghd;wit MW, Vhp Nghd;w ePh; gy Mapuf;fzf;fhd
epiyfspy; Nrh;fpd;wd. ,jd; Mz;Lfshf mOj;jg;gl;L
fhuzkhf Kjy;epiy njhy;Yaph; gbkkhf khwpg;
cw;gj;jpahsh;fshd gpd;G gPl;lhf khWfpwJ. gPl;
My;fhf;fspd; tsh;r;rp gy vd;gJ fhpiag; Nghd;W
tpiykjpg;gw;w nghUs;.
klq;F mjpfhpf;fpd;wJ. mjpf
4. kiyg; gpuNjrq;fspy; kh];fs;
mstpy; Njhd;Wtjhy; mit
tpyq;FfSf;F czthf
cz;zg;gLtjw;F Kd;ghfNt gad;gLfpd;wd.
kbfpd;wd. ,we;j ,jd;
clyq;fis fhw;Wr; Rthr nlhpNlh igl;Lfs;
ghf;Bhpaq;fs; rpije;J  th];Fyhh; jpRf;fis cila
ngUFfpd;wd. ,jdhy; kpfj;njhd;ikahd jhtuk;.
ePh;epiyfs; O2 msT Fiwe;J ,it th];Fyhh; jpRf;fSld;
kPd;fs;, tpyq;Ffs; kw;Wk; $ba G+th jhtuk;.
jhtuq;fs; Mfpa midj;Jk; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;:
mopfpd;wd. ,jdhy; 1. nguzpfs; moF jhtukhf
Rw;Wr;#oy; rPh;NfL Vw;gLfpwJ. tsh;f;fg;gLfpwJ.
2. biuahg;nlhp]; vd;w nguzpapd;
,jw;F My;fhf;fs; g;*k;fs;
iuNrhk; kw;Wk; ,iyf;fhk;gpypUe;J
vdg;gLk;.
GOf;nfhy;yp kUe;J ngwg;gLfpwJ.

Page 17
 jhtutpay;;

3. khh;rPypah (ePh;nguzp) vd;w nghUjhu Kf;fpaj;Jtk;:

nguzpapd; ];NghNuhfhh;g; rpy 1. Nfhdpஃngh; jhtuq;fspd;
Mjpthrpfshy; cz;zg;gLfpwJ.
kuf;fl;ilfs; fhfpj cw;gj;jpapy;
[pk;Ndh];ngh;k;fs;:
gad;gLfpwJ.
1. gy;yhz;L thof;$ba kuq;fs;.
2. igd]; jhtuj;jpd;
mhpjhf Gjh; nrbfs;.
nurpdpypUe;J lh;gd;ild;
2. nlhpl;Nlhigl;LfSf;Fk; ngwg;gLfpwJ.
MQ;rpNah];ngh;k;fSf;Fk;
 vஃgpl;uhtpypUe;J ngwg;gLk;
,ilg;gl;lditahf cs;sd.
3. R+y;fs; jpwe;jit. vஃgpl;iud; vd;w my;fyha;L
4. kfue;j Nrh;f;if fhw;wpd; %yNk M];j;Jkh kw;Wk; Rthrf;
eilngWfpwJ. NfhshW Neha;fSf;F
5. tpijfs; jpwe;jit fdpj; kUe;jhfpwJ.
Njhypdhy; %lg;gl;bUg;gjpy;iy.
,U ngah; nrhw;fs;
njhl;lhw; RUq;fp ikNkhrh Gbfh
nrk;gUj;jp i`gp];f]; Nuhrh irdd;rp];
jf;fhsp iyNfhngh;rpfhd; v];Fyz;lk;
cUis nrhyNdk; bA+gNuhrk;
kh khQ;rpnguh ,d;bfh
mhprp Xiurh rilth
gl;lhzp igrk; riltk;
ntz;il Vgy; kh];f]; v];Fnyd;l];
rpiff;fha; mNfrpah fhf;rpdpah
ehALtp mfpuhe;j]; M];nguh
Ke;jphp mdfhh;bak; Mf;rp nlz;Nly;
rPjhg;gok; mNdhdh ];nfhahNkhrh
gyh Mh;Nghfhh;g]; ,z;lf;hp ‡ Nghypah
vUf;F fNyhl;Nuhgp]; i[n[d;bah
rhj;Jf;Fb rpl;u]; irndd;rp];
njd;id Nfhf;f]; epArp‡nguh
nfhj;Jky;yp> jdpah nfhhpahd;luk; riltk;
thio kpA+rh ghuilrpfh
Ckj;ij ll;^uh nkj;jy;
gUj;jp fhrpg;gpak; Mh;Nghhpak;
nts;sphpf;fha; Ff;Fkp]; rl;ilt];
G+rzpf;fha; Ff;fh;gpl;lh Nkf;rpkh
mj;jp ‡igf]; f;shkNul;lh

Page 18
 jhtutpay;;

mtiu yhg;yhg; gh;G+hpa];

me;jp ky;ypif kpuhgyp]; [ygh
jhkiu ePyk;Ngh epA+yp‡nguh
nel;bypq;fk; ghyp ahy;jpah yhq;fp‡Nghypah
Mg;gps; igu]; Nky];
Mkzf;F hprpd]; fk;A+dp];
ntl;Lfha G+z;L nrb biulhf;]; GNuhFk;gd;];
fug;ghd; G+r;rp nghpgypNdl;lh mnkhpf;fhdh
tPl;L < k];fh nlhk];bfh
jtis uhdh n`f;]h lhf;ilyh
Gwh nfhyk;gpah yptpah
kdpjd; N`hNkh Nra;gpad;];
Me;ij ill;Nlh My;gh
kapy; ghNth fpiu];lhl;l];
ey;yghk;G eh[heh[h
Gyp ghe;jpuh ilf;hp];
ahid vypgh]; Nkf;]pk];
fhz;lkpUfk; iuNdh A+dpNfhp];

jhtuk; NtW ngah;fs;

,e;jpa fhLfspd; murd; Njf;F

goq;fspd; murd; khk;gok;
Vio kdpjdpd; czT Nfo;tuF
thrid nghUl;fspd; uhzp Vyf;fha;
kUe;Jfspd; uhzp ngd;rpypd;
#hpadpd; kfs; gUj;jp
Viofspd; Njf;F (m) cj;jpuk; %q;fpy;
cyf khjh fPiu kzj;jf;fhsp
Qhdf; fPiu J}Jtis
Kl;ilj; jhtuk; fj;jphpf;fha;
rh;ff
; iu Nehapd; vjphp mtiuf;fha;
4O clock jhtuk; ky;ypif (kpuhgyp]; [yhgh)

Page 19
 jhtutpay;;

Anthophyte Me;Njhigl;L G+f;Fk; jhtuq;fs;

Cormophyte fhh;Nkhigl;L Nth;> jz;L> ,iy nfhz;l
jhtuq;fs;
Cryptophyte fphpg;Nlhigl;L jiuf;F fPo; nkhl;L tpLk;
jhtuk;
Calciphyte fhy;rpigl;L fhy;rpak; epiwe;j kz;zpy;
thOk; jhtuk;
Calcifuges fhy;rpgpA+[]; mkpy kz;zpy; thOk; jhtuk;.
Chersophytes fpnu];N]higl;L Fg;ig epyq;fspy; thOk;
jhtuk;
Chasmophyte fah];Nkhigl;L ghiw ,Lf;Ffspy; thOk;
jhtuk;
Epiphytes vgpigl;Lfs; gpw jhtuq;fs;; kPJ xl;b thOk;
- v.L thz;lh
Eremophyte vhpNkhigl;L ghiytdj;jpy; thOk; jhtuk;
Halophyte N`hNyh igl;L cg;G kz;zpy; thOk; jhtuk;
Haptophyte N`g;Nlh igl;L %o;fpa ghiw kPJ thOk;
jhtuk;
Hygrophyte i`f;Nuhigl;L <ug;gir gFjpapy; thOk;
jhtuk;

Page 20
 jhtutpay;;

BOTANICAL GARDENS OF OUR COUNTRY :

Hydrophyte i`l;Nuhigl;L ePhpy; thOk; jhtuq;fs;.

Lithophytes ypj;Njh igl;L ghiw> fy; kPJ thOk;
jhtuq;fs;
Limnophytes ypk;Ndhigl;L ePh; mb kz;zpy; thOk;
jhtuq;fs;.
Planophytes gpshNdh igl;L ePhpy; kpjf;Fk; jhtuq;fs;
psychrophytes irf;Nuhigl;L Fsph; kz;zpy; thOk;
jhtuq;fs;.
Nannophytes NeNdhigl;L Fl;il jhtuq;fs;
(Nghd;rha;)
Psammophytes NrNkhigl;L kzy; gFjpapy; thOk;
jhtuq;fs;
pyrophillus igNuhgpy;y]; vhpe;j kz;zpy; thOk;
jhtuq;fs;
Sciophytes rpNahigl;Lfs; epoy; tpUk;Gk; jhtuq;fs;
Heliophytes `PypNahigl;L Xsp tpUk;Gk; jhtuq;fs;
Xerophytes rPNuhigl;L twz;l epy jhtuq;fs;

Trandifolia uhd;bNghypah epyj;jpy; thOk; jhtuk;

phytoplankton igl;Nlhgpsh];lhd; ePhpy; kpje;J thOk;
jhtuq;fs;
Benthicplankton ngd;jpf; ePhpd; mbg;gug;gpy; xl;b
gpsh];lhd; thOk; jhtuk;

Epizooaid vgp #tha;Lfs; tpyq;F kPJ xl;b thOk;

jhtuk;
lichen iyf;fd; G+Q;ir + ghrp
cyanophyceae raNdhigrpNa ghf;Bhpah + ePygRk; ghrp
Corrliod root nfhuy;yhNth; mdgPdh + irf;f]; ku Nth;

1. Birbal sahni Institute of paleo 4. Central Drug Research Institute

Botany - Lucknow (UP)
2. Central Arid Zone Research Institute
CAZRI – Jodhpur (Rajasthan)
3. Central coconut Research Institute -
Kesargode (Kerala)
CDRI - Lucknow (U.P)
5. Central Food Technology
Research Institute CFTM – Mysore
6. Central Jute Tech Research
Institute CJTRI - Calcutta

