| J | C A M B R ID G E

International Exam inations

Endorsed for full syllabus coverage I

Audrey Simpson

Cambridge 0 Level
thematics
£ J ;
^ jj^ ^ ^ o u r s e b o o k

- Second Edition
 0 Level

Mathematics

Audrey Simpson

ffil C a m b r id g e
M l U N IV E R S IT Y P R E S S
SSI C a m b r id g e
U N IV E R S IT Y P R E S S

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Contents

Introduction iv
A cknow ledgem ents v

C h a p te r 1 U n d e rs ta n d in g N u m b e r 1

C h a p te r 2 Fra ctio n s , D e cim als a n d P e rcen tag es 19

C h a p te r 3 B e g in n in g A lg eb ra 35

C h a p te r 4 W o rk in g w ith N u m b e rs I 59

C h a p te r 5 W o rk in g w ith A lg eb ra 102

C h a p te r 6 G e o m e try a n d S h a p e I 126

C h a p te r 7 A lg eb ra a n d G raphs I 173

C h a p te r 8 L e n g th , A rea a n d V o lu m e I 206

C h a p te r 9 T rig o n o m e try I 234

C h a p te r 10 T ra n s fo rm a tio n s a n d V ecto rs 262

C h a p te r 11 S ta tis tic s I 294

C h a p te r 12 An In tro d u c tio n to P ro b a b ility 332

C h a p te r 13 R eal N u m b e rs 348

C h a p te r 14 A lg e b ra I 364

C h a p te r 15 W o rk in g w ith N u m b e rs II 384

C h a p te r 16 A lg e b ra II 395

C h a p te r 17 G e o m e try a n d S h a p e II 428

C h a p te r 18 A lg eb ra an d G raphs II 445

C h a p te r 19 L e n g th , A rea a n d V o lu m e II 475

C h a p te r 20 F u rth e r A lgebra 501

C h a p te r 21 T rig o n o m e try II 534

C h a p te r 22 T ra n s fo rm a tio n s , V ectors a n d M atrices 562

C h a p te r 23 S ta tis tic s II 598

C h a p te r 24 F u rth e r P ro b a b ility 625

Revision an d Exam ination Technique 642

Answers to Essential Skills, Exercises a n d Exam Practice Questions 645
Glossary 707
Index 713
 Introduction
i

mm m m

T his b o o k covers th e e n tire sylla b u s fo rth e C a m b rid g e 0 Level M a th e m a tic s fro m

C a m b rid g e In te rn a tio n a l E xam inations.

S tu d e n ts w ill fin d th a t th e s tru c tu re o fth e b o o k a llo w s th e m to proceed a t th e ir o w n pace

th ro u g h each c h a p te r by:

• w o rk in g th ro u g h th e e sse ntia l skills exercise

• re a d in g th e e x p la n a to ry te x t

• fo llo w in g and u n d e rs ta n d in g th e w o rke d exam ples

• w o rk in g th ro u g h each exercise w ith fre q u e n t c h e c k in g o f th e answ ers a t th e back o f

th e b o o k

• and fin a lly w o rk in g th ro u g h th e m ixed exercise a t th e end o fth e chapter.

The b o o k is desig n ed to be w o rk e d th ro u g h s e q u e n tia lly as th e req u ire d skills and

kn o w le d g e are b u ilt up c h a p te r by c h a p te r and th e q u e s tio n s in each c h a p te r o n ly refer to
w o rk a lre ad y covered.

The m ixed exercises c o n ta in o rig in a l q u e s tio n s a n d also c a re fu lly chosen q u e s tio n s fro m
past e x a m in a tio n papers. These are taken fro m th e 0 Level e x a m in a tio n papers b u t som e
a p p ro p ria te e xam ples are also taken fro m C a m b rid g e IGCSE papers.

T he m ixed exercise s h o u ld c o n s o lid a te th e w o rk covered in th e c h a p te r a n d th e past

e x a m in a tio n q u e s tio n s h e lp s tu d e n ts to prepare fo r e x a m in a tio n , and a lso a sense o f
a c h ie v e m e n t th a t th e s tu d e n t has taken steps to w a rd s th e ir goal.

The C a m b rid ge 0 Level E xa m in a tio n consists o f tw o papers. C a lcu la to rs are n o t allo w e d

in Paper O ne, b u t m ay be used in Paper Two. This b o o k pro vid e s p le n ty o f p ra ctice in, and
m e th o d s for, w o rk in g w ith o u t a ca lcu la to r. S tu d e n ts are encourage d to w o rk w ith o u t a
c a lc u la to r w he re possible.

A fin a l se ctio n pro vide s su gg estio ns fo r revision and s u p p o rt as s tu d e n ts p re p a re fo r

e x a m in a tio n .

N o te to s tu d e n ts

• The te xt in each c h a p te r in tro d u c e s you to e ssential m a th e m a tic a l to o ls .

• The exercises help yo u gain c o n fid e n ce in usin g these tools.

• To m ake th e best progress you sh o u ld ensure th a t you u n d e rsta n d th e w orked

exam ples. W hen you have read th ro u g h each o f these exam ples it can be very h e lp fu l to
cover up th e w o rk in g and try to re pro duce it yourself.

• You sh o u ld check y o u r answ ers as you go along. It is im p o rta n t to p ractise w o rk in g

co rrectly, and you w ill n o t help yo u rs e lf ify o u w o rk th ro u g h a lo t o f q u e s tio n s

IV
 in c o rre c tly be fore you realise th a t you have been in error. Of course you w ill be h e lp in g no one ify o u
loo k up th e a n sw er before you try the q u e s tio n !

• Ify o u w o rk th ro u g h th e w h o le o f th is b o o k you w ill have covered every to p ic in th e 0 Level syllabus

and w ill have b u ilt up a ba nk o f skills to he lp you be successful in the fu tu re and feel prepared for
e x a m in a tio n .

Acknowledgements
I w o u ld like to th a n k Professor G ordon K irby fo r his in v a lu a b le advice and enco u ra g e m e n t. I am also
gratefu l fo r his e ffo rts to check m y w o rk p a tie n tly fo r errors, b o th m a th e m a tic a l and stylistic.

I am also in d e b te d to m y sister, Pat Victor, fo r the tim e s she sorted o u t fru s tra tin g p ro b le m s w ith b o th m y
c o m p u te r and th e so ftw a re needed fo r th e p ro d u c tio n o f th e m a n u s c rip t.

A u drey S im pson
Understanding Number
Learning Objectives (Syllabussections1,3,4,7,8)
In this c h a p te r you w ill learn to: understand operations and inverses
• id e n tify and use diffe ren t types o f n u m b er recognise com m on m a th e m a tic a l sym bols
• express num bers as products o f p rim e understand and order integers
num bers convert num bers to and from standard form
• fin d th e low est com m on m u ltip le and highest use th e recognised order o f w orking in
co m m o n facto r o f tw o o r m ore num bers calculations.

1 .1 Introduction
By th e end o f th is cha pte r, you sh o u ld kn o w m o re a b o u t th e d iffe re n t types o f num bers
th a t yo u need to s tu d y fo r th e rest o fth e course. You m ay feel th a t you k n o w m o st o f it
a lre ad y, b u t please w o rk th ro u g h it as th e re are p le n ty o f th in g s in it th a t w ill he lp you b u ild
th e skills yo u need to be successful in y o u r course. Treat it as revision if you like.

1 .2 Essential Skills NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

To get th e m o st fro m th is course, you s h o u ld kn o w th e m u ltip lic a tio n tables fro m l to 1 0

a nd be a b le to recall th e m w ith o u t h e s ita tio n . It is also im p o rta n t to k n o w th e facts a b o u t
a d d itio n and s u b tra c tio n .

Try th e fo llo w in g m in i-te s t and see h o w q u ic k ly you can a nsw er th e q u e s tio n s w ith o u t
u s in g a c a lcula tor.

a 4x6 b 3x7 C 8x5 d 9x8 e 2x7

f 6x9 S 8 x 8 h 9x5 i 7x7 j 3x6
k 6 + 7 1 5+ 8 m 9+ 7 n 3+ 5+ 9 0 8 + 9

P 11 + 9 q 13 + 6 r 3+4+5 s 16 + 5 t 4 + 17
u 9 -4 V 1 1 -7 w 1 5 -9 X 7 -4 y 16 + 8

z 24 + 6
1 Understanding Number J

1 .3 Sets of Num bers

The num bers th a t w e use to d a y have developed over a period of tim e as the need arose.
At first, hum ans needed num bers ju st to count things, so the sim plest set of num bers w as
the set o f n a tu ra l o r c o u n tin g num bers. W e use the sym bol N to represent the counting
num bers, and w e use curly brackets to list som e o f these numbers.

N = { 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , ...}

The dots at th e end m ean ‘and so o n ’ because th e list goes on forever. (Lists tike these are
often show n in curly brackets. How ever, this is not essential.)

W hen addition and subtraction w ere introduced, a new set o f num bers was needed.

For exam ple, I had three goats. Three w ere stolen. H ow m any goats do I have now?

W e know th a t th e answ er is none or zero, which does n o t appear in th e counting numbers.

Subtraction also m ean t th a t negative num bers w ere needed, as w e w ill see later in this
chapter.

O ur next set o f num bers is th e set o f in teg ers, w hich have the sym bol Z , and include negative
w hole num bers, zero and th e natural num bers.

Z = { ..., - 3 , —2 , - 1 , 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , . . . }

Make yourself an integer num ber line on a long strip o f paper, | | ^ in Figure 1.1.
Mark on it the integers from - 2 0 through zero to +20. Make sure they are evenly spaced.
Fold the strip and stick it on th e inside cover of your exercise book so th at you can unfold it
whenever you need it later in the course.

,,46, _4 _2 _1 0 I 2 3 4
_ | -------- 1-------- 1--------(_ ■+••• - > I ■ 1------f -

Part of the number line

F ig u re 1 .1

A fter a d d itio n a n d s u b tra c tio n c a m e d iv is io n a n d m u ltip lic a tio n . W h a t h a p p e n s w h e n w e

Key term d iv id e tw o by three?
R ational num bers
The a nsw e r is th a t w e get th e fra c tio n | . B u t w h e re d oes th a t fit in w ith o u r latest set o f num bers?
f | | p | e the counting
W e need a n o th e r set w h ic h in c lu d e s all th e fra c tio n s o r ra tio n a l num bers. This is th e set Q.
numbers, iitfeggft and
also numbers which can R a tio n a l n u m b e rs can all be expressed as fra c tio n s o r ra tio s m ade u p o f o n e in te g e r o ver
be written as fractions a n o th e r. R em em ber, fo r e x a m p le , th a t 5 can be w ritte n a s | , so integers th e m se lve s are
(or ratios), for example
in c lu d e d in th e set o f ra tio n a l n u m b e rs . W e can o n ly lis t som e exam ples o f th is set because
-2 0 ,—f , < U 5 0 i .
th e re is an in fin ite n u m b e r o f m e m b e rs b e lo n g in g to Q .

S o m e e x a m p le s o f ra tio n a l n u m b e rs are:

f ' I ' ~ 2 b t I o ' 5' ° ' 29, - 5 0 0 ' and so o n ’

2^
 [ 1 Understanding Numhe

The la s t set w e need fo r o u r n u m b e r sets is th e set o f re a l n u m b ers, R . T his in c lu d e s all th e

p re v io u s sets and also th e irra tio n a l n u m b e rs. Irra tio n a l n u m b e rs are n u m b e rs w h ic h c a n n o t
Key terms be w ritte n as fra c tio n s (or ratios) m a d e u p o f o n e in te g e r ove r a n o ther.
Real num bers (R)
The G reek le tte r n (w h ich is s p e lle d and p ro n o u n c e d as pi) is used to re p re se n t w h a t is
include natural numbers,
integers, rational p e rh a p s th e m o s t fa m o u s irra tio n a l n u m b e r. Pi is th e n u m b e ry o u g et w h e n y o u d iv id e th e
numbers and also le n g th o fth e c irc u m fe re n c e o f a c irc le by its d ia m e te r. You can never fin d the va lu e o f n exactly.
irrational numbers. We w ill d o so m e e x p e rim e n ts la te r in th e course to see h o w close w e can get to th e c a lc u la te d
Irrationa l num bers are va lu e o f 7t.
numbers which cannot
Irra tio n a l n u m b e rs in c lu d e sq u a re ro o ts o f n u m b e rs th a t are n o t p e rfe c t squares th e m se lve s,
be written as fractions,
and as w e fin d in th e case o f n , irra tio n a l n u m b e rs are d e c im a ls th a t go on a n d on forever,
for example 7t, •&, >/51.
and ne ve r re p e a t any p a tte rn .

The n u m b e r? t(= 3 . 1 4 1 5 9 2 6 5 3 5 8 9 7 9 3 2 3 8 4 6 2 6 4 ...) has been c a lc u la te d to

b illio n s o f places o f d e c im a l b y h ig h -p o w e re d c o m p u te rs , usin g a m o re a d va n ce d m e th o d
th a n m e a s u rin g th e c irc u m fe re n c e and d ia m e te r o f a circle . H ow ever, no re c u rrin g p a tte rn has
been fo u n d .

R ecurring d e cim a ls are n o t irra tio n a l n u m b e rs because th e y can alw ays be w ritte n as fractions.

For e x a m p le , 0 .6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 ... = | , and 0 .2 8 5 7 1 4 2 8 5 7 1 4 2 8 5 7 1 4 ... = | .

R e cu rrin g d e c im a ls do, o f course, have a re p e a tin g p a tte rn , u n lik e irra tio n a l n u m b e rs.

