2.

80 understand how organisms are able to respond to changes in their environment

plants and animals survive by responding to changes in their surroundings. there are
many different stimuli, such as temperature, which they respond to. This is controlled by
the nervous system.

2.81 understand that homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal

environment, and that body water content and body temperature are both examples of
homeostasis
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment. e.g. body water
content and body temperature

2.82 understand that a co-ordinated response requires a stimulus, a receptor and an

effector
STIMULI - change in the environment
RECEPTOR - cells that detect change and send nerve impulses to the spinal cord.
situated in sense organs (eyes, nose, skin, etc.)
EFFECTOR - cells that coordinate a response to the stimuli. found only in muscles and
glands
2.83 understand that plants respond to stimuli
plants respond to many different stimuli, e.g.
- direction of light, more photosynthesis
- gravity
- climbing plants have a sense of touch, so they can find things to climb
2.84 describe the geotropic and phototropic responses of roots and stems
STEMS:
- positive phototropism (grow in the direction of sunlight)
- negative geotropism (grow in the opposite direction of gravity)

ROOTS:
- negative phototropism (grow in the opposite direction of sunlight)
- positive geotropism (grow in the direction of sunlight)
2.85 understand the role of auxin in the phototropic response of stems
- plant hormones that control growth at the tips of stems
- when a shoot tip is exposed to light, auxins accumulate at the darker side of the tip
- this makes the cells on the darker side elongate, so the stem bends towards the light

2.86 describe how nervous and hormonal communication control responses and
understand the differences between the two systems
NERVOUS SYSTEM:
- electrical impulses
- short lived and quick responses
- localized responses
- temporary

ENDOCRINE:
- chemicals
- longer lasting and takes much longer to travel
- widespread responses
- permanent
2.87 understand that the central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord
and is linked to sense organs by nerves
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM:
- brain
- spinal cord

The CNS is linked to the sense organs by nerves, which are made up by neurons
(nerve cells). there are three types of neurons, sensory neurons, relay neurons, and
motor neurons

2.88 understand that stimulation of receptors in the sense organs sends electrical
impulses along nerves into and out of the central nervous system, resulting in rapid
responses
- when a receptor detects a stimulus, electrical impulses are sent to it . the central
nervous system along sensory neurons
- they then pass the impulse to the relay neurone, which pass it to a motor neuron
- then they pass to the effector (muscle)
- the effector reacts and responds to the change

This is known as a reflex arc. they don't involve the conscious part of the central
nervous system, so there's no time wasted while you make a decision. This is why they
are fast and highly effective.

2.89 understand the role of neurotransmitters at synapses

synapses are connections between two neurons.

When electrical impulses are at the end of a neuron, neurotransmitters are released.
They diffuse across the synapse and bind with receptor molecules of the second
neuron, which stimulates the electrical impulse to continue along the neuron.
2.90 describe the structure and functioning of a simple reflex arc illustrated by the
withdrawal of a finger from a hot object
- temperature receptors in the skin detect the hot object
- electrical impulses are passed to the CNS along the sensory neurons
- electrical impulses are passed through the relay neurons and then through the motor
neurons
- the impulse will then travel from the motor neuron to an effector (muscle)
- the muscle contracts and the hand moves away from the hot object.
2.91 describe the structure of the eye as a receptor

2.91 describe the function of the eye as a receptor

IRIS: ring of tissue, made of circular and radial muscles to control the amount of light
entering
LENS: refracts light to create image on retina
PUPIL: hole in the middle of the iris to let light through
CORNEA: first lens, part of the sclera
CONJUNCTIVA: membrane covering cornea, lines the eyelid
CILIARY MUSCLES: change shape of the lens
CHOROID: dark layer containing pigment cells, stops reflection
SCLERA: tough outer layer that protects the eye
RETINA: light sensitive (covered in light sensitive receptors called cones and rods),
changes light to electric energy
FOVEA: dip in retina, where there's a concentration of cone cells
BLIND SPOT: area with no rod/cone cells, where the optic nerve leaves the retina
OPTIC NERVE: carries impulses from the receptors to the brain
2.92 understand the function of the eye in focusing on near and distant objects
FAR:
- suspensory ligaments pulled tight,
- lens pulled flat
- ciliary muscles relax
- less light refraction

NEAR:
- suspensory ligaments slacken
- lens is more rounded
- ciliary muscles contract
- more light refraction

2.92 understand the function of the eye in responding to changes in light intensity
BRIGHT LIGHT:
- radial muscles relax
- circular muscles contract
- pupil is constricted (smaller)

DIM LIGHT:
- radial muscles contract
- circular muscles relax
- pupil is dilated (bigger)
2.93 describe the role of the skin in temperature regulation, with reference to sweating,
vasoconstriction and vasodilation
VASOCONSTRICTION:
- blood vessels constrict
- blood flows through deeper vessels
- less heat is radiated

- hair erector muscles contract to trap insulating layer of air

- shivering, increases rate of respiration, which transfers more energy to warm the body

VASODILATION:
- blood vessels dilate
- blood flows through surface vessels
- more heat is radiated

SWEATING:
- vasodilation occurs
- sweat glands produce sweat
- skin uses body heat to evaporate
- hair erector muscles relax so hair lies flat
2.94 understand the sources, roles and effects of the following hormones: adrenaline,
insulin, testosterone, progesterone and estrogen
ADRENALINE:
source - adrenal glands
role - readies body for 'fight or flight' response
effects - increase in heart rate and blood flow to muscles

INSULIN:
source - pancreas
role - controls blood sugar level
effects - stimulates the liver to turn glucose into glycogen

TESTOSTERONE:
source - testes
role - main male sex hormone
effects - promotes male secondary sexual characteristics

PROGESTERONE:
source - ovaries
role - supports pregnancy
effects - maintains lining of the uterus

OESTROGEN:
source - ovaries
role - main female sex hormone
effects - controls menstrual cycle and promotes female secondary sexual characteristics