Digital Literacy

DIGITAL LITERACY SOFTWARE ENGINERING—IUGET
COURSE CONTENT
CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF DIGITAL LITERACY:
INTRODUCTION.
I) UNIT ONE: COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS.
II) UNIT TWO: KEY APPLICATIONS
III) UNIT THREE: LIVING ONLINE
UNIT 1: COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS:
1. Hardware
2. Network and mobile devices
3. Software
4. Operating system
5. File management
6. Security and maintenance
7. Cloud computing
UNIT 2: KEY APPLICATIONS
1. Apps and applications
2. Using Microsoft word
3. Using Microsoft Excel
4. Using Microsoft Access
5. Using Microsoft PowerPoint
UNIT 3: LIVING ONLINE
1. Internet
2. Media literacy
3. Digital communication
4. Understanding emails
5. Contacts and calendars
6. Life online
INTRODUCTION
Digital literacy means having the skills you need to live, learn, and work in a society where communication and
access to information is increasingly through digital technologies like internet platforms, social media, and mobile
devices.
Digital literacy is also the ability to navigate various digital platforms and understand, assess and
communicate through them.
DIGITAL LITERACY----- 1
Developing your critical thinking skills (opens in new window) (PDF, 128 kB) is essential when you're confronted
with so much information in different formats – searching, sifting, evaluating, applying and producing information
all require you to think critically.
Communication is also a key aspect of digital literacy. When communicating in virtual environments, the ability
to clearly express your ideas, ask relevant questions, maintain respect, and build trust is just as important as when
communicating in person.
You'll also need practical skills in using technology to access, manage, manipulate and create information in an
ethical and sustainable way. It's a continual learning process because of constant new apps and updates, but your
future self will thank you if you keep your digital life in order!
Digital literacy is really important now, while you're a university student. It'll also be really important in the future
when you enter the professional world. In your workplace you'll be required to interact with people in digital
environments, use information in appropriate ways, and create new ideas and products collaboratively. Above all,
you'll need to maintain your digital identity and wellbeing as the digital landscape continues to change at a fast
pace.
Here you can learn more about the eight elements of digital capability as modelled.
ESSENTIAL ELEMEMTS OF DIGITAL LITERACY
1. Cultural: how to behave

Understanding the culture (history, language, customs and values etc) of the internet and digital environments by:
 Knowing how to behave online; from netiquette to protection and privacy.

 Recognizing the difference between personal and professional use.
 Understanding how internet culture is expressed and transmitted through phenomena such as memes,
emojis and animated gifs.
 Being able to seamlessly adjust to the different social environments of various applications.
 Understanding how online environments have changed the meaning of words such as expertise, publishing
and sharing.
2. Cognitive: how to do
The Cognitive element incorporates what we know of as computer literacy or IT skills with an understanding of the
key concepts.
 Having the ability to use a range of devices, software platforms and interfaces.
 Recognizing common features across digital tools such as navigation menus, settings, and profiles.
 Understanding concepts such as tagging, hashtags, and sharing.
3. Constructive: how to use
The Constructive element involves knowing what it means to ‗construct‘ something in a digital environment; how
content can be appropriated, reused and remixed.
 Knowing how to responsibly use and build upon someone else‘s work.
 Respecting copyright and understanding the concepts of remix and reuse.
 Being familiar with the various Creative Commons‘ licences.
4. Communicative: how to communicate

The Communicative element is about as the name suggests, how to communicate in digital environments. For
example:
 Knowing the purpose of various online tools and how they are different or similar to each other.
 Being familiar with the communication norms and expectations of various online tools.
 Understanding what identity, sharing, influence and trust mean in digital spaces.
5. Confident: how to belong

In order participate confidently online we need to feel as if we belong. This involves:
 Understanding and capitalizing upon the ways in which the online world differs from the offline world.
 Reflecting on one‘s learning in digital spaces.
 Being part of an online community.
6. Creative: how to make

The Creative element refers to creating new things which add value where the focus is more on the value created
than the act of creating something new. For example:
 Learning how to do things in new ways using online tools and environments.
 Imaginatively and critically thinking about how we create and share knowledge using digital technologies.
 Knowing how to curate digital content to create value for readers.
7. Critical: how to evaluate

The Critical element is probably the element that is most familiar to those of us working in the library and
information profession as it most closely relates to both information literacy and the research process.
 Using reasoning skills to question, analyze, scrutinize and evaluate digital content, tools and applications.
 Knowing how to search effectively.
 Being able to distinguish credible sources from less credible ones.
8. Civic: how to participate
The Civic element refers to individuals having the knowledge and ability to use digital environments to self-
organize; to be part of a movement bigger than themselves. For example:
 Understanding one‘s digital rights and responsibilities.

 Participating in social movements or the democratic process online.
 Preparing both ourselves and others to participate fully in society.
In the next blog post I‘ll attempt to match these elements to a core library competency.
What is a digital literacy program?

Digital literacy programs are educational sessions that help to train those with the inability to make use of digital
technologies and the Internet independently. They teach digital skills that can be taken away from the lessons, and
then applied to the user‘s life, making tasks easier, faster, and safer.
If you‘re planning on creating a digital literacy program of your own, you must first understand some of the basic
principles of digital literacy.
5 basic principles of digital literacy
1. Comprehension – a basic understanding of ‘what it is’ and ‘how to use it.’

This is the first step to understanding digital literacy is a basic comprehension of ideas, terms, and concepts. Many
people simply haven‘t had enough of an opportunity to access digital technologies, so they need an introduction to
basic digital technology principles. These include how computers work, how to access the Internet, and so on. These
concepts need to be taught before a deeper understanding of technology can be reached by the student.
2. Communication and social connection – talking to others.
One of the most basic reasons why people want to get online and use digital technology in the first place is to get
(or keep) in touch with others. Knowing about the different ways you can interact with others through digital
technology is key to expanding your digital literacy skills. From email services to social media networks to Internet-
based messaging and chat apps, there are tons of ways you can make digital connections.
However, knowing how to make online connections is just the tip of the iceberg. There are several other very
important skills that contribute to a full understanding of online communication. These include knowing how and
when it‘s socially appropriate to contact people online, the proper etiquette for dealing with people online, and how
to avoid paying fees unnecessarily for online communication services.
3. Interconnectivity – how devices work together.
Interconnectivity is something that is often skimmed over or ignored altogether in lessons on technology, yet it is
extremely important to teach. How do actions I complete on a website then translate to a corresponding app on my
mobile device? How can I access stored data on different devices? The answers to these kinds of questions are not
always apparent to everyone, especially those who haven‘t had access to their own personal devices.
4. Storage and retrieval – saving information and finding it later.
Even the most talented navigation of the Internet is quite meaningless if you don‘t know how to store information
or find it later. In addition, anything you create on your own needs to be saved and stored for a later date. You need
to know not only how to keep something, but also how to keep it secure and safe so that other people can‘t use it
without your permission.
5. Creation – making your own content and presenting it.
Once you‘ve mastered some basic digital skills and concepts, creating your own digital content is a vital next step.
This can be something as simple as writing a word processing document, or a more complex operation such as
building your own functioning website
UNIT ONE: COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

This involves:
 Hardware
 Network and mobile devices
 Software
 File management
 Security and maintenance
 Cloud computing.
LESSON 1: COMPUTER HARDWARE

Hardware" refers the physical or parts of the computer that can be seen and touched. Computer hardware is divided
into five main groups for better understanding:
 The input devices
 Processing device
 Storage or
 Output devices.
A. INPUT DEVICE
An input device is essentially a piece of hardware that sends data to a computer. Most input devices either interact
with or control the computer in some way. Inputting is the process of sending in data or information into the
computer. Inputs are sometimes referred to as the materials sent into the computer The most common input devices
are the mouse and the keyboard, but there are many others.
Some common types of input devices include; Keyboard, Mouse, Touchpad, Scanner, Digital Camera,
Microphone, Game playing devices (Joystick, Graphic Tablet. Touch Screen), Webcam, Light pen, Optical
Mark reader (OMR), Optical character Reader (OCR), Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR), Magnetic
Card Reader (MCR).
1. Keyboard
Keyboards are the most common type of input device. Before keyboards, interaction with computers was generally
carried out using punch cards and paper tape. Most English language keyboards use the QWERTY layout for the
alphabetic keys, which are surrounded by number, symbol, function, and other key types. By pressing the relevant
keys, a user can feed data and instructions to the computer.
Input devices like keyboards and mice allow users to
interact with their computers by selecting icons and
entering text and commands.
The different types of the keyboard are grouped into; Alphanumeric keys, function
keys, Directional keys, N umber pad, Indicator lights and modifier keys.
2. Mouse
A mouse interacts with a computer through a process known as "point and click." Essentially, when a user moves
the mouse on the mouse pad, the pointer moves in a corresponding direction on the computer's monitor screen. It
has seven functions such functions such as; clicking, double clicking, right clicking, selecting, pointing, drag
and drop and scrolling.
The concept of a computer mouse has its roots in the trackball, a related pointing device invented in 1946 that used
a "roller ball" to control a pointer. Most modern computer mice have two buttons for clicking and a wheel in the
middle for scrolling up and down documents and web pages.
3. Touchpad
Also known as a trackpad, a touchpad is a common substitute for a computer mouse.

It is essentially a specialized surface that can detect the movement of a user's finger
and use that information to direct a pointer and control a computer. Touchpads were
first introduced for laptops in the 1990s, and it's now rare to find a laptop without
one.
An image of a touch pad
4. Scanner
A scanner is an input device of which its main function is to resnaps or take a picture of the document, digitize the
information and present it on the computer screen. *Note: The instructions for this scanner are specific to a brand
and may vary for other brands and products.
The word "scanner" can be used in a number of different ways in the computer world. There are two main categories
of scanners;
a) Flatbed Scanners
Flatbed scanners are among the most common and affordable digital scanners on the market. They feature a flat
pane of glass on which the user places a photograph, document or book. Beneath the glass, the scanner includes a
light to illuminate the document and a digital sensor to photograph the document in great detail.
Most flatbed scanners include adjustable settings via software that allow users to make quick, low-quality scans or
more detailed scans that take longer to produce and result in larger digital files. Some flatbed scanners also include
scanning elements on both the glass surface and the underside of the lid, allowing them to scan both sides of a
double-sided document at the same time.
b) Photo Scanners
Photo scanners are part of a class of specialty scanners that create digital copies of printed photographs. While a
flatbed scanner will scan a photograph, photo scanners are built especially for this task. The devices usually employ
a sheet-fed system with a slot into which the user inserts a photo. Sheet-fed photo scanners are fast and produce
very high-quality images for digital editing or archiving.
Drum scanners are another option popular with photo and publishing professionals. The devices use a rotating drum
that holds the photo in place and spins it past a stationary sensor. Drum photo scanners are expensive but they can
produce images suitable for printing in magazines or on billboards.
Physically, flatbed scanners look like image scanners, but their way of functioning are the different. They all use
their surfaces to capture information into the computer memory.
An image of a surface scanner
c) Barcode or handheld scanner

Barcode reader (or barcode scanner) is an optical scanner that can read printed barcodes, decode
the data contained in the barcode and send the data to a computer. Like a flatbed scanner, it consists
of a light source, a lens and a light sensor translating for optical impulses into electrical signals.
Additionally, nearly all barcode readers contain decoder circuitry that can analyze the barcode's
image data provided by the sensor and sending the barcode's content to the scanner's output port.
A Barcode, is a printed series of parallel bars or lines of varying width that is used for entering data into a computer
system. The bars are typically black on a white background, and their width and quantity vary according to
application.
5. Digital Camera
Digital cameras are used to capture photographs and videos independently. Later, these photo and video files can
be transferred to a computer by connecting the camera directly with a cable, removing the memory card and slotting
it into the computer, or through wireless data transfer methods such as Bluetooth. Once the photos are on the
computer, they can be saved, edited, emailed, or printed.
6. Microphone
Microphones are input devices that allow users to record, save, and transmit audio using a computer.
A microphone captures audio and sends it to a computer where it is converted to a digital format. Once the audio
has been digitized, it can be played back, copied, edited, uploaded, or emailed. Microphones can also be used to
record audio or to relay sounds live as part of a video chat or audio stream.
7. Game controller input devices (Joystick, trackball, game pad)

These devices are used mostly in playing games.
a) Joystick
Joysticks are commonly used to control characters and vehicles in computer video games.
Essentially, a joystick is a handle that pivots on a base and sends its angle or direction to the
computer as data. Many video gaming joysticks feature triggers and buttons that can be
pressed to use weapons or projectiles in games.
b) Gamepad
A gamepad, game controller, joypad, or video game controller is a peripheral
device designed to connect to a computer or console gaming system. It has multiple
buttons and may have one or two mini joysticks. A gamepad is used for playing video
games of many types, including sports, first-person shooters, role-playing, and others.
The picture shows an example of the Xbox 360 controller for Windows and a popular
gamepad for the computer and consoles.
c) Trackball
A small ball that is set in a holder and can be rotated by hand to move a cursor on a computer screen.
9. Graphic Tablet
Also known as digitizers, graphic tablets are input devices used for converting hand-
drawn artwork into digital images. The user draws with a stylus on a special flat surface
as if they were drawing on a piece of paper. The drawing appears on the computer screen
and can be saved, edited, or printed.
While scanners can only create digital images from drawings, graphic tablets offer greater control and versatility for artists
by allowing them to see their drawing appear live on their monitor as they create it.
Touch screens provide the same functionality as a mouse or trackpad by allowing users to make selections and commands
directly through a device's display screen.
10. A light pen

A light pen is a light-sensitive computer input device, basically a stylus, that is used to
select text, draw pictures and interact with user interface elements on a computer
screen or monitor. It is also used to detect the direction of reflection of light.
An image of a light pen
11. Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

Optical mark reader (OMR) Optical Mark reading (OMR) is a method of entering data
into a computer system. Optical Mark Readers reads pencil or pen marks made in pre-
defined positions on paper forms as responses to questions or tick list prompts.
They are mostly used at times in marking large repetitive exams such as MCQ exam.
11) Optical Character Reader (OCR)

Optical character recognition or optical character reader (OCR) is
the electronic or mechanical conversion of images of typed, handwritten or printed
text into machine-encoded text, whether from a scanned document, a photo of a
document, a scene-photo (for example the text on signs and billboards in a
landscape photo) or from subtitle text superimposed on an image (for example: from
a television broadcast).
12) Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR)

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) is a technique that enables special
characters printed in magnetic ink to be read and input rapidly to a computer. When a
document that contains this ink needs to be read, it passes through a machine, which
magnetizes the ink and then translates the magnetic information into characters. MICR
is used to verify the legitimacy or originality of paper documents, especially checks.
MICR is used extensively in banking because magnetic-ink characters are difficult to forge and are therefore
ideal for marking and identifying cheques.
13) Magnetic Card Reader (MCR)

A magnetic stripe reader, also called a magnetic stripe reader, is a hardware device that reads
the information encoded in the magnetic stripe located on the back of a plastic badge. ...
The writing process, called flux reversal, causes a change in the magnetic field that can be
detected by the magnetic stripe reader.
Above are some commonly used input devices amongst many.
B) PROCESSING DEVICE
A processor (CPU) is the logic circuitry that responds to and processes the basic instructions that drive a computer.
The CPU is seen as the main and most crucial integrated circuitry (IC) chip in a computer, as it is responsible for
interpreting most of computers commands. CPUs will perform most basic arithmetic, logic and I/O operations, as
well as allocate commands for other chips and components.
The term processor is used interchangeably with the term central processing unit (CPU), although strictly
speaking, the CPU is not the only processor in a computer. The GPU (graphics processing unit) is the most notable
example, but the hard drive and other devices within a computer also perform some processing independently.
Nevertheless, the term processor is generally understood to mean the CPU.
Processors can be found in PCs, smartphones, tablets and other computers. The two main competitors in the
processor market are Intel and AMD.
The basic elements of a processor
The basic elements of a processor include:
A) The arithmetic logic unit (ALU);

This the part of the CPU which performs the following functions:
1) It carries out arithmetic and logic operations the operands in instructions.
2) The ALU performs simple addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and logic operations, such as OR
and AND gate. The memory stores the program‘s instructions and data. The control unit fetches data and
instructions from memory.
3) It takes care all configuration settings of the computer system.
B) The Control Unit (CU):

It is the part of the CPU that performs the following functions:
1) The control unit controls and monitors communications between the hardware attached to the
computer.
2) It controls the input and output of data, checks that signals have been delivered successfully, and
makes sure that data goes to the correct place at the correct time.
3) It controls the overall operations of the computer.
C) Registers:
It holds instructions and other data temporally during processing. Registers supply operands to the ALU and
store the results of operations.
CPU Operations
The four primary functions of a processor are fetch, decode, execute and write back.
 Fetch- is the operation which receives instructions from program memory from a systems RAM.
 Decode- is where the instruction is converted to understand which other parts of the CPU are needed to continue
the operation. This is performed by the instruction decoder
 Execute- is where the operation is performed. Each part of the CPU that is needed is activated to carry out the
instructions.
CPU characteristics and their impact on performance

Introduction
Not all CPUs are equal! There are a number of reasons for this.
Materials
Just like cars or phones or anything else you buy, CPUs are made up of materials and some materials have a better
quality than others. The quality of materials that make up a processor will affect the reliability, speed and
performance of a CPU. A component in a CPU that is very slow and poorly made will slow down the overall
performance of the CPU.
Clock speed
CPUs have a clock inside them, ticking away. Instructions are carried out each time a tick of the clock happens.
Some instructions only need one clock tick whereas others will need more than one. The faster the clock, the more
instructions you can carry out in any second. A typical clock these days might be 4 Gigahertz or 4 billion ticks a
second, for example.
Cache
Although CPUs fetch instructions from RAM, there is another place in can get instructions from, called 'cache'.
Cache is just like RAM but much faster to read from and write to compared to RAM. The computer cleverly puts
data into cache that it needs again and again. It is a lot quicker for the CPU to get data from cache than RAM. The
more cache a computer has, the better the CPU will perform.
Cores
A CPU traditionally had one 'core' but processors these days might be dual-core or quad-core, for example. A core
is actually a processor with its own cache. So a dual-core CPU has not one but two processors. A quad core CPU
has four processors. Two brains (or four brains) are better than one! Each brain can be working on different parts
of a program at the same time and so this speeds up the overall CPU's performance.
Word size
Processors work on instructions and data, which it has fetched from RAM. These instructions and data are in binary.
If a processor can work on this number: 0111 0011 1111 1111 then it is said to be a 16 bit processor. But if a
processor can work on 32 bits (a 32bit processor) in one go or even on 64 bits (a 64 bit processor) in one go then it
can work on more data and more instructions for every tick of the CPU's clock. The word size simply refers to the
number of a bits a CPU can work on in one go. The bigger the word size, the better the CPU's performance will
be.
Components and how CPUs work