W rite d o w n th e s e q u e n ce o f n u m b e rs th a t re cu r in th e d e c im a l e q u iv a le n t o f y.

Figure 1.2 w ill h e lp y o u to see h o w th e s e sets o f n u m b e rs b u ild up.

Each n u m b e r ty p e has been d ra w n w ith tw o o r th re e e x a m p le s in it.

A n o th e r w a y to s h o w th e s e sets is on n u m b e r lines like in Figure 1.3. S o m e e x a m p le s o f each

set are sh o w n b e lo w . T h e a rro w s s h o w th a t th e sets go o n fo re v e r in th a t d ire c tio n .

1 2 3 4
I------------- 1---------- 1------------- 1- * "
- 3 - 2 - 1 0 1 2 3 4
<-------------- 1---------- 1-------------- 1---------- 1-------------- 1------------ 1---------- 1------------- 1—
-3 .5 - 3 -2 -1 .5 -1 0 0.5 1 2 3 4
<--- 1-------- 1---------- 1— I-------- 1---------- 1— I— I--------------1---------- 1------------- 1— ►Q
-3 .5 -3 -2 -1 .5 -1 0 0.5 1 V2V3 2 3 4
<--- 1-------- 1---------- 1-----1-------- 1---------- 1-----11 I I I------------------ H ----------I— * • *
-

Figure 1 .2 N u m b e r sets F ig u re 1 .3 N u m b e r lines

Example 1

2 ^ Tok 2l2 -I * 03 0 2005

From the list given above, select:
a the natural numbers b the integers c the rational numbers
d the irrational numbers e the real numbers.
1 Understanding Number j

Answer 1
a The natural numbers (N ) are: 2 and 2005.
b The integers (Z ) are: -9 9 ,0 ,2 and 2005 (because each larger set includes the set before it),
c The rational numbers ( Q ) are: -9 9 , - | , 0, 0 .3 , 2 l , 2,2005.
d The irrational numbers are: \/3 and k (because these are decimals that go on forever with
no repeating pattern),
e The real numbers (R ) are: 2, s/3, - 9 9 ,2 i, n, 0.3,0,2005.

W ith in th e a bove sets o f n u m b e rs th e re are o th e r, s m a lle r sets. S om e o f th e se sets are

Key terms discussed below .
Prim e numbers
are divisible only
by themselves and
1 without leaving a 1 .4 Prim e Numbers, Factors
remainder, for
example 2,11,37,101. and Multiples
Factors o f a num ber can
be multiplied together to In th is s e ctio n w e w ill use n a tu ra l n u m b e rs only.
make that number, for
P rim e n u m b e rs are n a tu ra l n u m b e rs th a t are o n ly d ivisib le by them selves o r by 1.
example 1 , 2 ,3. and 6 are
factors of 6. So m e e xam ples o f p rim e n u m b e rs are:
M ultiples o f a num ber
2 , 3 , 5 , 7 ,1 1 ,1 3 , 1 7 , . . .
are the result of
multiplying that number N otice th a t 1 is n o t c o u n te d as a p rim e num ber, and 2 is th e o n ly even p rim e num ber.
by any ofthe natural
numbers, for example
6,12,36 and 600 are Example 2
multiples of 6 . Write a list of all the prime numbers between 20 and 35.
A number which can Answer 2
be dfvidedby another 23,29 ,3 1
number without leaving (All the other numbers between 20 and 35 are divisible by numbers other than just
a remainder is said'to
themselves or 1 .)
be divisible by that
number. For example,
39 is divisible by 3. .
The fa cto rs o f a n u m b e r are th e n a tu ra l n u m b e rs th a t can be m u ltip lie d to g e th e r to m ake th e
n um ber.

For e xam p le, 2 and 3 are factors o f 6 because 2 x 3 = 6 .

NOTE:
You may need to find The m u ltip le s o f a n u m b e r are o b ta in e d by m u ltip ly in g th e n u m b e r by o th e r n a tu ra l num bers.
a way o f remembering
For e xam ple, th e m u ltip le s o f 12 w o u ld in c lu d e 1 2 ,2 4 ,3 6 ,4 8 and so on.
which are factors of a
number, and which are The fa cto rs o f 12 in Figure 1.4 are sh o w n m u ltip lie d togethe r. This is called a p ro d u c t
multiples o fth e number. o f factors. So n u m b e rs th a t are m u ltip lie d to g e th e r are ca lle d factors, and th e re s u lt o f
Perhaps you can m u ltip ly in g th e m to g e th e r is ca lle d th e product. There are o th e r factors o f 12.
remember that multiples
are bigger than the
original number, or
that they are in the
m ultiplication tables
(times tables) for that
number.
So th e m u ltip le s o f 2 are
2 ,4 ,6 ,8 ,1 0 ,...

F ig u re 1 .4 Factors and m u ltiples o f 12

4
 [ 1 Understanding Number

A lto g e th e r th e factors o f 12 are: 1 ,2 ,3 ,4 , 6 and 12 (all the n um bers th a t w ill d iv id e in to 12

w ith o u t lea vin g a rem ainder).

O f p a rtic u la r in te re st are th e p rim e factors. The p rim e n u m b e rs a m o n g the fa cto rs o f 12 are 2

and 3. We can w rite 12 as a p ro d u c t o f its p rim e factors:

12 = 2 x 2 x 3

o r w e can list th e p rim e factors o f 1 2 : { 2 ,3}.

A fa c to r tree is a ne a t m e th o d fo r fin d in g p rim e factors o f larger num bers. The fo llo w in g

e xa m p le w ill sho w you h o w to m ake a fa c to r tree.

Example 3
Write 200 as a product of its prime factors.
Answer 3
First make a list of the smaller prime numbers: 200

2 ,3 ,5 ,7 ,...
/ \
2 x 100
Start by dividing by 2, and repeat until /x 50
the number will no longer divide by 2 . 2*/ x ''2 5 (25 will not divide by 2 or 3, so try 5)
Then work through your list in order,
5 x5
trying 3, then 5 and so on. / \
5 x 1 (1 is not a prime number)
The answer is: 200 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 5 x 5 .
(Check this by multiplying out.)
Example 4
a List all the factors of 18. b List the prime factors of 18.
c Write 18 as a product of its prime factors. d List three multiples of 18.
Answer 4
a {1 ,2 ,3 ,6 ,9 ,1 8 } b {2,3} c 18 = 2 x 3 x 3
d For example, 36 (18 x 2), 54 (18 x 3), 90(18 x 5).

Exercise 1.1 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e
1 5, -1 0 0 , -3 .6 7 , ti, 0, 1507, |

From th e lis t above:

a W rite d o w n all th e real n um bers. b W rite d o w n all th e ra tio n a l num bers,
c W rite d o w n all th e integers. d W rite d o w n all th e n atura l num bers,
e O ne o fth e n u m b e rs is irra tio n a l. W hich is it?

2 a List all th e fa cto rs o f 30. b List th e p rim e factors o f 30.

c W rite 30 as a p ro d u c t o f its p rim e factors. (M u ltip ly o u t to check y o u r answer.)
d W rite d o w n th re e m u ltip le s o f 30.

3 1, 4, 30, 45, 5, 15, 9, 1500,3, 10

From th is list choose:

a th e m u ltip le s o f 15 b th e fa cto rs o f 15.

4 Use a fa c to r tree to fin d th e p rim e factors o f 240. W rite y o u r answ er:

a as a list o f p rim e factors b as a p ro d u c t o f p rim e factors.

5 W rite d o w n all th e p rim e n u m b e rs betw een 20 and 40.

6 W hich o f th e fo llo w in g n u m b e rs are p rim e num bers?

37, 49, 53, 81, 87, 93, 101
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5
1 Understanding Number j

7 W rite d o w n a lis t o f n u m b e rs betw een 80 and 90, in c lu d in g 80 and 90.

From y o u r list fin d :
a tw o p rim e n u m b e rs b th re e m u ltip le s o f 5 c a fa c to r o f 348.

1 .5 Highest Com m on Factor (HCF) and

Lowest Com m on M ultiple (LCM)
Key terms
The Highest Common 'C o m m o n ' in th is case m eans ‘ b e lo n g in g to a ll’.
Factor (HCF) of two or
W e ofte n need to fin d th e fa c to rs o r m u ltip le s o f tw o (o r m ore) n u m b e rs th a t b e lo n g to both
more given numbers
(o r all) th e n um bers. O ne w ay to d o th is is to lis t all th e fa c to rs o r m u ltip le s o f b o th num bers
is the highest number
which will divide into an d see w h ic h fa cto rs o r m u ltip le s o c c u r in b o th lists.
both or all of the given T he fo llo w in g e xa m p le show s h o w th is is d one.
numbers without leaving
a remainder, for example 3
is the HCF of 9,12 and 15. Example 5
The Lowest Common a i List all the factors of 30. ii List all the factors of 20.
M ultip le (LCM) of two iii From your tw o lists find the common factors of 20 and 30 (not including 1).
or more given numbers
is the lowest number b i List the first four multiples of 30 (not including 30 itself).
which is a multiple of ii List the first five multiples of 20 (not including 20 itself).
both or all of the given iii From your two lists, find any common multiples.
numbers, for example 18
c Find the HCF of 30 and 20. d Find the LCM of 30 and 20.
is the LCM of 2, 6 and 9.
Answer 5
a i {1 ,2 ,3 ,5 ,6 ,1 0 ,1 5 ,3 0 } ii {1 ,2 ,4 ,5 ,1 0 ,2 0 } iii {2,5,10}
b i {60,90,120,150} ii {40,60,80,100,120} iii {60,120}
c 10 d 60

U sing th e a b ove e xa m p le you s h o u ld see th a t fin d in g th e highest c o m m o n fa c to r (HCF) o f

20 a n d 30 is sim p le . It is th e h ig h e s t n u m b e rth a t appears in b o th lists o f factors o f b o th the
n u m be rs. The HCF o f 20 and 30 is 10.

S im ilarly, th e lo w e s t c o m m o n m u ltip le o f 20 and 30 is th e s m a lle st n u m b e rth a t appears in

b o th lists o f m u ltip le s. The LCM o f 20 and 30 is 60.

An a lte rn a tiv e m e th o d fo r fin d in g th e HCF o f tw o o r m o re n u m b e rs is firs t to w rite th e m as

p ro d u c ts o f th e ir p rim e factors, and th e n pick o u t th e fa cto rs c o m m o n to b oth lists. The
e xa m p le show s this.

Example 6
a Write
i 360 and ii 980
as products of their prime factors.

b Find the highest common factor of 360 and 980

Answer 6
a i 360 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 5 ii 980 = 2 x 2 x 5 x 7 x 7
b HCF = 2 X 2 X 5 = 20
V________________________________

6
 [ 1 Understanding Number

1 .6 Tests of Divisibility without

Using a Calculator
Before you go any fu rth e r you m ig h t like to try som e tests o f d iv is ib ility w h ic h can he lp you
save tim e in these q u e stions. These tests sh o w w h a t w ill d iv id e in to a n u m b e r w ith o u t leaving
a rem ain de r.

• D iv is ib ility by 2: All even n u m b e rs d iv id e by 2. (All even n u m b e rs end in 2 ,4 , 6,8 o r 0.)

• D iv is ib ility by 3: This is a ra th e r su rp ris in g test, b u t it does w ork!

Add all th e d ig its (in d iv id u a l num bers) o f the e n tire n u m b e r together. If th e re s u lt is 3, 6 o r 9

th e n th e n u m b e r w ill d iv id e by 3. If th e result is 10 o r m ore, keep a d d in g th e d ig its u n til you
get to a single d ig it. This is ca lle d fin d in g th e d ig ita l ro o t o fth e num ber. If th e d ig ita l ro o t is
3. 6 o r 9 th e n th e n u m b e rw ill d iv id e by 3.

For e xa m p le , th e d ig ita l ro o t o f 2115 is 2 + 1 + 1 + 5 = 9, so 2115 w ill d iv id e by 3 (check it on

y o u r ca lc u la to r).

O f course, it does n o t m a tte r w h a t o rd e r th e d ig its o fth e n u m b e r a p p e a r o r if a ny zeroes

a p p e a r in th e num ber, so 5 1 2 1 ,2 5 1 1 ,1 2 5 1 0 ,1 0 5 1 2 0 (and so on) w ill all d iv id e by 3.

To fin d th e d ig ita l ro o t o f 3672:

3+ 6 + 7 + 2 = 18
1+ 8 = 9

So th e d ig ita l ro o t o f 3672 is 9. Hence, 3672 w ill d iv id e b y 3.

• D iv is ib ility b y 5: A ll n u m b e rs e n d in g in 5 o r 0 w ill d iv id e by 5. Therefore, 3672 w ill n o t

d iv id e by 5 w hereas 3670 w ill.
• D iv is ib ility by 6: All even n u m b e rs w ith a d ig ita l ro o t o f 3 , 6 o r 9 w ill d iv id e by 6.3672 w ill
d iv id e by 6 .
• D iv is ib ility by 9: All n u m b e rs w ith a d ig ita l ro o t o f 9 w ill d iv id e by 9.3 6 7 2 w ill d iv id e
by 9.

Example 7
a Test 552 for divisibility by 2 ,3 ,5 , 6 and 9.
b Test 6165 for divisibility by 2 ,3 ,5 ,6 and 9.
Answer 7
a 552 is even, so it will divide by 2.
5 + 5 + 2 = 12 —> 1 + 2 = 3, so it will divide by 3.
552 does not end in 5 or 0, so it will not divide by 5.
552 is even and it will divide by 3, so it will also divide by 6 .
The digital root of 552 is 3, not 9, so it will not divide by 9.
b 6165 is not even, so it will not divide by 2.
6 + 1 + 6 + 5 = 18 -> 1 + 8 = 9, so it will divide by 3.
6165 ends in 5, so it will divide by 5.
Although 6165 will divide by 3 it is not even, so it will not divide by 6 .
The digital root of 6165 is 9, so it will divide by 9.

