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DIGITAL
LITERACY

Overview

In this chapter, you will be introduced to the concept of digital literacy and what new skills
are needed to engage with the digital world responsibly and effectively. Drawing on your own
digital experiences you will think about your digital literacy and digital footprint, developing
positive strategies to proactively take control of your own digital identity.

Learning Objectives
After completing this topic you should be able to:

▪ Describe the ways you use technology in your personal life and for learning;
▪ Compare the different ways digital literacy has been referred to by scholars;
▪ Examine how digital literacy differs between people based on the context in which they
live and learn and the way they use technology;
▪ Reflect on your digital footprint;
▪ Develop strategies to control your own digital identity.

Introduction

As digital technology has become more common, affordable, and portable, more and more
people from all parts of society are starting to increase their online and digital participation.
Understanding the new opportunities, rules, and potential pitfalls of the digital world doesn’t
necessarily come automatically with long-term use. Not everyone using digital technology
knows how to handle the range of available tools to their best extent, and even experienced
digital technology users can fall prey to hackers, lose control of how they are represented
online, or otherwise fail to maintain their digital identity in an optimal manner.

Digital literacy is a relatively new concept that emerged in the 1990s during the era of the
Internet revolution. Before that, people talked more about “computer literacy.” But in 1997,
Paul Gilster, a historian and educator first coined the term “digital literacy,” arguing that digital
literacy went beyond just skills in using technology. He said it is about “mastering ideas, not
[computer] keystrokes” (Gilster, 1997, p. 1).

Gilster (1997) further defined digital literacy as “the ability to understand and use information
in multiple formats from a wide range of sources when it is presented via computers” (p. 1).

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For him, digital literacy involves the ability to critically evaluate information (presented in
different formats) and make decisions about how to use this information in different real-life
contexts.

By the end of this chapter you will be able to define the concept of digital literacy and its many
different components, reflect on your own digital literacy, engage with the digital world
responsibly, and be empowered as a digital citizen capable of helping others learn and
develop their role in the digital world.

Taking Stock of Your Digital Self

You probably already use a range of technologies and digital tools in different aspects of your
life. You might use mobile technologies, like a phone or tablet, to download materials or
information from the Internet, or you may use them to communicate with friends and family.
You may use information and communication technologies (ICT) mainly for work or for
learning, or you might use it primarily for entertainment. In reality, people often use different
technologies and tools for a mixture of purposes.

The Concept of Literacy

Let’s first start with “What is literacy?” Dictionaries define literacy as the ability to read and
write. Within education, literacy is understood as the ability to read, write, and use arithmetic;
the emphasis is on proficiency with language and numeracy.

It is important to pause and note that the term literacy has always held a degree of status.
Globally, countries are often ranked in terms of literacy rates, compared by what percent of
the adult population can read and write, for example. There is more complexity to the terms
literate or illiterate, however, and a lot depends on context. “New literacy studies” view literacy
as a situated practice; as in it all depends on where you come from and what your purpose is.

The Concept of Digital

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So what is digital? When you thought about your digital self, you probably thought about the
digital tools and technologies that are available to you. For example: “Oh, I use text messaging
on my cell phone to communicate with friends.” Or: “I use email at university on my laptop or
in the computer lab to communicate with faculty.” But the digital part (just like literacy) depends
on context. The technology that you use and may even take for granted is not the same
technology that your grandparents use or that students in another country use. This is why the
concept of digital literacy is more often now referred to as digital literacies as a plural,
acknowledging the variability of what is both available and relevant.

Digital Literacy

Since the pioneering introduction of computers into education in the 1960s, four key concepts
that have dominated the literature on literacies related to digital technology include:
information literacy, media literacy, computer literacy, and digital literacy (Brown, Czerniewicz,
Huang & Mayisela, 2016). These four literacies are not competing, but in fact are necessary
components of what it means to be literate in the twenty-first century. The table below presents
an outline of the different terms and how they intersect:

Table 1.1: Summary of Key Concepts (adapted from Brown et al., 2016, CC-BY-SA)

Information Media Literacy Computer Digital Literacy

Literacy Literacy
Definition the ability to the ability to a set of user those
locate, identify, access the skills that enable
capabilities
retrieve, process media, to active which fit an
and use digital understand and participation in a
individual for
information to critically society where
living, learning
optimally evaluate different services and
and working in a
(UNESCO, aspects of the cultural offerings
digital society
2011) media and media are computer
(JISC, 2015)
content, and to supported and
create distributed on
communications the Internet
in a variety of (UNESCO,
contexts 2011)
(European
Commission,
2007)
Primary Focus information evaluation and skills in the use innovation,
retrieval and production of of computer- collaboration,
assessment of media texts related lifelong learning
quality technology
Digital Literacy for the 21st Century
2236
Locating and Consuming
Digital Content
It is essential to develop the skills to locate,
comprehend and consume digital content on the
Web. Central to being effective with the Web is
strategically searching for information and evaluat-

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ing its accuracy and relevancy (Leu et al., 2008).