The main components of a CPU are the ALU, registers and control unit. The basic functions of the ALU and register
are labeled in the above ―basic elements of a processor section.‖ The control unit is what operates the fetching and
execution of instructions.
The processor in a personal computer or embedded in small devices is often called a microprocessor. That term
means that the processor's elements are contained in a single IC chip. Some computers will operate using a multi-
core processor—a chip containing more than one CPU. A CPU is typically a small device with pins on it facing
down in a motherboard. CPUs can also be attached to a motherboard with a heat sink and a fan to dissipate heat.
Types of processors
Most processors today are multi-core, which means that the IC contains two or more processors for enhanced
performance, reduced power consumption and more efficient simultaneous processing of multiple tasks
like parallel processing for example. Multi-core set-ups are similar to having multiple, separate processors
installed in the same computer, but because the processors are actually plugged into the same socket, the connection
between them is faster.
Most computers may have up to two-four cores; however, this number can increase up to 12 cores, for example. If
a CPU can only process a single set of instructions at one time, then it is considered as a single-core processor. If
a CPU can process two sets of instructions at a time it is called a dual-core processor; four sets would be considered
a quad-core processor. The more cores, the more instructions at a time a computer can handle.
Some processors use multi-threading, which uses virtualized processor cores. Virtualized processor cores are called
vCPUs. These are not as powerful as physical cores but can be used to improve performance in virtual machines
(VMs). However, adding unnecessary vCPUs can hurt consolidation ratios, so there should be about four-six vCPUs
per physical core.
When data is processed to information by the CPU, it can either be saved in the storage devices by the user through
output devices, or outputted from the computer through output devices.
C) STORAGE DEVICES
Alternatively referred to as digital storage, storage, storage media, or storage medium, a storage device is
any hardware capable of holding information either temporarily or permanently.
There are two types of storage devices used with computers: a primary storage device, such as RAM, for example
and a secondary storage device, such as a hard drive for example. Secondary storage can be removable, internal,
or external.
I. PRMARY STORAGE DEVICES

They are the part of the computer hardware typically located inside the computer of which some store information
temporarily, while others permanently. Primary storage is often referred to as ―memory” and is classified as either
volatile or non-volatile.
Volatile memory such as RAM loses data as soon as the device loses power if not carefully saved.
The flash memory in solid-state drives (SSDs) or the ROM is non-volatile because the data remains in storage
even after you have turned it off. That lets some applications recover unsaved information in the event of a crash.
Primary storage (also known as main memory) is the component of the computer that
holds data, programs and instructions that are currently in use.
Primary storage is located on the motherboard. As a result, data can be read from and written to primary storage
extremely quickly. This gives the processor fast access to the data and instructions that the primary storage holds.
The two main types of primary storage are ROM, which is non-volatile, and RAM, which is volatile. Non-volatile
memory keeps its contents even when the computer is switched off. Volatile memory loses its contents when power
is lost.
Primary storage is comparatively limited in size, especially when compared with secondary storage. In a modern
personal computer,
Primary storage is a key component of a computer system that enables it to function. Primary storage includes
Random Access Memory (RAM), Read Only Memory (ROM), cache memory and the register memory. Each
of these have different uses within the computer.
Types of primary storage devices

There are four types of primary storage:
 Read Only Memory (ROM)
 Random Access Memory (RAM)
 Cache memory
 The Register Memo
1. Random Access Memory (RAM)

Random Access Memory (RAM) is volatile primary storage. Once the computer is switched off
the data and instructions held in RAM are lost if not saved. RAM is given the term ‗Random Access‘ because data
and instructions can be stored and accessed from any location within the memory).
RAM is used to hold data and information that are currently in use. It is temporal primary storage device.
The RAM is also in charge of the speed of the computer system.
RAM can be read from and written to.
The contents of RAM can be changed at any time by overwriting it with other data and instructions. For example,
a user might close one document and open another or run a different program.
The more RAM a computer has, the more data and program instructions it can hold simultaneously. RAM can also
be upgraded easily, unlike other types of primary storage.
it is the main types of primary storage devices, stores information that is being processed and offload at a very fast
rate to the motherboard of the computer.
Then the information is used for GUI (Graphic User Interface), which allows the user to access the information with
the mouse, keyboard, monitor, etc.
There are three categories of RAM:

 DRAM (Dynamic RAM) – This is the cheapest and most widely used type of memory. But a little bit
slower than other memory.
 SRAM (Static RAM) – This is a more expensive but faster memory Than DRAM.
 MRAM (Magnetic RAM) – This is Better than both other memories but it also the most expensive.
2. Read Only memory (ROM)

Read Only Memory (ROM) is non-volatile primary storage. It keeps its contents when the computer is turned off.
So, it is a permanent primary storage device.
ROM can be read from but not written to.
ROM can be read from but not written to, hence the term read only. This makes ROM ideal for
storing instructions and data that are needed for the computer to run. These instructions and data are usually
programmed by the computer's manufacturer and cannot be overwritten.
The advantage of this memory is that there are some complex functions like Translators and BIOS that are used
here and even repeatedly
The BIOS (Basic Input Output System) is an example of a program that is installed in the ROM. The BIOS runs
as soon as the computer is switched on. It checks that the hardware is functioning correctly then loads the computer's
operating system. Because the BIOS is always needed it is stored in ROM.
These functions are permanently stored in the ROM and these instructions are hard-wired in ROM so the execution
is very fast.
There are three types of ROM:

 PROM (Programmable Read-only Memory) -Memory is programmable but only once. The advantage
of this memory is to store anything without any data loss.
 EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-only memory) – This type of memory can be erased and
reprogrammed many times.
 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable read-only memory) – They are very fast, but it can
only be erased and rewritten several times. this is more expensive than Disk drives.
3. Cache memory
Cache memory is a type of high-speed volatile random access memory (RAM) which is built into the processor. Its
high speed helps the RAM when its own speed is slow to catch up with the speed of the CPU.
Data can be transferred to and from cache memory more quickly than from RAM. As a result, cache memory is
used to temporarily hold data and instructions that the processor is likely to reuse. This allows for faster processing
as the processor does not have to wait for the data and instructions to be fetched from RAM.
The more cache memory a computer has, the faster it runs. However, because of its high-speed performance, cache
memory is more expensive to build than RAM. Therefore, cache memory tends to be very small in size.
To get around this issue, different types of cache exist - Level 1 (L1) cache and Level 2 (L2) cache.
 L1 cache has extremely fast transfer rates, but is very small in size. The processor uses L1 cache to hold the most
frequently used instructions and data.
 L2 cache is bigger in capacity than L1 cache, but slower in speed. It is used to hold data and instructions that are
needed less frequently.
4. Register Memory
The Bits in the computer are known as register memory. The processor register is the smallest Types of primary
storage services which holds the processor`s data temporally during processing.
Typically, it holds around 32 to 64 Bits which is good enough for doing regular tasks on the computer. The
processors are the Fastest primary storage device as well.
II. SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES
Secondary storage devices are non-volatile, long-term storage solid state storage devices.
It is also referred to as any non-volatile storage device that is external to the computer except the internal hard disk.
It can be any storage device beyond the primary storage that enables permanent data storage.
A secondary storage device is also known as an auxiliary storage device, backup storage device, tier 2 storage,
or external storage or multimedia storage device.
Some are magnetic storage devices like the hard disk for example, optical storage devices like the CD-ROM for
example etc.
There are many types of secondary storage devices. each with their own benefits and drawbacks.
Below are explanations about different storage devices.
Types of secondary storage devices: Hard Disk Drive (HDD), Solid State Drive, CD, DVD and Blu-Ray Discs,
DVD-RAM, USB Flash Memory etc.
1. Hard Disk Drive (HDD)

Hard disk drives are non-volatile magnetic storage devices capable of remembering vast
amounts of data.
An electromagnet in the read/write head charges the disk‘s surface with either a positive or
negative charge, this is how binary 1 or 0 is represented.
The read/write head is then capable of detecting the magnetic charges left on the disk‘s surface,
this is how data is read.
The disk surface is divided into concentric circles (tracks) and sectors (wedges). Dividing the surface in this
way provides physical addresses to remember where data is saved.
A circuit board carefully co-ordinates the rotating disk and swinging actuator arm to allow the read/write head to
access any location very quickly.
Typical HDD capacities are measured in Gigabytes (GB) and Terabytes (TB).
They can be installed inside a computer or purchased in a portable (external) format.
Some advantages of a hard disk and its drive include: Capable of holding vast amounts of data at affordable
prices, fast read and write speeds, reliable technology, Relatively small in size.
Drawbacks of hard disk drives include: Due to the nature of its moving parts, they will eventually wear and
break, although very fast, waiting for the moving parts means it will never perform as fast as solid state drives,
more fragile and less robust than a solid state drive, higher power consumption than a SSD, Some noise is created
by the moving parts
2. Solid State Drive (SSD)

Solid state drives are non-volatile storage devices capable of holding large amounts
of data.
They use NAND flash memories (millions of transistors wired in a series on a circuit
board), giving them the advantage of having no mechanical moving parts and
therefore immediate access to the data.
Solid state drives perform faster than traditional hard disk drives, however they are significantly more expensive.
This expense means that typical capacities are usually measured in Gigabytes (GB).
They can be installed inside a computer or purchased in a portable (external) format.
Until we reach a point where large capacity SSDs are affordable, a compromise is to run two disk drives inside a
computer. An SSD as the primary drive for your important programs and operating system, and a traditional HDD
to store music, documents and pictures (which don‘t need the faster access times).
The lack of moving parts in an SSD makes it very robust and reliable, ideal for a portable device.
Typical applications for solid state drives include: Smartphones, tablet computers, high-end laptops, two drive
desktop solutions, and portable drives are sometimes used in HD video cameras
Benefits of solid state drives include: Extremely fast read/write speeds, small in physical size and very light, ideal
for portable devices, no moving parts to wear, fail or get damaged – ideal for making portable computers and devices
more reliable and durable. uses less power than a HDD, increasing battery life time, very quiet, generates less heat
Drawbacks of solid state drives include: Expensive to buy (per GB), limited in capacity due to the expense,
limited amount of writes etc.
3. What are optical storage discs?

CD, DVD and Blu-Ray drives are optical storage devices.
Binary data is stored as changes to the texture of the disc‘s surface, sometimes thought
of as microscopic pits and bumps.
These ‗bumps‘ are located on a continuous spiral track, starting at the center of the disc.
Whilst the disc is rotating at a constant speed, a laser is pointed at the spiral track of ‗bumps‘.
The laser will reflect/bounce off the disc surface in different directions depending upon whether a 1 or 0 has been
read.
Disc capacities
In the pursuit of larger optical storage capacities, DVDs were created, followed by Blu-Ray.
CD DVD Blu-Ray
700 MB 4.7 GB 25 GB – 128 GB
Typical applications for optical media

 CD – Audio and small amounts of data, DVD – Standard definition movies and data, Blu-Ray – HD video
and large amounts of data.
a. DVD
Despite being the same physical size, a DVD can hold more data than a CD.
To achieve this, a more tightly packed spiral track is used to store the data on the disc.
To accurately access the smaller ‗bumps‘, a finer red laser is used in a DVD drive than that found in a standard CD
drive.
To increase capacity further, DVDs are also capable of dual layering.
b. Blu-Ray
Blu-Ray technology squashes even more data into the same size disc as a CD or DVD.
The spiral data tracks on a Blu-Ray disc are so small a special blue (violet) laser has to be used to read the ‗bumps‘.
Like a DVD, Blu-Ray discs are capable of storing data on multiple layers.
c. CD-R – Alternatively referred to as CD-Wo(write-once) or WORM (write once read many) drives. CD-R is
short for CD-Recordable and is a writable disc and drive that is capable of having information to the disc once
and then having that disc read many times after that.
Recordable Optical Media

CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, Blu-Ray-ROM
Read only – the data is permanently written to the disc at the point of manufacture.
CD-R, DVD-R, BD-R
Recordable – blank discs that can be burnt (written to) once.
CD-RW, DVD-RW, BD-RE
Re-writable – blank discs that can be burnt (written to) over and over again (can be erased and reused many times).
DVD-RAM
What is DVD-RAM?
DVD-RAM is an optical media storage device.
It differs from a traditional DVD in that data is stored in concentric tracks (like a HDD) which allows read and
write operations to be carried out at the same time.
This means, for example, that when used in a personal video recorder you can record one television program whilst
watching a recording of another. This allows handy features such as ‗time slip‘ to be possible.
Typical applications for DVD-RAM include: Personal and digital video recorders, high-end CCTV.
Benefits of DVD-RAM include; Read and write at the same time, can be rewritten to many more times than a
traditional DVD-RW, has write-protect tabs to prevent accidental deletion when used in an optional cartridge, data
is retained for an estimated 30 years. This long life is great for archiving data, reliable writing of discs because
the verification done by the hardware, not by software.
Drawbacks of DVD-RAM include; Disc speeds higher than 5x are less common, less compatibility than DVD-
RW.
4. USB Flash (Universal Versatile Bus) Memory

Flash are non-volatile solid state storage devices which use NAND flash memories to
store data (millions of transistors).
USB refers to the USB connection that allows users to plug the device into the USB
port of a computer.
Other types of flash storage include the memory cards used in digital cameras.
Flash memory comes in a variety of capacities to suit most budgets and requirements.
Typical applications for flash memory include: USB memory sticks – saving and transferring documents etc.,
Memory cards in digital cameras.
Benefits of flash memory include: Portable, small and lightweight, Durability, flash has no moving parts to
damage, range of capacities available, fast speeds, with no moving parts of boot up time.
Drawbacks of flash memory include: Limited (but huge) number of write cycles possible, really high capacities
are uncommon, in relative terms, an expensive storage option compared to a HDD.
Other types of secondary storages devices include:
5. The Floppy disk or diskette

It is a flexible removable magnetic disk (typically encased in a hard plastic shell) for storing data.
A standard floppy disk has a storage capacity of 1.44MB which is extremely very small for modern
storage devices.it was originally created to be transferring files from one computer to another. It
can be interpreted as useless in the modern market.
Thus, its storage capacity and its high sensitivity to viruses has let to its disappearance in the modern
market. And far better modern secondary storage devices such as the USB flash, memory cards etc.
have come up that can play far better functions than that.
6. Memory card etc

Modes of data storage by different storage devices
Today, there are three types of media used to store computer data: magnetic storage, optical storage, and solid-
state storage. Below is a full list of all computer storage used over the evolution of the computer.
a. Magnetic storage devices
This is the first types of secondary storage devices, by his name, you can easily understand that this is a type of
magnetic device who use magnetic methods to store data these are also called non- volatile storage devices, these
storage devices are fit in budget but they are slow in nature in front of others. Today, magnetic storage is one of
the most common types of storage used with computers. This technology is found mostly on extremely large HDDs
or hybrid hard drives. They include: Floppy diskette, Hard drive, memory card, Magnetic strip, Super Disk,
Tape cassette and Zip diskette,
b. Optical storage devices
Another common type of storage is optical storage, which uses lasers and lights as its method of reading and
writing data. They include: Blu-ray disc, CD-ROM disc and CD-R and CD-RW disc.
c. Solid-state storage devices

Solid-state storage (flash memory) has replaced most magnetic and optical media as it becomes cheaper because
it's the more efficient and reliable solution. They include: USB flash drive, jump drive, or thumb drive., CF
(CompactFlash), mjM.2, Memory card, MMC, NVMe, SDHC Card, Smart Media Card, Sony Memory Stick,
SD card, SSD and xD-Picture Card.
d. Online and cloud

Storing data online and in cloud storage is becoming popular as people need to access their data from more than
one device. They include: Cloud storage and Network media
e. Paper storage
Early computers had no method of using any of the technologies above for storing information and had to rely on
paper. Today, these forms of storage are rarely used or found. In the picture is an example of a woman entering data
to a punch card using a punch card machine. They include: OMR and Punch card
Note
A hard copy is considered a form of paper storage, although it cannot be easily used to input data back into a
computer without the aid of OCR.
IV. OUTPUT DEVICES

An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment which converts information into a human-
readable form. It can be text, graphics, tactile, audio, and video. Examples include monitors, printers, speakers,
headphones, projectors, GPS devices, sound cards, video cards, optical mark readers, and braille readers.
Some of the output devices are Visual Display Units (VDU) i.e. a Monitor, Printer graphic Output
devices,[1] Plotters, Speakers etc. A new type of Output device is being developed these days, known as Speech
synthesizer, a mechanism attached to the computer which produces verbal output sounding almost like human
speeches.
A computer can still function without an output device. However, without an output device, there‘s no way to
determine what the computer is doing. There is no indicator of errors, nor of the need for additional input. For
example, if you detach your monitor from your computer, the computer will still function, but it‘s not going to be
very helpful.
Types of output devices

I. Monitors
A display device is the most common form of output device. It presents output visually on computer screen. The
output appears temporarily on the screen and can easily altered or erased, it is sometimes referred to as soft copy
also. The display device for a desktop PC is called monitor.
With all-in-one PCs, notebook computers, hand held PCs and other devices; the term display screen is used for the
display device. The display devices are also used in home entertainment systems, mobile systems, cameras and
video games.
Display devices form images by lighting up the proper configurations of pixels. In short the display devices are
organized in the form of Pixels, & pixels are arranged in the form of Matrix,[3] a 2-dimensional matrix which is
organized as rows & columns.
categories of display (monitor)
There are 2 categories of monitors, they are Monochrome & Colored Monitors. Monochrome monitors actually
display two colors, one for the foreground and one for the background. The colors can be black and white,
green and black, or amber and black. The Colored Monitor is a display device capable of displaying many
colors. The Color monitors can display anywhere from 16 to over 1 million different colors.
Monochrome display.
Types of Monitors
There are several types of monitors; some are as follows:
1. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) Monitors

It is a technology used in early monitors. It uses a beam of electrons to create an image on the screen. It comprises
the guns that fire a beam of electrons inside the screen. The electron beams repeatedly hit the surface of the screen.
These guns are responsible for generating RGB (Red, Green, Blue) colors, and more other colors can be generated
with the help of combining these three colors. Today's Flat Panel Monitors replace the CRT monitors.
The CRT display is made up of pixels generated by phosphorescent dots. The sharpness and clarity of the image
depends upon the number and size of the pixels. Cathode-ray tubes work like vacuum tubes which produce images
in the form of video signals. The front surface of the screen is called face plate, which is made up of fiber optics
and displays images. There are three electron beams red, green and blue that beats the screen. So the colours which
you see on the screen are the blends of these three beams. Early TVs are an example of CRT display. The
disadvantage of CRT displays is that they were large in size and need high power.
2. Flat-Panel Display Monitor

These days flat-panel display technology is consolidating. They have reduced volume, weight and power
requirement in comparison to the CRT. They use liquid crystals or plasma to produce output. Light passes through
the liquid crystals to generate pixels. Calculators, video games, monitors, laptops and graphics display, all are
current uses of flat-panel displays that can be hanged on walls or wear on your wrists.
3. LCD Monitor
The LCD Monitor is a flat panel screen that is smart in size and light weight. It consists of liquid crystal technology
which is used in the display of laptops, tablets, smart phones, etc. the LCD screen forms two layers of polarized
glass. Old LCDs had passive-matrix screens, while modern LCDs use active-matrix technology.
4. LED Monitor
The LED Monitor is an upgrade and improved version of LCD monitor. They are also flat-panel display and uses
liquid crystal technology having multiple LED panels. The main difference between LCD and LED is the source
of light to backlight the display. Modern LED displays produce more brilliance and greater
light intensity but also consume less power.
Comparison between LCD and LED monitors:
Resolution LCD Monitors Led

1920 x 1080 Monitors
Brightness 250 cd / m2 250 cd / m2
Energy Star No Yes
Certified
Weight 2.4 kg 2.4 kg
Contrast Ratio 12,000,000: 1 100,000,000:
1
5. Plasma Monitor
The plasma monitor is also a flat panel display, which uses plasma display technology. It contains small tiny cells
between two glass panels. These cells are mixture of noble gasses and a small amount of mercury. When
electromotive force is applied, the gas turns into a plasma and releases ultraviolet light that creates images on the
screen. Plasma monitors offer a unique and excellent viewing experience.
II. Printer
Printer is another output device found in homes or workplace to collect softcopy information from the computer
and reproduce it on pieces of papers in the form of hard copy.
The computer conveys the processed data to the printer, which then physically print the pictures and content on
the paper.
Printers are divided into two categories:
Impact printers and non-impact printers.
A. Impact printers
An impact printer is a printing device in which a printing element directly strikes a surface.
There different types of impact printers. Impact printers these Printers use an Electro-mechanical mechanism. An
impact printer refers to all those printers whose printing heads touch the paper. His mechanism uses hammers or
pins to strike against a ribbon and paper to print the text or image.
Types of impact printers:

1. Dot Matrix Printer
Dot Matrix printer is one of the most popular printer in the market, because of its easy of printing and economical
price. This is an impact printer, which prints characters and images in pattern of dots. Dot matrix printers utilize a
print head which consists of Matrix of pins to form a character, that‘s why it is called Dot Matrix printer. These
printers are inexpensive, poor in quality and slow in speed.
Advantages of a dot matrix printer

 Dot matrix printer uses continuous paper rather than requiring individual sheet, dot matrix printer is
fast and cheap, dot matrix printer can print charts and graphics.
Disadvantages of a dot matrix printer
 Dot matrix printers are noisy. dot matrix printers do not produce high quality.
2. Daisy-Wheel printers
Also known as Letter Quality Printer. These printers use a print wheel font, which is termed as daisy wheel.
Each petal or hammer of Daisy-Wheel has a character raised on it. A motor spins the wheel at a rapid rate.
When the desired character spins to the correct position, a print hammer strikes it to produce the output.
The speed of these Daisy-Wheel Printers normally ranged between 10-75 characters per second. The noise
levels of these printers are high. These printers are most commonly used in electronic typewriter.
Advantages of a Daisy-Wheel Printer

 Can print letter quality characters, gives fine quality output.
Disadvantages of a Daisy-Wheel Printer
 Printing speed is very slow, noisy, cannot print Graphics, they are very costly.
3. Line Printers
The character-at-a-time printers are too slow in a business where large quantities of material are printed; therefore,
these users need line-at-a-time printers.
Line printers, or line-at-a-time printers, use special devices that can print a whole line at once; usually, they can
print the range from 1,200 to 6,000 lines per minute.
There two types of line printers.
a) Drum Printer:
it is a type of line printer that consists of a cylindrical drum. Asset of characters are embossed on its
surface t print. A set of print hammers is associated with each character. As the drum rotates, the hammer
waits for desired character and is activated when character appear in front of hammer. The hammer is
placed behind the paper. There hammers strike the paper along with ribbon (ribbon is placed between
hammer and drum) against the embossed character on the surface one revolution of drum is needed to
print a line. As the line is printed the paper moves upward to print next line.
b) Chain Printer
A chain containing characters is used for printing. The chain knows as print chain rotates very rapidly. With each
link of the chain is character font. Magnetically driven hammers are there in each print position and all the
characters which are to be printed are received by the printer through processor. When the desired character comes
in the print position the hammers strike the ribbon and paper against the character thus it prints one line at a time.
It is very noisy and its speed ranges from 400-24000 line per minute (LPM).
B. Non-impact printers
Non-impact printers use a method to place ink or another substance on the paper without physically touching it.
They can spray ink, through vapour etc. Non-impact printers include inkjet printers, laser printers, snapshot
printers, plotters, wide-format printers, and thermal printers. These printer uses ink and special electrical
machines for producing outputs. Non – impact printers are all those printers whose printing heads do not touch
paper. A non-impact printer forms characters and image on a piece of paper without actually striking the paper.
An impact printer has mechanisms resembling those of a typewriter. It forms characters or images by striking a
mechanism such as a print hammer or wheel against an inked ribbon, leaving an image on paper. Impact
printers are dying out; however, you may still come in contact with a dot-matrix printer. A dot-matrix printer
contains a print head of small pins that strike an inked ribbon, forming characters or images. Print heads are
available with 9, 18, or 24 pins; the 24-pin head offers the best print quality.
Types of Non-impact printers

1. Ink Jet Printer
Inkjet printer is non-impact character printer. It uses the dot matrix approach to print to print text and graphics.
However, the dots are formed by tiny droplets of ink. They print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto
paper. For spraying drops nozzles are used. Special type of ink having high iron content is used for forming drops.
Droplets of ink are electrically charged after leaving a nozzle when it passes through a valve. The droplets are then
guided to the proper position on the paper by electrically charged horizontally and vertically deflection plates.
These printers can print 40-300 CPS (character/sec.) and can produce multi-color printouts.
Advantages of Ink Jet Printers

 High quality text and graphics, produces no noise,
Disadvantages of Ink Jet Printers
 Its speed is slow than other impact printer and no- impact printers, its image quality is also lower than other printer
[low dpi (dot per inch) bout 180 dpi], ink cartridge is costly.
2. Laser Printer
This is non-impact printer that uses laser lights to produce the dots to form the characters for printing. They utilize
toner drums that roll through magnetized pigment and transfer the pigment onto a paper. Laser printers use
powdered toner instead of liquid ink and produce high quality objects in very high speed. They are expensive and
cannot be used for multiple copies of printing in single session.
Advantages of Laser Printers

 Very high speed, low noise level, low maintenance requirement, very high quality output on ordinary paper, good
graphics quality (300 dpi to 1200 dpi) and excellent graphics capabilities, supports many fonts and different
character size, color printing possible.
Disadvantages of Laser Printers
 Very Expensive, require periodic maintenance.
3) Thermal Printer
The printer that produces images by pushing electrically heated pins against special heat – sensitive paper, is
known as thermal printer.
This type of printer uses a special heat sensitive paper. These papers have a special heat sensitive coating. When
a spot on the special paper is heated, it becomes dark. A character is printed with a matrix of dots. The heating
element is heated by electric current. We can also say the heat sensitive paper ass chemically treated paper. In this
type of printer neither the ink nor the ribbon in involved.
To print a character the printing head is moved first to the correct character position. Then the heating elements
of desired character are turned on. After a short time, they are turned off. There after the print head is moved to
the next character. Such printers have a speed of about 200 characters per second.
Advantages of Thermal Printers
 Low noise, can produce high quality color output.
Disadvantages of Thermal Printers
 Expensive, slow Speed, required special paper.
III. Speaker
Speakers are most popular and portable output device used with computers to generate sounds. They receive
signals from the computer‘s sound card and produce audio in the form of analog sound waves that are audible to
the human hear.
Laptops and monitors often have built-in speakers. Sound cards are necessary in the computers for speakers to
function. Modern speakers come in range from two speaker output devices to multi-channel sound units. Some
computer speakers are remote these days, associating with the computers by means of Bluetooth.
IV. Headphones
Another common example of output device is a headphone, invented by Nathaniel Baldwin in 1910. Headphones
come in many different types and styles. Earbuds headphones is the most basic type, small in size and easily fit
inside the ear. Headphones are perfect for gaming and also ensure privacy when communicating via voice calls.
v. Projector
A projector or image projector is an optical device that receives a video signal and projects the corresponding
image onto a surface, commonly a projection screen using a lenses system. Some advanced projectors can project
the image directly, by using lasers.
Projectors can be connected to computers, VCRs, DVD players, CD players and storage device. In most cases the
projection screen is large, flat and lightly coloured.
Other types of output Devices

1. GPS:
GPS stands for Global Positioning System. GPS is a radio navigation system that allows people with ground
receivers to determine to their exact location. GPS utilizes a system of 30 well-spaced satellites to give data.
It is regularly used with other computerized innovations such as mapping applications. Today most commercial
products such as automobiles, smart phones, exercise watches and GIS devices contain GPS receivers.
2. Sound Card
Sound card is known as an extension card. It is an expansion component, used in computers to receive or send
audio that can be heard through speakers or earphones.
Although, a sound card is not necessary for computers, but they are included in every machine. The term sound
card is also used for professional audio application.
V) PERIPHERAL DEVICES AND THE MOTHERBOARD

A peripheral device is an internal or external device that connects directly to a computer or other digital device but
does not contribute to the computer's primary function, such as computing. It helps end users access and use the
functionalities of a computer.
Internal Peripheral Devices are generally located inside the computer system case and named internet because of
their location. Here is some internal peripheral device: CD-ROM, Floppy Disk, Graphic Card / Video Card,
Network Interface Card, TV Card, Sound Card.
External Peripheral Devices are located outside of the computer system case or chassis and connected different
types of connections and cables: External CD-ROM, External Floppy Disk, Keyboard, Mouse, Paint Device,
Printer, Scanner, External Hard Disk / USB Disk, Monitor (Except Laptops).
Computer Motherboard and Its Components
The computer motherboard connects all the parts(components) of a computer together.

Mainboard, baseboard, mobo (abbreviation), system board, MB (abbreviation), logic board are the synonyms
of computer‘s motherboard .
The motherboard is the most important component in the PC. All the component such as RAM stick, hard disk
drive, optical drives, processor, processor fan and external card are plugin into motherboard.
Computer motherboard is single platform to connect all of the parts (components) of a computer together, Hence
it considered as the backbone of a computer.
The motherboard is the backbone that ties the computer's components together at one spot and allows them to
talk to each other. Without it, none of the computer pieces, such as the CPU, GPU, or hard drive, could interact.
Total motherboard functionality is necessary for a computer to work well.
Motherboard Components and Their Functions
There are many components found in a motherboard. Some of them are major motherboard components while
others are not. The following is a motherboard components list.
20 Major Motherboard Components
1. CPU (Central Processing Unit) chip 4. BIOS (Basic Input/output System)

2. RAM (Random Access Memory) slots 5. I/O port
3. Southbridge/Northbridge 6. USB (Universal Serial Bus)
7. CPU slot 14. CMOS (Complementary Metal-oxide-

8. PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) slot semiconductor) battery
9. AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) slot 15. Power supply connector
10. ISA (Industry Standard Architecture) slot 16. Mouse and keyboard ports
11. Parallel port 17. DIP (Dual In-line Package) switch
12. FDC (Floppy-Disk Controller) 18. Jumper
13. IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics) controller 19. Heat sink/heatsink (cooling system)
20. Clock generator
1. CPU (Central Processing Unit) chip

CPU is the electronic circuitry in a computer that executes instructions that make up a program. It is also known as
a central processor or the main processor. The CPU executes the basic logic, arithmetic, controlling as well as
input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions in the desktop programs.
2. RAM (Random Access Memory) slots

RAM is a kind of computer memory that can be read and written. It is mainly used to save data and machine code.
A RAM device permits data to be read or written in nearly the same amount of time no matter where the data‘s
physical location is in the memory. Compared to the direct-access storage devices like hard drives, CD/DVD and
magnetic tapes, RAM media is much faster for data reading and writing.
3. Southbridge/north bridge
They are the two chips in the core logic chipset on the motherboard. Typically, the south bridge implements the
slower capabilities of the motherboard in a north bridge/south bridge chipset computer architecture.
The north bridge, also known as host bridge or Memory Controller Hub, is connected directly to the CPU via the
front-side bus (FSB). It is responsible for tasks requiring the highest performance. Together with the south bridge,
they manage communications between the CPU and other motherboard components.
4. BIOS (Basic Input/output System)

BIOS, also called system BIOS, PC BIOS or ROM BIOS, is firmware that is used to perform hardware initialization
during the booting process; and to provide runtime services for operating system and programs. The BIOS firmware
is the first software to run when powered on; it is re-installed on a PC‘s system board.
5. I/O port
Input/output ports are the connections between the CPU and peripheral devices on a motherboard. There are two
complementary methods to perform input and output processes: memory-mapped I/O (MMIO) and port-mapped
I/O (PMIO). Alternatively, you can use dedicated I/O processors, called channels on mainframe computers, which
execute their own instructions.
6. USB (Universal Serial Bus)

USB is an industry standard that creates specifications for connectors, cables and protocols for connection; power
supply (interfacing) and communication among computers, computer peripherals as well as other desktops. There
are a great many USB hardware including several different connectors, of which USB-C is the latest kind.
7. CPU slot
A CPU slot, also called a CPU socket or Processor socket, contains one or more mechanical components that provide
mechanical and electrical connections between the PCB and a microprocessor (CPU). Therefore, you can install a
CPU on a motherboard without soldering.
8. PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) slot

Peripheral Component Interconnect is a local computer bus for connecting hardware to a computer. It supports all
the functions of a processor bus. PCI is usually called Conventional PCI to distinguish it from its successor PCI
Express (PCIe, PCI-e or PCI-E).
PCI Express is a high-speed serial computer expansion bus standard designed to replace the older PCI, PCI-X and
AGP bus standard. It is a general-use motherboard interface for the graphics card, SSDs, hard drives, Wi-Fi as well
as Ethernet hardware connections.
9. AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) slot

AGP was designed as a high-speed point-to-point channel for connecting a video card (graphics card) to a computer
system. Primarily, it was used to assist in the acceleration of 3D computer graphics. AGP is originally designed to
be a descendant of the PCI series of connections for video cards. Yet, it was replaced by the PCIe slots.
10. ISA (Industry Standard Architecture) slot

ISA is the 16-bit internal bus of IMB PC/AT and similar computers that are based on Intel 80286 and its immediate
successors during the 1980s. It was backward compatible with the 8-bit bus of the 8088-based IBM PC largely.
There once was an attempt to extend ISA into a 32-bit bus, called Extended Industry Standard Architecture (EISA).
The attempt wasn‘t very successful and the EISA was largely replaced by the later VESA Local Bus and the PCI
bus.
11. Parallel port

A parallel port is a kind of interface for attaching peripherals on desktops. The name of this kind of port is derived
from the way the data is sent. That is, the parallel ports send multiple bits of data at the same time. Serial interfaces,
on the contrary, send bits one data at once. To achieve parallel data transfer, there are multiple data lines in the
parallel port cables. The parallel port cable is larger than the cable of a contemporary serial port, which only has
one data line within.
12. FDC (Floppy-Disk Controller)

FDC is a special-purpose chip and associated disk controller circuitry. It controls and directs reading from and
writing to a computer‘s floppy disk drive (FDD).
13. IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics) controller

The devices used for connecting IDE, Ethernet, FireWire, USB and other systems can be called host adapter. So,
the IDE controller refers to the host adapter. A host adapter, also called a host controller or a host bus adapter
(HBA), connects a computer (acting as the host system) to other network and storage devices.
Tip: Host adapter is usually used to indicate devices connecting SCSI, Fibre Channel and SATA devices.
14. CMOS (Complementary Metal-oxide-semiconductor) battery

CMOS battery, also called memory battery, clock battery or real-time clock (RTC), is generally a CR2032 lithium
coin cell. The lifespan of the CMOS battery is estimated to be three years when the power supply unit (PSU) is
unplugged or switch off.
15. Power supply connector

A power supply provides the necessary electrical power to let the computer to work. It takes standard 110-Volt AC
(Alternative Current) power to DC (Direct Current) power of 12 Volt, 5 Volt, 3.3 Volt, etc.
16. Mouse and keyboard ports

All computers have a keyboard port connected directly to the motherboard. There are two types of connectors. The
oldest one is a special DIN (Deutsches Institut für Normung) connector while the newest one is the mini DIN PS/2-
style connector. Many PCs use the PS/2-style connectors for both keyboard and mouse; and the connectors are
marked clearly for different usage.
17. DIP (Dual In-line Package) switch

A DIP switch is a manual electric switch packaged with others in a standard dual in-line package. The term may
refer to an individual switch or the whole unit. The DIP switch is designed to be used on a printed circuit board
(motherboard) together with other electronic motherboard components. It is usually used to customize the
behavior of an electronic device for specific situations.
18. Jumper
A jumper is a short length of conductor that is used to close, open or bypass part of an electronic circuit. Typically,
jumpers are used to set up or configure printed circuit boards like the motherboard.
19. Heat sink/heatsink (cooling system)

A heat sink is a passive heat exchanger that transfers the heat generated by parts of motherboard into a fluid
medium like liquid or air. The fluid medium will dissipate away from the device. Thus, the temperature of the
device is kept within a tolerable range. On the motherboard, the heatsink is usually used to cool CPU, GPU (graphics
processing unit), chipsets and RAM modules.
20. Clock generator

A clock generator is an electronic oscillator (circuit) that produces a clock signal for usage in synchronizing a
circuit‘s operation. The clock signal ranges between high and low frequencies, thus creating a metronome for the
coordination of actions.
What Are the Two Main Components on the Motherboard?
After reading the above contents, you can figure out that the two main components on the motherboard are
CPU and RAM. They also list in the first two locations in the above. Actually, the above motherboard
components are listed mainly based on their importance on the motherboard. Yet, that is just our personal opinion.
Those components‘ importance is different in different situations.
LESSON 2: UNDERSTANDING SOFTWARE

What is software?
They are instructions, programs, or applications that instructs the computer on what to do, which can neither be
seen nor touched. That is, it is the collection of data, programs, procedures, routines and instructions that tell a
computer or electronic device how to run, work and execute tasks. It is the collection of computer programs,
procedures and documentation that performs different tasks on a computer system. It actually tells the
computer what to do and how to do it. This is in contrast to hardware, which is the physical system and
components that perform the work.
How does software work?

How exactly does software work? Well, it is just another term for a computer program and a program is a set of
instructions that tells the device how to perform. Those instructions are written in code that the computer can
understand. At the core of all software is logic and the principle of input > process > output.
The program needs information to work with i.e. the input. Think tapping a button on your phone. It then asks a
series of questions based on a set of rules. For example, should the button print an invoice or cancel an order?
The output is what happens as a result. Your printer whirrs into life and the invoice pops out of the tray.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOFTWARE
Computer software can be organized into categories based on common function, task, or field of use.
Classification of software based on task
Based on the kind of task they perform, software can be divided into two major
groups: System software and application software. The diagram below gives a
simplified hierarchical organization of the main parts of software in a general-
purpose computer. At the highest level of this hierarchy lies the application
software, whose services are carried out by the underlying system software.
Computers operate by executing software programs. This involves passing the
instructions from the application software, through the system software to the
hardware that ultimately receives the instruction as machine code. Each instruction
causes the computer to carry out an operation such as data transmission, data processing, data storage or
data control.
I. System software
System software is a type of computer software that controls the overall operations of the computer and
provides facilities that extend the general capabilities of the machine. This provides the basic functions
for computer usage and helps to run the computer hardware and system. It includes a combination of the
following:
1) Operating system
An operating system is a group of computer programs that coordinates all the activities among computer
hardware devices. This is the most important type of system software in a computer. A user can‘t run an
application program on the computer except it is self-booting without the Operating System. Operating
systems are contained in almost all devices including mobile phones. (to be extended in the next chapter)
Functions of an operating system

An operating system executes many functions to operate computer system efficiently. Below are some of the vital
functions of an operating system:
1. Process management: - Process management helps OS to create and delete processes. It also provides
mechanisms for synchronization and communication among processes.
2. Memory management: - Memory management module performs the task of allocation and de-allocation of
memory space to programs in need of this resources.
3. File management: This is a function that manages data files. An operating system contains file management
programs that provide the ability to create, delete, enter, change, ask, and access of files of data. The operating
system keeps track of where files are located on the hard drive through the type of file system. The type two main
types of file system most used in windows OS are File Allocation table (FAT) or New Technology File system
(NTFS).
4. Device Management: Device management keeps tracks of all devices. This module also responsible for this task
is known as the I/O controller. It also performs the task of allocation and de-allocation of the devices.
5. I/O System Management: One of the main objects of any OS is to hide the peculiarities of that hardware devices
from the user.
6. Secondary-Storage Management: Systems have several levels of storage which includes primary storage,
secondary storage, and cache storage. Instructions and data must be stored in primary storage or cache so that a
running program can reference it.
7. Security:- Security module protects the data and information of a computer system against malware threat and
authorized access.
8. Command interpretation: This module is interpreting commands given by the and acting system resources to
process that commands.
9. Networking: A distributed system is a group of processors which do not share memory, hardware devices, or a
clock. The processors communicate with one another through the network.
10. Job accounting: Keeping track of time & resource used by various job and users.
11. Communication management: Coordination and assignment of compilers, interpreters, and another software
resource of the various users of the computer systems.
12. Resource Management: An operating system manages a collection of computer hardware resources by using a
variety of programs. It manages CPU, primary memory, virtual memory, secondary storage devices, input/output
peripherals, and other devices.
13. Task Management: The function of the operating system that controls the running of many tasks. It manages
one program or many programs within a computer system simultaneously. That is, this function of operating
system manages the completion of users' tasks.
14. User Interface: It is a function of an operating system that allows users to interact with a computer. The two
main types of user interfaces are: command line and a graphical user interface (GUI). With a command line
interface, the user interacts with the operating system by typing commands to perform specific tasks. An example
of a command line interface is DOS (disk operating system).
Examples of popular modern operating systems include Android, BSD, iOS, Linux (Ubuntu, Knoppix, Dream
Linux, …) OS X, QNX, Microsoft Windows(Windows 95, 2000, Vista, 7, 8, …), Windows Phone, and IBM z/OS.
All these, except Windows, Windows Phone and z/OS, share roots in UNIX.
2) Utility program (Software)