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7
Exercise 1.2 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e
1 a List all th e fa ctors o f 8 . Then lis t all th e fa cto rs o f 12.
b Find th e h ighest c o m m o n fa c to r o f 8 and 12.

2 Find th e h igh e st c o m m o n fa c to r o f 21 and 42.

3 a List a ll th e fa ctors of:

i 15 ii 35 iii 20
b W rite d o w n th e h ig h e st c o m m o n fa c to r o f 1 5 ,3 5 a n d 20.

4 a List th e firs t six m u ltip le s o f 12 and o f 8 .

b W rite d o w n th e lo w e s t c o m m o n m u ltip le o f 12 a n d 8 .

5 Find th e lo w e s t c o m m o n m u ltip le o f 3 ,5 and 12.

6 Test 21603 fo r d iv is ib ility by 2 ,3 ,5 and 9. Explain y o u r rea so n in g (see E xam ple 6 ).

7 Test 515196 fo r d iv is ib ility b y 2 ,3 ,5 , 6 and 9. Explain y o u r reasoning.

1 .7 Operations and Inverses

M a th e m a tic a l o p e ra tio n s like a d d itio n , o r d ivis io n , have inverses w h ic h ‘u n d o ’ th e o p e ra tio n .

For e xa m ple, 2 x 3 = 6 , and 6 + 3 = 2.

D ivision is th e inverse o f m u ltip lic a tio n because it ‘u n d o e s ’ m u ltip lic a tio n .

Also, m u ltip lic a tio n is th e inverse o f d ivis io n , as y o u can see in Figure 1.5.

W ha t d o yo u th in k is th e inverse o f a d d itio n ? Look a t Figure 1.6.

w +3

-3

F ig u re 1 .5 M u ltip licatio n and F ig u re 1 .6 A dd itio n and

division are inverses su b tractio n are inverses

1 .8 Squares and Square Roots,

Cubes and Cube Roots
The sq ua re o f a n u m b e r is th e re s u lt o f m u ltip ly in g a n u m b e r by itself.

For exam p le, th e square o f 9 is 9 x 9 = 81, th e square o f 11 is 11 x 11 = 121, and th e sq u a re o f

35 is 3 5 x 3 5 = 1225.

The c o m p a c t w ay o f s h o w in g th a t th e n u m b e r is to be squared is to w rite it to th e pow 'er o f 2.

So th e sq ua re o f 9 is w ritte n a s 9 2 = 81. S im ilarly, l l 2 = 121 and 35 2 = 1225.

F in d in g th e square ro o t o f a n u m b e r undoes th e sq u a rin g , so fo r exam ple, th e sq u a re ro o t o f

81 is 9, th e square ro o t o f 121 is 11, and th e square ro o t o f 1225 is 35.

The c o m p a c t w ay o f s h o w in g th a t the square ro o t o f a n u m b e r is to be fo u n d is to use th e

square ro o t sign: -J~.

So th e sq u are ro o t o f 81 is w ritte n as V81 = 9; also, VT 2 I = 1 la n d V i 225 = 35.


K ey t e r m
An inverse operation
reverses the effect of
another operation. For
example, divide and
m ultiply are inverses of
each other, or square
and square root.
NOTE:
It would be helpful to
learn to recognise some
ofthe irrational numbers,
such as 7t, J2 , -J3, V5,
•J7 and V io, so that you
can give examples when
required.
NOTE:
It would be useful to
make a list ofthe first five
square numbers and the
first five cube numbers
and learn to recognise
them. You will come
across them quite often.
Iv t Understanding Number
You sh o u ld be able to see th a t s q u a rin g and fin d in g th e square ro o t u n d o each other.
As w e have seen above, o p e ra tio n s w h ic h ‘u n d o ’ each
o th e r are inverses o f each other.
Hence, sq u a rin g and fin d in g th e square ro o t are inverse
o p e ra tio n s (see Figure 1.7).
We w ill com e across m ore inverse o p e ra tio n s later in th e
course. Fig u re 1.7 Square and square
root are inverses
We can fin d th e square o f any num ber. My c a lc u la to r te lls
m e th a t the square o f 2.41 is 5.8081. It also tells m e th a t
7 4 6 8 .2 8 9 6 = 21.64.
H ow ever, n o t all n um bers have exact square roots. For e xam ple, V2, V3 o rV 5 are num bers
w ith d e c im a ls th a t ‘go on fo re v e r’ w ith o u t any re p e a tin g p a tte rn ; th e y are irra tio n a l num bers.
%/49 = 7 exactly, so %/49 is a ra tio n a l num ber. As w e see above, %/468.2896 = 2 1 .6 4 , so
V 4 6 8 .2 8 9 6 is a ra tio n a l num ber.
My c a lc u la to r te lls m e th a t V 7 2 = 2 .6 8 3 2 8 1 5 7 3 before it runs o u t o f space on its display, so
^ 7 2 looks as if it co u ld be an irra tio n a l num ber, a lth o u g h w e c a n n o t te ll fo r certain by th is
m e th o d alone.
The n u m b e rs th a t you get w h e n you square th e n atura l n u m b e rs are ca lle d p e rfe c t squares.
They are calle d p e rfe ct squares because on be in g square ro o te d th e y give w h o le num bers.
The firs t fo u r p e rfe ct squares are 1 ,4 ,9 ,1 6 . W rite d o w n th e next th re e square num bers.
The cube o f a n u m b e r is th e re s u lt o f m u ltip ly in g th a t n u m b e r by its e lf tw ice.
T h e c u be o f 4 = 4 x 4 x 4 = 1 6 x 4 = 64.
The c o m p a c t w ay o fw r itin g th e c u b e o f a n u m b e r is to w rite it to th e p o w e r 3, so th e cube
o f 4 is : 4 3 = 4 x 4 x 4 = 64.
The cubes o f th e firs t to u r n u m b e rs are 1 ,8 ,2 7 ,6 4 . W hat is th e c u b e o f th e next n u m b e r ;1
C ube n u m b e rs are also often ca lle d cubic num bers.
The inverse o f c u b in g a n u m b e r is fin d in g th e cube ro o t, and you m ay fin d th a t y o u r
c a lc u la to r has a cu b e ro o t b u tto n ify o u lo o k carefully.
The c u b e ro o t sign is \ T , so ^/27 = 3 (because 3 x 3 x 3 = 27).
Example 8
a 1 2 ,6 ,7 ,3 6 ,1 2 5 , 5 ,1 5 ,4
From the list of numbers choose:
i a perfect squareii the square root of 49 iii 62
iv \/25 v 53
b Use your calculator to find:
i 42.32 ii V9.61 iii 1.63 iv ^/64
Answer 8
a i 36 or 4 ii 7 iii 36
iv 5 v 125
b i 1789.29 ii 3.1
iii 4.096 iv 4
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9
1 Understanding Number
Key term
Directed num bers
are numbers that can
be positive as well
as negative. The sign
indicates a direction, for
example-10°C is 10°C
below freezing.
io |
J
Exercise 1.3 n o c a l c u l a t o r u n l e s s s p e c if ie d
1 For each o f the operations below state the inverse.
a m ultiply b subtract c square d cube root
2 W rited o w n :
a th e square o f 6 b the square root of 9
c 23 d V 25 e 10 2 f 103
3 U se y o u r c a lc u la to r to find:
a 5.2 2 b V82.81 c VT0 0 d ^/Tooo
4 n/256 VfTT V841 yj7 V 4 4 9 .4 4
U se y o u r c a lc u la to r to choose from th e above list:
a three num bers th a t you thin k are rational
b tw o num bers th a t you th in k are irrational.
In each case w rite dow n all th e figures on your calculator display.
5 W rite a list o f the first seven square num bers.
6 Fill in the gaps in this list o f cube num bers.
1 ,8 , ...,6 4 .......216.
7 Using your answers to questions 5 and 6 , w rite d o w n a num ber which is both a perfect
square and a perfect cube.
8 U s in g y o u r c a lc u la to r, find an o th er n u m b er which is both a perfect square and a
perfect cube.
9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
C opy Table 1.1. Enter each o fth e num bers in th e list above in the correct rows in your
table. (Som e num bers m ay fit in m ore than one row.)
N a tu ra l n u m b e rs
P rim e n u m b e rs
Even n u m b e rs
M u ltip le s o f 3
S qu are n u m b e rs
C ube n u m b e rs
Factors o f 20
T a b le 1 .1 N u m b e rty p e s
1 .9 Directed Num bers
W e have lo o k e d a t integers, w h ic h are p o s itiv e (w ith a p lus sign) o r negative (w ith a m in u s
sign) w h o le n u m b e rs , o r zero, w h ic h has no sign.
D ire cted n u m b e rs are also p o s itiv e o r n e g a tive b u t in c lu d e th e w h o le set o f real n u m bers,
h ence th e y also in c lu d e ra tio n a l and irra tio n a l n u m b e rs , as w e ll as integers.
T hey are ca lle d d ire c te d n u m b e rs because th e y in d ic a te a d ire c tio n a lo n g a n u m b e r line.
T h in k o f a th e rm o m e te r th a t m easures te m p e ra tu re s a bove and b e lo w zero.
 [ 1 Understanding Numnei

If the te m p e ra tu re sta rts at 4 °C and falls by 5°C, it w ill e n d a t - l° C . This can be w ritte n
a s 4 - 5 = - l.

The m inus sign in fro n t o f the 5 show s the d ire c tio n in w h ic h the te m p e ra tu re has m oved from 4.

The m in u s sign in fro n t o f th e 1 show s th a t it is 1 degree b e lo w zero. If th e te m p e ra tu re starts

at 4°C a n d rises by 5 °C, it w ill end at +9°C. This can be w ritte n as 4 + 5 = +9.

The p lu s sign sh ow s th a t th e te m p e ra tu re is 9 degrees a b o ve zero. In p ra c tic e w e d o n o t

u su a lly w rite in th e p lus sign. If a n u m b e r is w ritte n w ith o u t a sign it is assum ed th a t it is
p ositive . We are n o t re s tric te d to w h o le n u m b e rs , so 4 - 5.5 = -1 .5 .

Example 9
a Use the therm om eter shown in Figure 1.8 to find the new temperature in each case below.
The tem perature starts a t-5 ° C and rises by 4°C.
i The tem perature starts a t - l° C and falls by 2°C.
ii The tem perature starts a t-2 .5 °C and rises by 5.5 °C.

b Use the therm om eter to work out the following:

i 3 -6 ii - 5 + 9 iii - 1 - 3 . 5
iv 3 - 5 + 6 v the difference between 4 °C and 7 °C
vi the difference between -2°C and -4 °C
vii the difference between - 2 °C and 4 °C.

c Which is warmer, 2°C or-5°C ?

Answer 9
- 5 + 4 = -1 , so the new tem perature is - 1 °C.
i -1 - 2 = -3 , so the new tem perature is - 3 °C.
ii - 2 .5 + 5.5 = +3, so the new tem perature is+3°C, (or just 3 °C).

3 - 6 = -3 ii - 5 + 9 = + 4 (orjust 4) iii - 1 - 3 . 5 = -4 .5
iv 3 —5 + 6 = —2 + 6 = 4 v 3°C (look at the therm om eter)
vi 2°C vii 6 °C

c 2°C is w a rm e rth a n -5 °C .

Exercise 1.4 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e
1 D raw a th e rm o m e te r, w ith te m p e ra tu re s b e tw e e n - 1 0 °C and + 1 0 °C.
Use it to c o m p le te th e fo llo w in g s ta te m e n ts .
a -1 0 + 5 = b -2-3= c 5-8 =
d 0-7= e 6+2-3=

2 Figure 1.9 sho w s a m a rk e r in a re se rvo ir w h ic h is used to sh o w th e level (in m etres) o f th e

w ater. C opy th e d ia g ra m a n d use it to a n sw e r th e fo llo w in g q u e stio n s.
a O v e rn ig h t th e w a te r level sinks fro m th e level s h o w n in th e d ia g ra m to -1 .5 m etres.
By h o w m a n y m etres has th e w a te r level in the
re s e rv o ir fallen?
b T h e w a te r level falls a n o th e r 2.1 m etres. W h a t is
th e n e w level?
c By h o w m u c h does th e w a te r have to rise to
b rin g th e level up to 2 m etres? F ig u re 1 .9 W ater level
1 —IwsimhH—Ihnnfcer J

3 Figure 1.10 shows the cross-section o f a m ountain region. Sea level is 0 metres. A clim b e r starts
a t 15 m etres below sea level and clim bs 100 metres. H ow high is he above sea level now?

Bank Account

Start Money in Money out Balance

-$216 -$216

$503 (a)
$290 (b)

(c) $0.00

T a b le 1 .2 B ank s ta te m e n t

My b a n k a c c o u n t is o v e rd ra w n by $216. The b alance (the a m o u n t o f m oney I have in the

bank) is sho w n in th e firs t lin e in Table 1.2 a s -$ 2 1 6 . T h is m eans th a t I ow e th e b a n k $216.
a I pay in $503. W hat s h o u ld m y a c c o u n t balance s h o w now ?
b I w rite a c he que fo r $290 to pay fo r m y e le c tric ity . Am I s till overdraw n?
c If so, h o w m uch w o u ld I need to pay in to clear m y debt?

We w ill learn m o re a b o u t d ire c te d n u m b e rs in C h a p te r 3.