Page 21
 jhtutpay;;

7. Central Potato Reasearch Institute  NfhkNuh - u\;ah - 6.5 kpy;ypad;

CPRI - Simala (HP)  ghhP]; - ghhP]; - 5 kpy;ypad;
8. Central Rice Research Institute -  n`ghh;L - n[dPth - 5
Cuttak (Orissa) kpy;ypad;
9. Central Soil Salinity Research
Indian Books
Institute CSSRI - Karnol (Haryana)
 Flora of British India – J.D.
10. Indian Institute of sugar cane
Hooker
Research Institute - Lucknow (UP)
 Flora of Madras – Candle
11. Central Institute of medicinal and  Flora of India – W. Roxburgh
Aromatic plants CIMAP - Lucknow  Embryology of Angiosperms –
(UP ) P. Maheswari
12. Indian Agriculture Research Indian Scientists
Institute IARI - Pusa Inst – New  Mycology – E.J. Butler
Delhi  Broyology – S.R. Kashyop
 Ecocology – R. Mishra
HERBARIUM OF OUR COUNTRY  Phycology – M.O.P. Iyengar
Njrpa n`h;Nghpak; (,we;j Njhl;lk; )  Paleobotany- Birbal Sahni
 fy;fj;jh - 25 yl;rk; cyh; jhtu
njhFg;G - Robert kyd 1786 INTERNATIONAL ORGIZANTION :
 yf;Ndh - 3 ylrk; cyh; jhtu  ICBN - Institute code of
njhFg;G Botanical Nomenclature 1930 –
 Nluh^d; - 3 ylrk; cyh; jhtu Sprague , Hitchcook
njhFg;G  ICZM - Institute code of
HERBARIUM OF TAMIL NADU Zoological Nomenclature 1958 –
 Njhl;lfiy Muha;r;rp epiyak; - Schenk , Mc Master
Nfhit - P.F. igrd;  ICNB - Institute code of
Nomenclature of Bactaria
 ugPdh n`h;Nghpak; -
 ICVN - Institute code of viral
jpUr;rp - K.M. kj;Nja+
Nomenclature
khepy fy;Y}hp - nrd;id -
 ICNCP- Institute code of viral
P.F. igrd
Nomenclature cultivated plants

INTERNATIONAL HERBARIUM
rh;tNjr n`h;Nghpak;
 fp A+ - ,q;fpyhe;J -
6.5 kpy;ypad; - William aiton

Page 22
 jhtutpay;;

%ypif :
 kUj;Jt Fzk; epiwe;j jhtuk;
%ypif vdg;gLk;.

%ypif gyd; %ypif G+ gyd;

,Q;rp gpj;jk; epj;a ,uj;j Gw;WNeha;
gpuz;il grp J}z;Lk;
fy;ahzp ,ja NfhshW> ,uj;j
Gjpdh m[Puzk;
kQ;rs; fpUkpehrpdp nrk;gUj;jp Rj;jpfhpg;G
A+fypg;l;]; jiytyp
Ntg;gk;G+ Fly; G+r;rp mopf;Fk;
kzj;jf;fhsp tha;gG; z;
trk;G tha;T njhy;iy Ckj;jk;G+ M];Jkh
Jsrp rsp
fpuhk;G+ gy; typ
Nrhw;Wfw;whio Njhy;Neha;
Fg;ig Nkdp Njhy;Neha; Nuh[hG+ cly; Fsph;r;rp
Xkty;yp rsp> fha;r;ry;
Jk;ig G+ rsp
fPohney;yp kQ;rs;
ed;dhhp fhkhiy KUq;if G+ ,Uk;G rj;J> ,uj;j
J}Jtis cly; Fsph;r;rp
ngUf;fk;
ney;yp khh;G> rsp
Mkzf;F tha;gG; z;
kpsF kyrpf;fy;
Ntk;G njhz;il
fufug;G
tapw;Wg;G+r;rp
ePf;Fk;

Extra :  vg;NghJk; gRikahd Gjh; nrb -

,f;N]huh fhf;dpah
 kpf cah;ej ; kuk; - nrf;Nfhah
 kz;zpy; jq;fk; fhl;Lk; nrb -
nrk;gh;itud;]; - 114 kP cauk;
vhpahNfhdpak; XyptpNghypak;
 kpf rpwpa G+f;Fk; jhtuk; -
 kz;zpy; ngl;Nuhy; fhl;Lk; nguzp
cy;gpah ikf;Nuh];Nfhgpfh - 1mm - nlhp]; mf;tpidyh
 kpf mfykhd ,iy
- tpf;Nlhhpah hp[pah
 kQ;rs; kio (m) ry;gh; kio
jhtuk; - igd];
 vhpah kuk; - nul; Tl;
 kpfg;nghpa G+ G+f;Fk; jhtuk; -
nu‡g;yPrpah - 1 kP tpl;lk; > ,jo;
2.5 cm jbkd;
 xU Jiwapy; capUld; cs;s xNu
kuk; - [pd;Nfh igNyhgh
Page 23
 czT+l;lk; kw;Wk; Cl;lr;rj;J
(NUTRITION & DIETETICS)

 Von Helmont of John woodward 3. Xsp gpw rhh;G : Cjh fe;jf

(1699) : ghf;Bhpah
o ePh; kw;Wk; jhJg;nghUl;fs;
4. Ntjp gpw rhh;G : midj;J
jhtutsh;r;rpf;F kpf mtrpak; tpyq;Ffs;> G+Q;ir> ngUk;ghyhd
vd ep&gpj;jdh;. ghf;Bhpah
 Saussure (1804 ) : 5. rhWz;zp (m) kl;Fz;zp
o jhtu rhk;gypy; ,Ue;J o G+Q;ir - <];l;>
ngwg;gLk; Mf;rpfuzk; mile;j kpA+f;fh;> ngdprpypd; mfhhpf];
fhh;gd;> i`l;u[d;> Mf;rp[d;> o ghf;Bhpah - Ngrpy;y];
iel;u[d;> ry;gh; jhtu rg;ilyp];> Ngrpy;y];
tsh;r;rpf;F mtrpak; ikfha;l;l];
Njitg;gLfpd;wJ. o khr]; - ];gpshd;rk;>
 Liebig (1840) : `pg;dk;
o jhtu tsh;r;rpf;F o nlhpNlhdgl;lh - Nghl;hpf;fk;>
tspkz;lyj;jpy; cs;s Co2 %yk; iyNfhNghbak;
fhh;gd; Cl;lk; mtrpakhfpd;wJ. o MQ;[pNah];ngh;k;-
fhh;gd; cgNahfk; nghWj;J epNahbah> NkhNdhbuhg;gh
czT+l;l tifg;ghL 6. Xl;Lz;zp
o gFjpmsT xl;Lz;zp
jw;rhh;G gpwrhh;;G  jz;L xl;Lz;zp -
(fdpk fhh;gd; (fhpk fhh;gd; tp];fk;> NyhNud;j];
cgNahfk; cgNahfk;  Nth; xl;Lz;zp - jPrpak;
nra;git) nra;git) (re;jd kuk;) > ];bh;fh (fUk;G)
xsp jw;rhh;g;G Xsp gpw rhh;G o KO xl;Lz;zp
Ntjp jw;rhh;G Ntjp gpw rhh;G  jz;L xl;Lz;zp - f];Fl;lh
rhWz;zp (m)  Nth; xl;Lz;zp -ug;yr P pah
kl;Fz;zp 7. G+r;rp gpbf;Fk; jhtuq;fs;
Xl;Lz;zp xspNrh;f;if %yk; czit jahhpf;f
,ayhjit. fhuzk; iel;u[d; rj;J
1. xsp jw;rhh;g;G : midj;J Fiwthf cs;s kz;zpy; tsh;;git.
jhtuq;fSk;> ePy gRk; ghrp> gRk; o gpl;rh; gpshd;l; - nege;j];>
fe;jf ghf;Bhpah
rhurPdpah
2. Ntjp jw;rhh;G : iel;uNrh
Nkhdh];> iel;uNrh fhf;f]; o #hpa gdpj;Jsp jhtuk; -
bnuhrPuh

Page 1
 jhtutpay;

o tPd]; G+r;rp gpbf;Fk; jhtuk; -  Kf;fpa fdpkq;fs; fz;lwpag;gl;L

bNahdpah ngU> rpW %yfk; vd
o gpNshlh; nthh;l;- Al;hpFNyhpah gphpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 Vwf;Fiwa 60 jdpkq;fs; jhtu 2) i`l;Nuh Nghdpf;]; :
rhk;gypy; fpilf;fg;gl;lhYk;>  jhtuq;fis ePh>; kz; fye;j xU
ngUk;ghd;ikahf xNu Cl;l Clfj;jpy; tsh;g;gJ MFk;.
jdpkq;fs; midj;J  v.L : kyh;nrbfs;> myq;fhu
jhtuq;fspYk; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. nrbfs;> Njhl;lfiy nrbfs;
 ,e;j jdpkq;fs; jhtuj;jpd; kPJ o Sach’s Clfk; 1860
Neub ghjpg;ig Vw;gLj;Jk;. o Knop’s Clfk; 1865
 ,tw;wpd; gzpia NtW vJTk; o Shiev’s Clfk; 1875
<L nra;a KbahJ. o Hogaland’s Clfk; 1938
 jhtuq;fspd; rhjhuz o Evan’s Clfk; 1953
tsh;r;rpf;F fhuzkhf mikAk;. 3) VNuhNghdpf;];
 jhtuq;fspd; ,dg;ngUf;fk;
 jhtu Nth;fis fhw;wpy;
Fwpg;gpl jdpkj;ij rhh;e;Nj
njhpAkhW itj;J mt;tg;NghJ
,Uf;Fk;.
Cl;l Clfj;ij Nth;fspy;
 ,tw;wpd; Njit kw;Wk; gzpapd; njspj;J jhtuj;ij tsh;f;Fk;
jd;ikia nghWj;J Arnon &
Kiw
stout vd;gth;fs; ,Utifahf
4) jpl Clf tsh;g;G
gphpj;jdh;
 jhtuq;fs; kzy; (m)
Kf;fpa %yfq;fs; Ez; %yfq;fs; (m)
nehWf;fg;gl Fthh;l;];
(m) ngU rpW %yfq;fs;
%yfq;fs; Minor Elements Clfq;fspy; tsh;f;fg;
Major Elements gLfpd;wd.
C – 45% Cl – 0.01%  ,jw;F nrhl;LePh; ghrd
Ca – 0.5 % Zn – 0.002% Kiwapy; Cl;l Clfk;
O2 – 45% Mn -0,005% nrYj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
Mg – 0.2 % Cu – 0.0001 %
H2 – 6% Br – 0.002%
P – 0.2 % Mo – 0.0001 %
N2 – 1.5 %
S – 0.11
K – 1.0%
Fe – 0.01%

fdpkq;fspd; Njitia fz;lwpAk;

Kiwfs; :
1) rhk;gy; gFg;gha;T Kiw :
 jhtug; nghUl;fis 400 - 600C
ntg;gj;jpy; vhpj;jhy; mq;;ff
nghUl;fs; rhk;ghyhFk;.

