CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Introduction
The concrete is obtained by mixing cement, aggregates and water in required
proportions with or without a suitable admixture. The subject which deals with the
fundamental principles of concrete is known as Concrete Technology. The practical utility
of Concrete Technology for civil engineers is to enable them to know how to stock
properly the materials required for concrete and to perform different tests for concrete.
Properties of Concrete
The concrete, in the plastic state (ze. freshly mixed concrete) should have the
following properties:
(a) Workability. The concrete should have good workability. It is defined as the
ease with which it can be mixed, transported and placed in position in a
homogeneous state. It depends upon the quantity of water, grading of
aggregate and percentage of fine materials in the mix.
(b) Segregation. The concrete should be free from segregation. It is defined as the
breaking up of cohesion (separation of coarse aggregate) in a mass of
concrete. It results in honey combing decrease in density, and ultimately loss
of strength of hardened concrete.
(c) Bleeding. The concrete should have no bleeding. It is defined as the separation
of water or water-cement mixture from the freshly mixed concrete. It causes
the concrete porous and weak
(d) Harsh. It is the resistance offered by concrete to its surface finishing. The
surface of harsh concrete remains rough and porous.
The concrete, in the hardened state, should have the following properties:
1. Strength. The hardened concrete should have high compressive strength so that
it can resist the heavy loads of the structures. It should not be less than 15.5
N/mm².
2. Durability. The hardened concrete must be durable to resist the effects of rain,
frost action etc. This property is mainly affected by water-cement ratio.
3. Impermeability. The hardened concrete should have sufficient impermeability or
water tightness so that it can resist the entry of water inside the structure.
4. Shrinkage. The hardened concrete should exhibit minimum shrinkage. This
property is guided by water-cement ratio.
 5. Creep. The hardened concrete should be subjected to minimum creep. It is the
continuous strain, which the concrete undergoes due to application of external
loads.
6. Thermal expansion. The hardened concrete should have minimum thermal
expansion so as to provide good resistance to fire.
Classification of Concrete
The concretes are classified as follows:
1. Plain cement concrete. The plain cement concrete consists of cement, sand
and a coarse aggregate mixed in suitable proportions in addition to water.
The cement is used as a binding material sand as fine aggregate and shingle,
gravel, broken brick or crushed stone as coarse aggregates
The usual proportions of ingredients in plain cement concrete are:
1
Portland cement (1 part), clean sand (1 to 8 parts) and coarse aggregate (3
2
to 16 parts).
The plain cement concrete is strong in taking compressive stress.
2. Lime concrete. The lime concrete consists of lime, a fine aggregate and a
coarse aggregate, mixed in suitable proportions, in addition to water. The
hydraulic lime is used as a binding material, sand, surkhi and cinder as fine
aggregates and broken bricks, broken stones etc. as coarse aggregates
The usual proportions of ingredients in lime concrete are: Lime (1
part), sand (2 to 3 parts) and coarse aggregates (3 to 4 parts).
The lime concrete is cheaper and has less strength than plain cement
concrete.
3. Reinforced cement concrete (R.CC). The reinforced cement concrete (also
called ferro- concrete) is a cement concrete in which reinforcement is
embedded. The usual proportions of ingredients in reinforced cement
concrete are: Portland cement (1 part), clean sand (1 to 2 parts) and coarse
aggregates (2 to 4 parts). The reinforced cement concrete is equally strong
for taking tensile, compressive and shear stresses
4. Pre-stressed cement concrete (P.C.C.). The pre-stressed cement concrete is
a cement concrete in which high compressive stresses are artificially
induced before its actual use. This type of concrete can take up high tensile
and compressive stresses without development of cracks.
5. Light-weight concrete. The light-weight concrete is prepared by using coke-
breeze, cinder or slag as aggregate in the cement concrete. This type of
concrete possesses high insulating property. It is used in making precast
structural units for partition and wall lining purposes.
 6. Cellular or aerated concrete. The cellular or aerated concrete (also called
air-entrained concrete) is prepared by mixing aluminium in the cement
concrete. It is light in weight and spongy in structure. It is used for roof slab
and precast units in partitions etc. for heat and sound insulation.
7. Saw dust concrete. The saw dust concrete is prepared by mixing portland
cement with saw dust in specified proportions in the concrete. It is used as a
heat and sound insulating material.
8. Vacuum concrete. The vacuum concrete is the cement concrete from which
entrained air and excess water are removed with a vacuum pump, after
placing it in position. The removal of excess air after placing concrete helps
in increasing the strength of concrete by 15 to 20 percent. It is used for all
reinforced concrete works.
Functions of Ingredients of Cement
The functions of various ingredients of an ordinary portland cement, as mentioned
above, are as follows:
1. Lime. It makes the cement sound and strong. The lime in excess quantity
makes the cement unsound and causes the cement to expand and
disintegrate.
2. Silica. It provides strength to the cement due to the formation of dicalcium