1 .1 0 Im portant M athem atical Symbols

You are already fa m ilia r w ith so m e m a th e m a tic a l sym bols.

For e x a m p le ,+, x, -s-, n, \ T a n d = .

A n o th e r s ym b o l w h ic h is s o m e tim e s used is * , w h ic h m eans ‘is n o t equa to ’.

For exam ple, 4 * 7, o r ‘fo u r is n o t equal to seven’.

We also need to be able to use s y m b o ls to m ean ‘is gre a te r (or larger) th a n ’, o r is less (or
sm alle r) th a n ’.

For exam ple, w e need a m a th e m a tic a l w ay o f w ritin g 'fo u r is less (or sma ler) t ia n seven'.

This is w ritte n as 4 < 7.

R
 I t Understanding Number

We can also w rite 7 > 4. This m eans th a t ‘seven is greater than fo u r’.
NOTE:
S u pp o se w e w a n te d to say th a t th e n u m b e r o f days in F ebruary is greate r th a n or equal to 28?
Ifyou have difficulty
remembering the This w o u ld be w ritte n as: N u m b e r o fd a y s in February ' 28.
inequality signs, you So & m eans greater than or equal to and > means strictly greater than. W hat do you think s means?
might be able to
remember that the The signs > and < are called in e q u a lity signs.
inequality sign points to
the smaller number, or
even that the smaller end
of the sign is on the side
of the smaller number.
1 .1 1 Ordering Integers
__________ Getting Larger____________

I I I I___I___ I___ I___I_I_____ I__I_____ I_I___ I____ I___I____I___ I__ I____ I

-8 -7 - 6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

F ig u r e l.il T h e n u m b e r lin e

The n u m b e r line in Figure 1.11 show s th e integers fro m - 8 to 11. The rest o f th e real n um bers
fit in th e ir co rre c t places a lo n g th e line, so -2 .5 w o u ld be h a lfw a y betw een - 3 and -2 .

The n u m b e rs get la rg e r as you go fro m le ft to rig h t.

For e xa m p le , 8 > 3 (as w e know ).

Also, 1 > - 2 , - 4 < 0 and so on.

This is also tru e fo r all th e p o s itive and negative real n um bers, so -6 .2 5 < 3.5.

Example 10
Use the number line you made earlier to insert the correct symbol between the following
p a ir 5 o f n u m b e r s .

a 7...20 b -5 ...1 0 c 2...-1

d -8 ...-1 9 e 4 .5 ...- 6 .5 f --...-4
2
Answer 1 0
a 7 <20 b -5 <10 c 2>-l
d - 8 > -1 9 e 4.5 > - 6 .5 f --> -4
2

Exercise 1.5 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e

1 W rite d o w n th e s ym b o l for:
a pi b square ro o t c cube ro o t
d is n o t equal to e is less th a n f is greater than o r equal to

2 Fill in th e co rre ct in e q u a lity sign betw een each o f th e fo llo w in g pairs o f num bers,
a 2... 4 b - 2 ... - 5 c -1 0 ... 4 d -1...0

3 A rrange th e fo llo w in g integers in th e co rre ct order, s ta rtin g w ith th e sm allest.

100, -1 , -1 0 0 , 0, -8 9 , -7 6 , 75, 101, 61, -6 2
 1 .1 2 Standard Form
S o m e tim e s w e have to w o rk w ith very large n u m b e rs (th e dista n ce fro m earth to th e m o o n is
a p p ro x im a te ly 3 84 40 0 0 0 0 m etres), o r very sm a ll n u m b e rs (the thickn e ss o f a page in one o f
m y b o o ks is a p p ro x im a te ly 0 .0 0 0 0 2 1 3 m etres).

T here is a n e a te r w ay o f w ritin g these n u m b e rs w ith o u t having to use so m a n y zeroes.

It is ca lle d s tan d a rd fo rm . U sing s ta n d a rd fo rm w e w rite n u m b e rs in th e fo rm a x 10", w here a

is a n u m b e r grea te r th a n o r e q u a l to 1 and less th a n 1 0 ( 1 =£ a < 1 0 ) and n is an integer.

To w rite 230000 (tw o h u n d re d and th irty th o u s a n d ) in sta n d a rd form :

• First id e n tify th e place w h e re th e d e c im a l p o in t be lo n g s (since it is n o t show n). We know

th a t if th e d e c im a l p o in t is n o t s how n, it a c tu a lly com es a fte r th e last d ig it.
So 230000 co u ld be w ritte n as 230 000.0.
• N ext c o u n t h o w m a n y places th e d e c im a l p o in t w o u ld have to be m oved b ack u n til it is
b etw e e n th e 2 and th e 3. You w ill see th a t it is 5 places.
• So 230 000 = 2.3 x 105. This is read as ‘tw o h u n d re d and th irty th o u s a n d is e q u a l to tw o
p o in t th re e tim e s ten to th e p o w e r fiv e ’.

You w ill learn m o re a b o u t p ow ers and w o rk in g w ith s ta n d a rd fo rm in a la te r c h a p te r. F o rth e

m o m e n t, yo u ju s t have to u n d e rs ta n d h o w to w rite n u m b e rs in s ta n d a rd form .

To w rite 0.000 003546 in sta n d a rd form :

• C o u n t h o w m any places th e d e c im a l p o in t w o u ld have to be m oved fo rw a rd to lie

b etw e e n 3 and 5. It is 6 places.
• So 0.000 003 546 = 3.546 x 10 -6 (this is ten to th e p o w e r o f neg a tive six).

>V
Example 1 1
a Write in standard form:
i 20015 ii 175 iii 3200000
iv 0.127 V 0.00506

b Write in the normal way:

i 9.013 x 10"3 ii 1.0007 x lO 7
Answer 1 1
a i 2.0015 x lO 4 ii 1.75 x lO 2 iii 3.2 x lO 6
iv 1 . 2 7 x 1 0 * v 5.06 x lO 3

b i 0.009013 ii 10007000
V
 [ 1 UnflerstanJing Number

1 .1 3 Order of W orking
in Calculations
Ram w as asked to ca lc u la te 5 + 2 x 3 , w ith o u t using a ca lcu la to r. His answ er w as 21.

He checked his answ er w ith a ca lcu la to r. The c a lc u la to r answ er w as 11.

W hat has happen ed?

Both Ram and th e c a lc u la to r w ere co rre ct in d iffe re n t ways.

Ram firs t a dd ed 5 and 2 and th e n m u ltip lie d by 3 (5 + 2 = 7 then 7 x 3 = 21).

The c a lc u la to r m u ltip lie d 2 and 3 first and then a dded 5 (2 x 3 = 6 th e n 6 + 5 = 11).

Tf-y-Wn-lflgMB It is cle arly n o t sa tis fa c to ry to get tw o d iffe re n t answ ers to th e sam e q u e s tio n , so an o rd e r o f
b w o rk in g had to be d ecid e d to ensure th a t all c a lc u la tio n s y ield th e sam e answer.
There are different ways
The accep ted o rd e r is:
of remembering this,
order. For example, the • First Brackets.
made-up word BoDMAS • N ext D ivision and M u ltip lic a tio n (in e ith e r order).
is often used. You could
• Lastly A d d itio n and S u b tra c tio n (in e ith e r order).
for’of’, which usually Try to fo llo w th is exam ple.
means multiply, as in j of
To c a lc u la te 7 + 3 x 2 - (6 - 2) + 2,

B (brackets) =7+3x2-4+2 [(6- 2 ) = 4]

D (divisio n) =7 + 3 x 2 - 2 [4 -5-2 = 2]

M (m u ltip lic a tio n ) =7 + 6 -2 [ 3 x 2 = 6]

A (a d d itio n ) =13-2 [7 + 6 = 13]

S (s u b tra c tio n ) =11 [ 1 3 - 2 = 11]

Answ er: 7 + 3 x 2 - ( 6 - 2 ) - * - 2 = 11

Try p u ttin g th is in y o u r c a lc u la to r in exactly th e sam e o rd e r as it is w ritte n and see if

y o u r c a lc u la to r arrives at th e sam e answ er w h e n you press th e 'e q u a ls ’ b u tto n . M ost
c a lc u la to rs n o w use th is fo rm o f logic (orde r o f w o rk in g ), b u t you need to be sure a b o u t
y o u r o w n.

There w ill be m o re a b o u t th is in C hapter 4.

W ork o u t 4 x 6 + 2 by d o in g th e m u ltip lic a tio n first.

4 x 6 -5-2 = 24-5-2 = 12

N ow d o th e sam e sum b u t d o th e d ivisio n first.

4 x 6 -5- 2 = 4 x 3 = 12

You sh o u ld n ote th a t m u ltip lic a tio n and d ivisio n can be d o n e in e ith e r order. Can you fin d a
rule fo r a d d itio n and su b tra c tio n ?

It is ve ry im p o rta n t th a t you learn th is o rd e r o f w o rkin g , and kn o w h o w to use it.

 Example 12
Work out the following, showing your working:
a 4 + 3 x 1 0 -6 + 2 b (4 + 3) x 10 - 6 + 2 C 4 + (3 x l0 )-6 + 2
d 4 + 3 x (1 0 -6 )+ 2 e (4 + 3) x ( 1 0 - 6 )+ 2 f 4 + ( 3 x 1 0 - 6) + 2
Answer 1 2
a 4 + 3 x 1 0 -6 + 2
= 4 + 3 0 - 3 = 31

b (4 + 3) x 10 - 6 + 2
= 7 x 1 0 -3
= 7 0 - 3 = 67

c 4 + (3 x 10) - 6 + 2 (This is the same as (a) because the multiplication is done

= 4 + 30 - 3 = 31 first anyway, and so does not need brackets.)

d 4 + 3 x (10 - 6 ) + 2
=4+3x4+2 (Notice that 3 x 4 + 2 = 1 2 + 2 = 6 or 3 x 4 + 2 = 3 x 2 = 6 )
= 4 + 6 = 10

e (4 + 3) x (10 - 6 ) + 2
= 7 x 4 + 2 = 14

f 4 + (3 x l O - 6 )+ 2 (The working inside the brackets also follows BoDMAS, so

= 4 + (30 —6 ) + 2 3 x 10 first, th e n - 6 )
= 4 + 24 + 2
= 4 + 12
= 16

Setting Out Your W orking

It is im p o rta n t to be able to c o m m u n ic a te in m a th e m a tic s . You have to be a b le to e x p la in to
another person how you have arrived at your answ er In a m athem atical and cui icise way.

Ify o u w rite an eq ua ls sign, th e th in g s th a t co m e before and a fter th a t sign m u s t be e q u a l to

each oth er.

Look a t h o w tw o s tu d e n ts a n sw e r th e sam e q u e s tio n , s h o w in g th e ir w o rk in g .

R ita writes: (10 + 2 ) + 4 = 10 + 2 = 1 2 + 4 = 3 Sara w rites: (1 0 + 2 ) + 4

= 12 + 4
= 3

W hich is th e easier to fo llo w ?

In th e firs t case, Rita has w ritte n 10 + 2 = 12 + 4. B ut th is is n o t true!

Sara has set o u t her w o rk so th a t th e equals sign m eans exactly th a t. She has also used a n e w
line betw e en each b it o f w o rk in g , w h ic h m akes it easier to read.

The exam ples th ro u g h o u t th is b o o k w ill sh o w you how to set o u t y o u r w o rk , so d o p ra ctise

this rig h t fro m th e beginning. In general, w ritin g one eq u a ls sign per lin e is good practice.
H ow ever, please n o te th a t in th is book, fo r reasons o f e c o n o m y and space, it has n o t alw ays
been po ssib le to re strict w o rk in g to one equals sign per line.
 [ 1 Understanding Number

Exercise 1.6 NO CALCULATOR UNLESS SPECIFIED

W rite in s ta nd a rd form :
a 12 000 b 365 c 59103 d 6000 e 701040 0

W rite in s tan d ard form :

a 0.0035 b 0.156 c 0.0005 d 0.0000043 0.0102

W rite in s ta nd ard form :

a 0.00345 b 520160 c 112
d 0.001 e 0.1001 f 2 m illio n

W rite as a n o rm a l num ber:

a 5.6x l O 3 b 2 .7 x 1 0 - ' c 1 .1 6 x 1 0 1-2 d 6 x 10'' e 2 x l 0-3

5 C a lcula te th e fo llo w in g , w ith o u t using a calculator:

a 4+ 7x2 b 12 + 3 x 2 + 6
C 1+ 2+ 3-(2x3) d (4 + 5) + (4 - 1)

C heck y o u r answ ers w ith a ca lcu la to r.

6 Use y o u r c a lc u la to r to w o rk o u t th e fo llo w in g :
a ( 5 + 7 - 2 ) + (6 - 4 ) b 2x3 + 5x7 c 3 x (1 4 -7 )-2

C heck y o u r answ ers by c a lc u la tin g w ith o u t th e ca lcu la to r.

7 P ut brackets in th e rig h t places to m ake each o f these sum s correct:

a 5- 3x 4= 8 b 9 + 5 0 - 2 4 + 2 = 22 C 3 1 -1 5 + 1 0 - 2 = 2

Exercise 1.7 NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

M ixed exercise

1 a 5, - 4 , - 3 , - 2 , - 1 , 0 ,1 , 2, 3 ,4 , 5, 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ,1 0 ,1 1 ,1 2 ,1 3 ,1 4 ,1 5 ,1 6 ,1 7 }
U sing th e set o f n u m b e rs above, answ er tru e o r false to th e fo llo w in g :
i All th e n u m b e rs c o m e fro m th e set o f real num bers.
ii All the num bers com e from the set of rational numbers.
iii All th e n u m b e rs co m e fro m th e set o f n a tu ra l num bers.
iv All th e n u m b e rs co m e from th e set o f integers.

b Insert an in e q u a lity sign to m ake th e fo llo w in g true:

i -4 ...3 ii 0 . . . - 2 iii 5 . . . - 5 iv 3 . . . - 2
c List (in c u rly brackets):
i th e set o f p rim e n u m b e rs less th a n 1 0
ii th e set o f factors o f 45
iii th e set o f m u ltip le s o f 3 less th a n 20.