Page 2
Kf;fpa fdpkq;fspd; nraypay; gq;Fk; gw;whf;Fiwahy; Vw;gLk; mwpFwpfSk;.
gw;whf;Fiwahy; Vw;gLk;
fdpkk; nraypay; gq;F
tpisTfs;
fhh;gd; jhtuq;fspd; nghJthd rhjhuz tsh;r;rpia
i`l;u[d; tsh;rpij khw;wk; cUthjiyAk; ghjpf;Fk;.
Mf;]p[d;

iel;u[d; Gujq;fs;> epAf;spf; mkpyq;fs;> gr;ira Nrhif> Fd;wpa

Jiz nehjpfs; ATP ,tw;iw tsh;r;rp> kyh;fspd; tsh;r;rp
mikf;Fk;. Fd;Wjy;.

‡gh];‡gu]; gpsh];khglyk;> Jiz tsh;r;rp Fd;wp> gh];gl;Nl];

nehjpfs; nray;ghL mjpfhpj;jy;.
epAf;spNahilLfis
mikf;Fk;
nghl;lhrpak; Mf;Fj;jpR gFjpfspYk;> miljpus; tz;z
,iyj; Jis ,af;fj;Jf;Fk; gr;iraNrhif> fZtpilg;
NjitgLk;. gFjpfs; Fl;ilahjy;.
ry;gh; ijakpd;> igNahl;bd;> Jiz Guj Nrh;f;if jil
nehjp - V> rp];Bd;> rp];ild; nra;ag;gl;L ,sk; ,iyfspy;
,tw;iw mikf;Fk;. gr;ira Nrhif Vw;gLjy;
nkf;dPrpak; gr;iraj;jpd; $whfTk; PEP, euk;gpil gr;ira Nrhif>
RuBP fhh;ghf;]pNy]; me;Njiradpd; epwkp gbT
nehjpapd; Cf;fpahfTk;
cs;sJ.

fhy;rpak; nry;Rth;> gpsh];kh glyj;jpd; fhh;Nghi`l;Nul; tsh;rpij

$W> ikl;lhrp]p]; cjTk; khw;wk;> Mf;Fj;jpRf;fs;
ghjpg;G
,Uk;G ‡gNsNth Gujk;> Nfl;lNy];> fdpkq;fspy; El;gkhd
nguhf;zP]pNl]; kw;Wk; czh;T euk;gpil gr;ira
irl;NlhFNuhk; nehjpfspd; Nrhif> fhw;W Rthrk;
$whFk;. ghjpf;fg;gLjy;.
2+
Nghuhd; Ca cs;nsLg;G kw;Wk; gPl;&l;by; gog;G ,Uja
gad;ghl;Lf;Fk; kfue;jj;Jfs; mOfy; Neha;> Mg;gpspd;
Kisj;jYf;Fk;> cs; jpRf;fs; jf;ifahjy;
fhh;Nghi`l;Nul; kyh;fs; (k) fdpfs; KjpUk;
flj;jYf;Fk; Njit. Kd;dNa cjph;jy;

khq;fdpR tpijfs;> ,iyfSf;Fk; Xl;]py; rhk;gy; Gs;sp Neha;>

Njit. Mf;]pNl];> Nth; njhFg;gpd; Fd;wpa

Page 3
 jhtutpay;

fhh;ghf;]pNy];> ifNd]; tsh;r;rp

nehjpfis Cf;Ftpf;Fk;
jhkpuk; gpdhNy];> ilNuhrpNd];rpl;u]; jz;Lfspd; gpd;gf;f
kw;Wk; gpsh];Nlhiradpd; ,wg;G vf;rhe;jPkh - gl;ilapy;
nehjpfis Cf;Ftpf;Fk;. Nfh;e;J cUthf;fk; jpUk;gg;
ngWjy; - tpij cUthjiy
jLj;jy; Mfpa Neha;fs;
Jj;jehfk; bhpg;NlhNgd; rpd;jl;Nl];> neUf;fkhf mike;j
fhh;ghdpf; md;i`l;Nu];> ,iyfs;>
my;f`hy; Bi`l;Nuh[pNd]; rpw;wpiy Neha;> jz;Lfspd;
nehjpfis Cf;Ftpf;Fk; Fd;wpa tsh;r;rp

khypg;Bdk; iel;u[dpd; tsh;rpij rpl;uh]py; kQ;rs; Gs;sp Neha;>

khw;wj;jpYk; m];fhh;gpf; mkpy fhypgpsthpy; rhl;ilthy;
cUthf;fj;jpYk; gq;F Neha; - ,iyfs; FWfyhjy;.
tfpf;fpwJ.

Xspr;Nrh;f;if
(Photo Synthesis)
tuyhW

tUlk; mwpQh; tpsf;fk;

320 gz;ila jhtuq;fs; jq;fs; fhy;fspd; (Nth;fspd;) %yk;
BC ,e;jpah;fs; czitg; ngWtjhf ek;gpdh;. glk;gh vd;w
nrhy;ypd; nghUs; fhy;fspd; %yk; cwpQ;Rk;
jhtuk; vd;gjhFk;.
1727 ];B‡gd;N`y;]; jhtuq;fspd; Cl;lKiwf;F xsp kw;Wk; fhw;wpd;
(Stephen Hales) ,d;wpaikahikiaf; fz;lwpe;jhh;.
1779 [hd;,q;fd;-`P]; jhtuj;jpd; gRikahd gFjpfs; khRw;w fhw;iw
(Jan Ingen – xspapd; Kd;dpiyapy; J}a;ikahf;Ftijf;
Housz) fz;lwpe;jhh;.
1782 nrdPghP ; (Senebier) CO2 tpd; mlh;j;jp mjpfhpf;Fk; NghJ> O2
ntspNaw;wj;jpd; NtfKk; mjpfhpg;gij
ep&g;gpj;jhh;.
1845 thd;Nkah; gRe;jhtuq;fs; #hpa xsp Mw;wiy mq;ffg;
(Von Mayer) nghUspd; Ntjpahw;wyhf khw;Wtij fz;lwpe;jhh;.
1845 yPgPf; (Liebig) mq;ffg; nghUl;fshdJ Co2 kw;Wk; ePhpypUe;J
cUthf;fg;gLtij Fwpg;gpl;lhh;.
1920 thh;gh;f; (Warburg) xU nry; ghrpahd FNshnuy;yhit xspr;Nrh;f;if
rk;ge;jg;gl;l Ma;Tf;F gad;glf;$ba

Page 4
 jhtutpay;;

nghUj;jkhd caphpahf mwpKfk; nra;jhh;.

1932 vkh;]d; kw;Wk; xspr;Nrh;f;ifapd; xsptpidfs; kw;Wk; ,Us;
mh;dhy;l; tpidfs; epfo;tij ep&gpj;jdh;.
(Emerson and
Arnold)
1937 `py; (Hill) gRq;fzpfq;fis gphpj;njLj;J nghUj;jkhd
vyf;l;uhd; Vw;gpapd; Kd;dpiyapy; ePh; xspg;
gpsj;jy; epfo;it Nrhjidfspd; %yk;
ep&gj;Jf;fhl;bdhh;.
1941 &gd; kw;Wk; 18O2 it gad;gLj;jp xspr;Nrh;f;ifapd; NghJ O2
Nfnkd; (Ruben ePhpypUe;J ntspg;gLtij ep&gpj;jdh;.
and Kamen)
1954 Mh;dhdh;> Myd; 14CO2 it gad;gLj;jp> gphpj;njLf;fg;gl;l
kw;Wk; thl;yP gRq;fzpfj;jpdhy; O2 epiy epWj;jg;gLtij
(Arnon, Allen and ep&gpj;jdh;.
Whatley)
1954 fhy;tpd; (Calvin) xspr;Nrh;f;ifapd; fhh;gdpd; ghijiaf;
fz;lwpe;J C3 Row;rp (fhy;tpd; Roy;) gw;wp
tpthpj;jhh;. mjw;fhf 1960-y; mtUf;F Nehgy; ghpR
toq;fg;gl;lJ.
1965 N`l;r; kw;Wk; rpy ntg;gkz;ly Gy;tiffspy; eilngWk; CO2
];yhf; (Hatch and epiy epWj;jYf;fhd C4 topj;jlk; cs;sijj;
Stack) njsptpj;jdh;.
 ,J 99 % fly; jhutuq;fspy;
 Xspr;Nrh;f;if vd;gJ ‘Xspapd; elf;fpd;wJ.
cjtpahy; cUthf;Fjy;“vd;gJ  Gtpapd; kPJ #hpa xspapy; 0.2 %
nghUs; MFk;. msT kl;LNk xspr;Nrh;f;iff;F
 ,e;j nray; jhd; midj;J caph; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ
Ntjp tpidfSf;Fk; mbg;gilahf  fz;ZW xspapd; miy ePsk; 390
cs;sJ. -790 nm y; cs;s Mw;wy;; Nghl;lhd;
 ,J ePUf;Fk; CO2f;Fk; ,ilNa (m) Fthz;lk; vdg;gLk;.
eilngWk; xU Mf;rp[Ndw;w  Xspr;Nrh;f;if vd;gJ xsp caph;
xLf;f tpidahFk;. Ntjpapay; epfo;T ($Lif + cs;
12
 xU tUlj;jpw;F 75 X 10 kg msT nraypay;) ,jpy;
fhh;gd; (CO2 tbtk; ) xspr;Nrh;f;if fdpkg;nghUl;fshd H2O kw;Wk;
%yk; 17000 kpy;ypad; ld; msT CO2> xsp kw;Wk; epwkpfshy;
cyh; vilahf khw;wg;gLfpd;wJ. rpijf;fg;gl;L fhpknghUshd
fhh;Nghi`l;Nul;lhf khw;Wk;