and tricalcium silicates. The silica in excess quantity causes the cement to
set slowly.
3. Alumina. It provides quick setting property to the cement and lowers the
clinkering temperature.
4. Iron oxide. It provides colour, hardness and strength to the cement. It also
helps the fusion of raw materials during the manufacture of cement.
5. Magnesium oxide. It provides hardness and colour to the cement, when
present in small quantity. The magnesium oxide in excess quantity makes
the cement unsound.
6. Sulphur trioxide. It makes the cement sound, when present in very small
quantity. The sulphur trioxide in excess quantity makes the cement
unsound.
7. Alkalies. These should be present in small quantities. The alkalies in excess
quantity will cause efflorescence.
Composition of Cement clinker
The Cement Clinkers(which are formed when calcareous and agrillaceous raw
materials are mixed and burned in rotary kilns) consist of the following major
compounds :
 1. Tricalcium silicate (40%) The presence of tricalcium silicate in cement
hydrates more rapidly. It generates more heat of hydration. It develops high
early strength and possesses less resistance to sulphate attack.
2. Dicalcium silicate (32%). The presence of dicalcium silicate in cement
hydrates slowly. It generates less heat of hydration it hardens more slowly
and offers more resistance to sulphate attack. It provides good ultimate
strength to cement.
3. Tricalcium aluminate (10.5%). The presence of tricalcium aluminate causes
initial setting of cement. It reacts fast with water and generates large
amount of heat hydration. It is the first compound which reacts with water
when mixed with cement.
4. Tetra calcium alumino ferrite (99%). The presence of tetracalcium alumino
ferrite in cement has poor cementing value. If reacts slowly with water and
generates small amount of heat hydration
Notes:
a) The high percentage of tricalcium silicate and low percentage of dicalcium silicate
in cement results in rapid hardening, high early strength, high heat of generation
and less resistance to chemical attack.
b) The low percentage of tricalcium silicate and high percentage of dicalcium silicate
in cement results in slow hardening, much more ultimate strength, less heat of
generation and greater resistance to chemical attack.
Setting and Hardening of Cement
The chemical reaction between cement and water is called hydration of cement or
simply cement hydration. The phenomenon by virtue of which the plastic cement changes
into a solid mass is known as setting of cement. The phenomenon by virtue of which the
cement paste sets and develops strength is known as hardening of cement.
The rate of setting and hardening of cement, the rate of evolution of heat and
resistance to sulphate attack are affected by the proportions of different cement
compounds. The sum of percentage of tricalcium silicate and dicalcium silicate for
Portland cement varies from 70 to 80%. The tricalcium silicate hydrates more rapidly than
dicalcium silicate and develops strength in cement for the first 7 days. The tricalciun
aluminate and tetracalcium alumino ferrite compounds are responsible for the initial
setting of cement.
Types of Cements
The various types of cements available in the market are as follows:
 1. Ordinary Portland cement. This is the common type of cement in use. It has
adequate resistance to dry shrinkage and cracking, but has less resistance to
chemical attack. It should not be used for construction work exposed to sulphates in
the soil.
2. Rapid hardening Portland cement. It is also known as high early strength cement. It
is lighter than ordinary Portland cement. Since the curing period for this cement is
short, therefore it is economical. It is used where high early strength is desired, for
constructing road pavements, for cold weather concreting and where form work is
to be removed as early as possible. It should not be used for massive concrete
structures.
3. Low heat Portland cement. It contains a low percentage of tricalcium silicate which
hydrates quickly and a higher percentage of dicalcium silicate which hydrates
slowly. It contains less lime than ordinary Portland cement. It possesses less
compressive strength. This cement is widely used in retaining walls. It should not
be used for thin concrete structures.
4. Sulphate resisting Portland cement. In this cement, the percentage of tricalcium
aluminate is kept below 5% and it results in the increase in resisting power against
sulphates. It is used for structures which are likely to be damaged by severe alkaline
conditions such as canal linings, culverts etc.
5. High alumina cement. It contains about 35% of alumina. It sets quickly and attains
higher ultimate strength in a short period. It is used for a structure subjected to the
action of sea water, chemical plants and furnaces.
6. Blast furnace slag cement. It is made by inter-grinding of ordinary Portland cement
clinker and granulated blast furnace slag. It is cheaper than ordinary Portland
cement. It develops low heat of hydration and has less early strength. This cement is
frequently used in dams, bridge abutments and retaining walls.
7. Coloured cement. It is prepared by adding 5 to 15% of a suitable colouring pigment
before the cement is finally ground. The commercial term used for a coloured
cement is Colocrete. It is widely used for finishing of floors, external surfaces etc.
8. Pozzolana cement. It is made by inter-grinding of ordinary Portland cement clinker
and pozzolana. The pozzolana is essentially a silicious material containing clay upto
80%. In the manufacture of pozzolana cement, about 30% of pozzolana material is
added to the ordinary Portland cement clinkers. It is widely used for hydraulic
structures such as dams etc.