There is consensus that effective Web search
skills must be developed for educational success
in a digital society, and instruments such as The
Teaching Internet Comprehension to Adolescents
(TICA) checklist can ensure that students have the
necessary prerequisite Web search skills (Leu et
al., 2008). However, more challenging is how to
incorporate the effective teaching and development
of Web search skills in the classroom (Moraveji et
al., 2011). Nevertheless, some important skills are
considered necessary for locating and using digital
content: domain knowledge, a working knowledge
of how to use search engines, basic literacy skills,
and a general knowledge of resources available
on the Web (Moraveji et al., 2011). In addition
to building on the ability to craft productive Web
search terms, search lessons should involve direct
modeling of the use of search techniques, differ-
entiating between domain names, and querying
sites for accuracy and transparency.
Creating Content
Digital content is easily created by teachers and
students alike through multiple media and a variety
of Web 2.0 tools. The implementation of digital
content may be an important and effective method
of enhancing teaching and learning (Bakkenes,
Vermunt, & Wubbles, 2010), enabling teachers
st
to embrace the 21 century skills that students are
expected to master. Digital resources can also free
up teachers, allowing them to spend more time
facilitating student learning and less time lecturing.
Allowing students to create and consume digital
content in the classroom may increase engagement
while also encouraging the development of skills
needed for a technological society. For example,
students can create video content with easy-to-
use video editors such as Animoto, WeVideo, and
Powtoon, just to name a few. Because there is a
low bar for technical expertise, students can spend
more time on the quality of the content rather
than learning the process of a new tool. An added
benefit is that the products look polished and pro-
fessional. Although the creation of digital content
is becoming increasingly simple, personalization
of learning will require teachers to locate and
utilize a variety of digital resources to meet the
needs of every learner. Personalization will also

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Figure 1. Digital literacy practices involve the ability to locate and consume, create, and
communicate
digital content, while simultaneously employing a process of critical evaluation
Adapted from Spires & Bartlett (2012
Digital Literacy for the 21st Century
2236
Locating and Consuming
Digital Content
It is essential to develop the skills to locate,
comprehend and consume digital content on the
Web. Central to being effective with the Web is
strategically searching for information and evaluat-
ing its accuracy and relevancy (Leu et al., 2008).
There is consensus that effective Web search
skills must be developed for educational success
in a digital society, and instruments such as The
Teaching Internet Comprehension to Adolescents
(TICA) checklist can ensure that students have the
necessary prerequisite Web search skills (Leu et
al., 2008). However, more challenging is how to
incorporate the effective teaching and development
of Web search skills in the classroom (Moraveji et
al., 2011). Nevertheless, some important skills are
considered necessary for locating and using digital
content: domain knowledge, a working knowledge
of how to use search engines, basic literacy skills,
and a general knowledge of resources available
on the Web (Moraveji et al., 2011). In addition
to building on the ability to craft productive Web
search terms, search lessons should involve direct
modeling of the use of search techniques, differ-
entiating between domain names, and querying
sites for accuracy and transparency.
Creating Content
Digital content is easily created by teachers and
students alike through multiple media and a variety
of Web 2.0 tools. The implementation of digital
content may be an important and effective method
of enhancing teaching and learning (Bakkenes,
Vermunt, & Wubbles, 2010), enabling teachers
st
to embrace the 21 century skills that students are
expected to master. Digital resources can also free
up teachers, allowing them to spend more time
facilitating student learning and less time lecturing.
Allowing students to create and consume digital
content in the classroom may increase engagement
while also encouraging the development of skills
needed for a technological society. For example,

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students can create video content with easy-to-

use video editors such as Animoto, WeVideo, and
Powtoon, just to name a few. Because there is a
low bar for technical expertise, students can spend
more time on the quality of the content rather
than learning the process of a new tool. An added
benefit is that the products look polished and pro-
fessional. Although the creation of digital content
is becoming increasingly simple, personalization
of learning will require teachers to locate and
utilize a variety of digital resources to meet the
needs of every learner. Personalization will also
Figure 1. Digital literacy practices involve the ability to locate and consume, create, and
communicate
digital content, while simultaneously employing a process of critical evaluation
Adapted from Spires & Bartlett (2012

Why is Digital Literacy Important?