This is system software designed to help analyse, configure, optimise, maintain or protects a computer system. A
single piece will be called a utility or tool. Some Well-known utility software include:
 Antivirus programs: They are used to detect and eliminate computer viruses and related malicious software. Some
examples are: avast, AVG, Avira, Bit Defender, Norton etc.
 Backup programs: They help to make copies of all information valuable to a computer or information system and
store it safe. The information can be restored in the event of disk failure or other accidents that will lead to data
loss.
 Data Recovery: As the name implies, data recovery programs are used to recover data. Since disk drives or other
hardware may fail, these utilities are essential to recover data in such a scenario.
 Data Compression programs: They make the data more compact, reducing the space occupied by the data.
 Disk management program: These are program involving formatting and arranging disk files in an orderly
manner.
 Memory management software: It handles locations in RAM where data put their current data. It can move certain
memory-resident items out of the way so as to increase the memory space.
 The Server: In the context of client-Server architecture, a server is a computer program running to serve the
requests of other programs – ―the clients‖. The clients may run on the same systems or through networks.
3) Programming software
It is the type of software that is used for creating other software. Another name for programming software
is Integrated Development Environment (IDE). An IDE normally consist of a source code editor, a
translator (compiler or interpreter) and a debugger.
- Editor: It is a programming tool that is used for creating and modifying application programs. It helps the
computer user to enter, search, delete, replace, copy and insert text or sections of a text in a desired
position.
- Compiler: It is used to convert a complete program written in a high-level language (such as Pascal and
C) into a program in machine language in bulk. The output of a compiled program is usually larger than
the source, because compilation takes everything into account. But as compared to an interpreter, a
compiler takes a shorter time to compile.
- Interpreter: A program which translates the program statements into machine language one line at a
time as the program is running. The output of a compiled
program is usually smaller than the source, because
interpretation summarises the source code. But as compared to
a compiler, an interpreter takes a longer time to interpret.
- Assembler: A programming tool that convert a program in
assembly language into program in machine language.
- Debugger: It is a program that is used for locating and
correcting programming errors.
- Linker: A linker or link Editor is a program that takes one or
more objects generated by the compiler and combines them to
a single executable program...
- Loader: Loader is a kind of system software, which is
responsible for loading and relocation of the executable
program in the main memory. The functions of a loader include
assigning load time space for storage, that is, storage allocation
and assisting a program to execute appropriately.
4) A language translator:
It is a system program that is used to convert from one language to another and vice versa. That is, either from high
level language to low level language and vice versa. The compiler, interpreter and assembler are good examples
of computer language translators.
5) Device drivers
Device drivers are computer programs that allow higher level computer programs to communicate and interact
with a hardware device. All hardware devices have the devices drivers that communicate with them through the
computer bus to which the hardware is connected. Drivers are hardware dependent and operating system specific.
Some specific categories of device drivers are
Logical Device Drivers (LDD) which are written by the Operating System vendors
Physical Device Drivers (PDD) which are written and implemented by the hardware vendor. To solve device driver
crises, Microsoft has created the Windows Drivers Foundation (WDF) which collects and keeps all device drivers
as a database.
II. Application software

It is the type of software installed by the end users to enable them accomplish certain specific tasks. Business
software, databases and educational software are some forms of application software. Different word
processors, which are dedicated to specialized tasks to be performed by the user, are other examples of application
software.
A) General purpose software
A general purpose application, sometimes known as ‗off-the-shelf’ is the sort of software that you use at home and
school. Examples include word processors, spreadsheets, databases, desktop publishing packages, graphics
packages etc.
This type of software tries to be a ‗jack-of-all-trades’. It provides many features that the majority of users will
want e.g. formatting text, creating charts, organizing tables. But it does try to be‘ all things to all people‘ and so
there will be a vast number of features that you may never use e.g. statistical functions, mail merge. This makes
the storage size of these applications fairly large.
Some Common Types of General Purpose Application Software:

1) Word-Processing Software - Used for the production (including composition, editing, formatting, and possibly
printing) of any sort of printable material. This software enables users to create, format, edit and print electronic
documents (Letters, reports, articles, …). The most popular examples of this type of software are MS-Word,
WordPad and Word Perfect, Libre office writter.
2) Desktop Publishing Software - Often used to create graphics for point of sale displays, promotional items, trade
show exhibits, retail package designs and outdoor signs. In very simple words, it could be said that it is a page
maker application.
3) Spreadsheet Software - Used for any kind of spreadsheet work including analysis, planning or modeling. This
is a general purpose software with many functions. Spreadsheet software are used for creating documents to manage
and organize numerical data. It is used to perform calculations on rows and columns of data Microsoft Excel, Lotus
1-2-3 and Apple Numbers are some examples of spreadsheet
4) Database: This is a structured collection of data. A computer database relies on database software to organize data
and enable database users to perform database operations. Database software allows users to store and retrieve data
from databases. Examples are Oracle, MS Access, Easy Php, etc.
5) Graphic package Allow you to create pictures and edit photographs. Example software: CorelDraw. Paint Shop
Pro.
6) Presentation Software: The software that is used to display information in the form of a slide show is known as
presentation software. This type of software includes three functions, namely, editing that allows insertion and
formatting of text, methods to include graphics in the text and a functionality of executing slide shows. Microsoft
PowerPoint and Macromedia director are the best example of presentation software Web design application.
B) Specific Purpose Software

Function-specific software are highly specialized software that are designed to handle specific tasks. They're more
limited in what they can do, but they usually perform much better than a general purpose program in a specific task.
For example:
 TurboTax (a tax preparation package) is a special purpose application. Sure, it adds and subtracts numbers
like a spreadsheet, but you can't use it to plan your monthly budget. It does only one thing - prepare tax returns.
Other examples of special purpose application software are web browsers, calculators, media players, calendar
programs etc. Again, make sure that you don't use brand names!
 Communications software: Used to send messages and emails Example software: MS Outlook Express. MS
Messenger.
 Desktop publishing programs: Used to combine and control graphics and text in a single document. Example
software: Adobe PageMaker. MS Publisher.
 Web browser: Computer program that enables internet users to access, navigate, and search World Wide
Web sites. It is also called browser. Ex: Mozilla Firefox, Internet explorer, Opera, Google chrome
 Enterprise Software: It deals with the needs of organization processes and data flow. Customer relationship
management or the financial processes in an organization are carried out with the help of enterprise software. Ex:
Sage Saari
 Multimedia Software: They allow users to create and play audio and video files. They are capable of playing
media files. Audio converters, audio players, burners, video encoders and decoders are some forms of multimedia
software. Examples of this type of software include Real Player and Windows Media Player.
C) Bespoke software
It is a type of software designed and developed by the company for its used specifically. It is also called ‗tailor-
made’. Bespoke application software is tailor made for a specific user and purpose. For example, a factory may
require software to run a robot to make cars; however, it is the only factory making that car in the world, so the
software required would have to be specially built for the task.
II. Classification of software based on source

Based on code source, we distinguish two types of software: Open Source Software and Closed Source Software.
II.2.1 Closed source software

Also called proprietary software, it is software with restricting on using, copying and modifying the source code
as enforced by the proprietor. In other words, computer users do not have any access to the source code of the
proprietary software. Well known examples of proprietary software include: Windows, RealPlayer, Adobe
Photoshop, Mac OS, ...
II.2.2 Open source software

It is the type of software that has no proprietary restriction attached to it, particularly the restriction about the access
to the source code. In other words, open source software is designed in such a way that computer users can freely
access and modify the source code to suit their individual need. It is also called non-proprietary software. E.g.
Linux, Open Office
Classification of software based on licence

The term licence refers to a legal document or agreement giving someone permission to do and use something. A
software licence comprises the permissions, rights and restriction imposed on a piece of software. Under a software
licence, the Licensee is permitted to use the licence software in compliance with a specific term on the licence.
Based on licence, computer software may be divided into the following:
A. Public Domain Software. GPL

The GNU General Public License (GNU GPL or simply GPL) is a free software license, originally written by
Richard Stallman for the GNU project (a project to create a complete free software operating system). It has
since become one of the most popular licenses for free software. The latest version of the license, version 2, was
released in 1991. The GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), another commonly-used license, is a modified
version of the GPL intended for software libraries.
The GPL grants the recipients of a computer program the following rights, or "freedoms":
 The freedom to run the program, for any purpose.
 The freedom to study how the program works, and modify it. (Access to the source code is a precondition for this)
 The freedom to redistribute copies.
 The freedom to improve the program, and release the improvements to the public. (Access to the source code is a
precondition for this)
1. Freeware
This is a Copyrighted software given away for free by the author. Although it is available for free, the author
retains the copyright, which means that you cannot do anything with it that is not expressly allowed by the author.
Usually, the author allows people to use the software, but not sell it.
You are also free to distribute it to anyone you want, provided the distribution is an unmodified version of what you
downloaded from the provider‘s web site. In fact, they encourage you to distribute their Freeware. Freeware is
provided on an "as is" basis and no technical support is usually available.
2. Shareware
This may be copyrighted software, regularly in trial version, but generally the developer allows users to make copies
without an initial charge. However, if the user intends to use it beyond a brief tryout, the developer requests that the
program be paid for. A marketing method for software, whereby a trial version is distributed in advance and without
payment. A user tries out the program, and thus shareware has also been known as 'try before you buy', demoware,
trial ware and by many other names.
3. Cripple ware:
The shareware version of a program whose most advanced and most desirable features have been disabled with the
intention of increasing user‘s appetite for the better version. If the fee is paid, a code is acquired, which uncrippled
the program.
4. Nagware:
Nagware (also known as annoy ware) is a type of shareware, that reminds —or nags— the user to register it by
paying a fee. It usually does this by popping up a message when the user starts the program or, worse, intermittently
while the user is using the application. These messages can appear as windows obscuring part of the screen or
message boxes that can quickly be closed. Some nagware keeps the message up for a certain time period, forcing
the user to wait to continue to use the program.
5. Adware:
Advertising-supported software is any software package which automatically plays, displays, or downloads
advertising material to a computer after the software is installed on it or while the application is being used.
6. Liteware:
This is the free version of a program, that does not contain those features that are attractive to frequent or heavy
user.
7. Vapourware:
Vaporware (or vaporware) is software or hardware which is announced by a developer well in advance of release,
but which then fails to emerge, either with or without a protracted development cycle.
Other type of software
1. Custom Software:
Software that is developed for a specific user or organization is custom software. Since it is built for a specific user,
its specifications and features are in accordance with the user's needs.
2. Off-the-Shelf Software:
As opposed to custom software, off-the-shelf software is standard software bought off the shelf. It has predefined
specifications that may or may not cater to any specific user's requirements. When you buy it, you agree to its
license agreement.
3. Tailor Made Software:

Tailor made software is software that is made to the specifications of a client. In other words it is custom made,
bespoke, or 'tailored' to address a specific need.
4. Retail Software:
While shareware is provided as a trial version to users, retail software is sold to end users.
5. Firmware:
Firmware is a combination of software (generally, system software) permanently stored in the memory (hardware).
As the name suggests, it is a program or data that has been written onto the read-only memory (ROM). For example,
the BIOS (which is installed inside a computer on a chip) checks different parts of the system before loading the
operating system into the memory.
6. Live ware:
People who write programs, operate and maintain the computers are collectively known as live ware, human ware
or people ware; for example, programmers, system analysts and hardware engineers.
EXERCISES ON SOFTWARE
Exercise 1: State whether each of the following operations is carried out by the operating system or by an
application software
delete a file, format a disk, play a game, load from a disk, write a letter, enter a list of names, create
a new folder, print a file, draw a picture, double click the mouse button, select from a
menu, carry out a single field sort, get a directory listing, do a calculation, select QUIT.
Exercise 2: State whether the following task is carried out by a word processor, a spreadsheet, a database
or a graphic software
1) Typing articles for a club newsletter 5) Designing a business card for a small firm
2) Keeping track of income and expenditure in a 6) Typing a letter to members of a youth club
shop 7) Making changes to a photograph
3) Storing information about members of a youth 8) Creating a 'No Smoking' sign
club 9) Preparing the year accounts for a small
4) Analysing sales figures and trends in sales business
DIGITAL LITERACY SOFTWARE ENGINERING—J.BERI
10) Storing details of 500 CDs in a music 13) Recording details of products in a
collection supermarket
11) Drawing a map for a treasure hunt 14) Drawing a picture of a house
12) Preparing an essay for English class 15) Scanning a picture in a book
Exercise 3: A secondary school has been using several versions of office automation software packages
which consist of a word-processing software and spreadsheet software. This years the school plans to
upgrade the office automation software packages so as to increase the use of information technology in
teaching, to improve daily communication among its staff, and students and to computerize students'
attendance record system.
1. Name three additional types of software that should be included in this upgrade exercise. State one
corresponding application for each type of software.
2. The teacher makes use of an upgraded word-processing software to prepare a computer test paper in
school. However, he cannot open the document at home with its old version of word-processing
software. Explain why the teacher cannot open the document and suggest one method the teacher can
use to avoid the problem without any additional cost.
Vocabulary: To upgrade = to improve what was old or outdated. Upgrade a software implies adding
new functionalities.
Exercise 4
1. ‗Hardware is of no use without software and software cannot be used without hardware.‘ Explain.
2. What is the difference between an Open Source Software and a Freeware. Write one example of each.
3. What is an operating system? Names of any two popular operating systems.

4. Name and explain any two main functions of an operating system
Exercise 5:
1. For each type of software, copy the correct description along with two examples:
Application Software Example Applications
1. Word processors - Internet Explorer - MS Outlook Express
2. Spreadsheets - Real Player - Windows Media Player
3. Databases - Adobe PageMaker - Lotus 123
4. Desktop publishing programs - Firefox - MS PowerPoint
5. Presentation applications - Word Perfect - MS Messenger
6. Web design applications - MySQL - MS Word
7. Graphics programs - CorelDraw - MS FrontPage
8. Multimedia display programs - MS Publisher - DreamWeaver
9. Web browsing applications - MS Excel - MS Access
10. Communications software - Macromedia Director - Paint Shop Pro
Descriptions
 Used to combine and control graphics and text in a single document
Used to perform calculations on rows and columns of data

Allow you to create pictures and edit photographs
Used to send messages and emails
Enable you to write, edit and print letters, articles and reports.
Used to design and edit pages of information for the internet
Allow you to view videos and animations with sound
Use to organise and search through collections of data
Used to view websites on the internet
Allow you to present information to an audience
2. Describe how bespoke software is different from the normal software packages purchased in
shops.
3. Give a short description (or definition) of the following words or expressions (no more than 2
lines per word): Loader, Cripple ware, Open source software
LESSON 3: NETWORK AND MOBILE DEVICES

What is a Mobile Network?
Many people believe that when you say ''mobile network'' you are referring to a wireless network. In actuality, a
mobile network and a wireless network are two different types of networks.
A mobile network is a communications network that is spread out over an immense land area around the world
and connected wirelessly by transceivers at fixed locations that are known as cell sites, or base stations.
Transceivers communicate wirelessly based on the old principle of radio signals. Radio signals are electromagnetic
radiation that includes light and infrared waves. These signals are considered to be transverse waves in that they
have a frequency and a wavelength.
Wavelengths are measured in the distance between the peaks of sequential waves, and the frequency is the
number of cycles per second. To calculate the speed of a transverse wave, you multiply the wavelength and
the frequency.
Mobile vs. Other Networks

While a mobile network and a wireless network perform similar functions, they are completely different networks.
A mobile network commonly is described as a physical device that can be taken anywhere. It is composed of a
battery to provide power and must have some type of mobile network connectivity in order for the device to operate
in order to send and receive data without having to attach the device to a hardware base.
A wireless network does not indicate a physical device. Wireless means having access to a wireless network such
as a local area network (LAN), wide area network (WAN), or a 4G/3G cellular network. You take what used to
connect through a router and cable and make that connection wireless. These types of networks still require some
type of physical hardware within close proximity to have a physical connection to a power supply and a router or
network node in order to communicate.
A wireless network provides a fixed or portable endpoint to gain access to a distributed network. A mobile network,
on the other hand, provides access to the distributed networks, through a portable device that allows you to travel
anywhere, as long as there is sufficient coverage.
TYPES OF MOBILE NETWORKS

While all mobile phones allow users to wirelessly make phone calls from nearly anywhere within their
coverage map, these phones don't always use the same technology. Different wireless service providers
use different mobile network technology. This in turn makes phones on one network incompatible with
another network, allowing providers to strike exclusive deals. Some of the types of mobile networks
include:
1) GSM (Global System for Mobile)
Global System for Mobile Communication means that cellular phones connect to it by searching for cells in the
immediate vicinity. GSM phones may be identified by the presence of a Subscriber Identity Module (SIM), it
contains a user‘s subscription information, as well as some contact entries. This allows a user to switch devices
without needing to contact the service provider thus significantly reducing roaming costs while experiencing no
reductions in service. GSM supports voice calls and data transfer of up to 9.6kbps.
GSM, is the most-employed mobile standard in the world. Carriers who operate on the GSM network include AT&T
and T-Mobile. Other technologies included within the GSM standard are GPRS and EDGE, which offer speedier
data transfers on 2g networks. HSDPA, or High Speed Downlink Packet Access, is the 2g GSM network.
2) CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
Code Division Multiple Access is a form of multiplexing, which allows numerous signals to occupy a single
transmission channel, optimizing the use of available bandwidth. CDMA consistently provides better capacity for
voice and data communications than other commercial mobile technologies, allowing more subscribers to connect
at any given time, and it is the common platform on which 3G technologies are built. Provides maximum data rates
up to 300 kbps. Because it offers higher data transmission rate than GSM and GPRS, It is more expensive.
Carriers that use CDMA networks include Verizon and Sprint Nextel. The Evolution Data Optimized, or EV-DO,
is the 3g CDMA standard.
3) GPRS (General Packet Radio Service)

GPRS is a technology that utilizes the upgraded GSM networks radio interface offering packet-switched networks
and always-on connections for the user. GPRS is a 3G or third generation mobile technology, which is an
evolution of 2G/GPRS networks using WCDMA modulation techniques in the air interface. It data transmission is
significantly faster than GSM, which is up to 54kbps. The higher data rates allow users to take part in video
conferences and interact with multimedia Web sites and similar applications using mobile handheld devices as well
as computers. It is specified by 3GPP and is part of the global ITU IMT-2000 standard.
4) EDGE (Enhanced Data for Global Evolution)
Enhanced Data for Global Evolution is an extension to the GSM/GPRS networks. EDGE supports peak
theoretical network data rates of 474 kbps, with average throughput of 70 to 130 kbps on both the downlink and the
uplink. The average rates are fast enough to support a wide range of data services, including streaming audio and
video, fast Internet access and large file downloads. EDGE is considered a pre-3G radio technology and which
can also can support Push-to-Talk (PTT) services.
5) Mobitex
It is originally designed for text pagers with 512 bytes of data transmission rate. In a Mobitex network, a radio base
station, with one or more switches (called MX switches), serves as the transmitter for each single cell (area of
coverage) of up to 30 km. The base stations, among them, provide an area of coverage and determine the network
capacity. Users of wireless devices, such as mobile phones and personal digital assistants (PDAs), communicate
through the base station nearest to them and can move freely from one cell to another.
6) LTE (Long Term Evolution)
Long Term Evolution, or LTE, is the next generation of cellular technology known as 4g. LTE and LTE Advanced
Networks will be utilized by both AT&T and Verizon.
7) WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access)
WiMAX is the other competing 4g technology. It is the first 4g network to enter operation and is run by Sprint,
with the HTC Evo being their first 4g phone.
Components of a Mobile Network

There are four main components of a mobile network that work together to provide service to mobile carriers:
 Public Switched Telephone Network. ...
 Mobile Telephone Switching Office. ...
 Cell Sites. ...
 Mobile Subscriber Unit.
What is a mobile device?