Page 5
 jhtutpay;

epfo;;r;rp - ,jpy;  gRk;gzpj;jpd; msT 4-6 ikf;uhd;

Mf;rp[d; tiu cs;sJ. jl;ilahf
ntspNaw;wg;gL fhzg;gLk;.
fpd;wJ.  cah; jhtuq;fspy; ,U tifahd
 Xsp Mw;wyhdJ Ntjp Mw;wyhf xspNrh;f;if epwkpfs; cs;sd.
khw;wg;gLfpd;wJ. 1. FNshNuhgpy;
Mf;rp[d; Vw;wk; 2. fNuhl;bdhl;Lfs;
(xsp fpUia)
epwkp 1. FNshNuhgpy; :
6CO2+12 H2O Xsp C6H12O6+ 6 O2 + 6 H2O  ,jpy;
nkhj;jk; 9
tiffisf;
Mf;rp[d; xLf;fk; (,Us; fpUia) fz;lwpe;jth;
fs; Arnoff ad
 Kjd; Kjyhf cz;ikahd
Allen 1966
xspr;Nrh;f;if raNdhghf;Bahtpy;
 ,it rptg;G
(ePygRk; ghrp BGA) Muk;gpj;jJ. kw;Wk; Cjh
 G+Q;ir> f];Fl;lh jhtuq;fspy; epw xspia
xspr;Nrh;f;if eilngWtjpy;iy. <h;j;J gr;ir
 A+f;spdh - jhtuq;fSf;Fk; epwkhf
tpyq;fpdq;fSf;Fk; ,ilg;gl;l gpujpgypg;gjhy;
caphpahf mwpag;gLfpd;wJ. #hpa gRikahf
xsp fpilf;Fk; nghOJ jdJ fhzg;gLk;.
gr;iraj;jpd; %yk; czit jhNd  gr;irak;
jahhpj;Jf; nfhs;Sk;. #hpa xsp my;yhjit
,y;yhj ,Uspd; NghJ rpwpa Jiz
caph;fis tpOq;fp czT epwkpfs; MFk;.
Njitia epth;j;jp nra;Ak;.  epwkpfs; Nrh;eJ ; cUthf;Fk; epwkp
 rptg;G kw;Wk; Cjh epw
njhFg;G xsp njhFg;G (photo
xspfw;iwapy; mjpf msT
system) vdg;gLk;.
xspr;Nrh;f;if elf;Fk;
 xU xspj;njhFg;gpy; 250 - 400 tiu
xspr;Nrh;f;if jsk; :
epwkp %yf;$Wfs; fhzg;gLk;.
 xU jhtuj;jpd; midj;J
 epwkpfs; epiwe;J fhzg;gLk;
gRikahd gFjpfSk;
fpuhdh nkLy;yh jhd;
xspNrh;f;ifapy; <LgLfpd;wd.
xspNrh;f;if ikak; (active centre)
mjpy; Kf;fpa cWg;G ,iyfs;
MFk;.
MFk;.
 mtw;wpw;F quantosomes vd;W
 xU fd kPy;yp kPl;lh; gFjpapy; miu
kpy;ypaDf;Fk; mjpfkhd ngah;. ngahpl;lth; : Park &
gRq;fzpfq;fs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. Biggins
 2 tif xsp njhFg;G cs;sJ.

Page 6
 jhtutpay;;

PS I – xspnjhFg;G :  CHO group III tJ fhh;gdpy; - II tJ

o I – gr;irak; a mjpfk; igNuhy; tisaj;jpy; fhzg;gLk;.
o Jiz epwkp FiwT  mjpfk; <h;f;Fk; xsp miy ePsk; :
o fth;fpd;w xsp Mw;wy; 700 nm 430 nm, 595 nm, 644 nm
vdNt ,J P700 vd  midj;J jhtuq;fspy; fhzg;gLk;
miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ. (ghf;Bhpah jtpu ) FNshNuhgpy; ‘c’
o fhzg;gLk; ,lk; fpuhdh  %yf;$W tha;g;ghL : C35 H32 O5
];l;Nuhkh> ijyfha;;L N4 Mg /
 %yf;$W vil : 712
PS II – xspnjhFg;G :  mjpfk; <h;f;Fk; xsp miy ePsk; :
o II – gr;irak; a FiwT 447 nm, 579 nm
o Jiz epwkp mjpfk;.  gOg;G ghrp> ilahl;lj;jpy;
o fth;fpd;w xsp Mw;wy; 680 nm fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.
vdNt ,J P680 vd FNshNuhgpy; ‘d’
miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.  %yf;$W tha;g;ghL : C55 H70 O6
o fhzg;gLk; ,lk; fpuhdh N4 Mg
o Jiz epwkp fth;fpd;w xsp Mw;wy;  %yf;$W vil : 895
gr;irak; a tpw;F flj;jg;gLk;.  mjpfk; <h;f;Fk; xsp miy ePsk; :
FNshNuhgpy; ‘a’ 447 nm , 548 nm , 688 nm
 %yf;$W tha;g;ghL : C55 H72 O5 N4  rptg;G ghrpfs; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.
Mg FNshNuhgpy; ‘e’
 %yf;$W vil : 893  %yf;$W tha;g;ghL - mwpa
 CH3 group ,izg;G III tJ gltpy;iy
fhh;gdpy; - II tJ igNuhy;  mjpfk;
tisaj;jpy; fhzg;gLk;. <h;f;Fk; xsp
 ,it nkf;dprpaj;jpd; fPNyl; miy ePsk; :
cg;GfshFk;. 415, 654 mm
 jiyg;gFjp msT 15 x 15A :  cr;rhPhpah>
thy;gFjp msT 20A msT biuNghePkh
 mjpfk; <h;f;Fk; xsp miy ePsk;: (xanthophyta)
430 nm > 878 nm > 662 nm ghf;Bhpah
 kpf mjpf mstpy; fhzg;gLk; FNshNuhgpy; ’a’
(Kjd;ik epwkp)  %yf;$W
 vd ,J cyf gr;irak; tha;gg; hL
vdg;gLk; (Universal Chlorophyll) : C55 H74
FNshNuhgpy; ‘b’ O6 N4 Mg
 %yf;$W tha;g;ghL : C55 H70 O6  %yf;$W vil : 911
 mjpfk; <h;f;Fk; xsp miy ePsk; :
N4 Mg
 %yf;$W vil : 907 358 nm, 391 nm, 577 nm, 733 nm

Page 7
 jhtutpay;

 midj;J xspNrh;f;if FNshNuhgpy; cUthf;fk; :

ghf;Bhpaq;fspy; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. Light
Heliophytes : xsp tpUk;Gk;  rf;rpidy; CoA + fpisrpd; →
jhtuk; - a:b ratio - 5:5 = 1 GNuhl;Nlh FNshNuhgpy;; →
Sciophytes : epoy; tpUk;Gk; jhtuk; - FNshNuhgpy;; 2H
a:b ratio - 1.4 = 1  vdNt FNshNuhgpy;;
Common plants : nghJthd cUthf;fj;jpw;F xsp kpf mtrpak;
jhtuk; - a:b ratio - 2.5 - 3.5 = 1 MFk;.
fNuhl;bdha;Lfs; xspr;Nrh;f;if tpidfs; :
 FNshNuhgpy; : fNuhl;bdha;Lfs;  2 tifgLk;
tpfpjk; = 5 : 1 1. xsptpid (light reaction)
 2 tifg;gLk; : fNuhl;bd;> o #hpa xspahw;wy;> ePh;
Nre;Njhgpy; (Xanthophylls) Mfpatw;iw <LgLj;jp ATP
(energy) , NADPH2 (reducing
fNuhl;bd; : power) Mfpad cUthf;Fk;
 Kjypy; Nful;bd; Nthpy; ,Ue;J tpid.
2. ,Us; tpid (Dark reaction) :
o ATP, NADPH2 gad;gLj;jp Co2
it fhh;Nghi`l;Nul;lhf
xLf;Fk; tpid.

Mechanism of Photo Synthesis

xsp gh];ghpfuzk;:
 PS II , xspapd; Nghl;lhd;fis
cl;ftUk;; nghOJ mJ fpsh;r;rp
mile;J vyf;l;uhd;fis
cUthf;Fk;.
 mJ vyf;lu; hd; flj;J rq;fpyp
topahf flj;jg;gLk;.
 mg;NghJ ADP cld; xU gh];Ngl;
njhFg;G ATP cUthf;Fk;.
gphpj;njLj;jth; : waken roder  ,JNt xsp gh];ghpfuzk;
(1891) vdg;gLk;.
 %yf;$W tha;g;ghL : C40H56  mg;nghJ PS II Mf;rpNdw;w
 %yf;$W vil : 536 epiyapy; cs;sJ. ,J ePiu
 C40 H56 + 2H2o → 2 C20 H29 OH GNuhl;lhd;> vyf;l;uhd; kw;Wk; O2
(itl;lkpd; A) thf gpsf;Fk; jpwid mspf;Fk;.
Nre;Njhgpy; (Xanthophylls) vdNt xspapd; cjtpahy; ePh;xsp
 kpf mjpf mstpy; fhzg;gLk; epwkp gpsj;jy; (photolysis of water)
- leutin : C40 H56 O2 elf;fpd;wJ.