Testing of Portland Cement

The following important tests are carried out for ordinary Portland cement:
1. Fineness test. This test is carried to check the proper grinding of cement. It
may be noted that the finer cement has quicker action with water and gain
 early strength. The fineness of cement is tested either by sieve method or air
permeability method. In the sieve method, the fineness of cement is
measured in terms of percentage weight retained on IS sieve number 9 (i.e.
90 micron IS sieve). According to Indian standards (IS: 269-1967 and
1975), the percentage of residue left after sieving a good Portland cement
through IS sieve number 9, should not exceed 10%.
In air permeability method, the fineness of cement is measured in
terms of surface area in cm² per gram of cement. A good Portland cement
should not have specific surface less than 2250 cm²/g of cement.
2. Consistency test. This test is conducted to determine the percentage of water
required for preparing cement pastes of standard consistency for other tests
(e.g. setting time, soundness and compressive strength tests). This test is
performed with the help of Vicat's apparatus which consists of a plunger
having 10 mm diameter and 40 to 50 mm length. The Vicat's apparatus
determines the initial and final setting time and normal consistency of
cement.
Notes:
(a) In order to make a cement paste of normal consistency, the percentage
of water varies from 25 to 35%
(b) In order to perform the initial setting time test, the water is added to the
cement at the rate of 0.85 P by weight of cement, where P is the percentage
of water required for normal consistency paste.
(c) In order to perform the soundness test, the cement paste is prepared by
adding water to the cement the rate of 0.72 P by weight of cement, where P
is the percentage of water required for normal consistency paste
(d) In order to perform the compressive test, the cement paste is prepared
by adding water at the rate of (P+3% of water), where P is the percentage of
water required for normal consistency paste.
(e) The initial setting time of ordinary and rapid hardening cement should
not be less than 30 minutes.
(f) The final setting time of ordinary and rapid hardening cement should not
be less than 10 hours.

3. Soundness test. This test is carried out to detect the presence of uncombined
lime and magnesia in cement which causes the expansion of cement. The
soundness of cement is tested with Le-chatelier apparatus. According to
Indian standard specifications, the expansion should not exceed 10 mm for
any type of Portland cement.
 4. A Tensile strength test. This test is carried out on standard briquettes made
of good Portland cement and standard sand mortar in the ratio of 1: 3, to
determine the tensile strength of cement. The average tensile strength after
3 and 7 days of curing should not be less than 2 N/mm² and 2.5 N/mm²
respectively .