Find th e LCM of:

a 12 and 20 b 5 and 15 and 90

Find th e HCF of:

a 16 and 1 2 b 20 and 8 and 12

C alcu late th e fo llo w in g :

a 2 . 1- b 33 V81 d V 8100 n/1~25

W rite 600 as a p ro d u c t o f its p rim e factors.

List all the fa cto rs o f 160.
DAI HOC QUOC GIA HA NOI
TRUNG TAM THONG TIN THU VIEN

0
17
1 Understanding Number J

Exam-style questions J
7 T asn im records th e te m p e ra tu re , in °C, a t 6 a.m . every day fo r 10 days:
- 6 , - 3 , 0, —2, —1, - 7 , - 5 , 2 , - 1 , - 3
a Find th e d iffe re n ce betw e e n th e h ig h e st a n d th e lo w e st
te m p e ra tu re s .
b Find th e m e d ia n te m p e ra tu re . (4024 pa p e r 12 Q2 June 2012)

8 A d d b ra cke ts to th e expression to m ake it c orrect.

1 + 7 2 -* -4 x 2 = 10 (4024 p a p e r01 Q3b June 2012)

9 W o rk o u t 4 3 - 5 2. (05 80 p a p e r 0 1 Q1 June 2004)

1 0 T h e Dead Sea shore is 395 m etres b e lo w sea level. H ebron is

447 m e tre s a b o v e sea level. Find th e d iffe re n c e in height. (0580 pa p e r 0 1 Q2 June 2004)

11 a Express 154 as th e p ro d u c t o f its p rim e factors.

b Find th e lo w e s t c o m m o n m u ltip le o f 154 and 49. (4024 p a per 01 Q 6 June 2007)

1 2 P lace bra cke ts in th e fo llo w in g c a lc u la tio n to m ake it a c o rre c t

s ta te m e n t.
1 0 - 5 x 9 + 3 = 60 (0580 p a p e r01 Q2 N o v e m b e r2004)

1 3 W rite d o w n a m u ltip le o f 4 and 14 w h ic h is less th a n 30.

(0580 p a p e r 01 Q l N ove m b er 2008)

1 4 W rite 0 .0 03 6 2 in sta n d a rd fo rm . (0580 p a per 01 Q7 June 2008)

1 5 W ritte n as th e p ro d u c t o f its p rim e factors, 360 = 2 3 x 3 2 x 5.

a W rite 108 as th e p ro d u c t o f its p rim e factors.
b Find th e lo w e s t c o m m o n m u ltip le o f 108 and 360.
Give y o u r a n sw e r as th e p ro d u c t o f its p rim e factors,
c Find th e s m a lle s t p o s itive in te g e r k such th a t 360fc
is a c u b e n u m b e r. (4024 p a p e r 01 Q 8 N ove m b er 2006)
16 a W rite d o w n th e tw o c u b e n u m b e rs b e tw e e n 10 and 100.
b W rite d o w n th e tw o p rim e n um bers b e tw e e n 30 and 40. (4024 p a per 01 Q3 June 2009

17 a W rite d o w n all th e fa cto rs o f 18.

b W rite 392 as th e p ro d u c t o f its p rim e factors. (4024 p a per 01 Q5 June 2009)

1 8 T he n u m b e rs 294 and 784, w ritte n as th e p ro d u c t o f th e ir p rim e factors, are

294 = 2 x 3 x 7 2 784 = 2 4 x 7 2

Find
a th e la rg est in te g e r w h ic h is a fa c to r o f b o th 294 and 784
b \/7 8 4 . (4024 p a p e r 01 Q4 N ove m b er 2009)
Learning Objectives (Syllabus sections 5 ,6 ,8 ,1 2 )

In this c h a p te r you w ill: • w o rk w ith fractions, d ecim als and

• revise and learn m o re ab o u t fractions, percentages
decim als and percentages and, w ith o u t using • o rd er q u a n titie s expressed as fractions,
a calculator, d ecim als and percentages.
• convert betw een fractions, decim als and
percentages

2 .1 Introduction
This c h a p te r s h o u ld give you th e basic skills fo r w o rk in g w ith fra c tio n s , d e c im a ls and
percentages th a t y o u w ill need la te r in th e course. You m a y a lre a d y have a g o o d grasp o f
th e basic ideas, b u t m is u n d e rs ta n d in g s and errors in th e h a n d lin g o f fra c tio n s are ofte n th e
cause o f d iffic u ltie s in a rith m e tic and algebra. M ake sure you can c o m p le te th e exa m p le s
a nd exercises c o n fid e n tly .
You s h o u ld n o t use a c a lc u la to r w h e n w o rk in g th ro u g h th is c h a p te r. It is im p o rta n t th a t
you firs t u n d e rs ta n d th e p rin c ip le s so th a t y o u w ill be ab le to w o rk m o re easily w ith
algebra. We w ill go on to m ore d iffic u lt w o rk re q u irin g a c a lc u la to r in a la te r c hapter.

R em em ber: no c a lc u la to r in this ch ap ter!

2 .2 Essential Skills NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

Make sure you can c a lc u la te th e fo llo w in g . Look back to th e p re v io u s c h a p te r ify o u need a

re m ind er.

1 Find th e LCM o f th e fo llo w in g num bers:

a 2 ,5 b 7 ,1 4 c 3 ,8 ,1 2 d 3 ,5 ,1 2 ,6 0

2 Find the HCF o f th e fo llo w in g num bers:

a 12,36 b 18,24 c 5 0 ,1 5 0 ,2 0 0 d 4 0 ,2 4 ,5 6
2 Fractions, Decimals and Percentages J

2 .3 Understanding Com m on Fractions

W hen w e use th e w o rd fra c tio n w e n o rm a lly th in k o f n u m b e rs l i k e | , | o r | .
Key term These are a c tu a lly com m o n o r v u lg a r fractions.
Common o r vulgar
In y o u r 0 Level course th e w o rd fra c tio n w ill n o rm a lly m ean c o m m o n fra c tio n , b u t s o m e tim e s
fractions are ordinary
fractions, for example §, it w ill h e lp yo u to u n d e rs ta n d y o u r w o rk ify o u re m e m b e r th a t d e c im a ls (d e c im a l fra c tio n s )
usually just abbreviated and pe rcentages are also fra c tio n s . Percentages are fra c tio n s w ith a d e n o m in a to r o f a
to ‘fractions’. Here, 2 is h u n d re d . For e xam ple, 21% is th e sam e as
the num erator, 3 is the
As yo u know , c o m m o n fra c tio n s have a n u m b e r a bove th e fra c tio n line, and a n o th e r n u m b e r
denom inator.
b e lo w th e fra c tio n line. These n um bers are called th e n u m e ra to r a n d th e d e n o m in a to r
respectively. So in th e fra c tio n | , 2 is th e n u m e ra to r a nd 3 is th e d e n o m in a to r.

You can th in k o f th e d e n o m in a to r as th e n am e o f th e fra c tio n w ith th e n u m e ra to r s h o w in g th e

n u m b e r o f fra c tio n s w ith th is nam e. Figure 2.1 sh o u ld h e lp you to see this.

one third one third one third

Figu re 2 .1 Tw o thirds

The s trip in Figure 2.1 has been d iv id e d in to th re e e q u a l parts.

Each p a rt is o n e th ird | | | o f th e w h o le strip.

Three th ird s ( | ) m ake up th e w h o le strip.

Tw o th ird s ( | j are shaded.

The n u m e ra to r is th e to p n u m b e r in a c o m m o n fra c tio n .

The d e n o m in a to r is th e b o tto m n u m b e r in a c o m m o n fraction.

The d e n o m in a to r show s in to h o w m a n y eq u a l parts th e w h o le s trip has been d iv id e d . The

d e n o m in a to r te lls us th e n a m e o f th e fra c tio n , in th is case ‘th ird s ’.
The n u m e ra to r show s th e n u m b e r o f these fra ctio n s, in th e c a s e 2 ‘th ird s ’ have been sh a d e d .
Look a t Figure 2.2 to see th is d ra w n ou t.

Figu re 2 .2 C om m on fraction

Key term
Mixed numbers
com bine integers and
fractions, for example
3 |. Here, 3 is the whole
num ber part and ^ is the
fraction part.
Mixed Num bers and Im proper Fractions
Mixed n um bers have a w h o le p a rt and a fra c tio n part. The m ixed n u m b e r 1 | m eans th e re is
on e w h o le p a rt and 2 thirds. Figure 2.3 show s tw o strips, each d iv id e d in to th re e e q u a l parts.
O n e w h o le is s h a d e d
T w o th ird s a re s h a d e d

Figure 2.3 O ne a nd tw o th ird s


NOTE:
An improper fraction is
often referred to as a ‘top
heavy’ fraction, which
describes it well because
the top number is larger
than the lower number.
Key terms
Im proper fractions are
‘top heavy’ fractions, for
e xa m p le |.
Equivalent fractions
represent the same
number, for example
f , i | , ^ a H repre sentf
o fth e whole.
I 2 Fractions, Decimals anil Percentages
Figure 2.3 also shows how we can w rite a mixed num ber as an im proper fraction. An im proper
fraction is a mixed n u m ber w ritte n entirely in fractions, so the num erator is larger than the
d enom inator. The diagram shows the shaded parts o f the tw o strips as either l | o r |
(or 5 thirds).
Equivalent Fractions
Fractions can be given d iffe re n t nam es, and if the rules fo r d o in g th is are fo llo w e d , the
re s u ltin g fra ctio n is o f t h e sam e size as the orig in a l.
E q u iv a le n t frac tio n s are fra c tio n s o f the sam e size, b u t w ith d iffe re n t d e n o m in a to rs (nam es)
and n u m era to rs. Look at Figure 2.4.
Figure 2 .4 Tw o thirds
Figure 2.4 show s th e s trip d iv id e d in to th re e equal parts w ith th e fra c tio n | shaded as before.
If w e d iv id e each th ird in to tw o e q u a l parts you sho u ld see th a t th e re are n o w six equal parts,
and fo u r o f these are e q u iv a le n t in size to 2 thirds. Figure 2.5 show s this.
Figure 2 .5 Four sixths
This show s th a t | = ^ . These tw o fra c tio n s are called e q u iv a le n t fra c tio n s because th e y
3 6
re pre se n t th e sam e a m o u n t o f th e w h o le strip. The rule fo r fin d in g e q u iv a le n t fra c tio n s is th a t
th e d e n o m in a to r a n d n u m e ra to r have to be m u ltip lie d (o r d ivid e d ) by th e sam e num ber. In
th is case th e first fra c tio n has had th e n u m e ra to r and d e n o m in a to r m u ltip lie d by 2. You w ill
fin d o u t m ore a b o u t th is later.
More Examples of Fractions
Wo can work with things other than strips of paper to understand fractions Im agine a bag
c o n ta in in g 20 sweets. You w a n t to share these sw eets e q u a lly a m o n g fo u r people. The 20
sweets w o u ld have to be d iv id e d in to 4 eq u a l parts. T here w o u ld be 5 sw eets in each part.
Each p a rt w o u ld be one q u a rte r o f th e w hole .
This c o u ld be w ritte n as | x 20 = 5, as show n in Figure 2.6.
O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
OOOOO OOOOO OOOOO OOOOO
Figure 2 .6 Tw enty sweets
H ow m a n y co u n te rs w o u ld th e re be in | o f 15 counters?
You can use th e dia g ra m o f 15 c o u n te rs in Figure 2.7 to help.
ooooooooooooooo
Figure 2 .7 Fifteen counters
Look at th e c lo c k face in Figure 2.8.
We k n o w th a t 15 m in u te s is a q u a rte r o f an hour, and th a t there are 60 m in u te s in one
hour. The h o u r is d iv id e d in to sixty equal parts. So each m in u te is 1 sixtieth o f an hour.
Therefore, fifteen m in u te s is fifteen sixtieths o f one hour.
21
2 Fractions, Decimals and Percentages J

S im p lify in g s how s th a t = ^ (d iv id e n u m e ra to r and d e n o m in a to r by 15).

H ow d o w e w o rk o u t w h a t fra c tio n o f an h o u r is ten m inutes?

W rite te n sixtie th s and sim p lify .

10
== i^ (d ivid e n u m e ra to r and d e n o m in a to r by 1 0 ).
bU
60 b6
So te n m in u te s is o n e sixth o f an hour.
Figu re 2 .8 Fractions o f
O th e r shapes can be d iv id e d in to eq u a l parts.
an hour

Figure 2 .9 O th e r representations

The re cta ng le in Figure 2.9 has been d iv id e d in to six e q u a l areas, and so each is ^ th o fth e
rectangle.

Two o f these are shaded. This m eans th a t w hich is e quivalent to ^ o fth e rectangle, is shaded.
The c irc le has been d iv id e d in to 8 eq u a l parts, and 3 are shaded, so | o f th e c ircle is s haded.