Mobile networking refers to technology that can support voice and/or data network connectivity
using wireless, via a radio transmission solution. The most familiar application of mobile networking
is the mobile phone.
A mobile device is a general term for any type of handheld computer. These devices are designed to be extremely
portable, and they can often fit in your hand. Some mobile devices—like tablets, e-readers, and smartphones—
are powerful enough to do many of the same things you can do with a desktop or laptop computer.
Types of mobile devices

1. Tablet computers
Like laptops, tablet computers are designed to be portable. However, they provide a different computing
experience. The most obvious difference is that tablet computers don't have keyboards or touchpads. Instead, the
entire screen is touch-sensitive, allowing you to type on a virtual keyboard and use your finger as a mouse pointer.
Tablet computers can't necessarily do everything traditional computers can do. For many people, a traditional
computer like a desktop or laptop is still needed in order to use some programs. However, the convenience of a
tablet computer means it may be ideal as a second computer.
2. E-readers
E-book readers—also called e-readers—are similar to tablet computers, except they are mainly designed for
reading e-books (digital, downloadable books). Notable examples include the Amazon Kindle, Barnes & Noble
Nook, and Kobo. Most e-readers use an e-ink display, which is easier to read than a traditional computer display.
You can even read in bright sunlight, just like if you were reading a regular book.
You don't need an e-reader to read e-books. They can also be read on tablets, smartphones, laptops, and desktops.
3. Smartphones
A smartphone is a more powerful version of a traditional cell phone. In addition to the same basic features—phone
calls, voicemail, text messaging—smartphones can connect to the Internet over Wi-Fi or a cellular network (which
requires purchasing a monthly data plan). This means you can use a smartphone for the same things you would
normally do on a computer, such as checking your email, browsing the Web, or shopping online.
Most smartphones use a touch-sensitive screen, meaning there isn't a physical keyboard on the device. Instead,
you'll type on a virtual keyboard and use your fingers to interact with the display. Other standard features include a
high-quality digital camera and the ability to play digital music and video files. For many people, a smartphone can
actually replace electronics like an old laptop, digital music player, and digital camera in the same device.
LESSON 4: UNDERSTANDING OPERATING SYSTEM
Introduction to Operating System
Brief History of OS
The first operating systems were developed in the 1950s, when computers could only run one program at a time.
Later in the following decades, computers began to include more and more software programs, sometimes called
libraries, that came together to create the start of today‘s operating systems.
In the late 1960s, the first version of the Unix operating system was developed. Written in programming language
C, and available for free during its early years. Unix easily adapted to the new systems and quickly achieved wide
acceptance.
Many modern operating systems, including Apple OS X and all different versions of Linux, date back or rely on
the Unix OS.
Microsoft Windows was developed in response to an IBM request for an operating system to run its range of
personal computers or PCs.
The first operating system created by Microsoft was not called Windows, it was called MS-DOS and it was built in
1981 when it bought the 86-DOS operating system from Seattle Computer Products and modified it to meet
IBM requirements.
The Windows name was first used in 1985 when a graphical user interface was created and paired or joined with
the MS-DOS.
Today Apple, OS X, Microsoft Windows and the various forms of Linux (including Android) dominate the vast
majority of the modern operating systems market, as we saw earlier.to summarize, it can be said that:
 Operating systems were first developed in the late 1950s to manage tape storage
 The General Motors Research Lab implemented the first OS in the early 1950s for their IBM 701
 In the mid-1960s, operating systems started to use disks
 In the late 1960s, the first version of the Unix OS was developed
 The first OS built by Microsoft was DOS. It was built in 1981 by purchasing the 86-DOS software from a Seattle
company
 The present-day popular OS Windows first came to existence in 1985 when a GUI was created and paired with
MS-DOS.
What is an Operating System?

An Operating System (OS) is a software that acts as an interface between computer hardware components and the
user. Every computer system must have at least one operating system to run other programs because, applications
like Browsers, MS Office, Notepad Games, etc., need some environment to run and perform its tasks. That is,
an operating system is the most important software that runs on a computer. It manages the
computer's memory and processes, as well as all of its software and hardware. It also allows the user
to communicate with the computer without knowing how to speak the computer's language. Without an operating
system, a computer is useless. Operating system (OS) manages all of the software and hardware on the
computer. Most of the time, there are several different computer programs running at the same time, and they all
need to access your computer's central processing unit (CPU), memory, and storage.
N.B: See functions of operating system under software
Types of Operating System operating modes(OS)

Following are the popular types of Operating System modes:
 Batch Operating System

 Multitasking/Time Sharing OS
 Multiprocessing OS
 Real Time OS
 Distributed OS
 Network OS
 Mobile OS
1) A Disk Operating System (DOS)
A disk operating system is a computer operating system that resides on and can use a disk storage device, such as a
floppy disk, hard disk drive, or optical disc. A disk operating system must provide a file system for organizing,
reading, and writing files on the storage disk. The Microsoft Disk Operating System (MS-DOS) is an operating
system developed for PCs with x86 microprocessors. It is a command-line-based system, where all commands
are entered in text form and there is no graphical user interface. MS-DOS was the most commonly used member of
the family of disk operating systems.
2) Single-tasking and multi-tasking
A single-tasking system can only run one program at a time, while a multi-tasking operating system allows more
than one program to be running in concurrency.
3) Single user and multi-user
Single-user operating systems have no facilities to distinguish users, but may allow multiple programs to run
in tandem. A multi-user operating system extends the basic concept of multi-tasking with facilities that identify
processes and resources, such as disk space, belonging to multiple users, and the system permits multiple users to
interact with the system at the same time. Time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks for efficient use of the
system and may also include accounting software for cost allocation of processor time, mass
4) Batch Operating System

Some computer processes are very lengthy and time-consuming. To speed the same process, a job with a similar
type of needs are batched together and run as a group. The user of a batch operating system never directly interacts
with the computer. In this type of OS, every user prepares his or her job on an offline device like a punch card and
submit it to the computer operator.
5) Real time OS
A real time operating system time interval to process and respond to inputs is very small. Examples: Military
Software Systems, Space Software Systems are the Real time OS example.
6) Distributed Operating System
Distributed systems use many processors located in different machines to provide very fast computation to its users.
7) Network Operating System
Network Operating System runs on a server. It provides the capability to serve to manage data, user, groups,
security, application, and other networking functions. storage, printing, and other resources to multiple users.
8) Embedded
Embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to
operate on small machines with less autonomy (e.g. PDAs). They are very compact and extremely efficient by
design, and are able to operate with a limited amount of resources. Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples
of embedded operating systems.
9) Real-time
A real-time operating system is an operating system that guarantees to process events or data by a specific moment
in time. A real-time operating system may be single- or multi-tasking, but when multitasking, it uses specialized
scheduling algorithms so that a deterministic nature of behavior is achieved. Such an event-driven system switches
between tasks based on their priorities or external events, whereas time-sharing operating systems switch tasks
based on clock interrupts.
10) Library
A library operating system is one in which the services that a typical operating system provides, such as networking,
are provided in the form of libraries and composed with the application and configuration code to construct a uni-
kernel: a specialized, single address space, machine image that can be deployed to cloud or embedded
environments.
Advantage of using Operating System
 Allows you to hide details of hardware by creating an abstraction
 Easy to use with a GUI
 Offers an environment in which a user may execute programs/applications
 The operating system must make sure that the computer system convenient to use
 Operating System acts as an intermediary among applications and the hardware components
 It provides the computer system resources with easy to use format
 Acts as an intermediator between all hardware‘s and software‘s of the system
Disadvantages of using Operating System

 If any issue occurs in OS, you may lose all the contents which have been stored in your system
 Operating system‘s software is quite expensive for small size organization which adds burden on them.
Example Windows
 It is never entirely secure as a threat can occur at any time
Parts of The Operating System
I) The Kernel in Operating System?

The kernel is the central component of a computer operating system. The only job performed by the kernel is to the
manage the communication between the software and the hardware. A Kernel is at the nucleus of a computer. It
makes the communication between the hardware and software possible. While the Kernel is the innermost part of
an operating system, a shell is the outermost one.
Features of Kennel
 Low-level scheduling of processes
 Inter-process communication
 Process synchronization
 Context switching
Types of Kernels
There are many types of kernels that exists, but among them, the two most popular kernels are:
1. Monolithic
A monolithic kernel is a single code or block of the program. It provides all the required services offered by the
operating system. It is a simplistic design which creates a distinct communication layer between the hardware and
software.
2. Microkernels
Microkernel manages all system resources. In this type of kernel, services are implemented in different address
space. The user services are stored in user address space, and kernel services are stored under kernel address space.
So, it helps to reduce the size of both the kernel and operating system.
II) The shell

The interface to the operating system is called a shell. The shell is the outermost layer of the operating system.
Shells incorporate a programming language to control processes and files, as well as to start and control other
programs.
The shell acts as an interface between the user and the kernel. When a user logs in, the login program checks the
username and password, and then starts another program called the shell. The shell is a command line interpreter
(CLI). It interprets the commands the user types in and arranges for them to be carried out. The commands are
themselves programs: when they terminate, the shell gives the user another prompt (% on our systems). The adept
user can customize his/her own shell, and users can use different shells on the same machine. Most accounts on
our clusters have the bash shell by default.
I. Common Types of Operating Systems

(here, mostly used on desktops and larger computers)
Operating systems usually come pre-loaded on any computer you buy. Most people use the operating system that
comes with their computer, but it's possible to upgrade or even change operating systems. The three most common
operating systems for personal computers are Microsoft Windows, mac OS, and Linux. There are other different
types of operating systems, but either for bigger computers such as supercomputers, mainframes minicomputers or
mobile devices.
Modern operating systems use a graphical user interface, or GUI (pronounced gooey). A GUI lets you use your
mouse to click icons, buttons, and menus, and everything is clearly displayed on the screen using a combination
of graphics and text.
Each operating system's GUI has a different look and feel, so if you switch to a different operating system it may
seem unfamiliar at first. However, modern operating systems are designed to be easy to use, and most of the basic
principles are the same.
2) Microsoft Windows
Microsoft created the Windows operating system in the mid-1980s. There have been many different versions of
Windows, but the most recent ones are Windows 10 (released in 2015), Windows 8 (2012), Windows 7 (2009),
and Windows Vista (2007) etc. Windows comes pre-loaded on most new PCs, which helps to make it the most
popular operating system in the world.
Since 1985 Microsoft Windows has been in one form or another and remains the most common home and office
software operating system. The latest versions are also used in some devices, including Windows 10, and the OS is
also used on some internet and server computers. Windows may be used by machines from a variety of companies.
Windows ‗original versions worked with a previous Microsoft OS called MS-DOS modern interface on top of
traditional DOS text-driven commands. Microsoft Windows UI‘s signature features include windows themselves
– panel-screens that represent individual applications in a rectangular shape. The start menu of Windows helped
generations of users to find their programs and files.
2) Apple MAC OS (Macintosh Operating System)

Apple‘s mac OS is running on Apple laptops and desktops as the successor of the popular operating system OS X.
Because of its research into AT&T‘s Bell Labs in the 1960s on the historic Unix family of operating systems, mac
OS shares certain features with other Unix-related systems, including Linux. Although the graphical interfaces are
different, many of the programming interfaces and command-line features are similar. Signature elements in Mac
OS include the dock used to check for programs and files that are commonly used, single keyboard keys, including
the Command key. Mac OS is famous for its user-friendly functionalities like Siri, Apple‘s video chatting software,
FaceTime and a natural-voice personal assistant.
Mac OS (previously called OS X) is a line of operating systems created by Apple. It comes preloaded on all
Macintosh computers, or Macs. Some of the specific versions include Mojave (released in 2018), High
Sierra (2017), and Sierra (2016) etc. they are used on Apple desktop computers.
According to Stat Counter Global Stats, Mac OS users account for less than 10% of global operating systems—
much lower than the percentage of Windows users (more than 80%). One reason for this is that Apple computers
tend to be more expensive. However, many people do prefer the look and feel of Mac OS over Windows.
3) Linux
Created by the Finnish programmer Linus Torvalds, Linux is today developed by programmer collaborators across
the world who submit tweaks to the central kernel software. Linux is popular with programmers and corporate
servers. It is available for free online.
Linux is a computer operating system which is similar to Unix built under the development and distribution model
of free and open-source software. Linux‘s popular feature is the Linux kernel, the first operating system kernel
released by Linus Torvalds on September 17, 1991. The operating system is loading itself into memory and begins
to control the computer‘s resources. After that, it offers certain tools for other applications that the client wants to
run. Most of the embedded systems run Linux today. Electronic gadgets such as internet router, washing machine,
TV, refrigerator, etc can be run on Linux. Hence Linux is also one of the most popular operating systems nowadays.
The advantages of Linux are that it is free, and there are many different distributions—or versions—you can
choose from.
4) UNIX
UNIX is an operating system which was first developed in the 1960s, and has been under constant development
ever since. By operating system, we mean the suite of programs which make the computer work. It is a stable,
multi-user, multi-tasking system for servers, desktops and laptops.
UNIX systems also have a Graphical User Interface (GUI) similar to Microsoft Windows which provides an easy
to use environment. However, knowledge of UNIX is required for operations which aren't covered by a graphical
program, or for when there is no windows interface available, for example, in a telnet session.
There are many different versions of UNIX, although they share common similarities. The most popular varieties
of UNIX are Sun Solaris, GNU/Linux, and Mac OS X. Linux in its turn is packaged in a form known as a Linux
distribution. There are several Linux distributions, both free and commercial.
5) UBUNTU
Ubuntu is a complete Linux operating system, freely available with both community and professional support. The
Ubuntu community is built on the ideas enshrined in the Ubuntu Manifesto: that software should be available free
of charge, that software tools should be usable by people in their local language and despite any disabilities, and
that people should have the freedom to customize and alter their software in whatever way they see fit.
6) FLORA etc.
II. Mobile Mobile Operating (OS)and Popular System Types

Mobile operating systems are those OS which is especially that are designed to power smartphones, tablets, and
wearables devices. Some most famous mobile operating systems are Android and iOS, but others include
BlackBerry, Web, and watch OS.
1. Android OS
The Android OS is the most common operating system among the mobile operating system. Furthermore, Google is
the developer of Android. Moreover, it is an open source and free operating system. This OS is based on
the Linux kernel. The name for every new version of update is based on ‗desserts‘ for example Cupcake, Donut, Eclair,
Oreo, KitKat, etc.
2. Bada
Samsung is the launcher of this operating system. It came into market in 2010. Moreover, it includes features like 3-D
graphics, application installation, multipoint touch etc.
3. Blackberry OS
The developer of this operating system is Reasearch In Motion (RIM). It was specifically designed for blackberry
devices. Furthermore, it is useful for corporate users.
4. Apple iOS
After android, it is one of the most popular OS. It is designed to run on Apple devices such as iPhones, iPad tablets, etc.
Moreover, like the android devices have the playstore for apps download. Likewise, apple iOS contains the app store.
Also, it has very strong security features.
5. Windows Mobile Operating System
The developer of this OS is Microsoft. It is basically designed for pocket PCs and smartphones. Moreover, it has the
features of computer based Windows OS and additional features for mobile phones.
6. Symbian OS
Symbian Ltd. is the developer of this OS. Moreover, Nokia was the first to use this OS on its mobile phones.
Furthermore, it provides high level integration with communication. This OS is based on java language.
7. Harmony OS
It is a latest OS moreover; Huawei is its developer. It is specifically designed for use in IoT devices.
8. Palm OS
Its other name is Garnet OS. Furthermore, Palm Ltd. is its developer which developed this OS for use in Personal
Digital Assistants (PADs).
9. Web OS
Palm Ltd is its developer. Moreover, it is based on Linux kernel and HP uses it in its mobile devices and touchpads.
Difference between Firmware and Operating System

Firmware Operating System
Define Firmware: Firmware is one kind of programming that Define Operating System: OS provides functionality over and
is embedded on a chip in the device which controls that above that which is provided by the firmware.
specific device.
Firmware is programs that been encoded by the manufacture OS is a program that can be installed by the user and can be
of the IC or something and cannot be changed. changed.
It is stored on non-volatile memory. OS is stored on the hard drive
LESSON 5: File Management -- Basic Definitions