Page 8
 jhtutpay;;

 ,e;epfo;r;rpf;F Mn, Ca, Cl PS I :

madpfs; Njit. mg;NghJ  vyf;l;uhd; Mw;wYld;
-
cUthFk;. e I> PS II xLf;f ntspNaw;wg;gl;lTld; xU
epiyf;F nfhz;L tUk; fhypaplk; Vw;gLk;. me;j
+
 ,J NghNt PS I Yk; elf;fpd;wJ. vyf;luhd; NADP I xLf;fk;
mila nra;tjw;fhf
‡ngulhf;rpDf;F flj;jg;gLk;.
Row;rp kw;Wk; Row;rpapy;yh
PS II :
gh];ghhpfuzk;
 J}z;lgl;lTld; ntspNaWk; e- ,
Cyclic & noncylic
PS 1 y; Vw;gl;Ls;s fhypaplj;ij
photophosphorylation
epug;g gpsh]; NlhFapNdhd;>
 gRk; fzpfj;jpy; xsp irl;lNlhFNuhk; b6,
gh];ghpfuzk; 2 topfspy;; irl;NlhFNuhk; f, gpsh];Nlh
eilngWfpd;wd. radpd; topNa
Row;rpapy;yh gh];ghhpfuzk; / Z flj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
Scheme : Noncylic  mg;nghJ ADP cld; xU
photophosphorylation gh];Ngl; Nrh;f;fg;gl;L ATP
 xsp Mw;wy; 680 nm Nky; cUthf;fg;gLfpwJ.
,Uf;Fk; nghOJ  vyf;l;uhd; vq;fpUe;J
J}z;lg;gLfpd;wJ. ntspNawpaNjh me;j ,lj;jpw;F
 PS I , PS II ,uz;L kPz;Lk; tUtjpy;iy. vdNt
epfo;TfSk;; ijyfha;Lfspy; ,J Row;rpapy;yh e flj;jy;
elf;Fk;. vd;Wk;> gh];Ngl; Nrh;g;Gk;
epfo;tjhy; xsp gh];ghpfuzk;
vdTk; Rl;lg;gLfpd;wJ. ,J z
tbtpy; cs;sjhy; z topKiw
vdg;gLk;.

Page 9
 jhtutpay;

Row;rp xsp gh];ghhpfuzk; : xLf;fk; ahdJ xLf;fk;

(Cyclic Photo phosphorylation) miltjpy;iy mile;J NADPH2
 epfof; fhuzk; : thf khWfpwJ.
1. PS I kl;Lk; nray;gLk; NghJ
2. ePh; xspg;gpsg;G epfohj NghJ
3. mjpf msT ATP NjitgLk;
NghJ
4. xLf;fj;jpw;F Njitahd NADP+
fpilf;fhj NghJ.
 fpuhdh> ];l;Nuhkhtpy; cs;s
ijyfha;Lfspy; elf;Fk;.
 680 nm tpw;F mjpfkhd
miyePsk; nfhz;l xsp
fw;iwahy; J}z;lg;gLk;.
 ntspNaw;wg;gLk; e- Row;rpf;F
gpd; jd; gioa ,lj;jpw;Nf te;J
NrUk;. ATP ase
ADP + iP + 8000 cal / mole ATP + H2O

Row;rp xsp Row;rpapyh xsp

gh];ghhpfuzk; gh];ghhpfuzk; ,Us; tpidfs; / fhy;tpd; Row;rp :
,jpy; PS I kl;Lk; ,jpy; PS I, PS II  xsptpidapy; cz;lhd ATP,
gq;Nfw;fpwJ. Mfpa ,uz;Lk; NADPH2 cjtpahy; CO2 MdJ
gq;Nfw;fpd;wd. fhh;Ngi`l;Nul;uhf xLf;fk;
gr;ira vyf;l;uhd;fs; miljiy Cf;Ftpf;Fk; tpid.
%yf;$wpypUe;J Row;rpaile;J  nehjpfspd; cjtpahy;
ntspNaw;wg; gLk; jpUk;Gtjpy;iy fhh;gd;epiy epWj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
vyf;l;uhd;fs; kw;Wk; ,J Row;rp Kiwapy; elf;Fk;.
Row;rpaile;J vyf;l;uhd;fspd;  fz;lwpe;jth; Melvin calvin.
kPz;Lk; Gwg;gl;l ,og;G ePhpd; ,jw;F 1961y; Neghy; ghpR
,lj;Jf;Nf te;J xspg;gpsj;jyhy; ngw;whh;.
Nrh;fpd;wd. <Lnra;ag;gLfpwJ.  ,jw;F FNshnuy;yh>
,jpy; ePh; ,jpy; ePh; rpdpbnl];&]; jhtuj;jpy;> C14
xspg;gpsj;jy;> O2 xspg;gpsj;jy;> O2 [NrhNlhg;ig gad;gLj;jp
ntspNaw;wk; ntspNaw;wk; fz;lwpe;jhh;.
eilnWtjpy;iy. eilngWfpd;wd.  ,J midj;J xspr;Nrh;f;if
xspgh];ghhpfuzk; Xspgh];ghhpfuzk; jhtuq;fspYk; elf;fpd;wJ.
,uz;L ,lq;fspy; xU ,lj;jpy; kl;Lk;  ,J 3 topfspy; elf;Fk;
eilngWfpd;wd eilngWfpwJ. o CO2 epiyepWj;jg;gLjy;
,q;F NADP ,q;F NADP+ -
+
- Carboxylation phase

Page 10
 jhtutpay;;

o xLf;f epiy - cs;Ns ntspNa

Reduction phase 6 Co2 1
o RuBP kPz;Lk; cUthjy; - 18 ATP FSNfh];
Regeneration phase 12 NADPH 18 ADP
 Co2 it xU epiyahd 12 NADP
fhh;Ngi`l;Nul;lhf khWk;
epfo;T C4 Row;rp / Hatch & Slak
 Co2 Vw;Fk; nghUs; hpGNyh]; 1, ghij (1965)
5 gh];Ngl; (5 fhh;gd; nfhz;l  xU rpy jhtuq;fs; 3c Nrh;kkhd
Nrh;kk;) gh];Nghfpsprphpf; mkpyj;jpw;F
 1 %yf;$W fhh;gd;il gjpyhf 4c Nrh;kq;fshd
Mf;i]il RuBP y;; epiy Mf;]hNyh mrpl;bf; mkpyk;> khypf;
epWj;jiy Cf;Ftpf;Fk; nehjp mkpyk;> m];fhh;gpf; mkpyk;
RuBP fhh;ghf;]pNy]; MFk;. Nghd;wtw;iw cz;lhf;Ffpd;wd.
 ,jd; tpisthf cz;lhFk; 6 ,it C4 jhtuk; vdg;gLk;.
fhh;gd; $l;LnghUs; kpfTk;
epiyngw;wJ ,J 3 fhh;gd;
mZf;fis nfhz;l 2
%yf;$W gh];Ngh fpsprhpf;
mkpykhf gpsTUk;.

 Kjy; epiyahd fhh;gd; Nrh;kk;

3 C vd;gjhy; ,jw;F C3 Row;rp
vd;W ngah;.
fhy;tpd; Row;rpapy; ,ilaPl;L
nghUl;fs; :
 C3 - gh];Ngh fpspruh];bi`L
 C4 - vhpj;Nuh];
 C5 - irY}Nyh];
 C6 - fpl;Nlh mkpyk;
 C7 - rPNlh n`g;LNyh];  ,ij fUk;G> kf;fhNrhsk;
jhtuj;jpy; fz;lwpe;jth; - N`l;r;
Rubisco nehjp
kw;Wk; ];yhf;
 kpf Kf;fpakhdJ
 ,J 1500 rpw;wpdq;fspy;
 ,J ];l;Nuhkh]py; fhzg;gLk;
(md;[pNah];ngh;k; - xU tpj;jpiy)
 FNshNuh gpsh];by; 16 %
fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.
cs;sJ.
 6 KO fhh;g;gpd; Row;rp %yk; 1
%yf;$W FSNfh]; cUthFk;.

Page 11
 jhtutpay;

C3 topj;jlk; C4 topj;jlk;  mjhtJ ,iyapil jpR nry;