You might be familiar with the concept of a “digital native” or the “net generation.” These
terms refer to the idea that a person who has been born or brought up during the age of digital
technology will be familiar with computers and the Internet from an early age.

In fact, this generational desire to be constantly connected has even been inserted into
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs as the ultimate foundation of basic human needs.
This psychological model is depicted as a pyramid with people’s basic survival needs as its
foundation which need to be satisfied before people can realize their full potential (Figure 1.3).

Figure 1: People’s basic survival needs depicted as a pyramid.

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However, there has been a lot of criticism about the concept of the digital native because it
assumes many things, not least that somehow all young people have access to technology,
that older people don’t have the same level of digital literacy as younger people, and that
having access to technology automatically means you know how to use it.

So if young people are so adept at using digital technologies, why do they (and perhaps you
for that matter) need to improve their digital literacy?

There are many answers, and hopefully this introduction has already hinted at some of them.
One is that it’s not enough in this globally connected world to just be able to use technology.
You need to be able to develop socially responsible digital practices and also to contribute to
digital practices in your own personal, work, and learning lives.

One way of visualizing this is Sharpe and Beetham’s (2010) digital literacy development
model (see Figure 1).

Figure 1: Sharpe and Beetham’s ‘pyramid model’ of digital literacy development model
(2010). Reproduced with permission of the authors.

The pyramid represents a cyclical process for developing digital literacy skills. At the base of
the pyramid is awareness of technology and access to it. However, just because you have a
piece of hardware or software doesn’t mean you have the ability to use it effectively. As you
spend more time using technology, you become more confident in your technical, information,
communication, and learning skills. You can then begin to apply those skills to make informed
decisions and choices about how to use different technologies. As you move through the cycle,
your experiences and practices contribute to the formation of your digital identity, while your
identity informs your practices and drives the creative and appropriate use of technology.

Improving Your Digital Literacy: Becoming a Digital Citizen

Explore Your Digital Identity

Digital identity refers to your “online self,” the side of you that people see on the Internet. We
all have different identities in different contexts and one of the things about being a digital
citizen is the ability to control the representation of yourself in the online environment.

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How do you see yourself online? Is there something you would like to change? One of the
problems with information online is that once it is there, it is often very difficult to delete. Being
aware of what you share online is a very important digital skill.

Using the image below (Figure 2), reflect on your digital footprint. Decide on some SMART
goals (specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and time-bound), and identify how you want
the virtual “you” to look to the various people who might see you online: friends, family
(including your grandmother!), teachers and professors, coaches, neighbors, potential
employers, potential dates, or complete strangers.

Figure 2: Reflecting on your digital identity

References

Brown, C., Czerniewicz., L., Huang, C-W., & Mayisela., T. (2016). Curriculum for digital
education leadership: A concept paper. Burnaby, BC: Commonwealth of Learning. Retrieved
from http://oasis.col.org/handle/11599/2442

European Commission (2007). A European approach to media literacy in the digital

environment. Retrieved from http://eur-
lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM%3A2007%3A0833%3AFIN%3AEN%3A
PDF

Gilster, P. (1997). Digital Literacy. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

JISC. (2015). Developing students’ digital literacy. Retrieved

from https://www.jisc.ac.uk/guides/developing-students-digital-literacy

Sharpe, R. & Beetham, H. (2010) Understanding students’ uses of technology for learning:
Towards creative appropriation. In R. Sharpe, H. Beetham and S. de Freitas (Eds.) Rethinking
learning for a digital age: how learners shape their experiences, (pp. 85-99). Routledge
Falmer, London and New York. Retrieved
from https://radar.brookes.ac.uk/radar/items/4887c90b-adc6-db4f-397f-ea61e53739e0/1/

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UNESCO Institute for Information Technologies in Education. (2011, May). Digital literacy in
education policy brief. Retrieved
from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002144/214485e.pdf

https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/digcit/chapter/chapter-1/

DIGITAL
DIVIDE
At the Internet Society we work towards developing the Internet to be open, globally
connected, secure, and trustworthy. A big part of this work is growing the Internet to those
who need it the most, bridging the digital divide.