2 .4 W orking with Comm on Fractions

Changing a Mixed Num ber to
an Im proper Fraction
As an exam p le, th e steps to be fo llo w e d to change 3 ^ to an im p ro p e r fra c tio n are given b e lo w :

• m u ltip ly : 3 x 5 = 15 (there are 15 fifth s in th re e w h o le s, so 3 | = y + ^)

• add: 15 + 1 = 16 (add th e extra 1 fifth)
• answ er: y ( lb fifths).

Changing an Im proper Fraction to

a Mixed Num ber
As an exa m ple, th e steps to be fo llo w e d to c h a n g e ^ to a m ixed n u m b e r are given below :

• d ivid e : 23 + 4 = 5 re m a in d e r 3 (23 q u a rte rs = 5 w h o le s w ith 3 q u a rte rs left over)

• answ er: 5 ^ .
4

Equivalent Fractions
As an e xam ple, to change ^ to e q u iv a le n t fractions:

• e ith e r m u ltip ly n u m e ra to r and d e n o m in a to r by th e sam e n u m b e r: \ ^

r J J 10x 2 2 0
• o r d iv id e n u m e ra to r and d e n o m in a to r by th e sam e n u m b e r: = |.

Addition and Subtraction of Fractions

Before fra c tio n s are a dded o r s u b tra c te d , w e have to m ake sure th e y have the sam e nam e.
For exam ple, lo o k at Figure 2.10, w h ic h represents th e a d d itio n sum f + ^. The o n ly w ay w e
4 o
can add these tw o is to w rite th e m w ith th e sam e nam e (d e n o m in a to r).
 I 2 Fractions, Decimals and Percentages

Figure 2 .1 0 Three quarters plus one eighth

To d o th is w e d iv id e each of the qu a rte rs in to tw o equal parts, to m ake eighths. The three

q ua rte rs has becom e six e ig h th s and can now be added to the one eighth, as in Figure 2.11.

Figure 2 .1 1 Six eighths plus one eighth

It is n o w easy to see th a t | 1 ^
4 o o o o
The a nsw er is seven eighths.

It can be easier to add o r s u b tra c t m ixed n u m b e rs by c h a n g in g th e m to to p heavy (im p ro p e r)

fra c tio n s first, as yo u w ill see in Exam ple 1, p a r t f iv.

You m ay have to ch ange b o th fra c tio n s to e q u iv a le n t fra c tio n s w ith th e sam e d e n o m in a to r.

For exam p le, c o n s id e r | + | .

F o llo w these steps to see h ow to w o rk th is out:

• C hange any m ixed n u m b e rs to im p ro p e r fractions.

• Find th e lo w e s t c o m m o n m u ltip le o f b o th d e n o m in a to rs (LCM o f 3 and 5 is 15).
• Change b oth fractions to equivalent fractions w ith the sam e denom inator^ j | | + 1 ^ | = ).
• Add o r s u b tra c t th e fra c tio n s in th e usual w ay + = y f)-
• S im p lify and cha nge to a m ixed n u m b e r if necessary ( | | = 1 -ZA
A 7 \1 5 15/
• Answ er: | + | = 1 ^ .

Sim plifying Fractions

S im p lify in g fra ctio n s refers to w ritin g th e m in th e s im p le s t e q u iv a le n t fo rm . For exam ple, ^
Key terms can be s im p lifie d by d iv id in g b o th th e n u m e ra to r a n d d e n o m in a to r by 2. This m eans
Sim plifying fractions th a ti H '
means expressing them
This is often called ‘cancelling d o w n ’ th e fra ctio n .
in their lowest terms, for
For exa m ple , th e steps to be fo llo w e d to s im p lify ^ are given below .

Either:
Cancelling dow n is
w ritin g s fraction in a • Find any c o m m o n fa c to r and d iv id e th e n u m e ra to r and d e n o m in a to r by th is n u m b e r:
simpler form by dividing 42 + 2 _ 21
the num erator and 162 + 2 81
denom inator by the
same number. • R epeat if possible: §O]±
1-5-!J = Z /
• S to p w hen th ere are no m o re c o m m o n factors.
• A n s w e r:— .

Find th e HCF o f the n u m e ra to r and d e n o m in a to r to s im p lify in one step:

42 + 6 _ 7
162 + 6 27

23
2 Fractions, Decimals and Percentages J

Example 1
a Change the top heavy (improper) fraction | to a mixed number.

b Change the mixed n u m b e r4 |to a n improper fraction.

c Which of these fractions are equivalent?
20 2 3_ _ i I A
5 0 ' 5 ' 1 0 ' 1 0 ' 5 ' 20
4
d Change 5 to twentieths.

e Fill in the blank spaces to give equivalent fractions.

_ _ _ !-!< )- I !
16 - 8 ~
f Calculate, simplifying and writing the answers as mixed numbers if necessary:
i 3+, II iii
i _2
4 3

iv 2 ^ + 4 | V

g Write each ofth e following fractions in their simplest forms:

i -5- ii 18
in
40 48 72

h How many sheep are there in 3 fifths of a flock of 25 sheep?

i How many students are there in | of a class of 35?

Answer 1
Z=3i 41 = 21 C -gu — 2 _ 4 _
20 8
2 J 2 5 5 50 5 10 20
4 _ 4 x 4 _ 16 6_ = 3 _ 3 0 . 15
5X4 20 16 8 80' 40
3+ - = 3 - II 5 + l _ 5 , 4 _ 9 = 11
6 6 8 2 8 8 8 8
■jj 3 2 _ 3x3 2X4 _ 9 8 . JL iv 2 - + 4 - = - + .14,29_ 43_71
4 3 4X3 3X4 12 1 2 ' 12 3 6 3 6 6 6 6
i_ 7 _ 9 _ 7 _ 2
9 9 9 9

S >5 c _ 1 iii 18 _ 18-t-2 _ 3_ .

g ■ 40 40 + 5 8 48 8 72 72 + 2 36 '

h One fifth of the flock is 5 sheep, so 3 fifths is 15 sheep.

I ^ of 35 = 5, so | of 35 = 10. Answer: 10 students.

Exercise 2 .1 NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

1 C hange to m ixed num bers:
a 1? b 201 33
5 10 2
2 C hange to im p ro p e r fractions:
a 3^ b 100 - C 3JJ
12
Fill in th e bla n k spaces to give e q u iv a le n t fractions:
5_10___Z_21
30 3
W rite th e fo llo w in g as h u n d re d th s ( d e n o m in a to r 100):
a I- b ± c 19
10 25 20
d -5 L e
200 90 0
C alculate the fo llo w in g , s im p lify in g and w ritin g yo u r answ ers as m ixed n u m b e rs i
necessary:

H b 5 5
4 _ 3
c 7__!
12 6
d
I*! 5
f 3 --1 - g '- I
h 1-
5 2 12

24|
 [ 2 Fractions. Decimals and Percentages

6 S im plify:
_ 22 . 60 _ 45 j 45
3 77 72 60 ° 360
7 H ow m any sweets w o u ld be in a bag of 28 sweets after \ of th e m had been e a te n 7

8 O ne th ird o f a class of 45 s tu d e n ts has gone aw ay on a field trip . H ow m any stu d e n ts have

gone on the trip 7

Multiplying and Dividing Fractions

The first p a rt o f Figure 2.12 show s a s trip d iv id e d in to th ird s , w ith one th ird shaded.
1 1 1 1
We can use th is fig ure to w o rk o u t ^ x - , w h ic h m eans j o f 3

The second p a rt o f Figure 2.12 show s the sam e s trip w ith th e shaded th ird d ivid e d in to tw o
e q ual parts. Each o f these is one h a lf o f a th ird o f t h e strip.

You s h o u ld see th a t each o f these is equal to one sixth o f t h e w h o le strip.

So 4 x 1 = 1, w h ic h m eans 4 o f 4 = ^-.
1 5 b 1 5 b

I
n \
Figure 2 .1 2 M ultiplying fractions

You w ill p ro b a b ly fin d m u ltip ly in g and d iv id in g fra c tio n s easier th a n a d d in g and

s u b tra c tin g .

The rules fo r m u ltip ly in g fra c tio n s are:

• C hange any m ixed n u m b e rs to to p heavv (im p ro p e r) fractions.

• W rite any w h o le n u m b e rs o v e r one.
• M u ltip ly th e n u m e ra to rs togethe r, and m u ltip ly th e d e n o m in a to rs together.
• S im p lify th e answ e r if necessary, and change to a m ixed n u m b e r if necessary.

A p p ly in g these rules to o u r e xam ple above:

1 x 1 _ 1x 1 _ 1
2 3 2x3 6

Example 2
a Multiply the following fractions, simplifying and writing your answers as mixed numbers
if necessary:
i 3 x f4 ii I x | 6 3 iii |7x 2 ^3 iv l l3x 2 - |5

b Calculate the following:

1 ( I) ' ■ ( I) '
Answer 2
a j 3 x 3 - I 3 _ 9 _ 21 •• 5 2 _ 10 _ 5
a 1 4 _ 1 4 4 4 11 6 3 18 9

iii f x 2 4 = f x Z = 4 M = 2 iv i ? x 2- = 5 x — = — = 1J = 3 '
3 7 3 21 1 3 5 3 5 15 3 3
I f - i x 3__9_ /2f_2x 2x 2_8
5/ —5 5 — 25 " \3) ~ 3 3 3 _ 27
2 Fractions, Decimals and Percentages J

You have p ro b a b ly n o tic e d th a t in Exam ple 2a parts ii, iii and iv th e w o rk in g co u ld have been
sh o rte n e d co n s id e ra b ly by s im p lify in g earlier. We w ill lo o k a t th is now.

In Exam ple 2a ii:

5 s y 2 _ 5 X 2 _ 5X2-i-2_ 5
6 3 6X3 6 X 3 -5 -2 9

So w e co u ld have s im p lifie d b efore d o in g th e m u ltip lic a tio n :

5 2 5 5
6 x 3 = 3^3 = 9 (d iv id in g th e to p and b o tto m o f th e fra c tio n by 2 )

In Exam ple 2a iii:

| x 2 ^ = | x | = | = 2 (d ivid e to p and b o tto m by 7 first, a n d th e n by 3)

Try E xam ple 2(a) (iv) yourself.

W a rning: T his o n ly w o rks fo r m u ltip lic a tio n , so d o n o t use it in a d d itio n o r s u b tra c tio n !

H ow can w e visu a lise divisio n ? R e m e m b e rth a t ify o u d o th e d ivisio n 1 0 -*-2 y o u are fin d in g
h o w m a n y tw o s th e re are in te n . The a nsw er o f course is 5.

T h in k a b o u t | This m eans ‘ h o w m a n y e ig h th s are th e re in th re e quarte rs?’

Figure 2.13 show s one s trip w ith | shaded, and a n o th e r d iv id e d in to e ig h t e q u a l parts and
shaded to sh o w th a t 6 e ig h th s w ill go exactly in to | . So th e a n sw e r is 6 .

■1 ■. 1 1
- t ; :■ I 4

1 1 1 ’it® S lj& i
8 8 8 8 8

Figure 2 .1 3 Dividing fractions

The rules fo r d iv id in g fra c tio n s are:

• C hange any m ixed n u m b e rs to to p heavy (im p ro p e r) fra ctio n s.

any w h o le n u m b e rs over one.
W r it e
• C hange th e d ivisio n sign to m u ltip lic a tio n .
• Turn th e second fra c tio n up sid e dow n.
Proceed as fo r m u ltip lic a tio n .

U sing these rules f o r f + |> w e get:

3 J_ 1 _ 3 v 8 _ 2 4 _ c
4 ' 8 4 1 4

-t

Example 3
Do the following divisions:
a § -s- 3 b
D
Answer 3
a I-u 5 -5 ^ 1 - 1 v l-J L
6 6 1 6 3 18

b | + l = | x 2 = | = | = l | ( o r | x ^ = | = l | by dividing top and bottom by 2 )

c i | - i - 4 | = | - ! - y = | x ^ = ^ (by dividing top and bottom by 5)

d ? + 5 = ! x ~ = ~ ( B e careful! You cannot divide top and bottom by 5 here!)

 [ 2 Fractions, Decimals and Percentages

L o o k in g at these exam ples you sh o u ld see th a t you can d o th e s im p lify in g s h o rtc u t only
a fte r tb e second fra c tio n has been inverted and the sign has changed fro m d iv is io n to
m u ltip lic a tio n .

Exercise 2.2 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e
C a lcu la te the fo llo w in g , s im p lify in g y o u r answ ers and c h a n g in g to m ixed n u m b e rs as
necessary:

1 a 3x1 b 3x§ C | x 10
5xi
2 a 1x1
3 6
b
H C
8 4
3 a 5X^
7 10
b
M c
H
4 a
2M b c

5 a H b
H c
I * 4
1.3 3. 1 5 .6
6 a b —~t~— c
2 ' 7 7 2 9"7
2 . 2 5 . 3
7 a b 2+1 c
9^3 3 9 8 ' 8
8 a 2 - + 1- b 5 i+l c 3 ^ + 12
4 2 2 4 5 3
9 a 2 . 1 b 3 . 5 c 21+3
5 ‘ 15 5T 6 3 7

2 .5 W orking with Decim als

D ecim als (or d e c im a l fra ctio n s) are usu a lly easier to w o rk w ith th a n (co m m o n ) fra c tio n s , so
Key term th e rules and a few exam ples s h o u ld be s u ffic ie n t to re m in d you h o w to d o each o p e ra tio n .
Decimal fractions are We w ill a b b re v ia te to d e c im a ls a n d fra c tio n s because th e se te rm s are g e nera lly u n d e rs to o d to
usually abbreviated to m ean d e c im a l fra c tio n s and c o m m o n fractions.
'decimals’.