xspr;Nrh;f;if xspr;Nrh;f;if (mesophylls) cs;s gRq;fzpj;jpy;;
,iyapilj; jpR ,iyapilj;jpR kw;Wk; fpuhdh cz;L.
nry;fspy; fw;iw ciw nry;fspy;  fw;iw ciw nry; (Bundle
eilngWfpwJ. eilngWfpwJ. Sheath cells) cs;s gRq;fzpj;jpy;;
,q;F CO2 gh];Ngh<dhy;
fpuhdh ,y;iy.
%yf;$W igUtpf; mkpyk; CO2
 ,jdhy; xsp tpid> ,Us;
Vw;gpahf RuBP %yf;$Wfis
cs;sJ. Vw;fpwJ. tpid jdpj;jdpNa elf;fpd;wJ.
,q;F Kjypy; ,q;F Kjypy;
cUthFk; cUthFk; epiyahd C4 jhtuq;fs; rpwg;Gfs; :
epiyahd nghUs; nghUs; 4C-fisf; 1. cw;;gj;jp mjpfk; jUk;
3C – fisf; nfhz;l Mf;rNyh jhtuq;fs; (effective plants)
nfhz;l 3PGA mrpl;bf; mkpyk; MFk;. 2. tspkz;l CO2 msT>
MFk;. tsh;r;rpia ghjpg;gjpy;iy
xspr;Rthrj;jpd; xspr;Rthrj;jpd; msT 3. Fiwe;j msT CO2
msT ,q;F kpff;FiwT. Vwj;jho
NghJkhdJ (8-10 ppm)
mjpfkhf ,y;iy vdyhk;. vdNt
,Ug;gjhy;> epiy ,q;F CO2 4. 12 NADPH2 (36ATP) + 30 ATP
epWj;jg;gl;l CO2 epiyepWj;jypd; tPjk; = 66 ATP (xU FSNfh];
%yf;$Wfspy; mjpfhpf;fpwJ. %yf;$W cw;gj;jpf;Fj; Njit)
,og;G Vw;gLfpwJ.  vdNt tpQ;Qhdpfs; C3 jhtu
,J CO2 tiffis (ney;> NfhJik> ghh;yp)
epiyepWj;jypd; C4 jhtuq;fshf khw;Wfpd;wdh;.
tPjj;ij ,jdhy; cw;gj;jp mjpfkhf
Fiwf;fpwJ. fpilf;fpd;wJ.
cfe;j ntg;gepiy cfe;j ntg;gepiy 30C CAM jhtuk; / Crassulacean Acid
20C - ypUe;J ypUe;J tiu45C tiu Metabolism
25C tiu  C3, C4 jtpu 3tJ tif CO2
v.fh. ney;> v.fh : fUk;G> epiyepWj;jy; crassulacea
NfhJik kw;Wk; kf;fhr;Nrhsk;> l;hpGy]; FLk;gj;jpy; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
cUis kw;Wk; mkuhe;j];  fz;lwpe;jth; : Cleary and
 Fwpg;ghf Graminae, cyperaceae Rouhani v.L : xg;gd;\pah> nruy;>
FLk;gq;fspy; cs;sJ. mNyh> mNft;> md;dhrp ,iyj;
 C 4 jhtuq;fspy; ,U tbt gRk; Jisfs; mKf;fg;gl;L
fzpfq;fs; cs;sJ (Dimorphic fhzg;gLtjhy; Kjd;ik CO2
epiyepWj;Jjy; ,uT nghOjpYk;
Chloroplast).
xsptpidfs; gfy; nghOjpYk;
fhzg;gLk;. NkYk; C3 Row;rp
gfy; nghOjpYk;; elf;fpd;wJ.

Page 12
 jhtutpay;;

 ,iyapil jpRf;fspy;  ,t;thW RuBP Mf;]p[Ndw;wk;

elf;fpd;wJ. fw;iw ciw miltjhy; gh];Ngh fpisf;fhypf;
nry;fs; fhzg;gLtjpy;iy mkpyk; vd;w 2C Nrh;kKk;>
 30 ATP = 12 NADPH2 = 1 gh];Nghfpsprhpf; mkpyk; (PGA)
FSNfh]; vd;w 3C Nrh;kKk; cz;lhfpd;wd.
C2 Row;rp (xsp Rthrk;)  ,tw;wpy; PGA fhy;tpd; Row;rpy;
 fz;lwpe;jth; : Krofkov gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. gh];Ngh
 NkYk; tpsf;fk; mspj;jth; : fpisf;fhypf; mkpyj;jpypUe;J xU
Decker & Tio gh];Ngl; %yf;$W ePf;fg;gl;L
xspr;rthrk; my;yJ C2 Row;rp fpisf;fhypf; mkpyk;
 tpyq;Ffs; kw;Wk; ghf;Bhpaq;fspy; cz;lhf;fg;gLfpwJ. fPo;f;fz;l
,Ul; Rthrk; vd;w xUtif tpidfs; gRq;fzpfj;jpy;
Rthrk; kl;LNk eilngWfpwJ. eilngWfpd;wd.
 ,J xsp ,Ug;gjhNyh my;yJ  gRq;fzpfj;jpypUe;J fpisf;fhypf;
,y;yhjjhNyh mkpyk; nguhf;]pNrhkpw;F
ghjpf;fg;gLtjpy;iy. Mdhy; rpy nry;fpwJ. mq;F fpisf;fhypf;
gRe;jhtuq;fspy; xspr;Rthrk; mkpyk; Mf;]p[Ndw;wk; mile;J
kw;Wk; ,Ul; Rthrk; vd ,U fpisMf;rhypf; mkpyk;> i`l;u[d;
NtWgl;l Rthr tiffs; cs;sd. nguhf;i]L Mfpait
 xsp ,Uf;Fk; NghJ xspr;Nrh;f;if cUthfpd;wd. gpd;dh; fpis
nra;Ak; jpRf;fspy; tof;fj;ij tpl Mf;rhypf; mkpyj;jpypUe;J
mjpfkhf eilngWfpd;w Rthrk;> fpis]pd; cz;lhfpwJ.
xspr;Rthrk; (photorespiration or  gpd;dh; fpisrpd; %yf;$Wfs;
light respiration) vdg;gLk;. nguhf;]p NrhkpypUe;J
,e;epfo;r;rpapd; NghJ mjpf msT ikl;Nlhfhz;l;hpahTf;F
CO2 ntspNaw;wg;gLfpwJ. nry;fpd;wd. mq;F ,uz;L
 xspr;Rthrk; %d;W nry; fpisrpd; %yf;$Wfs; ,ize;J
Ez;ZWg;Gfspy; eilngWfpwJ. xU rPiud; %yf;$W> NH3 kw;Wk;
mitahtd gRq;fzpfq;fs;> CO2 Mfpait cz;lhfpd;wd.
nguhf;]pNrhk;fs; kw;Wk;  ,t;tpidapd; NghJ NAD+ ,
ikl;Nlhfhz;l;hpahf;fs;. NADH2- thf xLf;fkilfpwJ.
 Mf;]p[d; mjpf msT ,Uf;Fk;  ikl;Nlhfhz;l;hpahtpy; cUthd
NghJ RuBP Mf;]p[Ndw;wk; rPiud; vd;w mkpNdh mkpyk;
milfpwJ. ,JNt nguhf;]pNrhik milfpwJ. ,q;F
xspr;Rthrj;jpd; Kjy; ,J i`buhf;]p igUtpf;
tpidahFk;. mkpykhf khw;wkilfpwJ.
 ,t;tpidahtJ fhh;ghf;]pNy];  i`buhf;]p igUtpf; mkpyk;
vdg;gLk; &gp];Nfh (Rubisco : NADH2 cld; tpidGhpe;J fpsprhpf;
Ribulose bishosphate carboxylase) mkpykhf xLf;fkilfpwJ.
nehjpapdhy; Cf;Ftpf;fg;gLfpwJ.

Page 13
 jhtutpay;

 fpsprhpf; mkpyk;  mjhtJ xspahw;wiy gad;gLj;jpf;

nguhf;]pNrhkpypUe;J nfhs;s NghJkhd msT CO2
gRq;fzpfj;jpw;F nry;fpwJ. mq;F ,y;iynadpy; mjpfg;gbahd
fpsprhpf; mkpyk; ATP %yf;$Wld; xspahw;wyhdJ jhtu nry;fis
gh];ghpfuzk; mile;J gh];Ngh Mf;]p[Ndw;wk; nra;J rpijj;J
fpsrhpf; mkpyk; (PGA) tpLk;. ,e;j epfo;r;rpahdJ xsp
cz;lhfpwJ. Mf;]p[Ndw;w rpijT vdg;gLk;.
 ,J fhy;tpd; Row;rpapy;  ,Ug;gpDk;> xspr;Rthrk; vd;w
Eiofpd;wJ. xspr;Rthr epfo;r;rp mjpfg;gbahd xsp
epfo;r;rpapd; NghJ Mw;wypd; xU gFjpia
ikl;Nlhfhz;l;hpahTf;Fs; gad;gLj;jpf;nfhs;tjd; %yk;
tpLtpLf;fg;gl;l xU %yf;$W jhtuq;fis xsp Mf;]p[Ndw;w
CO2 kPz;Lk; epiyepWj;jg;gLfpwJ. rpijtpypUe;J ghJfhf;fpwJ.
 O2 msT mjpfhpf;Fk; NghJ
xspr;Rthrk; ,Us; Rthrk; xspr;Rthrj;jpd; tPjk; mjpfhpf;Fk;.
,J ,J midj;J CO2 msT mjpfhpf;Fk; NghJ
xspr;Nrh;f;if capUs;s nry;fspYk; xspr;Rthrj;jpd; tPjk; Fiwe;J
nry;fspy; ikl;Nlhfhz;l;hpahtpy; xsph;r;Nrh;f;ifapd; tPjk;
kl;LNk eilngWfpwJ mjpfhpf;fpwJ.
eilngWfpwJ.
,J xsp ,J xsp kw;Wk; xsp xspNrh;f;if ghjpf;Fk; fhuzpfs; :
,Uf;Fk;NghJ ,y;yhj #oypy; 1. xsp
kl;LNk eilngWk; 2. ntg;gepiy
eilngWk;. 3. CO2
,J ,J 4. O2
gRq;fzpfk;> ikl;Nlhfhz;l;hpahtpy; 5. ePh;
nguhf;]pNrhk;;> eilngWfpwJ. 6 khRgLj;Jk; fhuzpfs;
ikl;Nlh 7. FNshNuhgpy;
fhz;l;hPah - 7. cw;gj;jp msT
f;fspy; 8. ,iy GNuhl;Nlhgpshrk;
eilngWk; 9. Ntjpg; nghUl;fs;
10. jhJg;nghUl;fs;
 Xspr;RthrkhdJ xspr;Nrh;f;if
fhh;gd; Mf;]p[Ndw;w Row;rp
my;yJ C2 Row;rp vdTk;
miof;fg;gLk;.
 mjpf xsp> Fiwthd CO2 Mfpa
#o;ep;iyfspy; xspr;Rthrk;
jhtuq;fis> xsp Mf;]p[Ndw;w
rpijtpypUe;J ghJfhf;fpwJ.