Definition of terms associated with file management. It is important to understand these terms in order to
successfully organize and find the files you work with on your computer.
1. File Management: This is process and act of creating an organized structure in which you store information for
easy retrieval. Basically, it means you store your work in a location where you know that you can find it again at
a later date if needed.
2. Drive: A drive is a computer storage device that holds information. It is the top-level location (or "Root"
directory) for file storage. Drives are usually designated with a letter such as C:\ (which is typically the hard drive
of the computer you are working on). Other examples of drives would be the network drive on campus (which is
the Z:\ drive) and external USB drives that you may use such as a Flash or Thumb Drive. The letters of these drives
vary depending on the computer that you are using.
3. File system: This is a sub-system of the operating system that provides services to users and applications in the
use of files. The file system consists of two distinct parts: a collection of files, each storing related data, and a
directory structure, which organizes and provides information about all the files in the system. A file system is
normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These directories may contain files and other
directories. In respect to file management, the operating system performs the following activities;
 Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are often known as file system.
 Decides who gets the resources (files).
 Allocates the resources (files) to both programs and users.
 De-allocates the resources (files) to both programs and users of the computer system.
4. A File: This is a named collection of related information that is recorded on secondary storage.
From user‘s perspective, a file is the smallest allotment of logical secondary storage, i.e. data cannot be written
to secondary storage unless they are within a file. Information stored in a file is defined by the creator of the file
and such information may be of different types, which may include, source or executable programs, numeric
or text data, music, videos, photos etc. Depending on the type of a file, files have certain defined structures.
For example:
 A text file is sequence of characters organized into lines (and possibly pages).
 A source file is a sequence of functions, each of which is further organized as declarations followed by executable
statements.
 An executable file is a series of code sections that the loader can bring into memory and execute. The purpose of
file is to hold data required for providing information and therefore, files can be viewed as logical and physical
files.
 A Logical file is a file viewed in terms of what data items its records contain and what processing operations may
be performed on the file.
 A Physical file is a file viewed in terms of how the data is stored on storage device such as magnetic disc and
how processing operations are made possible.
5. File attributes: Each file is given a specific name and therefore, a file is referred to by its name. A name is usually
a string of characters, e.g., example.doc. Once a file is named, it becomes independent of the process, the user, and
even the system that created it. For example, one user might create a file example.doc and another user might edit
that file by specifying its name. The file owner might write the same file to a USB disk, copy it, send it across a
network and it could be still called example.doc on the destination system.
File attributes vary from one operating system to another but typically a file consists:
 Name: the symbolic file name is the only information kept in human readable form.  Identifier: this unique tag,
usually a number, identifies the file within the file system; it‘s a non-human readable name of file.
 Type: this information is needed for systems that support different types of files.
 Location: this information is a pointer to a device and to the location of the file on that device.
 Size: the current size of the file (in bytes, words, or blocks) and possibly the maximum allowed size are included
in this attribute.
 Protection: access-control information determines who can do reading, writing, executing, and so on.
 Time, date and user identification: this information may be kept for creation, last modification and last use.
These data can be useful for protection, security and usage monitoring.
6. File Access Methods: When the information stored in file is used, that information must be accessed and read into
computer memory. There are several ways for accessing this information and choosing the right method for a
particular application poses the major design problem:
1. Sequential access This is the simplest access method in which, information in the file is processed in order, one
record after the other. This method of access is by far the most common. For example, editors and compilers usually
access files in this fashion.
2. Indexed sequential access This mechanism is built upon the base of sequential access. An index is created for
each file. Index contains pointer to a block. To find a record in the file, the index is first searched and then the
pointer is used to access the file directly and to find the desired record. NB: index is searched sequentially and its
pointer is used to access the file directly.
3. Direct access This method is also referred to as relative access. In this method, a file is made up of fixed-length
logical records that allow programs to read and write records rapidly in no particular order. A file is viewed as a
numbered sequence of blocks or records. As a result, there are no restrictions on the order of reading or writing for
this method of access. Direct access files are of great use for immediate access to large amounts of information. A
good example is a database in which, when a query concerning a particular subject arrives, the block containing the
answer is computed and then that block is read directly to provide the desired information.
7. Directory structure organization There are typically thousands, millions, and even billions of files within a
computer which are stored on random access storage devices. Files are usually segregated into groups which are
easier to manage and act upon. This organization involves the use of directories. A directory contains a set of files
or subdirectories. In modern operating systems, directories are tree- structured which allow users to create their own
subdirectories and to organize their files accordingly. In this tree structure, the tree has a root directory and every
file in the system has a unique path name.
A path name is defined by the user name and a file name.
In normal use, each process has a current directory, i.e. the directory containing most of the files that are of current
interest to the process. When reference is made to a file, the current
directory is searched. If a needed file is not in the current directory, then the user must either specify a path name
or change the current directory to be the directory holding that file. Path names can be of two types:
Absolute and relative. An absolute path name begins at the root and follows a path down to the specified file,
giving the directory names on the path. A relative path name defines a path from the current directory.
The two key components of File Management that must be mastered are:
1. Having an Understanding of the "Big Picture" of File Management and...
2. Mastering the specific "how-to's" of carrying out the Management of Your Files
How Do I Determine the Structure of My File Management System?
Planning out and thinking about how you want to organize your files is probably the most important step of File
Management and is really no different than the planning process that is used when setting up a physical file cabinet.
If you think about a file cabinet, the typical components you might find these:
1. The Cabinet
2. Hanging File Folders
3. Manilla Folders
 The Cabinet is the main housing structure for everything you are filing.
 The Hanging File Folders group items in the cabinet based on broad categories.
 Finally, the Manilla Folders are used and kept within the Hanging file folders to house items of an even
more specific nature.
For example, you may want to organize your pile of paperwork at home into a logical structure within a file cabinet.
One category of paper that you have are your bills. Another category you need to file are your bank statements.
To the left is a graphical representation of how you could organize these items. The structure contains two hanging
file folders -- one for bills and one for bank statements. To further organize your bills, you have chosen to insert
two manilla folders, one for each type of bill that you pay. Doing this will make it easier to find a particular bill in
the future.
How Does This Apply to Files on My Computer?
The same file management principles apply to the electronic files stored on your computer. In the previous
document, we learned the terms drive, folder and file. Here, we will use our previous illustration regarding the file
cabinet and our paperwork and see what the same management structure would look like electronically. In other
words, we are going to be "filing" our e-bills, and e-statements on our computer rather than in a physical file cabinet.
Where Do I Manage My Electronic Files?

Files can be managed in a couple of different ways. One is through a File Management Utility (such as "My
Computer" also called "Computer", or "Windows Explorer") and the second is through the application that is
used to create the file (such as "Microsoft Word"). Both methods utilize the drive, folder and file structure. For the
purposes of this lesson we will focus on using the File Management Utility that is built into the Windows Operating
System ("My Computer", "Computer" or "Windows Explorer" depending on the version of Windows you are using).
For the remainder of this tutorial, we will refer to the utility as "Windows Explorer". The benefit on focusing on
this utility is that the tasks that you will learn apply to all files on your computer regardless of the application used
to create them.
The next document will give you an overview of the Windows Explorer as well as links to tutorials where you can
find additional information if needed.
FILE STORAGE HIERARCHY

It's important that you construct a file storage hierarchy on your USB thumb drive, complete with the necessary
folders, sub-folders and files, that mirrors what you will have.
On your USB drive, you should create a folder called cas111d. On your storage device (either USB or hard drive),
create a NEW FOLDER titled cas111d. Inside this folder, create the following subfolders:
Name your files with short, memorable names so that if you have to tell someone an address that includes a file
name, it will be easy to remember. Also, keep all your file and folder names in lower case with no spaces.
INSTRUCTION NOTE:
Avoid mixed case or upper case letters in all file and folder names used on the Web. Upper case letters are frequently
seen as different letters than their lower case counterparts in most operating systems.
This has major implications when you tell someone a Web address. For example, if you say an address that includes
a page name, like; www.whatever.com/WhateverPage.html. you will then have to explain which letters in the
page name are also upper case so it doesn't generate an error in their browser when they type it in. This makes it
much harder to remember the address.
File Management Goodness
To be established properly files and folders should contain names that are in all lower case with no spaces.
Underscores can be used, but avoid unusual characters and extra periods or punctuation in file and folder names. It
is preferable to use dashes instead of underscores in most cases when you are trying to improve your search engine
ranking.
These are proper file names:

o index.htm
o index.html
o my-dog-genevieve.jpg
Folder names should not include extensions or periods. Periods in folder names may have unintended
consequences when used with Web pages and Web browsers.
File Management Chaos
File management chaos is a disease which can infect even the most knowledgeable computer user. Don't let it infect
you.
Examples of file management chaos are:

1. When you say "my files just disappeared." Files are not magical -- they do not just disappear. You did
something with them, you just aren't sure what you did.
2. Sub-folders with the same name as their parent folder. In other words, you have a folder-within-a-folder
that both have the same name. These are just confusing and were caused by an improper use of a file
management utility program.
3. File names that include odd symbols, spaces, extra periods or upper or mixed case are not appropriate. The
following are examples of bad file names:
o Spiffy.html
o My cat fernando.JPG
o I_went_to_school.Then_I_went_home.htm
LESSON 6: Introduction to Computers: Maintenance and Security
I. Maintenance
Computer maintenance is the practice of keeping computers in a good state of repair. A computer containing
accumulated dust and debris may not run properly.
Why is regular maintenance necessary?

Computer system is a collection of complex machine and software, including moving parts that wear out with use
(hard drives), that performs trillions of calculations, using hundreds of parts and wires, and is under constant assault
by the processing needs of the applications, unwanted viruses/spyware and their own users. Because of these factors,
every computer requires regular service maintenance to keep the big problems away and maintain optimal
performance.
How to conserve your hard drive

1. Backing Up Files
Computer backup is a process of copying all your files, data and information to effectively create two
versions and store another copy on an external drive. It is designed to protect all of your important
files and pictures, even the ones you save to an external hard drive. With modern operating systems,
many backup options are done automatically by the computer and provide various options to recover files in a
crisis. Windows Vista introduced Windows Backup, and Apple computers use an application called Time
Machine. Backups contain a copy of the data saved on the computer‘s hard drive.
The only really effective form of backup is one that happens with no user input; it must be automatic with no need
to remember to initiate the backup.
Be sure to back up all your personal and business data on a regular basis. Using an external hard drive (connected
via USB, cloud computers etc) is usually the best way of backup.
There are also online backup systems that provide space to store your backup files using the Internet. iCloud is a
cloud storage and cloud computing service from Apple launched in 2011. As of January 2013, the service has more
than 250 million users. The service allows users to store data on remote computer servers for download to multiple
devices such phones, tablets and personal computers. It also acts as a data-syncing center for email, contacts,
calendars, bookmarks, notes, reminders (to-do lists), documents, photos and other data.
Dropbox is another free service that allows users to save copies of their files on online servers for backup purposes,
or to be able to share files easily with other computers connected to the Internet.
2. Defragment the hard drive

Defragging is the process of reorganizing the data on your hard drive to speed up file access. It breaks up a file into
smaller bits on your device. While every computer is different, you can usually find Defragment functions under
the System and Security tab in the Control Panel.
3. Configure your startup

You should periodically check in on the applications that automatically run at start-up. These applications can slow
down your computer. From the Settings tab, you should be able to navigate to the Startup to control which
applications run.
4. Run disk cleanup

You can free up disk space on your hard drive by running a disk cleanup. This will clean out temporary files and
extra language files as well as delete big attachments and more.
5. Install major computer updates

To keep your applications running safely and efficiently you should check for major computer updates at least once
a month. These updates can be critical for long-term health because they patch up critical security holes and remove
unnecessary features. You may also be able to adjust your setting so updates happen automatically.
Updating Software is very important to update your software regularly. When a program is released, particularly
Internet browsers, it may contain flaws (bugs). These bugs may be invisible to the user, however wrongdoers will
exploit these flaws for their own use. Ensuring your software is up to date is a very important step in keeping your
computer secure.
How to maintain your files

1. Move similar files into folders
2. Delete unused programs
3. Clear out the Recycling Bin
4. Remove temporary internet files
5. Transfer files to the cloud
6. Avoid overheating your device
7. Keep your cords organized
8. Don‘t overcharge your device
9. Keep food and drinks away
10. Avoid spam while browsing
How to protect the computer system against malware

Update antivirus software
Whenever an antivirus software update is available, you should run it that day to remove malware. These updates
introduce new software features or make improvements on current ones.
Generally, you can set your system up for automatic updates, but if you ever receive a notification from your current
antivirus software, you should complete the update as soon as possible.
II. SAFETY AND SECURITY

The computer system and its data is prevented from intruders by the use of password and data encryption. It is
protected against malware by anti-malware programs such as, anti-virus for example.
You can take safeguards against virus infection. The first thing people think of is to install a virus protection program
(anti-virus), however safe computing habits are often just as important. When you are accepting software
or scripts/macros on Internet sites or reading mail from unknown senders you are making your computer
vulnerable. Scripts or macros are small computer programs that contain a list of instructions for the computer to
perform.
An anti-virus program will be able to check files before you save, to analyze your computer for viruses and to repair
damage or delete files that are infected with viruses. However, you may have to replace infected files that cannot
be repaired. Antivirus programs automatically download regular updates (called definitions), which keep it up-to-
date and able to deal with new viruses as they are encountered. It is a constant struggle for manufacturers to stay
current with virus updates.
Types of Computer Viruses and Malware

Malware, short for malicious (or malevolent) software, is software used or created by attackers to disrupt computer
operation, gather sensitive information, or gain access to private computer systems. Malware is a general term used
to refer to a variety of forms of hostile or intrusive software and includes: computer viruses, ransomware, worms,
Trojan horses, rootkits, key loggers, spyware, adware, and other malicious programs. The majority of active
malware threats are usually worms (spread without human interaction) or Trojans (pretends to be a valid program)
rather than viruses. We‘ll keep things simple and just use the popular term ‗virus‘.
A virus is a self-duplicating malicious program designed by a computer programmer (malicious hacker) to do a
certain unwanted function. It can be very destructive and damage your computer‘s programs and files (software)
causing the computer to stop working. Though viruses do not damage computer hardware, there have been attempts
to create programs that will do things like run the hard drive until it fails or to lodge itself in the computer‘s clock
(which has a rechargeable battery) allowing it to remain active even months after the computer has been unplugged.
Reasons for malware creation

The reasons why hackers create viruses are open for speculation. Reasons range from simply to see if it can be
done, to anti-corporate actions, to criminal intent, etc.
Viruses can cause a great deal of damage to the software on computers it infects and it can cost a lot of time and
money to correct it. Computer viruses have been around for a long time (even before computers became widely
used) and they will likely remain with us forever. The main, common feature of a virus is that it is contagious! Their
unifying purpose is to spread and infect other computers.
A computer gets a virus from an infected file. A computer cannot get a virus from a plain text email message or
from a simple text file. That is because the virus needs to be ‗run‘ or executed before it can take effect. This usually
happens when the user tries to open an infected program, access an infected disk or open a file with an infected
macro or script attached to it. A plain email message is made up of text, which does not execute or run when opened.
Modern email programs provide the ability to allow users to format email messages with HTML and attach scripts
to them for various purposes. It is possible for a malicious hacker to attempt to spread a virus by building a virus
script into an HTML type of email message.
Methods of protecting computers from intruders

1. Firewalls
You should also use a firewall on your computer for added security. A firewall is a system that prevents
unauthorized use and access to your computer. A firewall can be either hardware or software based. Hardware
firewalls provide a strong degree of protection from most forms of attack coming from the outside world and can
be purchased as a stand-alone product or are contained in Internet routers.
For individual home users, the most popular firewall choice is a software firewall (both Windows and Macintosh
operating system software include a software firewall). A good software firewall will protect your computer from
outside attempts to control or gain access your computer.
It is important to remember that on its own a firewall is not going to rid you of your computer virus problems, but
when used in conjunction with regular operating system updates and a good anti-virus scanning software, it will
add some extra security and protection for your computer or network.
2. Internet Safety (data encryption)

There are many different types of security systems online though most people use a process called encryption.
Data encryption is a security method where information is encoded and can only be accessed or decrypted
by a user with the correct encryption key that is, it is changed into a non-readable form. Encrypted data,
also known as cipher text, appears scrambled or unreadable to a person or entity accessing without
permission. Data Encryption is used to deter malicious or negligent parties from accessing sensitive data.
A cookie, also known as an HTTP cookie, web cookie, or browser cookie, is usually a small piece of data sent
from a website and stored in a user‘s web browser while a user is browsing a website. When the user browses the
same website in the future, the data stored in the cookie can be retrieved by the website to notify the website of the
user‘s previous activity. Cookies were designed to be a reliable mechanism for websites to remember the state of
the website or activity the user had taken in the past. Cookies perform essential functions in the modern Web,
including authentication cookies to verify a user‘s identity and if they are logged in.
Although cookies cannot carry viruses, and cannot install malware on the host computer, tracking cookies and
especially third-party tracking cookies are commonly used as ways to compile long-term records of individuals‘
browsing histories — a major privacy concern that prompted European and US law makers to take action in 2011.
3. Passwords
A password is a secret word or string of characters that is used for user authentication to prove identity, or to gain
access. A typical computer user has passwords for many purposes: logging in to accounts, retrieving e-mail,
accessing applications, databases, networks, web sites, and even reading the morning newspaper online.
Most organizations specify a password policy that sets requirements for the composition and usage of passwords,
typically dictating minimum length, required categories (e.g. upper and lower case, numbers, special characters),
and prohibited elements (e.g. own name, D.O.B., address, telephone number, etc.).
Passwords are the most common form of security, but they are really not very secure. How do our online passwords
fall? In every imaginable way: They‘re guessed, hacked from website‘s database, cracked by brute force, stolen
with a key logger, or reset completely by conning a company‘s customer support department.
Trav’s Tips: DON’T
 Reuse passwords on different sites. If you do, a hacker who gets just one of your accounts will own them
all.
 Use a dictionary word as your password. If you must, then string several together into a pass phrase.
 Use standard number substitutions. Think “P455w0rd” is a good password? N0p3! Cracking tools now
have those built in.
 Use a short password—no matter how weird. Today’s processing speeds mean that even passwords like
“h6!r$q” are quickly crackable. Your best defense is the longest possible password.
But here‘s the problem: the more services used = more passwords needed = more user trouble in remembering all
those difficult passwords! Security and practicality are in conflict. Obviously, we need something that is both secure
and which we can remember. Using meaningless sequences of letters, numbers, and characters is more secure but
not practical.
Summary Advice for maintaining computer security.
 Always make sure your firewall is turned on. Update computer operating systems as necessary. With Microsoft or
Apple, this can happen automatically if you enable it.
 Use complex passwords. Don‘t make it easy for hackers to guess passwords you might pick. Install a filter designed
to ensure that the emails that get into your computer don‘t intend you any malice.
 Use anti-malware and anti-virus programs, but don‘t rely on any one solely.
 Avoid pirated software, which is not only illegal but can't be upgraded and offers no support.
 Be especially wary of unsecured Wi-Fi sites. Save sensitive transactions for home, office or places where you know
your computer is protected. You don‘t have to make financial transactions, for example, in a restaurant or café.
 Don‘t disclose sensitive information online. Phishing attacks are the computer equivalent of someone contacting
you by phone purporting to represent your credit union and asking for key data, such as your Social Security number.
That is something your credit union would never do. Nor would it do the same thing by computer. Always have the
antennae up for suspicious behavior such as this. If you receive this kind of request by email and wonder if it has
any credibility, call the credit union or whoever is initiating the contact and ask. Don‘t click onto a link in the email.
 Turn your computer off when you‘re done.
The 25 Most Popular Passwords of 2012

1. password (Unchanged) 10. baseball (Up 1) 19. ashley (Down 3)
2, 123456 (Unchanged) 11. iloveyou (Up 2) 20. football (Up 5)
3. 12345678 (Unchanged) 12. trustno1 (Down 3) 21. jesus (New)
4. abc123 (Up 1) 13. 1234567 (Down 6) 22. michael (Up 2)
5. qwerty (Down 1) 14. sunshine (Up 1) 23. ninja (New)
6. monkey (Unchanged) 15. master (Down 1) 24. mustang (New)
7. letmein (Up 1) 16. 123123 (Up 4) 25. password1 (New)
8. dragon (Up 2) 17. welcome (New)
9. 111111 (Up 3) 18. shadow (Up 1)
LESSON 7: CLOUD COMPUTING

It is the practice of using a network of remote servers hosted on the internet to store, manage, and process data, rather
than a local server or a personal computer.
 Cloud computing is Internet-based computing, whereby shared resources, software, and information are
provided to computers and other devices on demand, like the electricity grid.
 A Cloud is a type of parallel and distributed system consisting of a collection of interconnected and virtualized
computers that are dynamically provisioned and presented as one or more unified computing resources based on
service-level agreements established through negotiation between the service provider and consumers.
Properties & Characteristics
1) Scalability > Elasticity

Cloud computing has an elastic, dynamic provision and multi-tenant design. That is, it has the ability to be changed in
size, scale and to host millions of users.
2) Availability and reliability

Cloud computing is subjected to;
 Fault tolerance: A process that permits a software to response to responds to a fault in a software or
hardware and still continue to operate without failure.
 System resilience: The ability to recover quickly and continue operating normally after the failure.
 And system security: The act of being free from online danger around the system.
3) Performance and optimization

cloud computing can carry out;
 Parallel processing: A mode of operation where a process is splited into different parts which are executed
simultaneously on different processors attached on the same computer systems.
 Load balancing: A process of redistribution of workload in a distributed system like cloud computing
ensuring no computing machine is overloaded, under-loaded or idle.
 Job scheduling: Job scheduling basically implies mapping jobs to the available ingredient resources in cloud
computing environment. Before scheduling, we need to do resource provisioning. Provisioning means
formally allocation of the resources for the execution of nay application. Scheduling help to optimize the
resources as per the requirement given by user.
4) Accessibility and portability
Activities in cloud computing are;
 Uniformly accessed: that is whether implemented or not, all services in cloud computing are uniformly
available.
 Thin client: Computers are using resources housed inside a cloud computing server, as opposed to the hard
drive where most of the resources are found on the environmental host.
5) Manageability and interoperability