But what exactly is this digital divide? At first glance it seems as though there may be a
simple answer: “the gap between those who have and do not have access to computers and
the Internet”. But upon further investigation, there are many ways to measure the divide. In
fact, there are multiple divides.

Below you will find a brief overview of some of the ways that the digital divides are discussed
and calculated. Despite there being no single definition, there are effective ways to connect
those left behind and to address the divide. One solution is building community networks and
fostering the conditions for them to thrive.

What Is the Digital Divide?

The digital divide refers to the gap between demographics and regions that have access to
modern information and communications technology and those that don’t. Though the term
now encompasses the technical and financial ability to utilize available technology—along with
access (or a lack of access) to the internet—the gap it refers to is constantly shifting with the
development of technology.

But the digital divide is multifaceted and includes many factors such as access, affordability,
quality, and relevance. As Michael Kende wrote, “the digital divide is not a binary.” Here are
some of the things that lead to disparities in Internet access:

▪ Availability: Is there available access to the Internet in your area? Is there a nearby
point of connection to the Internet? If yes, this is just the first step to having Internet
access.

▪ Affordability: Is that access affordable? How does the cost compare to other essential
goods? What percentage of your income do you need to pay for access?

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▪ Quality of service: Are the upload and download speeds sufficient for the local needs
of Internet users?

▪ Relevance: Does the connected community have the necessary skills and
technologies? Is there local interest and understanding of the relevance of Internet
access? Are there locally available mobile apps? Is there content in the local language
and relevant to the people in the community?

▪ Additional divides: Other areas that can create digital inequality include security,
interconnectivity, digital literacy, and access to equipment.

These gaps in availability, affordability, interest, and digital literacy exist at the international
level as well as the neighborhood level.

Countries that have high overall connectivity rates often still have stark inequalities in rural,
remote, and even urban areas. Often these gaps fall along other disparities such as income
and gender-based inequality. For instance, the United States has high overall connectivity
rates, but there is a marked gap in availability of affordable and sustainable Internet access
on Indigenous lands.

Types of Digital Divide

● The access divide: This is the most visible digital divide. It refers to the socioeconomic
differences among people and the impact on their ability to afford the devices
necessary to get online. In developing countries, many people have limited access to
technology or the internet and do not have the skills necessary to use it effectively.
● The use divide: This refers to the difference in the level of skills possessed by
individuals. There is a generation gap when it comes to the skills necessary to use the
internet. It is also affected by the quality of education that an individual receives.
Younger, educated people tend to have more skills than older, less educated ones.
● The quality-of-use gap: This measure is a little more complicated. It refers to the
different ways that people use the internet and the fact that some people are far more
able to get the information they need from it than others.

The divide is not a single divide or clear cut, but no matter how you cut it, digital exclusion has
many adverse impacts. Here are a few:

1. Access to healthcare and its outcomes: Internet access is an important public

health issue. Lack of access means exclusion from vital health information and
resources. Health experts now insist that broadband Internet access “must be
recognized as a social determinant of health. “
2. Economic opportunities: For both workers and business owners, lack of quality
broadband means decreased economic opportunities and competitiveness in the
digital economy.
3. Educational opportunities: Lack of Internet access for school-aged children means
that they are denied the educational benefits of the Internet. This gap perpetuates
unequal learning outcomes and has been particularly difficult during the COVID-19
pandemic.

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INTELLECTUAL
PROPERTY
What Is Intellectual Property?
Intellectual property is a broad categorical description for the set of intangible assets owned
and legally protected by a company or individual from outside use or implementation without
consent. An intangible asset is a non-physical asset that a company or person owns.

The concept of intellectual property relates to the fact that certain products of human intellect
should be afforded the same protective rights that apply to physical property, which are
called tangible assets. Most developed economies have legal measures in place to protect
both forms of property.

Understanding Intellectual Property

Intellectual property is a category of assets that are intangible. This means that they cannot
be held and don't necessarily have a physical presence. These assets are created using
human intellect. Intellectual property can take many forms and includes things like artwork,
symbols, logos, brand names, and designs, among others.