Page 14
 Rthrpj;jy;
(Respiration)

 cs;Rthrk; / jpR Rthrk; / ,Us; ntspg;gLfpd;wJ. (1 gpizg;G =

Rthrk; / nry; Rthrk; / 7.3 fpNyh fNyhhp )
ikl;lhfhz;l;hpah Rthrk;
 Resprare vd;gJ yj;jpd; thh;j;ij>
mjd; mh;j;jk; = to breathe
 Rthrpj;jy; vd;gJ Mw;wy;
ntsptpLk; tpidahFk;
C6 H12 O6 + 6 O2
6CO2 + 6 H2 O + Mw;wy; (2900 KJ)
 ,J xU nehjpfshy; eilngWk;>
kpfg; nghpa gbfshy; Md epfo;T.
,jd;%yk; cztpypUe;J Mw;wy;
cUthf;fg;gl;L nry;fSf;F
toq;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 Mw;wy; ATP tbtj;jpy; gad;gL
Mw;wyhf khw;wkilfpwJ. vdNt
,J nry;ypd; gzk; / nry;ypd;
Mw;wy; ehzak; (currency of cells)
vdg;gLfpwJ.
 ATP fz;lwpe;jth; : Karl Lohman
1927
 ATP vd ngahpl;lth; : FRITZ
LIPMANN
 ATP vd;gJ mbidd;> iuNgh];
rh;f;fiu> 3 gh];Ngl; %yf;$W
nfhz;l epA+f;spNahilL MFk;.
 ,J Mw;wy; kpFe;j %yf;$W
MFk;.
 ,jpy; ,uz;L kpif Mw;wy;
gpizg;Gfs; ,Wjpapy; cs;sd.
 ePuhw;gFj;jypd; %yk; ,e;j
gpizg;Gfs; rpijtiltjhy;
ngUksT Mw;wy;

Page 1
 jhtutpay;;

Rthr jsg; nghUl;fs;

nfhOg; fhh;Nghi`l;Nul; Guj

nfhOg;G vspa rh;f;fiu mkpNdh

mkpyk; Ex.

igUtp
f;

mrpl;ily; CoA

H2O CO2
fpiug;

 ghf;Bhpah kw;Wk; G+Q;irfspy;

,d;th;Nl];> irNk]; vd;w
Rthrj;jpd; tiffs;
nehjpfs; FSf;Nfh]; rpijj;jypy;
fhw;wpy;yh Rthrk; (Anaerobic)
gad;gLfpd;wJ.
 Kjypy; fz;lwpe;jth; :
 irNk]; vd;w nehjpia Kjypy;
Kostytechev
fz;lwpe;jth; : Gf;dh; (Buchner)
 NkYk; tpthpj;jth; : Gaylussac,
 ATP vJTk; cw;gj;jp MfhJ.
pastuear (1898)
Mw;wy; ntg;gj;jpd; topNa
 fhzg;gLtJ : ghf;Bhpah> ntspaplg;gLk;.
m];fhhp];> Bdpahrp];> jhJf;fs;>
C6H12O6 2 CO2 + 2 C2H5OH + Heat
RBC, jirfs;
FSf;Nfh];
 O2 ,y;yhj epiyapy; czT
KOikahd Mf;rp[Ndw;wk;
fpspruhy;bi`L 3 gh];Ngl;
milahky; vj;jdhy;> mrpl;bf;
mkpyk; my;yJ yhf;bf; mkpykhf
3 gh];Nghfpsprhpf; mkpyk;
khw;wg;gLfpd;wJ.
 jhtuq;fspy; Kisf;Fk; tpijfs;>
gh];Ngh <dhy; igUtpf; mkpyk;
goq;fspy;; nehjpj;jy; tpid
igUtpf; mkpyk;
eilngWfpwJ.
 G+Q;ir> ghf;Bhpaf;fspy; ,J
nry;fSf;F ntspNa elf;fpd;wJ.
,J nehjpj;jy; (fermentation)
vj;jdhy; yhf;bf; mkpyk;
vdg;gLk;.
nkhj;j cw;gj;jp = 2NADH + H++ 2ATP
nryT = 2NADH + H++ -
epfuyhgk; 2ATP

Page 2
 jhtutpay;;

 efficiency = =  O2 vLj;Jf; nfhs;sg;gLtJk;

,y;iy> CO2 ntsptplg;gLtJk;
= 32.3%
,y;iy.
nehjpfs; tiffs;  6 fhh;gd; Nrh;kkhd FSf;Nfh]; 3
1) Alcoholic fermentation ( kpfTk; fhh;gd; nfhz;l ,uz;L
goikahd Kiw ) %yf;$W.
C6H12O6 CO2 + 2 C2H5OH + Energy  igUtpf; mkpykhf khw;wkilAk;
2) Lactic acid fermentation ( japh; epfo;r;rp MFk;.
cUthjy; Kiw )
C6H12O6 2 C3 H6O3  xl;Lnkhj;j tpid
C6 H12 O6 + 2 ATP + 2Pi + 2 NAD
3) Acetic acid fermentation ( fhw;W
2 C3 H4 O3 + 2 ATP + 2NADH2
nehjpj;jy;; Kiw )
C2H5OH+ O2 Acetobactor CH3COOH+ H2O
 ,J ,uz;L topfspy; elf;fpd;wJ
4) Butyric acid fermentation 1) FSf;Nfh]; gh];ghhpfuzk; -
C6H12O6+O2 C4H8O2 +2CO2+ 2H2
2) n`f;Nrh]; epiy
fhw;W Rthrk; (Aerobic) 3) g;uf;Nlh]; 1> 6 ilgh];Ngl;
ehd;F njspthd epiyfspy;
FSf;Nfh]; Mf;rp[Ndw;wk;
elf;fpd;wJ.
 fpisf;fhyprp]; - (vy;yh
caphpdq;fspYk;) - irl;Nlh
gpshrk;
 igUtpf; mkpy Mf;rp[Ndw;w
fhh;gd; ePf;fkiljy; -
ikl;Nlhfhd;l;hpah - ntsp gFjp
 fpiug; Row;rp / TCA Row;rp -
ikl;Nlhfhd;l;hpah - Nkl;hpf;];
 vyf;l;uhd; flj;J rq;fpyp / ETC -
ikl;Nlhfhd;l;hpah - fphp];Nl

fpisf;Nf ; hiyrp]; / biuahrp]; /

vk;ld; - Nkah;`hg; - gh;dh]; ghij
 Glyco = rh;f;fiu; Lysis = gpsg;G -
,dpg;G gpsg;G (Splitting of sugars)
 ,J irl;Nlhgpshrj;jpy; elf;Fk;
 ,J fhw;WRthrk;> fhw;wpy;yh
Rthrk; ,uz;bYk; elf;Fk;

gpsj;jy; -biuNah]; epiy

Page 3
 jhtutpay;;

 ,J 10 tpjkhd gbepiyfisf; fpiug; Row;rp / TCA Row;rp / Tri

nfhz;lJ Corboxylic Acid Cycle / Citric acid
 nkhj;j cw;gj;jp= 2NADH+H++4 ATP Cycle
nryT = 2 ATP  S. Hans Kreb 1937 fz;lwpe;jhh;.
epfuyhgk; 2NADH+H++2ATP=8ATP  ,jw;fhf 1953 y; Neghy; ghpir
,J FSf;Nfh]; Rthr
Lippanan vd;gtUld; gfph;e;J
epfo;r;rpapd; nkhj;j cw;gj;jpapy;
2. 3% MFk;. ngw;Wf; nfhz;lhh;.
mrpl;ily; Co - A cUthf;fk;:
(Link / Gateway Reaction)
 igUtpf; mkpy %yf;$Wfs;
ikl;Nlhfhz;l;hpaj;jpDs;
nry;fpd;wd.
 Mf;rp[d; Kjd; Kiwahf
gad;gLj;jg;gl;L CO2 ntspaplg;
gLfpd;wJ.
 igUtpf; mkpy %yf;$W 2 C
nfhz;l mrpl;ily; Co - A thf
khw;wg;gLfpd;wJ.
 ,J fhh;Nghi`l;Nul; kw;Wk;
nfhOg;G tsh;rpij khw;wj;jpy;
nghJthdJ.
 ,J fpisf;N;fhiyrp];;iaAk;
fpiug; Row;rpAk; ,izf;Fk;
epfo;r;rp MFk;.
igUtpf;
bi`l;Nuh[pNd];
igUtpf; mkpyk; + 2 NAD
2 mrpl;;ily; Co - A + 2 NADH2
+ 2CO2 TPP, LA, Mg++
(TPP-Thiamine Pyro
phosphate, LA - Lipoic Acid)

Page 4
 jhtutpay;;

 ,J nry;ypd; rf;jp epiyakhd 2) FAD+ - Flavin Adenine

ikl;Nlhfhz;l;hpahtpd; Nkl;hpf;]; Dinucleotide
3) CoQ - Co - enzyme Q
gFjpapy; eilngWfpwJ.
4) irl;NlhFNuhk;fs; - Cyt b,
 igUtpf; mkpykhdJ fhh;gd;il Cyt c, Cyt a, Cyt a3
Mf;irlhfTk;> ePuhfTk;  rpl;hpf; mkpy Row;rp Kbtjw;Fs;
FSf;Nfh]; %yf;$whdJ
khw;wg;gLk; NghJ thpirahf
KOtJkhf Mf;rp[Ndw;wk;
elf;Fk;; epfo;r;rp. mile;jpUf;Fk;.
 ,J xU Mk;gpNghypf; (m) ,Utif  Mdhy; Mw;wyhdJ NADH2 >
epfo;r;rp MFk;. rpy %yf;$Wfs; FADH2 Mfpait vyf;l;uhd;
rpijf;fg;gLfpd;wd. rpy fle;J rq;fpypahy;
%yf;$Wfs; fl;lg;gLfpd;wd. Mf;rp[Ndw;wk; milAk; tiu
 ,e;epfo;r;rpf;F Njitahd ntspaplg;gLtjpy;iy.
midj;J nehjpfSk;  ,iy 4 rq;fpyp %yk;
ikl;Nlhfhz;l;hpahtpy; Mf;rp[Df;F vLj;J nry;Yk;
fhzg;gLfpd;wd. NghJ cah; Mw;wy; gh];Ngl;
 ehd;F ,lq;fspy; Mf;rp[Ndw;wk; gpizg;G cz;lhfpwJ.
epfo;fpd;wJ.  mjhtJ ADP apypUe;J ATP
 mg;NghJ nkhj;jj;jpy; 6 NADH2 cz;lhfpwJ. ,J Mf;rp[Ndw;w
kw;Wk; 2 FADH2 Mfpait gh];ghhp fuzk; (Oxidative
Njhd;Wfpd;wd. ,jdhy; 22 ATP Phosphoryllation) vdg;gLk;.
%yf;$Wfs; Njhd;Wfpd;wd.
NkYk; jsg;nghUs; gh];ghhpfuzk; Rthrpj;jypd; %yf;$Wfspd; ATP
%yk; epiyfs; ATP NADH2 nkhj;jk;
(rr;rpidy; CoA rr;rpdpf; FADH2
mkpyk;) 2 ATP %yf;$W fpisf;fhyprp]; 2 2 ... 8
cUthfpd;wd. vdNt nkhj;jk; 24
%yf;$Wfs; Njhd;Wfpd;wd. igUtpf; mkpy .... 2 ... 6
Mf;rp[Ndw;w
2 %yf;$W ig&tpf; mkpyk;
fhh;g;d Row;rp
2 ATP, 8 NADH, 2 FADH2
fpug;]; Row;rp 2 6 2 24
vyf;l;uhd; flj;J rq;fpyp / ETS /
Electron Transport System nkhj;jk; 4 30AT 4 38 ATP
 ,J ehd;F vyf;l;uhd; Vw;gpfis P ATP
nfhz;l rq;fpyp MFk;.
1) NAD+ - Nicotinamide
Adenine Dinucleotide