Addition and Subtraction of Decim als

As an exa m ple , to s im p lify 3 + 1 .2 0 5 + 40.016 fo llo w th e steps given below :

• Add '.O’ to th e w h o le n u m b e r to re m in d you w here th e d e c im a l p o in t belongs.

(3.0 + 1.205 + 40.016)
• W rite th e n u m b e rs in c o lu m n fo rm , b u t w ith th e d e c im a l p o in ts in a ve rtica l line.

3.0
1.205 +
40 .0 1 6 +

• S ta rtin g fro m th e right, add (or s u b tra ct) using th e n o rm a l m e th o d s o f a d d itio n (or
s u b tra c tio n ).
• Place th e d e c im a l p o in t in th e answ er v e rtic a lly u n d e r th e o th e r d e c im a l points.

3.0
1.205 +
40.016 +
44.221
2 Fracdens, Decimals a rt Percentages J

Multiplying Decim als

As an e xam ple, to s im p lify 2.16 x 0.002 fo llo w th e steps given be lo w :

• A t first, ignore th e d e c im a l points.

• S ta rtin g fro m th e rig h t m u ltip ly using th e n o rm a l m ethods.
• C o u n t h o w m a n y d ig its (num bers) co m e a fter th e d e c im a l p o in ts .
• S ta rtin g fro m th e rig h t c o u n t back th is n u m b e r o f places and in s e rt th e d e c im a l p o in t,
in s e rtin g zeroes if necessary.

0.002 x
0 .0 0 4 3 2

(There are 5 d ig its a fter th e d e c im a l p o in ts, so c o u n tin g 5 places fro m th e rig h t it is necessary
to in s e rt 2 zeroes.)

• Answ er: 2 .1 6 x 0 .0 0 2 = 0.00432.

M u ltip ly in g by 1 0 ,1 0 0 ,1 0 0 0 and so on is s tra ig h tfo rw a rd w ith d e c im a ls . For e xam ple,

■
0 .0 1 3 x 1 0 0 :

• C o u n t th e n u m b e r o f zeroes (2 in th is exam ple) in th e n u m b e ry o u are m u ltip ly in g by.

• M ove th e d e c im a l p o in t to th e rig h t by th e sam e n u m b e r o f p laces, in s e rtin g zeroes if
necessary (0.013 x 100 = 1.3).
• Answ er: 0 .0 1 3 x 1 0 0 = 1.3.

Dividing Decim als

As an e xam ple, to d iv id e 63.6 b y 0.012 fo llo w th e steps given below :

• W rite th e firs t n u m b e r o v e r th e second n u m b e r ( ^ § ^ ) .

• M u ltip ly to p and b o tto m by 1 0 ,1 0 0 ,1 0 0 0 o r 10000 u n til th e lo w e r n u m b e r is a w h o le
n u m b e r (in th is case w e need to use 1 0 0 0 , i.e. q ^ '^ x ^ o o = 631 2° ° )-
• D ivide th e new lo w e r n u m b e r in to th e to p n u m b e r (63600 + 1 2 = 5300).
• Answ er: 63.6 d iv id e d by 0.012 = 5300.

■
D iv id in g d e c im a ls by 1 0 ,1 0 0 ,1 0 0 0 and so on is also s tra ig h tfo rw a rd . For e xa m p le , d iv id e 0.234
by 1 0 0 0 :

Example 4
Calculate the following:
a 2.501 + 12.6 b 4 5.3173 -1.012 C 3 .513x1 00
• dC o u n tth e
0.012x1 0 n u m b e r o f zeroes (three in th is
e 4 .12x10 00 case) in th e n u m b e ryfo u are to d iv id2.1
e x 1.1 by.
• gM ove th e+ d100
0.16 e c im a l p o in t 3 places
h left, fillin
31.323 + g0.03
in zeroes if necessary (0.234 + 1 0 0 0 = 0.000234).
• Answ
Answer 4er: 0.234 h- 1000 = 0.000234.
a 2.501 + 12.6= 2.501 b 45.3173 -1.012 = 45.3173 C 3 .5 1 3 x 1 0 0 = 351.3
12 . 6 + 1 . 012 -
15.101 44.3053
d 0.012x1 0 = 0.12 e 4 .12x10 00 = 4120 f 2.1 x 1.1 = 2.1
1.1 x
2.31
g 0.16 -s- 100 = 0.0016 h 3 1 .3 2 3 -0 .0 3 = ^U.U
| §j X
^ 1UU
5° = j = 1 0 4 4 -1

28
 [ 2 Fractions. Decimals and Percentages

Exercise 2.3 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e
C alcu late th e fo llo w in g .

1 3.5 + 0 .1 6 + 10.2 2 501 + 1.67 + 0.3 3 1 7 .9 5 - 1.4

4 6 .1 1 9 -2 .0 1 5 1 3 .4 1 x 1 0 0 0 6 0 .0 1 6 9 x 1000

7 6 .0 1 7 + 1 0 0 8 1 0 .2 x 3 .1 9 18.96-5-1.2

Kev term
Percentages are
fractions w ith a
denom inator of 1 0 0 .
Think of the % sign as
‘o ut of 100’
2 .6 Percentages
It m ay h e lp you to visualise p ercentages and c o m p a re th e m w ith fra c tio n s ify o u im a g in e a
Stack of, say 100 co un ters, as in Figure 2.14. Im agine th a t th e co u n te rs are n u m b e re d fro m 1 to
100, w ith 1 at th e b o tto m o fth e stack.
Each o fth e cou n te rs i s ^ o fth e w h o le stack, so each c o u n te r is 1% o fth e stack. The w h o le
stack is 100% o f th e stack o r o n e w hole .
1
N ow yo u can see th a t h a lfw a y u p is 50% , one q u a rte r o f th e w ay u p is 25% , ^ o fth e w a y u p is
10% and so on.

C opy Figure 2.14 an d m a rk in | and its c o rre s p o n d in g percentage, 20% and a n y o th e rs th a t

you can th in k of.

1 Stack 100% of Stack

(100counters) 2 .7 Conversion Between Com m on
Fractions, Decim als and Percentages
C o m m o n fra c tio n D iv id e th e n u m e ra to r by D e c im a l fra c tio n
th e d e n o m in a to r
: Stack of Stack
(50 counters) 2 2 divided by 5 0 .4
5
3 .4
7 Stack
4
25% of Stack 3!
(25 counters) D e c im a l fra c tio n M u ltip ly by 100 P e rc e n ta g e
0.45 0 .4 5 x 1 0 0 45%
0 .6 13 0 .6 1 3 x 1 0 0 6 1 .3 %
Figure 2 .1 4 Percentages 2.051 2.051 x 100 2 0 5 .1 %
D iv id e b y 1 0 0 to ch an g e a p e rc e n ta g e to d e c im a l fra c tio n .

D e c im a l fra c tio n W rite d e c im a l o v e r 1, C o m m o n fra c tio n

th e n m u ltip ly th e to p an d
b o tto m by 1 0 , o r 1 0 0 , o r
1 0 0 0 u n til th e n u m e ra to r
is a w h o le n u m b e r.
S im p lify if n ecessary.
0.7 0.7x10 7
1x10 10

0.45 J.4 b x 1 (JO 45 45 9

1 x 10 0 100 100 20

f
29
2 Fractions, Decimals and Percentages J

Exercise 2.4 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e
Copy and com p lete Table 2.1 fo r conversions betw een c o m m o n fractions, d ecim als and
percentages. It is a good idea to learn these as th e y o ccu r quite frequently and you can save tim e if
you kn o w them . The last tw o have been done fo r you, and it \s definitely a good idea to learn these!

The d o t a bove a n u m b e r m eans th a t th e n u m b e r repeats forever. For exam ple, 0.3 m eans
0.33333333333...; it is calle d ‘zero p o in t th re e re c u rrin g ’.

F ra c tio n D e c im a l P e rc e n ta g e
1 1
2
2 0 .2 5
3 75%
4 1
10
5 0 .3
6 0 .2
7 1 2 .5 %
8 1 0.3
3 33± %
9 2 0.6 66|%
3

T a b le 2 .1 C onverting b etw een fractions, decim als and percentages

Calculating Percentages of an Am ount

Th ere are several w ays to c a lc u la te percentages quickly.

The firs t is to k n o w th e c o m m o n percentages (50% , 10% , 25% and so on) and th e ir

c o rre s p o n d in g fra c tio n s (see p a rt a o f E xam ple 5).
v
The second is to fin d 1% by d iv id in g by 100, and th e n m u ltip ly by w h a te v e r percen tag e is
re q u ire d (see p a rt b o f E xam ple 5).
Lastly, so m e percentages can be 'b u ilt u p ’ fro m s m a lle r percentages th a t are easy to fin d (see
p a rte o f E xam ple 5).

Example 5
a Find:
i 50% of 136 ii 10% of 34 iii 75% of 32

b Find:
i 7% of 61 ii 21% of 400 iii 12% of 700

c Find:
i 15% of 96 ii 65% of 140 iii 17.5% of 260
Answer 5
a i 50% of 136 = \ of 136 = 68 ii 10% of 34 = Jo of 34 = 3.4

iii 75% of 32 = | of 32 = 3 x j of 32 = 3 x 8 = 24

b i 7% of 61 = 7 x 1% of 61 = 7 x of 61 = 7 x 0.61 = 4.27

ii 21% of 400 = 21 x 1% of 400 = 21 x ^ 5 of 400 = 21 x 4 = 84

iii 12% of 700 = 1 2 x 7 = 84

\
30
 I 2 Fractions, Decimals and Percentages

c i To find 15% of 96:

find 10% of 96 of 96) = 9.6

find 5% of 96 0- of 10%) =4.8

Add 10% and 5%: 15% of 96 = 9.6 + 4.8 = 14.4

ii 65% of 140:

50% of 140 = 70

10% of 140 = 14+ (one fifth of 50%)

5% of 140= 7 + (half of 10%)

65% of 140 = 91

Answer: 65% of 140 = 91

iii 17.5% of 260:

10 % of 260 = 26

5% Of 260 = 1 3 + (half of 10%)

2.5% of 260 = 6 .5 + (half of 5%)

17.5% of 260 = 45.5

Answer: 17.5% of 260 = 45.5

Exercise 2.5 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e
C alcu late th e fo llo w in g , s h o w in g y o u r m e th o d :

1 75% o f 64 2 30% o f 1550 3 9% o f 3400

4 55.5% o f 680 5 3% o f 73

Finding One Num ber as a Percentage

of Another
We s o m e tim e s need to express o n e n u m b e r as a percentag e o f another. For e xam ple, you get
6 answ ers co rre c t o u t o f 20 in a te st. W hat is y o u r percentag e m ark?

• First m ake a fra c tio n by w ritin g th e firs t n u m b e r o ve r th e second

• C hange th e fra c tio n to a percentag e by m u ltip ly in g by 100 ove r 1 .
( | x !S0 = f f l = 3 0 % )

There is an a lte rn a tiv e m e th o d th a t can so m e tim e s be used, if th e d e n o m in a to r o f the

fra c tio n is a fa c to r o f 1 0 0 :

• First m ake th e fra c tio n as before

• C hange to th e e q u iv a le n t fra c tio n w ith th e d e n o m in a to r as 100.

(££ =l r 30%)

(T,
2 Fractions, Decimals and Percentages J

Example 6
a Find 25 as a percentage of 40. b Find 15 as a percentage of 25.
Answer 6
a 2 5 x 100 = 250 = g 2 50/ b 1 S X 4 = _60_ = g g o /
40 1 4 " 2 5 X 4 100

Exercise 2.6 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e
C a lcu la te th e firs t n u m b e r as a percentage o fth e second:

1 3 5 ,1 4 0 2 72 ,6 0 0 3 2 3 ,5 0

4 4 0 ,1 2 5 5 17,250 6 90,180

7 1 2 ,6 8 29,1000

2 .8 Ordering Quantities
It is o fte n easiest w h e n c o m p a rin g fra c tio n s , d e c im a ls and percentag es to change th e m all
to de cim a ls. A lte rn a tive ly, c o m p a re fra c tio n s by fin d in g e q u iv a le n t fra c tio n s w ith th e sam e
d e n o m in a to r.

Example 7
a Using the symbols >, < or =, insert the correct sign to make the following statements true:
i 2 2 ...2 1 ii 0 .7 5 ... | iii 0 .2 5 ...2 5 iv i . . . 0 . 3

b Write the following in order of size, starting with the smallest:

i 0.48,0.408,0.390,0.399 ii f, f, ^
iii 33%, 0.5, ^
c Rafi loves eating naan. Do you think he would rather have tw o thirds or three quarters of
a naan? Why?

d Find a fraction which is between each ofth e following pairs:

i Toa n d To and- il l
f andI
Answer 7
a i 22 > 21 ii 0.75 =■= iii 0.25 < 2 5 IV > 0.3
i 0.390 <0.399 <0.408 <0.48 ii C hanging|, | , ^ t o twentieths
1 12 1 i
2 0 ' 2 0 ' 2 0 ' 20

and putting in order,

1 1 1 12
2 0 ’ 2 0 ’ 2 0 ' 20

simplifying again,

10 5 20 5

iii Changing 33%, 0.5, | to decimals,

0 .33,0.5 ,0.3,0.3333...
putting in order,
0 .3,0 .3 3 ,0.3333...,0.5 ,
and re-writing as before ^ < 3 3% < | < 0.5

\
32
 [ 2 Fractions, Decimals and Percentages

c - = 75% and | = 6 6 ?%, so Rafi would rather have f of the naan.

4 3 3 4

Answer: |

iii | and | can be changed to their equivalent fractions | and | , so | is between | and | .