5. Compressive strength test. This test is carried out on standard cubes made
of good Portland cement and standard sand mortar is in the ratio of 1:3 to
determine the compressive strength of cement of cement. The size of cube
mould should be 70.6mm. The cubes should be kept at a temperature of 27°
± 2°C in an atmosphere of at least 90% relative humidity for 24 hours.
According to Indian standard specifications, the average compressive
strength for three cubes should not be less than 11.5 N/mm 2 and 17.5
N/mm2 after 3 and 7 days of curing respectively.
Note:
During field test, the cement is said to be pure and of good quality when
(a) the colour of cement is uniformly greenish grey.
(b) a handful of cement, thrown into a bucket of water, floats,
(c) hand is thrusted into a bag of cement, it feels cool, and
(d) rubbed in between fingers, it feels smooth.
Aggregate
The aggregate is an inert mineral material used for the manufacture of mortars and
concretes. According to Indian standards (IS: 383-1970), a good aggregate for concrete
construction should be sufficiently strong, chemically inert, sufficiently hard and durable.
The aggregates may be natural and artificial aggregates. The natural aggregates such as
sand, gravel and crushed rock are used for reinforced concrete. The artificial aggregates
such as furnace clinker, coke breeze, saw dust and foamed slag are used for the
manufacture of concrete of low density.
The aggregates, according to their size, shape and unit weight are classified as follows:
The aggregates, according to their size, are classified as fine aggregate, coarse
aggregate, cyclopean aggregate and all-in-aggregate.
The aggregate which pass through 4.75 mm IS sieve and entirely retain on 75
micron IS sieve is called fine aggregate. It may be natural sand, crushed stone sand or
crushed gravel sand. The minimum particle size of fine aggregate is 0.075 mm and the
maximum particle size is 4.75 mm. The material having particle size varying from 0.002 to
0.06 mm is termed as silt and still smaller particles are called clay.
 The aggregate which pass through 75 mm IS sieve and entirely retain on 4.75 mm
IS sieve is known as coarse aggregate. It may be crushed gravel or stone, uncrushed gravel
or stone or partially crushed gravel or stone. The minimum particle size of coarse
aggregate is 4.75 mm and the maximum particle size is 75 mm. If the size is more than 75
mm, then the aggregate is called cyclopean aggregate.

The all-in-aggregate consists of different fractions of fine and coarse aggregates.

These aggregates are not generally used for making high quality concrete. The aggregates,
according to their shape, are classified as rounded aggregate, irregular aggregate, angular
aggregate, flaky and elongated aggregate. The aggregates of rounded shape (river or sea
shore gravel) have minimum voids ranging from 32 to 33%. It gives minimum ratio of
surface area to the volume thus requiring minimum cement paste to make good concrete.
The aggregates of irregular shape (pit sand and gravel) have higher percentage of
voids ranging from 35 to 38. It requires more cement paste for a given workability.
The aggregates of sharp, angular and rough shape (crushed rock) have maximum
percentage of voids ranging from 38 to 40. The aggregate requires more cement paste to
make workable concrete of high strength than that required by rounded shape.
The aggregate is said to be flaky when its least dimension (thickness) in three-fifth
of its mean dimension. The mean dimension of the aggregate is the average of the sieve
sizes through which the particles pass and retained, respectively. The aggregate is said to
be elongated when its greatest dimension (length) is greater than 1.8 times its mean
dimension. The aggregates, according to their unit weights, are classified as normal-weight
aggregate, heavy weight aggregate and light weight aggregate.
The commonly used aggregates ie sands and gravels, crushed rocks such as
granite, basalt, quartz, sandstone and limestone which have specific gravities between 2.5
and 2.7 produce concrete unit weight ranging from 23 to 26 kN/m² Some heavy weight
aggregates (such barytes and scrap iron) having specific gravities ranging from 2.8 to 2.9
and unit weights from 28 to as magnetite, 29 kN/m, are used in the manufacture of heavy
weight concrete which is more effective as a radiation shield. The light weight aggregates
having unit weight upto 12 kN/m² are used to manufacture the structural concrete and
masonry bricks for reduction of the self-weight of the structure.
The aggregates, depending upon the moisture contents, are classified as dry
aggregate, very dry aggregate, saturated surface dry aggregate and moist aggregate. The
aggregate which may contain some moisture in the pores but having dry surface is known
dry aggregate.
The aggregate which do not contain any moisture either in the pores or on the
surface, is known as very dry aggregate.
 The aggregate having all the pores filled completely with water but having its
surface just dry, is known as saturated surface dry aggregate.