Page 5
 jhtutpay;;

 ikl;Nlhfhz;l;hpah kw;w
gzpfspy; Ntiy Mf
,Uf;Fk;nghOJ.
Mf;rp[Ndw;w epiy
 ,J ngd;Nlh]; gh];Ngl;
fhw;W Rthrj;jpy; fpilf;Fk; Mw;wy;
topj;jlj;jpd; Kjw;gFjpahFk;.
ngd;Nlh]; gh];Ngl; topj;jlk; / ,jpy;> FSNfhrhdJ
Pentose Phosphate Pathway / PPP / Mf;rp[Ndw;wKk; fhh;gd;
Hexose Mono Phosphate shunt
ePf;fKilafpwJ.
(HMP Stunt) / Warbarg Dickens
Pathways  ,jd; tpisthf.
 xU rpy jhtuq;fs; kw;Wk; rpy gh];NghFSf;fhdpf; mkpyj;ijj;
tpyq;F jpRf;fspy; nghJthd njhlh;e;J ngz;Nlh]; rh;f;fiu>
fpisf;fhyprp]; kw;Wk; fpiug; hpGNyh]; 5 - gh];Ngl; Mf
Row;rpf;F gjpyhf khw;W top khw;wkilfpd;wJ. ,e;j
ghijapy; FSf;Nfh]; Mf;rpfuzk; Mf;]p[Ndw;w epiyapy; Kf;fpa
miltij thh;ngh;f; & bf;fd;]; mk;rk; NADPH2
fz;lwpe;jdh;. cw;gj;jpahtjhFk;. ,jpy; epfOk;
 ,J Mf;rp[Ndw;w epiy kw;Wk; tpidfs;.
Mf;rp[Ndw;wkpy;yh vd ,J ,U
Kf;fpa epiy cs;sJ.
 ,J irl;Nlhgpshrj;jpy; kl;Lk;
epfOk;
epfo;T elf;f fhuzk;:
 nry;fspy; caphpdq;fspy;
epfo;tpw;F mjpf NADH2
Njitg;gLk;NghJ
 fpisf;Nfhiyrp];
NtjpnghUl;fshy; jLf;fg;gLk;
nghOJ (iodo acetone, fluorides,
arsenates)

Page 6
 jhtutpay;;

o NADPH+ MdJ NADPH2 Mf

xLf;fkilfpwJ. ntspahfpwJ.
,e;j epfo;r;rpapy; 6- gh];Ngh
FSf;Nfhdpf; bi`l;u[Nd];
vd;Dk; nehjp gq;F ngWfpwJ.

Mf;rp[Ndw;wkpy;yh epiy :
 ,e;jg; gFjpapy; 3C, 4C, 5C
kw;Wk; 7C fhh;gd;fisf; nfhz;l
gh];ghpfuzkile;j rh;f;fiufs;
,ilg; nghUl;fshf cz;lh
fpd;wd.
 mitahd gh];Nghfpsp
ruhy;bi`L (3c), vhpj;Nuh];
gh];Ngl; 4(c), irYNyh];
gh];Ngl; (5c) kw;Wk; nrNlh
n`g;LNyh]; (7c) gh];Ngl;
vd;gdthFk;.
 MW FSf;Nfh]; gh];Ngl;
%yf;$Wfs; ,e;j topj;jlj;jpy;
o n`f;NrhifNd]; vDk; nehjpapd; <Lgl;L Mf;rpNdw;wkilfpd;wd.
nray;ghl;bdhy; FSf;Nfh]; MW %yf;$Wfs; 4-k;
ghp];ghpfuzkile;J FSNfh]; - tpidapd;gb ntspaplg;
6- gh];Ngl;lhf khWfpwJ. gLfpd;wd.
o FSf;Nfh]; - 6 - gh];Ngl;lhdJ
Mf;rp[Ndw;wkile;J 6  2-k; kw;Wk; 4-k; tpidfspd; gb 12
gh];NghFSNfhNdhNyf;lhd; Mf NADPH2 cz;lhfpd;wd.
khWfpwJ. Mg;NghJ NADPH+ NtnwhU tifapy;
MdJ NADPH2 Mf Mf;rp[Ndw;wj;jpw;Fg; gpd;dh;>
xLf;fkilfpwJ. xU %yf;$W CO2Ak; 12
o ,e;j tpidapy; FSNfh]; - 6 - %yf;$W NADPH2itAk;
gh];Ngl; bi`l;u[Nd]; vd;Dk;
nehjp <LgLfpwJ. Njhw;Wtpf;fpd;wd.
o 6 gh];NghFSf;nfhNdhNyf;Nlhd;  RUf;fkhf MW FSf;Nfh];
ePuhw;gFg;Gf;F cl;gLj;jg;gl;L, 6 - %yf;$Wfspy; xd;W KOJkhf
gh];NghFSNfhdpf; mkpykhf Mf;rp[Ndw;wkilfpwJ. kw;w
khWfpwJ. ,e;j tpidapy; Ie;J %yf;$Wfs;> 3C, 4C, 5C
FSNfhNdhNyf;NlhNd]; vDk; kw;Wk; 7C- fhh;gd; rh;f;fiu
nehjp <LgLfpwJ.
o 6 - gh];Ngh FSf;Nfhdpf; mkpyk; ,ilr; Nrh;kq;fshf
Mf;rp[Ndw;wk; fhh;gd; khWfpd;wd.
ePf;fkile;J hpGNyh]; 5-  ,e;j Nrh;kfspypUe;J Ie;J
gh];Ngl;lhf (Ru5P) khWfpwJ. FSf;Nfh]; 6 - gh];Ngl;

Page 7
 jhtutpay;;

%yf;$Wfs; kPz;Lk; C4H6O5+302 CO2+3H2O+ Mw;wy;.

cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wd. khypf; mkpyk;

ngd;Nlh]; gh];Ngl; topj;jlj;jpd;

Kf;fpaj;Jtk; (iii)nfhOg;G mkpyj;jpd; Rthr <T
 ,J fhh;Nghi`l;Nul;; rpijTf;F C16 H3O2+1102 C12H22O11+4CO2+ 5H2O
khw;W topahFk;. ghkpbf; mkpyk; Rf;Nuh];+ Mw;wy;
 ,jpy; NADPH2 %yf;$Wfs;
cz;lhfpd;wd. ,it
nry;nghUl;fs; gytw;wpd; fhw;wpyh Rthrj;jpd; Rthr <T
cw;gj;jpapy; xLf;fpfshfg; fhw;wpyh Rthrj;jpy; fhh;gd; il
gad;gLfpd;wd. NADPH2 Mf;irL ntspaplg;gLfpwJ
Vw;gLtJ ATP cw;gj;jpNahL Mdhy; O2
,izf;fg;gl;lJ my;y. gad;gLj;jg;gLtjpy;iy. ,jpy;
 epA+f;spf; mkpyq;fis cw;gj;jp Rthr <T KbTw;wjhf cs;sJ.
nra;aj; Njitahd iuNgh]; (v-fh)
rh;f;fiu ,e;j topj;jlj;jpd; %yk; C6H12O6 irNk]; 2 C2H50H
fpilf;fpwJ. + 2CO2 + Mw;wy;
 mNuhNkbf; Nrh;kq;fis cw;gj;jp
nra;tjw;Fj; Njitahd
vhpj;Nuh]; gh];Ngl; ,jpypUe;J
fpilf;fpwJ.
 ,e;j topj;jlj;jpy; cUthFk;
rkepiyg; Gs;sp
Ru5P (hpGNyh]; - 5 - gh];Ngl;)
 CO2 tpd; ve;j nrwpT epiyapy;
xspr;Nrh;f;ifapd; NghJ CO2-I
epiyepWj;j gad;gLfpwJ. xspr;Nrh;f;ifahdJ
Rthr <T Rthrpj;jYf;F rkkhf
Rthrpj;jypd; NghJ ,Uf;fpwNjh mJ fhh;gd; il
ntspaplg;gLk; fhh;gd; il Mf;i]L rkepiyg;Gs;sp
Mf;i]Lf;Fk; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; vdg;gLk;. CO2 tpd; rk
Mf;rp[Df;Fk; ,ilNa cs;s tPjNk epiyg;Gs;sp epiyapy;
Rthr <T vdg;gLk;.
xspr;Nrh;f;iff;F vLj;Jf;
nfhs;sg;gLk; CO2 tpd; msT,
Rthrpj;jypy; ntsptplg;gLk; CO2
(i) fhh;Nghi`l;Nul;bd; Rthr <T mstpw;F rkkhFk; ,e;j epiyapy;
C6H12O6+ 602 6CO2 +6H2O+ Mw;wy;. xspr;Nrh;f;ifapd; epfu cw;gj;jp
VJkpy;iy.

(ii) fhpk mkpyj;jpd; Rthr <T

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