MODULE III: - 70S ribosomes

- Eg. bacteria,
ANIMAL CELL
cyanobacteria(BGA),
mycoplasmas
● Eukaryotic
The Cell Theory - >10-100 um
- All organisms are composed of cells - with nucleus
- Cell is the smallest functional unit of life - with membrane bound
- Cells arise from pre-existing cells organelles
- The characteristics of an organism - DNA packed in chromosomes
depend on each individual cells - unicellular/multicellular
- Continuity of characteristics is - divides by mitosis & meiosis
maintained through the genetic - w/ cytoskeleton
material - capable of endocytosis &
- Energy flow occurs within cells exocytosis
- 80S ribosomes
- Eg. plants, animals, fungi, algae,
Prokaryote protozoans

- “false” nucleus
- naked DNA PARTS OF THE CELL
- no organelles
● Plasma Membrane
- also called cell / cytoplasmic
Eukaryote membrane
- fluid (as described by the Fluid
- “true” nucleus Mosaic Model)
- membrane-bound nucleus - regulate the transport of
- membrane-bound organelles molecules in & out of the cell
- site of enzyme specific activity
● Cell Coat
Comparison between Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic - for tissue organization
Cells - for cell adhesion & cell to cell
recognition
● Prokaryotic
● Cytoplasm
- ave 1-2 um in dia.
- thick fluid
- no nucleus
- 80% water—containing amino
- Without membrane bound
acids, lipids, carbohydrates,
organelles
ions, and enzymes
- circular, naked DNA (nucleoid)
- site of many chemical reactions
- unicellular
- suspends organelles & other
- divides by fission
substances
- cytoskeletons absent
● Nucleus
- not capable of endocytosis and
- “control center” bec. it
exocytosis
coordinates all the cell's
 activities, which include growth,
intermediary metabolism,
protein synthesis, and
reproduction (cell division).
- stores the cell's hereditary
material, or DNA
● Nucleolus - where
ribosomes are
produced
● Chromosomes -
threadlike structures
inside the nucleus that
carries the genetic
material (where DNA is
packed)
● Endoplasmic Reticulum
- processes, and transports a
wide variety of biochemical
compounds for use inside and
outside of the cell
● Rough ER - contains
ribosomes; site of
protein synthesis
● Smooth ER - w/o
ribosomes; for
production of lipids &
hormones
● Ribosomes
- on the cytoplasm as free
ribosomes and in rough ER
- synthesize proteins
- produced in the nucleolus
● Golgi Apparatus
- also called Golgi body or Golgi
complex
- found in both plant and animal
cells
- composed of
membrane-covered sacs called
cisternae
- the packaging and
shipping/distribution
department for the cell's
chemical products
● Mitochondria
- double-membraned
- site of ATP synthesis via Cellular
Respiration
- power generator of the cell,
converting oxygen and nutrients
into adenosine triphosphate
(ATP)
● Cytoskeleton
○ Microtubules
- gives shape to the cell;
protoplasmic streaming
& bldg blocks of cilia,
centriole (direct the cell
during cell division),
basal bodies & flagella
(locomotorystructure)
○ Microfilaments
- for strength when
exposed to mechanical
stress; muscle
contraction
○ Intermediate Filaments
- maintain cell shape;
suspend & organize
organelles; interconnect
cytoskeletal elements &
organize enzymes
attached to them
● Lysosomes
- -“garbage system”of the cell
- contain hydrolytic enzymes for
digestion of biomolecules;
protect cell from foreign
materials; digest subcellular
parts as immediate fuel during
cell starvation (“suicidal bag”)
● Microbodies
○ Peroxisomes
- contain enzymes for
oxidation of substances
 ○ Glyoxisomes
- contain enzymes for
conversion of fats to
carbohydrates
● Vaults
- a newly discovered organelle
(1990’s)
- Cytoplasmic ribonucleoprotein
shaped like octagonal barrels
(as the shape of nuclear pore)
- thousands in a cell
- cellular “trucks” – dock at
nuclear pores, pick up
molecules synthesized in the
nucleus & deliver to various
places in the cell (eg. mRNA to
ribosomesfor protein synthesis)
_______________________________________
MODULE III:
TRANSPORT SYSTEMS ACROSS THE PLASMA
MEMBRANE
Membranes are a Fluid Mosaic of Phospholipids
and Proteins
- Membranes are composed of
phospholipids and proteins
- Membranes are commonly described as
a fluid mosaic
- This means that the surface appears
mosaic because of the proteins
embedded in the phospholipids and
fluid because the proteins can drift
about in the phospholipids
- Many membrane proteins function as
either of the following:
● Enzymes
● signal transduction
● Transport
- Because membranes allow some
substances to cross or be
- transported more easily than others,
they exhibit selective
- permeability
● Nonpolar molecules (carbon
dioxide and oxygen) cross easily
● Polar molecules (glucose and
other sugars) do not cross easily
Transport Systems
● Passive Transport
- movement of substances across
the membrane