The aggregate whose all the pores are filled with water and also having its surface
wet, is known as moist aggregate.
Specific Gravity and Bulk Density of Aggregate
Since the aggregate generally contains pores, therefore there are two types of
specific gravities Le apparent specific gravity and bulk specific gravity.
The apparent specific gravity of an aggregate is defined as the weight of oven dry
aggregate divided by its absolute volume, excluding the natural pores in the aggregate
particles.
The bulk specific gravity of an aggregate is defined as the weight of oven dry
aggregate divided its absolute volume, including the natural pores in the aggregate
particles.
The specific gravity is required for the calculation of the yield of concrete or the
quantity of aggregate required for a given volume of concrete. The specific gravity of an
aggregate gives valuable information on its quality and properties. The higher the specific
gravity of an aggregate, the harder and stronger it will be. The specific gravity of majority
of natural aggregates lie between 2.6 and 2.7.
The bulk density of an aggregate is defined as the mass required to fill a container
of unit volume. It is expressed in kilograms per litre. The bulk density of an aggregate
depends upon the shape, size, specific gravity, grading of the aggregate and moisture
content.
Properties of Aggregate
Following are some important properties of aggregate:
1. Crushing value. It is the resistance of an aggregate to crushing under a
gradually applied compressive forces.
2. Impact value. It is the resistance of an aggregate to sudden shock or impact.
It is, sometimes, used as an alternative to its crushing value, to know the
quality of aggregate.
3. Abrasion value. It is the resistance of an aggregate to wear when it is
rotated in a cylinder along with some abrasive charge, by using the Los
Angeles machine.
4. Soundness. It is the resistance of an aggregate to the effect of hydration of
cement and weather.
Bulking of Sand
The increase in the volume of sand due to the presence of moisture upto certain
extent, is enlled bulking of sand. The ratio of the volume of moist sand to the volume of
dry sand is known as bulking factor. It may be noted that fine sand bulks more than coarse
sand.

Deleterious Materials in Aggregates

The deleterious materials are those whose presence in the aggregate prevent
normal hydration of cement, reduce the strength and durability of concrete, modify the
setting action and cause efflorescence. The sum of percentages of all deleterious materials
in the aggregate shall not exceed 5%
Fineness Modulus
The fineness modulus is a numerical index of fineness, giving some idea of the
average size of the particles in the aggregate. The value of fineness modulus is higher for
coarser aggregate. For fine aggregate, its value varies from 2.2 to 2.6, for coarse aggregate
from 2.9 to 3.2. It may be noted that fineness of sand should not be less than 2.5 and not
more than 3.
The percentage of fine aggregate to be combined with coarse aggregate (x) is
determined by
F2−F
x= × 100
F−F1

F = Fineness modulus according to the specified grading,

F 1=¿Fineness modulus of fine aggregate, and

F 2=¿ Fineness modulus of coarse aggregate.

Water
It is the most important and least expensive ingredient of concrete. A part of the
mixing water is utilised in the hydration of cement to form the binding matrix in which the
inert aggregates are held in suspension until the matrix has hardened. The remaining water
serves as a lubricant between the fine and coarse aggregates and makes the concrete
workable.
The water used for the mixing and curing of concrete should be free from
deleterious materials. The potable water is generally considered satisfactory for mixing
concrete. The quantity of water used should be just sufficient for hydration and suitable
workability of concrete. The insufficient quantity of water makes the concrete mix harsh
and unworkable. The excess quantity of water causes bleeding and segregation in concrete.
The strength and durability of concrete is reduced due to the presence of impurities in the
mixing water. The presence of sodium carbonate and bicarbonates in water has an adverse
effect on the setting time of cement. The presence of calcium chloride in water accelerates
setting and hardening of cement. The quantity of calcium chloride is restricted to 1.5% by
weight of cement.

Admixtures
The admixtures are the materials other than the basic ingredients of concrete (i.e.
cement, water and aggregates) and are added to the concrete mix immediately before or
during mixing. These are used to improve or give special properties to the concrete in the
fresh or hardened state. The use of admixture should accelerate the rate of setting and
hardening of cement. It should also make the concrete water proof, acid proof etc. and
should reduce the bleeding and segregation of concrete mix The admixtures may be
broadly classified as follows:
(a) Air-entraining admixture;
(b) Retarding and water reducing admixtures;
(c) Accelerating admixtures;
(d) Water proofing admixtures;
(e) Pozzolanic admixtures; and
(f) Colouring admixtures or pigments.
Water Cement Ratio
It a concrete mix. It is usually It is the ratio of water and cement (by weight or by
volume) in expressed in litres of water per bag of cement (50 kg). After carrying out a
number of experiments by
Duff Abrahma, he established a relationship between water and cement, which is
known as water cement ratio low This law is valid only when the concrete is of workable
plasticity. According to this law, the strength of concrete wholly depends upon the stunt of
water used in the preparation of concrete mix and is quite independent of the proportion of
cement and aggregates. The strength of concrete is inversely proportional to the water
cement ratio. In other words, the strength of concrete decreases as the water cement ratio
increases. It may be noted that when the water cement ratio becomes less than 0.45, the
concrete is not workable and causes honey-combed structure containing a large number of
voids. If the water cement ratio is more, then the capillary voids will be more in the
physical structure of hydrated cement. The strength and durability of concrete will also be
less.
Workability
It is defined as that property of freshly mixed concrete or mortar which determines
the ease and homogeneity with which it can be mixed, placed, compacted and finished.
The concrete mix is said to be workable, if it has mixability, stability, flowability or
movability, compactability and finishability. The optimum workability of fresh concrete
varies from situation to situation. Sometimes, the terms consistency and plasticity are used
to denote the workability of concrete mix. Following are the factors which affect the
workability:
(a) Water content. The workability of concrete largely depends upon its water
content. It increases with increase in water content on account of greater
lubrication.
(b) Size of aggregates. The concrete having large size aggregates is more workable
than that containing small size aggregates because the smaller size aggregates
require more quantity of water for lubrication.
(c) Shape of aggregates. The round shape aggregates increase the workability
whereas the angular, flaky and elongated aggregates reduce the workability
considerably.
(d) Surface texture of aggregates. The smooth surface aggregates increase the
workability because less quantity of water is required for lubrication. On the
other hand, rough surface aggregates reduce the workability because more
quantity of water is required for lubrication.
(e) Grading of aggregates. The grading of aggregates affect the workability and
should be continuous lean concrete mix.
(f) Air entraining agents. The air bubbles produced due to adding air entraining
agents in the concrete mix, act as rollers and thus increase the workability.
(g) Temperature. The workability of concrete mix reduces at higher temperature.