Cloud computing has the ability of;
 Control Automation: The mechanism or a device inside an application that controls
 a set of rules or processes automatically.
 System monitoring: checking and controlling the progress or quality of processes.
 Billing System: A payment software which bills customers automatically online.
Types of cloud computing services
A. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)

 This is a type of cloud computing where customers only use cloud computing as the main infrastructures, but
most of the fundamental operations and applications such as processing, storage, networks, operating system,
deploy applications are provided by the customer. That is, the consumer does not manage or control the
underlying cloud infrastructure but has control over operating systems, storage, deployed applications, and
possibly limited control of select networking components.
 The capability provided to the consumer is to provision processing, storage, networks, and other fundamental
computing resources where the consumer is able to deploy and run arbitrary software, which can include
operating systems and applications.
Examples: Amazon EC2, Eucalyputs, OpenNebula… etc
Application Deployment (also referred to as Software Deployment) is the process of installing, configuring,
and enabling a specific application or set of applications, usually through an application manager (app
manager) or software management system, to a specific URL on a server. That is, the completion of software
and complete delivery to end users.
B. Platform as a Service (PaaS)

 Here, the capability provided to the consumer is to deploy onto the cloud infrastructure consumer-created or
acquired applications created using programming languages and tools supported by the provider. The
customers are only provided with deployed applications.
 The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure including network, servers,
operating systems or storage, but has control over the deployed applications and possibly application hosting
environment configurations.
Examples: Microsoft Windows Azure, Google App Engine, Hadoop (High Availability Distributed
Object Oriented Platform) … etc.
C. Software as a Service (SaaS)
The capability provided to the consumer is to use the provider‘s applications running on a cloud infrastructure.
The applications are accessible from various client devices through a thin client interface such as a web
browser (e.g., web-based email).
The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure including network, servers,
operating systems, storage, or even individual application capabilities, with the possible exception of limited
user-specific application configuration settings.
Examples : Google Apps (e.g., Gmail, Google Docs, Google sites, …etc)
CLOUD DEPLOYMENT MODELS

Four types of cloud deployment models: public clouds, private clouds, community clouds, and hybrid clouds. A
cloud deployment model is defined according to where the infrastructure for the deployment resides and who has
control over that infrastructure. Deciding which deployment model you will go with is one of the most important
cloud deployment decisions you will make.
Each cloud deployment model satisfies different organizational needs, so it‘s important that you choose a model that
will satisfy the needs of your organization. Perhaps even more important is the fact that each cloud deployment
model has a different value proposition and different costs associated with it. Therefore, in many cases, your choice
of a cloud deployment model may simply come down to money. In any case, to be able to make an informed decision,
you need to be aware of the characteristics of each environment.
Cloud deployment models indicate how the cloud services are made available to users. The four deployment models
associated with cloud computing are as follows:
1. Public cloud:
As the name suggests, this type of cloud deployment model supports all users who want to make use of a computing
resource, such as hardware (OS, CPU, memory, storage) or software (application server, database) on a subscription
basis. Most common uses of public clouds are for application development and testing, non-mission-critical tasks
such as file-sharing, and e-mail service.
With public clouds, the cost is typically low for the end user and there is no capital expenditure involved.
2. Private cloud:
True to its name, a private cloud is typically infrastructure used by a single organization. Such infrastructure may be
managed by the organization itself to support various user groups, or it could be managed by a service provider that
takes care of it either on-site or off-site. Private clouds are more expensive than public clouds due to the capital
expenditure involved in acquiring and maintaining them. However, private clouds are better able to address the
security and privacy concerns of organizations today.
Use of private clouds involves capital expenditure, but the expenditure is still lower than the cost of owning and
operating the infrastructure due to private clouds' greater level of consolidation and resource pooling. Private clouds
also offer more security and compliance support than public clouds. As such, some organizations may choose to use
private clouds for their more mission-critical, secure applications and public clouds for basic tasks such as application
development and testing environments, and e-mail services.
3. Hybrid cloud:
In a hybrid cloud, an organization makes use of interconnected private and public cloud infrastructure. Many
organizations make use of this model when they need to scale up their IT infrastructure rapidly, such as when
leveraging public clouds to supplement the capacity available within a private cloud. For example, if an online retailer
needs more computing resources to run its Web applications during the holiday season it may attain those resources
via public clouds.
4. Community cloud:
This deployment model supports multiple organizations sharing computing resources that are part of a community;
examples include universities cooperating in certain areas of research, or police departments within a county or state
sharing computing resources. Access to a community cloud environment is typically restricted to the members of the
community.
TIP
Using hypervisor-based virtualization software to provide isolation between different customer environments can
lead to increased utilization of system resources such as CPU and memory. Using native virtualization
technologies offered by hardware vendors, such as Solaris Zones when using the Oracle Solaris operating system,
can be much more effective and efficient depending on the customer environment. Native virtualization technologies
offered by hardware vendors are more restrictive in terms of what is supported than hypervisor-based virtualization
software.
Cloud computing architecture
Change Control
Changes to an operational environment are inevitable as a system undergoes routine maintenance. However, some
changes may cause significant impacts to the security posture of the cloud service.63 Therefore, the CSP is
required to report ―changes in the CSP‘s point of contact with FedRAMP, changes in the CSP‘s risk posture, changes
to any applications residing on the cloud system, and/or changes to the cloud system infrastructure‖ and submit any
residual artifacts associated with significant changes such as the SSP, security impacts analysis, and a re-assessment
by a 3PAO to the FedRAMP PMO.
Cloud Logging
We covered a lot of material in this chapter. The main points to know:

▪ Cloud service delivery models: The three basic types are SaaS, IaaS, and PaaS
▪ Cloud deployment models: The four basic types are Public, Private, Community, and Hybrid
▪ Cloud logging: It‘s a young field which is growing every day. Be sure you understand what it is you and your
organization require before you embark on logging all your log data to the cloud. Be sure to ask lots of questions of
whatever perspective provider you are interested in using.
▪ SIEM in the cloud: MSSPs have supported this model for years. Traditional Shrink-wrapped SIEM vendors are
starting to realize the value in this model and are scrambling to build cloud capabilities and offerings into their
products.
▪ Security concerns: Be sure you understand how the provider approaches IT security. Also, make sure you
understand your responsibility when it comes to legislative and regulatory compliance when operating in a cloud
environment.
UNIT TWO: KEY APPLICATION PROGRAMS

You may have heard people talking about using a program, an application, or an app. But what exactly does that
mean? Simply put, an app is a type of software that allows you to perform specific tasks. Applications for desktop
or laptop computers are sometimes called desktop applications, while those for mobile devices are called mobile
apps.
When you open an application, it runs inside the operating system until you close it. Most of the time, you will have
more than one application open at the same time, which is known as multi-tasking.
Below are just a few types of applications you might use.in short, Microsoft office programs are most commonly
used on modern computers:
1. Word processors (E.g. MS Word)

This is a type of an application which allows the user to write a letter, design a flyer, and create many other types of
documents. The most well-known word processor is Microsoft Word, WordPad. Microsoft Word. Lotus word
pro. Notepad. WordPerfect (Windows only), AppleWorks (Mac only), Work pages. OpenOffice Writer. (Go to
practical for details).
2. A spreadsheet program (E.g. MS Excel)

A spreadsheet is a software program you use to easily perform mathematical calculations on statistical data and totaling
long columns of numbers or determining percentages and averages. It can also can use a spreadsheet to generate data
visualizations like charts to display the statistical information you‘ve compiled on a website.
And if any of the raw numbers you put into your spreadsheet should change – like if you obtain final figures to
substitute for preliminary ones for example – the spreadsheet will update all the calculations you‘ve performed based
on the new numbers. Examples includes; MS Excel, Lotus1-2-3 etc. (Go to practical for details).
3. Database application program (E.g. MS Access)

A database application is a computer program whose primary purpose is retrieving information from a
computerized database. A characteristic of modern database applications is that they facilitate simultaneous updates
and queries from multiple users. Some examples of popular database software or DBMSs include MySQL, Microsoft
Access, Microsoft SQL Server, FileMaker Pro, Oracle Database, and dBase. (Go to practical for details).
4. A presentation program (E.g. MS PowerPoint)

In computing, a presentation program (also called presentation software) is a software package used to display
information in the form of a slide show. It has three major functions: an editor that allows text to be inserted and
formatted. a method for inserting and manipulating graphic images and media clips.
Microsoft PowerPoint is a powerful slide show presentation program. It is a standard component of the company's
Microsoft Office suite software, and is bundled together with Word, Excel, and other office productivity tools. Some
other examples of presentation software include; Google Slides. Microsoft PowerPoint, iWork Keynote on the
Apple, OpenOffice Impress.
UNIT 3: LIVING ONLINE

This consists of:
Internet, managing media literacy, digital communication, understanding emails, contacts and calendars and
life online.
LESSON 1: INTERNET
The simplest definition of the Internet is that it's a network of computer networks. The Internet is a vast
network that connects computers all over the world. Through the Internet, millions of computer are
connected all over the world by people to share information and communicate from anywhere.
How Information Travel Through the Internet

A page on the Internet—whether it's full of words, images or both—doesn't come to you in one shipment.
It's translated into digital information, chopped into 1500 byte pieces called PACKETS, and sent to you like
a puzzle that needs to be reassembled. Each part of the packet has a specific function:
Header Sequence ID
Provides the complete destination ID‘s where the information belongs in
address for the packet. relation to the rest of the information.
End of Message
ID‘s the end of the packet
Data Block
The portion of the overall
information carried by the packet.
When you connect to a Web site through an ISP and start exchanging information, there isn't a fixed
connection between your computer and the Web server computer hosting the Web site. Instead, information
is exchanged using the best possible path at that particular time. Special computers called routers determine
these paths, avoiding slow links and favoring fast ones.
LESSON 2: MANAGING MEDIA LITERACY

Defining media literacy
In The Changing Nature and Uses of Media Literacy2
, I define media literacy as ―the ability to access, analyze, evaluate and create messages across a variety of contexts‖.
This four-component model has the advantage of applying equally well to print, broadcasting and the internet. This is
familiar territory for print and broadcasting, subject of many policy initiatives and educational curricula. This may
encompass internet literacy, thus.
1. Access
Access rests on a dynamic and social process, not a one-off act of provision. Once initial access is established,
developing literacy leads users to alter significantly and continually the conditions of access (updating, upgrading and
extending hardware and software applications). Problematically, given socio-demographic inequalities in material,
social and symbolic resources, inequalities in access to online knowledge, communication and participation will
continue.
2. Analysis
People‘s engagement with both print and audiovisual media has been shown to rely on a range of analytic
competencies. In the audiovisual domain these include an understanding of the agency, categories, technologies,
languages, representations and audiences for media.
At present, not only is a parallel account of internet-related analytic skills highly underdeveloped but the public has
yet to develop such skills and so to make the most of online opportunities.
3. Evaluation
There is little point in access or analysis without judgement, but a stress on evaluation raises, rightly, some difficult
policy questions when specifying and legitimating appropriate bases of critical literacy – aesthetic, political,
ideological and/or economic. The scope and purpose of evaluation is also disputed: is media literacy intended to
promote a democratized, diverse, anti-elitist approach to online representations or should it underpin a more traditional,
hierarchical discrimination of good from bad, authoritative from unauthorized, information and communication?
4. Content creation
Although not all definitions of media literacy include the requirement to create, to produce symbolic texts, it is argued
first, that people attain a deeper understanding of the conventions and merits of professionally produced material if
they have direct experience of content production and second, that the internet par excellence is a medium which offers
hitherto unimagined opportunities for ordinary people to create online content. To exclude this from a definition of
media literacy would be to greatly under-utilized the potential of the internet for the public.
Children
In relation to children, a population of specific concern, their evident expertise in relation to the internet may often
exceed that of their parents. However, it is considerably less strong in relation to evaluation skills and content creation
skills. Thus children and young people are much better at accessing and finding things on the internet than they in
relation to other aspects of media literacy. Thus they are as yet insufficiently competent at judging the merits
of information they find, at avoiding some of the risks posed to them by the internet, and at contributing actively
themselves to content or participatory fora online.
Issues to be addressed
Having advocated this skills-based approach to media literacy in relation to the internet, there are some outstanding
issues for new media literacy, crucial to any policy of promoting media literacy among the population.
Relating individual skill, cultural knowledge and technological design

While insights from print and audiovisual media provide a valuable starting point, the literacy required for the use of
new media, especially the internet, is also new in ways yet to be established. This is because media literacy is not
reducible to a feature or skill of the user, but is better understood as a co-production of the interactive engagement
between technology and user. Consequently, literacy is dependent on interface design and it changes as
technology changes.
The means of promoting media literacy

Several models exist for promoting and assessing public awareness and understanding, each of which could, with
differing advantages and disadvantages, be applied to media literacy:
Education: Children (and a small number of adults in further/higher education) are already routinely assessed through
tests and exams for their media literacy, following delivery of a formal curriculum. Adults in the population at large
could also be assessed using similar tests, and presumably their knowledge could then be graded according to the levels
of the National Curriculum.
Public understanding of science: The public understanding of science model is a sizeable research program used
specifically to evaluate adults‘ knowledge of science. Since it seems that OFCOM will be required to promote adults‘
understanding of the systems and processes by which electronic media are made available, regulated and received, the
survey methods established to measure aspects of public understanding and knowledge in the scientific domain may
provide an appropriate methodology.
Print literacy: Measurement of print literacy among the adult population has a long history (with the most recent
OECD figures showing "between one-quarter and three-quarters of adults fail to attain literacy level 3, considered by
experts as a suitable minimum level skill for coping with the demands of modern life and work"; OECD, 2000). This
model would suggest extending the measurement of print literacy to include audiovisual and screen-based media.
Health promotion: Public communication to improve health-related practices (eg the safe sex campaign, the anti-
smoking campaign) seek to evaluate public knowledge and understanding following a particular campaign. Assuming
OFCOM engages in specific activities – including information campaigns - to promote media literacy, parallel methods
could be employed to evaluate take-up of the messages thereby promoted across different sectors of the population.
The purpose of promoting media literacy

What are the institutional, commercial and public interests at stake in promoting media literacy?
Is media literacy intended to promote ideals of self-actualization, cultural expression and aesthetic creativity or are
these subordinate to the use of literacy to achieve a competitive advantage vital to a globalized information society? I
argue that media literacy, like print literacy before it, should be recognized as a key means, even a right, by which
citizens participate in society and by which the state regulates the manner and purposes of citizens‘
participation.
Why media literacy matters

Media literacy therefore concerns the relationship among textuality, competence and power. Indeed, literacy is a
concept grounded in a centuries-old struggle between enlightenment and critical scholarship, setting those who see
literacy as democratizing, empowering of ordinary people against those who see it as elitist, divisive, a source of
inequality. Debates over literacy are, in short, debates about the manner and purposes of public participation in
society. Without a democratic and critical approach to media literacy, the public will be positioned merely as selective
receivers, consumers of online information and communication. The promise of media literacy, surely, is that it can
form part of a strategy to reposition the media user - from passive to active, from recipient to participant, from
consumer to citizen.
LESSON 3: DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

Digital communication is the process of devices communicating information digitally. Digital communication systems,
by definition, are communication systems that use such a digital1 sequence as an interface between the source
and the channel input (and similarly between the channel output and final destination). Digital communication is any
type of communication that relies on the use of technology. There are many types of digital communication, commonly
referred to as digital communication channels. These include email, phone calls, video conferencing, and many
types of instant messaging like SMS and web chats. Even blogs, podcasts, and videos are considered forms of digital
communication.
The conventional or traditional methods of communication used analog signals for long distance
communications, which suffer from many losses such as distortion, interference, and other losses
including security breach.
In order to overcome these problems, the signals are digitized using different techniques. The digitized
signals allow the communication to be more clear and accurate without losses.
The following figure indicates the difference between analog and digital signals. The digital signals consist
of 1s and 0s which indicate High and Low values respectively.
Characteristics of Digital Communication

 More interactive
 More participatory
 More egalitarian
 More decentralized
 Less hierarchical
Elements of Digital Communication

The elements which form a digital communication system is represented by the following block diagram for the ease
of understanding.
Following are the sections of the digital communication system.
Source
The source can be an analog signal. Example: A Sound signal
Input Transducer
This is a transducer which takes a physical input and converts it to an electrical signal (Example: microphone). This
block also consists of an analog to digital converter where a digital signal is needed for further processes.
A digital signal is generally represented by a binary sequence.
Source Encoder
The source encoder compresses the data into minimum number of bits. This process helps in effective utilization of
the bandwidth. It removes the redundant bits unnecessaryexcessbits,i.e.,zeroesunnecessaryexcessbits,i.e.,zeroes.
Channel Encoder
The channel encoder, does the coding for error correction. During the transmission of the signal, due to the noise in
the channel, the signal may get altered and hence to avoid this, the channel encoder adds some redundant bits to the
transmitted data. These are the error correcting bits.
Digital Modulator
The signal to be transmitted is modulated here by a carrier. The signal is also converted to analog from the digital
sequence, in order to make it travel through the channel or medium.
Channel
The channel or a medium, allows the analog signal to transmit from the transmitter end to the receiver end.
Digital Demodulator
This is the first step at the receiver end. The received signal is demodulated as well as converted again from analog
to digital. The signal gets reconstructed here.
Channel Decoder
The channel decoder, after detecting the sequence, does some error corrections. The distortions which might occur
during the transmission, are corrected by adding some redundant bits. This addition of bits helps in the complete
recovery of the original signal.
Source Decoder
The resultant signal is once again digitized by sampling and quantizing so that the pure digital output is obtained
without the loss of information. The source decoder recreates the source output.
Output Transducer
This is the last block which converts the signal into the original physical form, which was at the input of the
transmitter. It converts the electrical signal into physical output (Example: loud speaker).
Output Signal
This is the output which is produced after the whole process. Example − The sound signal received.
This unit has dealt with the introduction, the digitization of signals, the advantages and the elements of digital
communications. In the coming chapters, we will learn about the concepts of Digital communications, in
detail.
Essential Digital Communication Channels for Business
A) Social Media
Social media are internet based platforms and applications that enable users to create and share content or to
participate in social networking. Social media marketing is the use of social media platforms to connect with your
audience to build your brand, increase sales, and drive website traffic.72% of U.S. adults use social media, with
Facebook, YouTube, Twitter, Instagram, and LinkedIn being the most popular platforms. Social media allows
people worldwide to connect with friends, family, celebrities, and brands through bite-sized textual and visual
content. Social media is the top-ranked channel for connecting with customers, and 57% of customers will increase
their spending if they feel connected to a brand. Some common examples of social medial include: YouTube,
Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, WhatsApp etc
B) Email Marketing
Emails are messages distributed by electronic means from one computer user to one or more recipients via a
network. Email marketing is the use of email within your marketing efforts to promote a business's products and
services, as well as incentivize customer loyalty. Email marketing is a form of marketing that can make the
customers on your email list aware of new products, discounts, and other services.
Email is the currency of the web, and anybody online has an active email address. And when it comes to
conversions, there isn‘t a more powerful channel than email. The average click-through rate of an email campaign is
around 3% of total recipients, whereas the average click-through rate from a tweet is around 0.5%.
This means you are 6x more likely to get someone to click through to your website via email than you are from
Twitter.
C) Blogs
A blog a regularly updated website or web page, typically one run by an individual or small group, that is written
in an informal or conversational style. It is possible to build a cycle of publications with blogs and create new ways
of approaching your audience. The idea of the blog is to expose your knowledge showing not only the subject in
which you have recognized authority but also covering general topics of interest to your audience.
It is crucial to keep the blog constantly updated. In this way, you create a dynamic since your audience knows that
you will always publish texts. That increases your visibility, loyalty to your visitors and conquers the confidence of
your client.
D) Websites
A website is a set of related web pages located under a single domain name, typically produced by a single
person or organization. And 69% of Americans have purchased an item from the website. Information, products and
servi8ces are disposed on websites.
E) Videos
Nowadays, videos aren‘t only used to entertain or promote products and services. They are produced and also used
for didactical and educational purposes.
Your audience needs to have an authentic experience that is interesting to guide them to the video‘s primary
objective, which is either selling or informing something.
In addition to being fast and attractive, this type of content facilitates the understanding of the message.
F) Phone calls
One of the most common communication channels in business is a phone call. A quick phone call can clear up
confusion or convey new information across long distances, and conference calls can allow multiple people to take
part and elaborate on their perspectives
Advantages of Digital Communication