- from higher to lower
concentration without the
- expenditure of energy
- random movement of
molecules
- driven by the Law of Entropy
(tendency to move
- from orderliness to a less
ordered state)
Types of Passive Transport
1. Simple Diffusion
- movement of substances from
higher to lower concentration
without the expenditure of
energy
- Example: diffusion of gases in &
out of a) blood cell b) plant cell
2. Facilitated Diffusion
- movement of substances from
higher to lower concentration
without the expenditure of
energy & with the aid of
transport proteins (TP)
3. Osmosis
- movement of water molecules
from higher to lower
concentration without the
expenditure of energy
 - Tonicity is a term that describes
the ability of a solution to cause
a cell to gain or lose water
- Tonicity is dependent on the
concentration of a
nonpenetrating solute on both
sides of the membrane
● hypertonic - high solute
concentration, low
water concentration
● hypotonic - low solute
concentration, high
water concentration
● isotonic - solute
concentration= water
concentration
Passive Transport is Diffusion across a
Membrane with No Energy Investment
- Diffusion is a process in which particles
spread out evenly in an available space
- Particles move from an area of more
concentrated particles to an area where
they are less concentrated
- This means that particles diffuse down
their concentration gradient
- Eventually, the particles reach
equilibrium where the concentration of
particles is the same throughout
Active Transport
- movement of substances across the
membrane against a concentration
gradient (from lower to higher
concentration) using energy and with
the aid of transport proteins
- Example:
● Ca+ –pumped by active
transporter across muscle cell
membrane
● Na+, H+ = enters the cell by
diffusion but pumped out from
the cell by active transport
Bulk Transport
- Movement of large substances across
the membrane by forming vesiclesthat
fuse with the membrane
- Endocytosis–is used to import
substances useful to the livelihood of
the cell
● Phagocytosis –“cell-eating”
(engulfment) eg. WBC’s engulf
bacteria, amoebas engulf
microorganisms
● Pinocytosis–“cell-drinking” eg.
Kidney cells take up water to
maintain fluid balance
● Receptor-mediated endocytosis
–requires the aid of a receptor
protein to take up substances
eg. intestinal cells take up large
molecules from the inside of
gut
- Exocytosis-is used to export bulky
molecules, such as proteins or
polysaccharides
● eg. Sciatic nerve releases
acetylcholine (a
neurotransmitter) to initiate
muscle contraction
_______________________________________
MODULE III:
CELL REPRODUCTION
The Cell Cycle
- the sequence of events in a eukaryotic
cell between one cell division & the
next.
I. Interphase - “Rest Stage”
● Gap 1 (G1) phase -
Interphase
growth phase 1
● Synthesis (S) phase -
most critical stage
● Gap (G2) phase -
growth phase 2
II. Mitosis - M-phase / Nuclear
Division
- immediately followed
by cytoplasmic division
Stages in Mitosis
Cell Division in Eukaryotic Cells
1. Mitosis
- production of a cell into 2 cells
of equal amount of DNA as the
parent cell
- involves mostly somatic cells
(body cells)
- produces 2 identical diploid (2n)
cells
2. Meiosis
- reductional cell division
- involves gametes or sex cells in
animals (gameticmeiosis) or
spores in plants & fungi
(sporicmeiosis)
- produces 4 unidentical haploid
(n) cells
Stages in Cell Division
I. Nuclear Division (Karyokinesis) = Mitosis
- follows the interphase (G1,
S-phase, G2)
II. Cytoplasmic Division (Cytokinesis)
- immediately follows nuclear
division
- it is followed by cell growth
- Nuclear membrane intact
- DNA synthesis ( chromosomes are
duplicating)
- Growth (Gap) phase
- Chromatin –highly
- dispersed state of DNA
● Prophase
- Nuclear membrane
disintegrating
- Thickening, coiling, and
condensation of duplicated
chromosomes
- Formation of centriole(in
animals) & spindle fibers (plants
& animals)
● Centriole - produces
spindle fibers forming
astral rays
● Spindle fibers - direct
the chromosomes
during cell division
● Metaphase
- Nuclear membrane disintegrate
- Chromosomes align at the
center of the cell
- Spindle poles at opposite ends
- Stages in Mitosis
 ● Anaphase
- Nuclear membrane still
disintegrated
- Sister chromatids separate &
move at opposite poles
- Cytoplasmic Division is
underway
- Formation of cleavage furrow in
animal cell and primary cell wall
in plant cell
● Telophase
- Nuclear membrane reforms
- Chromosomes decondense
characteristic of interphase
-

Meiosis

- reductional cell division

Advantage of Meiosis

- Fertilization-fusion of an egg cell &

sperm cell to form a diploid zygote

- Maintain constant number of

chromosomes from one generation to
another
- Produces variable genes that increases
chance of survival