Measurement of Workability
A number of different empirical tests are available for measuring the workability
of fresh concrete, but none of these is fully satisfactory. Each test provides only useful
information within a range of variation in workability. Following are the empirical tests
widely used:
 1. Slump test. The slump test is essentially a measure of consistency or the wetness
of the concrete mix. This test is carried out with a steel mould in the form of a
frustrum of a cone whose top The diameter is 100 mm, bottom diameter is 200
mm and the height is 300 mm. According to Indian standard specifications, the
maximum size of the aggregate should not exceed 38 mm in the slump test This
method is suitable only for the concretes of medium to high workability. The
slump value for high degree of workability should vary between 80 to 100 mm. It
may be noted that as the slump value increases, the workability of concrete also
increases.
2. Compaction factor test. The compaction factor test is carried out to measure the
compactability of concrete which is an important aspect of workability. This test
works on the principal of measuring the amount of compaction achieved by a
standard amount of work done by allowing the concrete to fall through a standard
height. This test is more accurate than slump test, especially for Secrete mixes of
medium and low workabilities i.e. compacting factor of 0.9 to 0.8. The
compaction
factor test is more popular to determine the workability of concrete mix in
laboratories. The compactive factor is the ratio of weight of partially compacted
concrete to the weight of fully compacted concrete
3. Vee-Ber test. The Vee-Bee test is suitable for stiff concrete mixes having low and
very low workability. In this test, the time required for complete remoulding in
seconds is the required measure of the workability and it is expressed as the
number of Vee-Bee seconds. There is no rigid correlation between workabilities
of concrete as measured by different test methods. The workability measured by
different test methods are given in the following table:
Degree of Slump, in mm Compaction factor Vee-bee time in
workability seconds
Very low 0 – 25 0.75 – 0.80 20 – 10
Low 25 – 50 0.80 – 0.85 10 – 5
Medium 50 – 75 0.85 – 0.92 5–2
high 75 – 150 > 0.92 2–0

Concrete grades
According to Indian standard specifications (IS: 456-1978 and IS: 1343-1980), the
concrete mixes are designated into the following seven grades:
M10, M15, M20, M25, M30, M35, M40
In the designation of a concrete mix, the letter M refers to the mix and the number to the
specified characteristic compressive strength of a 150 mm cube at 28 days expressed in
MP (N/mm²). For example, a concrete mix of grade M25 means that the compressive
strength of 150 mm cube at 28 days after mixing is 25 MPa (N/mm²).
The concretes are mainly divided into two categories de ordinary concrete and
controlled concrete. The concrete in which no preliminary tests are performed for
designing the mix is called ordinary concrete. The ordinary concrete is used for M10, M15,
M20 and M25 grades of concrete mixes. The concrete in which preliminary tests are
performed for designing the mux, is called controlled concrete. The controlled concrete is
used for all the seven grades of concrete mixes.
The proportions of different ingredients (cement, sand and aggregate) in the
concrete mix are as follows:

S.No Grade Concrete Uses

mix
1. M10 1:3:6 Mass concrete in piers, abutments, massive reinforced
concrete members.
2. M15 1:2:4 Normal R.C.C. works i.e. slabs, columns, beams, walls, small
span arches
3. M20 1 Water retaining structures reservoirs, columns and piles
1:1 :3
2

4 M25 1:1:2 Long span arches and highly loaded columns

1:4:8
5 M30 1:5:10 Mass concrete foundations.
1:6:12
6 M35 Post tensioned prestressed concrete

7 M40 Post tensioned prestressed concrete

.
Method of proportioning concrete
The process of determining the proportion of cement to fine aggregate and coarse
aggregate mix is for concrete we as follows called proportioning of concrete. The various
methods of proportioning concrete
1. Arbitrary method. In this method, one part of cement to M parts of fine aggregate
and 24 parts of coarse aggregate are taken as the basis. The quantity of water
 required for mixing is determined according to the desired workability. In order to
obtain the required workability, the minimum quantity of water to be added to fine
and coarse aggregates is determined by the following relation
W
× p=0.3 p+0.1 y +0.01 z
C

W/C = Water-cement ratio,

p = Quantity of cement by weight,
y = Quantity of fine aggregate by weight, and
z = Quantity of coarse aggregate by weight.
2. Minimum voids method. This method is based on the principle that the concrete
which has the minimum voids is the densest and strongest his method, it is assumed
that the voids in the coarse aggregate are filled by the fine aggregates a the voids in
the fine aggregate are filled by the cement paste. In order allow for additional voids
created by wedging action, the volume of fine aggregates required for 1m 3 of coarse
aggregate is equal to the total voids in coarse aggregate plus 10% aggregate extra
and the volume of cement paste required for 1m 3 of coarse aggregate is equal to the
total volume of voids in the fine aggregate plus 15% aggregate extra.
3. Fineness modulus method. This method is based on a factor known as fineness
modulus of aggregates. The fineness modulus is used to indicate an index number
which is roughly proportional the average size of the particle in the entire quantity
of aggregates. The percentage of fine aggregate to the combined aggregate (P) is
obtained by the following relation:
X −Z
P= × 100
Z−Y

X, Y and z= Fineness modulii for coarse, fine and combined aggregates

respectively.
Storing of Ingredients of Concrete
The ingredients of concrete should be stored in a warehouse whose walls are of
water proof masonry construction and the roof is leak proof. The importance of storing the
various ingredients of concrete is to maintain the uniformity of grading and moisture. The
capacity of a warehouse depends upon the floor area occupied by one cement bag and the
height to which the cement bags are piled. I designing a warehouse, it is assumed each bag
contains 50 kg of cement and the floor area occupied by one bag of cement is 0.3m 3. The
height of each cement bag containing 35 litres of cement is 0.18 m. In order to prevent the
cement bags from any possible contact with moisture, the cement bags should be placed
closed together in the piles and the space between the exterior walls and piles should be
300 mm. The width and height of the pile should not exceed 3 m and 2.7 m respectively.
The cement bags should be rolled on the floor when it is taken out for use. The 'first-in,
first-out' rule should be applied when cement bags are to be removed from the warehouse.
It may be noted that the strength of cement decreases with the passage of time.
Production of Concrete
The production of concrete of uniform quality involves the following stages:
1. Batching or measurement of materials. The process of proper and accurate
measurement of all concrete materials for uniformity of proportions portions
and aggregate grading is called batching. The importance of batching is to
obtain strength, workability, durability and economy. For most of the large and
important jobs, the batching of materials is done by weighing. The weight
batching is done by spring dial scale, platform weighing machine or portable
weigh batchers.
The weighing machine should be levelled before placing the material and
the bucket in the material is to be weighed should be cleaned thoroughly. The
chart should be prepared indica the weight of each material used for different
strengths of concrete.
For most of the small jobs, volume batching is adopted. The volume of one
bug of taken as 35 litres. The wooden gauge boxes (known as farmas) are used
for measuring the five and course aggregates. For measuring 50 litres of
aggregate, the inner dimensions of a farma should 31cm X 31cm X 52 cm. The
batch volume for some of the commonly used mixes are given in the following
table:

Grade Concrete mix Cement, kg Fine Coarse

aggregate, aggregate,
litres litres
M10 1:3:6 50 105 210

M15 1:2:4 50 70 140

M20 1 50 52.5 105

1:1 :3
2
M25 50 35 70
1:1:2

2. Mixing The thorough mixing of the materials is essential for the production
of uniform concrete. The concrete mixing is normally done by mechanical
means called mixer, but sometimes, the mixing of concrete is done by hand.
 The machine mixing is more efficient and economical as compared to hand
mixing. The mixers are classified as follows:
(a) Tilting type mixer;
(b) Non-tilting type mixer; and
(c) Reversing mixer.
According to Indian standards (IS: 1791-1968), concrete mixers are
designated by a number representing its nominal mixed batch capacity in litres.
The following are the standard sizes of the three types:
Tilting (T) 85 T, 100 T. 140 T, 200 T
Non tilting (NT): 200 NT, 280 NT, 340 NT, 400 NT, 800 NT
Reversing (R): 200 R, 280 R, 340 R, 400 R
The concrete mixers are generally designed to run at a speed of 15 to 20
revolutions per minute. For proper mixing, about 25 to 30 revolutions are
required in a well designed mixer
3. Transporting. The concrete can be transported by a variety of methods and
equipments For small jobs, the concrete is transported in iron pans, wheel
barrows or two wheel carts by manual labour. For large and massive works,
the concrete is transported by buckets or by pumps which are operated
mechanically. The concrete is transported by pumps for concreting of tunnel
lining. The concrete can be lifted by pumps through a maximum vertical
distance of 50 m. In transportation of concrete by pumps, the water-cement
ratio should remain between 0.5 to 0.65. The slump should not be less than
50 mm and more than 80 mm. The number of bends in a pipe line should be
as small as possible.
For large concrete works, particularly for concrete to be placed at
ground level, trucks and dumpers or ordinary open steel body tipping lorries
can be used. The skip and hoist is one of the widely adopted methods for
transporting concrete vertically up for multistorey building construction
4. Placing. It is very important that the concrete must be placed in position in
a proper manner as early as possible within the initial setting time of
cement. The following precautions be taken while placing the concrete
(a) The concrete should not be thrown from a height of more than 1 m, to
prevent segregation
(b) The placement of concrete should be discontinued during rainy periods.
 (c) The placing of concrete should start width wise in reinforced cement
concrete slabs from one end
(d) The concrete should be laid continuously in order to prevent the
formation of irregular and unsightly lines.
5. Compaction. It is the process of consolidating concrete mix after placing it
in position. The main aim of consolidation of concrete is to eliminate air
bubbles and thus to give maximum density to concrete. The proper
consolidation ensures intimate contact between the concrete and the surface
of reinforcement. The compaction of concrete may be carried out either
manually or mechanically. The concrete is compacted manually by using
hand tools such as rammers, templates e tamping and spading rod. The
concrete is compacted mechanically by jets of compressed air or by
vibrators. The various types of vibrators used are as follows
(a) Internal or immersion or needle vibrator
(b) Surface or screed vibrator:
(c) Form or shutter or external vibrator,
(d) Table vibrator.
In case of large sections of mass concrete in structures, the concrete is
compacted by internal vibrator. The external or screed vibrator is used for
compacting plain concrete or one-way reinforced concrete floors.
When vibrators are used for compaction, the consistency of concrete
depends upon the type of mix, placing conditions and efficiency of vibrator.
The slump should not exceed 50 mm when acting concrete with vibrators. It
may be noted that when the slump of the concrete mix is less dan 50 mm,
the segregation will not take place while compacting it with vibrators. The
vibrator should also not touch the form surface.
6. Finishing. The finishing of concrete surfaces is an important process from
the engineering point of view. The results of finishing are good if slump is
about 50 mm. The finishing may be achieved by the following operations:
(a) Screeding. It is the levelling operation that removes humps and
hollows and give a true and uniform concrete surface.
(b) Floating It is the process of removing the irregularities from the
surface of concrete left after screeding.
(c) Trowelling It is final operation of finishing the concrete surface. It is
performed where smooth and dense surface is required.
 7. Curing. It is the process of hardening the concrete mixes by keeping its
surface moist for a certain period, in order to enable the concrete to gain
more strength. The object of curing is to prevent the loss of water by
evaporation; to reduce the shrinkage of concrete and to preserve the
properties of concrete. The concrete gains strength upto 100 percent after
the curing of 28 days. The proper curing of cement concrete is good for its
volume stability, strength and wear resistance.
Stripping of Forms
The removal of forms after the concrete has set is termed as stripping of forms.
The period upto which the forms must be left in place before they are stripped is called
stripping time. Under normal circumstances, the vertical sides of columns may be stripped
after 1 to 2 days and the beam soffits may be removed after 2 days.