As the signals are digitized, there are many advantages of digital communication over analog communication, such
as :
 Digital communication is fast, efficient, and convenient.
 The effect of distortion, noise, and interference is much less in digital signals as they are less affected.
 Digital circuits are more reliable.
 Digital circuits are easy to design and cheaper than analog circuits.
 The hardware implementation in digital circuits, is more flexible than analog.
 The occurrence of cross-talk is very rare in digital communication.
 The signal is un-altered as the pulse needs a high disturbance to alter its properties, which is very difficult.
 Signal processing functions such as encryption and compression are employed in digital circuits to maintain
the secrecy of the information.
 The probability of error occurrence is reduced by employing error detecting and error correcting codes.
 The configuring process of digital signals is easier than analog signals.
 Digital signals can be saved and retrieved more conveniently than analog signals.
 Many of the digital circuits have almost common encoding techniques and hence similar devices can be used
for a number of purposes.
 The capacity of the channel is effectively utilized by digital signals.
Disadvantages of digital communication in the workplace

Digital communication has also presented security challenges for many companies. Hackers can make their way into
virtual meetings and hijack the call; email phishing opens a door for the entire organization‘s online systems to be
compromised. Every time company data is transmitted over the internet, there is a risk that this information won‘t
remain private.
LESSON 4: UNDERSTANDING EMAILS
Introduction to Email
Do you ever feel like the only person who doesn't use email? You don't have to feel left out. If you're just getting
started, you'll see that with a little bit of practice, email is easy to understand and use.
In this lesson, you will learn what email is, how it compares to traditional mail, and how email addresses are
written. The various types of email providers and the features and tools they include with an email account will be
highlighted here too.
Getting to know email

Email (electronic mail): They messages distributed by electronic means from one computer user to one or more recipients
via a network. Only those who have email addresses or accounts can exchange email messages.it is one of the most secured
means of information exchange. It is another to form of sending and receiving messages across the Internet.
Advantages of Email
1) Privacy: Your email is delivered to your own personal and private account with a password required to
access and view emails.
2) Communication with multiple people: You can send an email to multiple people at once, giving you the
option to include as few as or as many people as you want in a conversation.
3) Accessible anywhere at any time: You don‘t have to be at home to get your mail. You can access it from
any computer or mobile device that has an Internet connection.
4) Productivity tools: Email is usually packaged with a calendar, address book, instant messaging, and more
for convenience and productivity.
5) Access to web services: If you want to sign up for an account like Facebook or order products from services
like Amazon, you will need an email address so you can be safely identified and contacted.
6) Easy mail management: Email service providers have tools that allow you to file, label, prioritize, find, group,
and filter your emails for easy management. You can even easily control spam, or junk email.
Understanding email addresses

To receive emails, you will need an email account and an email address. Also, if you want to send emails to other
people, you will need to obtain their email addresses. It's important to learn how to write email addresses correctly
because if you do not enter them exactly right, your emails will not be delivered or might be delivered to the wrong
person.
Email addresses are always written in a standard format that includes a user name, the @ (at) symbol, and the
email provider's domain. E.g.: ndzoroland@gmail.com.
Here;
 The user name is (njberi) which is the name you choose to identify yourself.
 The email provider is (yahoo) which is the website that hosts your email account.
 The domain name is (.com) which is the field under which the account is dealing with. some example of
domain names includes: .com, .org, .net, .cm, .edu etc
Webmail providers
Today, the top three webmail providers are Yahoo!, Microsoft's Outlook.com (previously Hotmail), and Google's
Gmail. These providers are popular because they allow you to access your email account from anywhere with an
Internet connection. You can also access webmail on your mobile device.
Visit the links below to compare the features of the three top webmail providers:
Getting started with email

It's a useful course for learning the basics, even if you ultimately end up choosing an email
provider other than Gmail, such as Yahoo! or Outlook.com. There, you will learn how to:
 Sign up for an email account,
 Navigate and get to know the email interface,
 Compose, manage, and respond to email,
 Set up email on a mobile device.
Common Email Features

Introduction
No matter which email service you choose, you'll need to learn how to interact with an email interface, including the
inbox, the Message pane, and the Compose pane. Depending on the email provider, the interfaces may look and
feel different, but they all function in essentially the same way.
In this lesson, we'll talk about using an email interface to send and receive messages. We'll also discuss various
terms, actions, and features that are commonly used when working with email.
 Inbox: The inbox is where you'll view and manage emails you receive. Emails are listed with the name of the sender,
the subject of the message, and the date received.
 Message pane: When you select an email in the inbox, it will open in the Message pane. From here, you can read the
message and choose how to respond with a variety of commands.
 Compose pane: You can click the Compose or New button from your inbox to open the Compose pane to create your
own email message. From here, you'll need to enter the recipient's email address and a subject. You'll also have
the option to upload files (photos, documents, etc.) as attachments and add formatting to the message. A Compose
pane will also appear when you select Reply or Forward. The text from the original message will be copied into the
Compose pane.
 Forward: Whenever you want to share an email you've received; you can use the Forward command to send the
message to another person.
Email Etiquette and Safety
Introduction
Like any form of online communication, it's important to practice good etiquette and safety when using email.
Etiquette is a set of rules and guidelines that people use to communicate more effectively. You should also know
how to protect yourself from certain risks, like malware and phishing.
In this lesson, we'll discuss how to write good email etiquette, both for personal use and in the workplace, different
strategies for using email safely.
Tips for email success

Here are some basic rules you can follow to write better emails, no matter who you're emailing. In some cases, it's
OK to break these rules. Use these rules as a starting point, then tailor each email you send based on the situation.
Email attachment etiquette

Attachments are an easy way to share files, photos, and more, but many people aren't aware of some of the
most common attachment mistakes. Be sure to follow these basic rules when including attachments in your
emails:
1) Mention included attachments: Never attach a file without mentioning it in the body of your email. On the other
hand, make sure the attachments you mention are actually included with the message—it's easy to focus on your
message and forget to include the file itself. We recommend attaching any files before you start writing.
2) Consider file size and format: Avoid sending excessively large attachments or uncompressed photos, which can
take a long time for your recipients to download. You can always ZIP or compress files to make them easier to
send. Additionally, make sure your attachments don't need to be viewed in a specific application—use universal
file types like .PDF, .RTF, and .JPG.
3) Only include related files: If you need to send a lot of different files to the same person, consider sending the
attachments through multiple emails. If you include several unrelated files in the same email, it can be difficult for
your recipients to find the exact file they need. While attachments are still an easy way to share files quickly over
email, many people have begun using cloud based storage services like Google Drive and Microsoft OneDrive to
share large files. Rather than sharing the file itself, you can share a link, allowing others to access the file remotely.
Using email in business

Whether you're using email at work or applying for a job, the normal rules of email etiquette still apply. However,
there are a few additional considerations to keep in mind, as business emails can affect your professional
reputation. Remember, you should never use your work email account for personal communication. It's best to get
your own personal account from a webmail service like Gmail, Yahoo!, or Outlook.com
EMAIL SAFETY
Email is not totally secure, so you should avoid sending sensitive information like credit card numbers, passwords, and
your Social Security Number. In addition, you may receive emails from scammers and cybercriminals. The first step
in dealing with email safety concerns is understanding them so you know what to look for:
a) Spam: Spam is another term for junk email or unwanted email advertisements. It's best to ignore or delete these
messages. Luckily, most email services offer some protection, including spam filtering.
b) Phishing: Certain emails pretend to be from a bank or trusted source in order to steal your personal information.
It's easy for someone to create an email that looks like it's from a specific business. Be especially cautious of any
emails requesting an urgent response.
c) Attachments: Some email attachments can contain viruses and other malware. It's generally safest not to open any
attachment you weren't expecting. If a friend sends you an attachment, you may want to ask if he or she meant to
send it before downloading.
Setting up your own email account

Now that you've finished exploring Email Basics, you may feel ready to set up your own email account. You can get
a free email account from any major webmail provider, including Yahoo!, Outlook.com, and Gmail.
AVOIDING SPAM AND PHISHING

From email to instant messaging to social media, the Internet is an essential communication tool. Unfortunately, it's
also popular among scammers and cybercriminals. To protect yourself from email scams, malicious software, and
identity theft, you'll need to understand how to identify and avoid potentially dangerous content in your inbox,
including spam and phishing attempts.
Spam filters
Whenever you receive an email, most email providers will check to see if it's a real message or spam. Any likely
spam messages will be placed in the spam folder so you don‘t accidentally open them when checking your email.
Spam-blocking systems aren‘t perfect, though, and there may be times when legitimate emails end up in your spam
folder. We recommend checking your spam folder regularly to make sure you aren‘t missing any important emails.
Many email services also have a feature you can use to mark emails as spam. In Gmail, for example, you can
select the message and click the Mark as Spam button. This helps your email provider filter out these types of
messages in the future.
Turning off email images

Spam messages often contain images that the sender can track. When you open the email, the images will load and the
spammer will be able to tell if your email works, which could result in even more spam. You can avoid this by turning
off email images.
Other common email scams
Spam and phishing are common problems, but there are many other types of email scams you may encounter. Some
will promise to give you a lot of money if you advance a small amount upfront. Others may pretend to be from people
you know in real life, and they'll often ask you to send money or download an attached file. As with spam and phishing
scams, remember to trust your best judgement:
 You should never send someone money just because you've received an email request.
 You should also never download email attachments you weren't expecting because they might contain malware that
could damage your computer and steal your personal information. Spam, scams, and phishing schemes will continue
to evolve and change. But now that you know what to look for and what to avoid—you can keep your inbox and
computer that much safer.
LESSON 5: CONTACTS AND CALENDARS

Introduction
In addition to email services, most webmail providers offer an online calendar and address book. These features
make it easy to stay focused, organized and access your important information from anywhere.
In this lesson, you'll learn more about the basics of online calendars and contacts lists using examples from a few
common webmail providers, including Yahoo! and Gmail.
I. CONTACTS BASICS
Online contacts lists help you organize contact information for your friends, family, and coworkers, just like an
address book. Once people are added to your contacts list, it's easy to access their information anytime and
anywhere.
Adding contacts
It's easy to add people to your contacts list. When you create a new contact, you should (at the very least) enter a
first and last name, as well as an email address. However, you can also enter other information, like a phone
number, home address, and more. In most email accounts, the name and email of anyone you correspond with
will be added to your contacts list automatically.
Selecting contacts
Once you've added people to your contacts list, you'll never have to worry about remembering an email address.
Whenever you create a new email, you can select to add Recipients button.
Then choose recipients from your contacts list. The contacts' email addresses will be added automatically to the
message. You'll even be able to use the same contact information for other webmail services, like instant messaging
and calendar sharing. Most email services will also autocomplete or suggest an email address when you start typing,
as long as it's an address that's already been saved in your contacts.
Linking contacts
If you already have a lot of contacts saved in another web-based service, such as Facebook or LinkedIn, it's easy
to link them between accounts, which can save you a lot of time. For example, you could import your Facebook
contacts to your webmail service or use your existing contacts list to search for friends on Facebook.
Contact groups
If you frequently connect with the same group of people, you can create contact groups for quick access. This
allows you to quickly sort your contacts by type. For example, you might use one group to organize your personal
contacts and another for professional contacts.
II. CALENDAR BASICS

Online calendars make it easy to schedule appointments, organize tasks, and manage your time, just like a
desk calendar. But unlike a physical calendar, online calendars give you the freedom to quickly edit and rearrange
your schedule whenever you want. You'll even be able to access your calendar on the go and sync it across
multiple devices, like your mobile phone and personal computer.
Creating appointments
It's easy to schedule, track, and edit upcoming appointments or events. When you create a new appointment,
you should (at the very least) include a title, start and end time, and location, but you can also include other
information, such as reminder preferences, detailed notes, and more.
Switching views
You can choose a variety of view options for your calendar, including a daily, weekly, and monthly summary of
your upcoming appointments.
Using multiple calendars
If you keep a lot of different appointments, you can create multiple calendars to help organize your schedules.
For example, you might use one calendar to keep track of your personal tasks and another to manage your family's
schedule. Each calendar is assigned its own color, so it's easy to organize lots of different appointments. You can
even toggle calendars on and off to easily sort your appointments.
Sharing calendars
You can share your calendar with anyone who uses the same webmail provider. Once you've shared a calendar,
you'll be able to view and even edit a friend's calendar, depending on your sharing preferences.
LESSON 6: LIFE ONLINE
Introduction: Digital Footprints
The scientific and public policy relevance of the digital divide is based on the assumption that those who are able to
effectively use the Internet might increase their social, economic, cultural, and human capital, and this could exacerbate
social inequalities. But individuals‘ digital footprints, the sum of their digitally traceable behavior and online
presence—can also lead to beneficial and adverse outcomes, short-term or long-term, individual or societal.
What users do online matters; however, what is online about them also has consequences. Digital footprints entail
results both in the sense of immediate gratifications (e.g., enjoyment) and of outcomes (e.g., finding a job). This
study should consider how online traces and their consequences vary according to socio-demographic variables and
traditional markers of inequalities. From this premise, we develop the concept of ―digital footprint gap,” which
suggest viable methods to investigate it, and reflect on action plans that could connect research, policy, and practice.
Digital footprints are not only the product of active participation through content production and sharing, but also of
―passive participation‖. This includes low-involvement forms of participation, algorithmically generated data, and
information made available by other users. Social media platforms afford many simple user actions, such as liking,
favoring, following, or commenting, which are not necessarily considered active participation, but nonetheless
contribute to a digital footprint.
Platforms and online services even generate data without active user involvement. Just turning on an Internet-enabled
device means that an IP address is revealed; clicking a like button is not only a social signal to another userbut also
informs the platform‘s advertising profiles; and publishing a blog post is not only a service to its readers but also
influences search engine indexing.
Finally, Internet users can ―be participated‖ without their knowledge or against their will. Examples include tagging,
endorsements, ratings, and comments on the visible end of the spectrum, searches (e.g., googling someone) and various
automated data analyses on the less visible end. With the increasing pervasiveness of networked technology (e.g.,
Internet of Things, social robotics) we expect such passive participation to increase.
The term describes differences in the amount of online traces between individuals or population groups.
We extend this concept, considering not only the quantity, but also the quality and, most importantly, the implications
of online traces. How are users with different socio-economic backgrounds aware of and able to manage their
footprints? Do the outcomes of quantitatively and qualitatively varying digital footprints exacerbate inequalities?
Despite the prominence of privacy as a research topic, little scholars use a digital inequalities perspective to study
digital footprints.
The literature on inequalities in online content creation has shown that age is a decisive factor, with young users
creating more online content than older adults.
Socio-economic status and gender effects are less clear for online participation and it is important to differentiate types
of online content produced. However, such findings do not necessarily apply to the digital footprint gap. For example,
can we assume that because young users create more content online than older users they are also better represented in
big data?
Analysis of digital footprint gaps needs to consider not only active online participation, but also low-involvement
forms, algorithmically generated data, and data posted by other users.
Research and Policy Recommendations
Future research investigating digital footprint gaps should combine different methodological approaches. While big
data analyses offer benefits compared with self-reported data, disadvantages of digital traces include
overrepresentation of certain sources due to data accessibility (e.g., Twitter API), noise (e.g., through bots),
engagement invisible to machines (e.g., sub tweeting), and neglect of human self-awareness as well as the
ecological context (Tufekci, 2014).
When broader representativeness is important, most digital trace data is inadequate and traditional social science
methods are better suited.
Representative surveys could measure digital skills related to platform algorithms and privacy settings.
Qualitative interviews combined with social media profile analysis could also be a valuable method interviews,
respondents could discuss content they have posted, but also what has been posted by others (comments, likes,
retweets), as well as by the platform itself (a news item in the feed).
Moreover, interviews could be enriched by search engine use so that respondents could look for their digital traces and
discuss the results with the interviewer.
Finally, interviews with social groups particularly affected by digital traces could investigate how digital footprints
gaps are perceived and enacted. Young users and micro-celebrities (e.g., Instagram influencers) would be groups to
scrutinize. Such actor-focused methods could inform ―social analytics,‖ i.e., how users make sense of their own digital
footprints or how they ―reflect upon, and adjust, their online presence and the actions that feed into it, through the
use of analytics‖.
Beyond this, media content analyses of negative passive participation, for example in the form of doxing and online
harassment, could help case study selection. Finally, digital methods and software studies could offer useful insights
to understand how platforms generate data and the implications for digital inequalities.
Although the concept of the digital footprint gap has not been thoroughly investigated, the right to be forgotten
currently presents a way for individuals to control (access to) their footprints.

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DIGITAL LITERACY SOFTWARE ENGINERING—IUGET

ESSENTIAL ELEMEMTS OF DIGITAL LITERACY

1. Cultural: how to behave

 Knowing how to behave online; from netiquette to protection and privacy.

4. Communicative: how to communicate

5. Confident: how to belong

6. Creative: how to make

7. Critical: how to evaluate

8. Civic: how to participate

 Understanding one‘s digital rights and responsibilities.

What is a digital literacy program?

1. Comprehension – a basic understanding of ‘what it is’ and ‘how to use it.’

UNIT ONE: COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

LESSON 1: COMPUTER HARDWARE

Also known as a trackpad, a touchpad is a common substitute for a computer mouse.

An image of a touch pad

An image of a surface scanner

c) Barcode or handheld scanner

7. Game controller input devices (Joystick, trackball, game pad)

10. A light pen

11. Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

11) Optical Character Reader (OCR)

12) Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR)

13) Magnetic Card Reader (MCR)

A) The arithmetic logic unit (ALU);

B) The Control Unit (CU):

CPU characteristics and their impact on performance

Components and how CPUs work

I. PRMARY STORAGE DEVICES

Types of primary storage devices

1. Random Access Memory (RAM)

There are three categories of RAM:

2. Read Only memory (ROM)

There are three types of ROM:

II. SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES

1. Hard Disk Drive (HDD)

2. Solid State Drive (SSD)

3. What are optical storage discs?

700 MB 4.7 GB 25 GB – 128 GB

Typical applications for optical media

Recordable Optical Media

4. USB Flash (Universal Versatile Bus) Memory

5. The Floppy disk or diskette

6. Memory card etc

c. Solid-state storage devices

d. Online and cloud

IV. OUTPUT DEVICES

Types of output devices

categories of display (monitor)

1. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) Monitors

2. Flat-Panel Display Monitor

Resolution LCD Monitors Led

Types of impact printers:

Advantages of a dot matrix printer

Advantages of a Daisy-Wheel Printer

Types of Non-impact printers

Advantages of Ink Jet Printers

Advantages of Laser Printers

Other types of output Devices

V) PERIPHERAL DEVICES AND THE MOTHERBOARD

Computer Motherboard and Its Components

The computer motherboard connects all the parts(components) of a computer together.

Motherboard Components and Their Functions