Companies are diligent when it comes to identifying and protecting intellectual property
because it holds such high value in today's increasingly knowledge-based economy. Also,
producing value intellectual property requires heavy investments in brainpower and time
of skilled labor. This translates into heavy investments by organizations and individuals that
should not be accessed with no rights by others.

Extracting value from intellectual property and preventing others from deriving value from it is
an important responsibility of any company. Although it's an intangible asset, intellectual
property can be far more valuable than a company's physical assets. It can represent
a competitive advantage and, as a result, is fiercely guarded and protected by the companies
that own the property.

Types of Intellectual Property

Intellectual property can consist of many types of intangibles, and some of the most common
are listed below.

1. Patent
A patent is a property right for an investor that's typically granted by a government
agency, such as the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. The patent allows the inventor
exclusive rights to the invention, which could be a design, process, an improvement,
or physical invention such as a machine. Technology and software companies often

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have patents for their designs. For example, the patent for the personal computer was
filed in 1980 by Steve Jobs and three other colleagues at Apple Inc.
2. Copyright
Copyrights provide authors and creators of original material the exclusive right to use,
copy, or duplicate their material. Authors of books have their works copyrighted as do
musical artists. A copyright also states that the original creators can grant anyone
authorization through a licensing agreement to use the work.
3. Trademark
A trademark is a symbol, phrase, or insignia that is recognizable and represents a
product that legally separates it from other products. A trademark is exclusively
assigned to a company, meaning the company owns the trademark so that no others
may use or copy it. A trademark is often associated with a company's brand. For
example, the logo and brand name of "Coca-Cola," is owned by the Coca-Cola
Company.
4. Franchise
A franchise is a license that a company, individual, or party–called the franchisee–
purchases allowing them to use a company's–the franchisor–name, trademark,
proprietary knowledge, and processes. The franchisee is typically a small business
owner or entrepreneur who operates the store or franchise. The license allows the
franchisee to sell a product or provide a service under the company's name. In return,
the franchisor is paid a start-up fee and ongoing licensing fees by the franchisee.
Examples of companies that use the franchise business model includes and
McDonald's Corporation (MCD).
5. Trade Secrets
A trade secret is a company's process or practice that is not public information, which
provides an economic benefit or advantage to the company or holder of the trade
secret. Trade secrets must be actively protected by the company and are typically the
result of a company's research and development (which is why some employers
require the signing of non-disclosure agreements, or NDAs).
Examples of trade secrets could be a design, pattern, recipe, formula, or proprietary
process. Trade secrets are used to create a business model that differentiates the
company's offerings to its customers by providing a competitive advantage.
6. Digital Assets
Digital assets are also increasingly recognized as IP. These would include proprietary
software code or algorithms, and online digital content.

Intellectual Property Infringement

Attached to intellectual property are certain rights, known as Intellectual Property Rights (IPR),
that cannot be infringed upon by those without authorization to use them.6 IPRs give owners
the ability to bar others from recreating, mimicking, and exploiting their work.
Patents infringement occurs when a legally protected patent is used by another person or
company without permission. Patents filed before June 8, 1995, are valid for 17 years,

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whereas patents filed after this date are valid for 20 years.7 After the expiration date, the
details of the patent are made public.
Copyright violations occur when an unauthorized party recreates all or a portion of an original
work, such as a work of art, music, or a novel. The duplicated content need not be an exact
replica of the original to qualify as an infringement.
Similarly, trademark infringement occurs when an unauthorized party uses a licensed
trademark or a mark resembling the licensed trademark. For example, a competitor might use
a mark like its rivals to disrupt business and attract their customer base. Also, businesses in
unrelated industries may use identical or similar marks to capitalize on other companies'
strong brand images.
Trade secrets are often protected by non-disclosure agreements (NDA). When a party to the
agreement discloses all or parts of a trade secret to uninterested parties, they have violated
the agreement and infringed upon the trade secret. It is possible to be guilty of trade secret
infringement when an NDA is not present.
Fast Fact
Penalties for intellectual property infringement range from fines to prison sentences.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
● Intellectual property is an umbrella term for a set of intangible assets or assets that
are not physical in nature.
● Intellectual property is owned and legally protected by a person or company from
outside use or implementation without consent.
● Intellectual property can consist of many types of assets, including trademarks,
patents, and copyrights.
● Intellectual property infringement occurs when a third party engages in the
unauthorized use of the asset.
● Legal protections for most intellectual property expire after some time; however, for
some (e.g., trademarks), they last forever.

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