Answer: |o

iii | 8and | oare equivalent to | |16and 16so

Answer: ] f
V.

Exercise 2.7 NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

1 Find a fra c tio n th a t lies betw e e n | and

2 Place th e fo llo w in g in o rd e r o f size, s ta rtin g w ith th e s m alle st:

4 51 ,4 .5 7 9 ,4 .0 9 8 ,4 .1 0 5

3 Place these fra c tio n s in o rd e r o f size, s ta rtin g w ith th e sm alle st:

4 2 3 17
3' 3' 4 ' 2 0

4 Place th e fo llo w in g in o rd e r o f size, s ta rtin g w ith th e s m alle st:

II. 33 I 0/ A 1 JZ_
100' 3 ' 2 5 ' 5 0 ' 200

Exercise 2.8 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e

Exam-style questions J
1 a E valuate 3 | - 2 ^ . b E x p re s s !^ in its lo w e s t term s.
3 5 K 84
(4024 p a p e r 11 Q2 N o ve m b e r 2011)

2 a A d d brackets to th e e q u a tio n to m ake it correct.

4 + 6 x 7 - 5 = 16
b Find th e value o f 27 x 0.002. (4024 p a p e r 01 Q2 N o ve m b e r 2009)

3 a E x p r e s s a s a decim a l.

b In a test, Rose scored 56 m arks o u t o f 70.

Express th is score as a percentage. (4024 p a p e r 01 Q1 June 2005)

4 Evaluate

b l + J -. (4024 pa p e r 0 1 Q2 June 2005)

5 12
5 a Express 0.527 as a percentage,
b E valuate 5.6 -^0.08. (4024 pa p e r 01 Q1 June 2006)
2 Fractions, Decimals and Percentages J

6 Evaluate
6 1
a b (4024 p a p e r 01 Q2 J u n e 2006)
7 3' 5 9'

7 In an e x a m in a tio n , A lan o b ta in e d 32 o u t o f 40 m arks. In a n o th e r e x a m in a tio n Ben

o b ta in e d | o f th e to ta l m arks.
o
Express th e m a rk o f each c a n d id a te as a p ercentag e. (4024 p a p e r 01 Q4 J u n e 2006)

8 Evaluate
a 1 -3 b 2§xif. (4024 p a p e r 01 Q1 J u n e 2008)
2 7
9 Evaluate
a 2 5 -1 8 .3 b 1 .7 x 0 .0 3 . (4024 p a p e r 01 Q2 J u n e 2008)

10 a Evaluate 0 .5 x 0 .0 0 7 . b E valuate^-^ 5 a s a
decim al. (4024 p a per 01 Q5 J u n e 2009)

11 Arrange th e se v a lu e s in o rd e r o f size, s ta rtin g w ith th e s m a lle st:

^ 0.39 4 6% | (4024 p a p e r 01 Q3 N o v e m b e r 2009)

12 a Evaluate 3 + 25 + 2. b Express 1 7 ^ % as a d e c im a l.

(4024 p a p e r 01 Q1 J u n e 2007)

13 E valuate
a -1 + 1 b (4021 p a p e r 01 Q2 J u n e 2007)
4 7 8 16

1 4 It is given th a t a n d H are e q u iv a le n t fra c tio n s .

Find th e va lu e o f d and th e v a lu e o f n. (4024 p a p e r 01 Q3 J u n e 2007)

15 a W rite 3% as a fra c tio n . b W o rk o u t 90 - 16 + 2.

(4024 p a p e r 11 Q3 N o ve m b e r 2014)

1 6 Evaluate

a 1 0 -7 .5 6 , b 0 .1 0 5 x 0 .2 . (4024 p a p e r 01 Q1 N o ve m b e r 2005)

17 a E valuate 3 + 5(3 - 1.4). b E valuate 0 .2 x 0 .0 7 .

(4024 p a p e r 11 Q1 N o v e m b e r 2011)

18 Evaluate
a 3 + 2(4 - 5) b 1I + 2 I (4024 p a p e r 01 Q1 N o v e m b e r 2006)
3 2'

19 a W rite th e fo llo w in g in o rd e r o f size, s ta rtin g w ith th e s m a lle st:

Wo 0 67 i H
b The d ista n ce o f S a turn fro m th e Sun is 1507 m illio n kilo m e tre s .
Express 1507 m illio n in s ta n d a rd fo rm . (4024 paper 01 Q5 J u n e 2007)

\
34
Learning Objectives Syllabus sections 4 ,1 7 ,1 8 ,1 9

In this chapteryou will begin your study of: directed numbers

• the language of algebra indices, brackets and common factors in
• addition, subtraction, multiplication algebra.
and division

3 .1 Introduction
A lgebra is a to o l fo r d o in g a rith m e tic a l c a lc u la tio n s w h e n so m e o fth e n u m b e rs n e eded are
u n k n o w n . T he ru le s o f alge b ra h e lp us e ith e r to c a lc u la te th e values o f these n u m b e rs , o r
to fin d fo rm u la e w h ic h can be used to m a ke c a lc u la tio n s la te r w h e n so m e o f th e n u m b e rs
are k n o w n . T he fo rm u la e m a y lin k tw o o r m o re u n k n o w n n um bers. If th e se u n k n o w n
n u m b e rs can ta k e d iffe re n t v alu e s th e y are c a lle d variables.

L e a rn in g to use a lg e b ra is like le a rn in g a language. We need c le a r rules fo r th e la n g u a g e so

th a t w e can a ll u n d e rs ta n d each o ther. You have m e t rules like these before, in C h a p te r 1,
w h e n yo u le a rne d th a t th e sa m e o rd e r o f w o rk in g in a rith m e tic is needed if w e are all to g et
th e sa m e answ er.

3 .2 Essential Skills NO CALCULATOR IN TH IS EXERCISE

1 C alculate:
a 2x6+3x5
b 3 x (6 — 4)
c 1 + 2 x 3 —4 + 2 + 5 x ( 6 - 3 )

2 i W hat is th e su m o f 5 a n d 6 ?
ii W hat is th e p ro d u c t o f 5 and 6 ?

3 i W h a t is th e HCF o f 2 0 ,4 5 and 15?

ii R ew rite 2 0 ,4 5 a n d 15 as p ro d u c ts o f th is fa c to r and o n e o th e r in each case
3 Beginning ftlgebra j

Key term
Variables are usually
3 .3 Using Letters and Num bers
letters which represent
numbers or amounts Letters as Variables
that can change or be S u p po se you are g o in g to b u y 3 a p p le s a n d 5 oranges. If you k n o w th e price o f b o th fruits,
given different values.
yo u can w o rk o u t w h a t th e to ta l c o s t w ill be. S u p p o se th e ap p le s cost 10 cents each and th e
o range s cost 1 2 cents each, th e n th e to ta l cost, in cents, w ill be:

3x10 + 5x12

U sing th e c o rre c t o rd e r o f w o rk in g fo r a rith m e tic w e can fin is h this:

T o ta l c o s t = 3 x 10 + 5 x 12

= 30 + 60 = 90 cents

B u t s u p p o s e w e d o n o t k n o w th e c o s t o f th e apples?

We can s till d o som e o fth e w o rk like this:

T o ta l c o s t (in cents) = 3 x cost o f a n a p p le + 5 x 12

= 3 x co st o f an a p p le + 60

This w o u ld take to o m u c h tim e to keep w ritin g o u t.

If w e use a to m ean th e n u m b e r o f ce n ts th a t an a p p le costs, th e n th e sum becom es

T o ta l c o s t (in cents) = 3 x a + 5 x l 2

= 3 x a + 60

We can m ake th is lo o k n e a te r b y u s in g o n e o fth e rules o f algebra, th a t 3 x a can be

s h o rte n e d to 3a.

O ur fin a l s ta te m e n t is:
Total cost (in cents) = 2 a 4- 60

w h ic h can also be w ritte n

T otal c o s t = (3a + 60) cents

w he re a represents th e n u m b e r o f cents yo u have to p a y fo r an apple.

Later, w h e n w e kn o w th e c o s t o f an a p p le w e can fin is h th e sum .

The n u m b e r o f cents is a v a ria b le . It c o u ld be 10 ce n ts to d a y and 12 cents to m o rro w .

The to ta l n u m b e r o f cents, o r cost, is also a v a ria b le , b u t d e p e n d s on a.

It is ve ry im p o rta n t th a t y o u u n d e rs ta n d th a t th e le tte r a stands fo r a num ber, n o t an ap p le o r

a n u m b e r o f apples. T he s ta te m e n t s h o u ld re a lly be w ritte n :

T otal cost (in cents) = 3 x a ce n ts + 60 cents

b u t it is usua lly s u ffic ie n t to use th e w o rd ce n ts once o n ly, o r to explain th a t the w h o le

c a lc u la tio n is in cents.

Algebraic Shorthand
To get started w ith algebra w e m u s t start to learn a few rules. We w ill often u s e x and y as o u r
u n k n o w n quantities, b u t r e m e m b e r th a t w e can use any letter. When tw o or m ore letters are
different, we k n o w t h a t th e y are b eing used for d iffe re n t num bers.
 ^ 3 Beginning Algebra

We s ta rt w ith so m e s h o rth a n d .
REMEMBER:
• X+X+X+X+X+X+
Had vou n o tic e d th a t m u ltip lic a tio n is a s h o rte r form o f a d d itio n ?
x+x+x=9xxand . iere are tw o w ays to w o rk o u t 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7.
y+y+y=3xy.
• 9 x x c a n be You can e ith e r go th ro u g h and a d d sevens as you go along, o r you can see th a t th e re are 9
shortened to9x, sevens, an d q u ic k ly get th e answ er:
so9xx=9xand
9 x 7 = 63

You can d o th is w ith any n u m b e r, n o t ju s t 7, so w e co u ld call th e n u m b e r x.

9 x x c a n be s h o rte n e d to 9 x w ith o u t any co n fu sio n , b u t 9 x 7 c a n n o t be s h o rte n e d to 97,

w h ic h is c o m p le te ly d iffe re n t.

How Algebra is S im ilar to Arithm etic

(and How it is D ifferent)
W hen w e are u sin g letters and n u m b e rs , sim p lify is an in s tru c tio n to w rite an a nsw er in its
s im p le s t fo rm . The a n sw e r w ill u s u a lly s till c o n ta in letters.

So lve u s u a lly m eans to fin d a n u m e ric a l a nsw er to an e q u a tio n .

W hen w e are u sin g n u m b e rs o n ly , c a lc u la te is an in s tru c tio n to fin d th e s o lu tio n to a

n u m e ric a l p ro b le m . The a n s w e r w ill be a n u m b e r, o r num bers.
Key terms
We can s im p lify y x y x y to y 3, b u t 2 x 2 x 2 = 2 3 ( = 8 ) can be c a lc u la te d to give th e num erical
Sim plify means write in
its simplest form. answ er 8 .

Solve usually means M uch o f y o u r alg eb ra w ill in v o lv e s im p lify in g or, later, w ritin g th in g s in a n o th e r fo rm .
find a numerical
solution to a problem or W ork th ro u g h th e n e xt e xa m p le , p a y in g p a rtic u la r a tte n tio n to th e n u m e ric a l q u e s tio n s w h ic h
equation. s h o w th e s im ila ritie s b e tw e e n a lg e b ra and a rith m e tic , and th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n s im p lify in g
Calculate means find a and c a lc u la tin g .
numerical answer.

Example 1
Simplify the following: Calculate the following:
a x+x+x+x+x b 2+2+2+2+2
c yxy d 8x8
e 4x + 2x f 4 x 7+ 2x 7
g 3x + x h 3x5 + 5
i 3 y -y j 3x12-12
k x+x+y+y+y 1 115 + 115 + 108 + 108 + 108
m 9x-8x n 9x157-8x157
Answer 1
a x+x+x+x+x=5x b 2+2+2+2+2=5x2=10
C y x y = y2 d 8 x 8 = 82= 64
e 4x + 2x = 6x f 4x7+2x7=6x7=42
g 3x + x = 4x h 3 x 5 + 5 = 4 x 5 = 20
3 x 1 2 - 1 2 = 2 x 1 2 = 24
1
II

j
V

37
3 Beginning Algebra J

k x + x + y + y + y = 2 x + 3y I 115 + 115 + 108 + 108 + 108

= 2x115 + 3x108
= 230 + 324
= 554
m 9 x -8 x = lx = x n 9 x 1 5 7 - 8 x 1 5 7 = 1 x 1 5 7 = 157

Ify o u feel te m p te d to go fu rth e r w ith Exam ple 1 p a rt k and a tte m p t so m e s o rt o f a d d itio n o f

th e xs and 7 s, try it w ith th e n u m b e rs as w e ll and see if it w orks.

For e xa m p le , i f yo u th in k th a t 2 x + 3 / c o u ld be s h o rte n e d to 5 xy (w hich o f course you s h o u ld

no t!), use n u m b e rs to check it.

2x+3y: 2x115 + 3x108

= 230 + 324
= 554

but 5 xy. 5x115x108

= 62100

w h ic h is cle a rly n o t th e sam e as 554!

We can o n ly arrive a t a fin a l a nsw er w h e n w e k n o w w h a t n u m b e rs w ill re p la c e * and y. U n til

th e n th e q u e s tio n has to ask yo u to sim plify, ra th e r th a n solve.

Exercise 3.1 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e
C opy and c o m p le te Table 3.1 by using a lgebraic s h o rth a n d to s im p lify , and th e rules o f
a rith m e tic (BoDMAS) to calcu la te .

S im p lify Answ er C a lc u la te A nsw er

a i x+x+x ii 30 + 30 + 30
b i 5 y -4 y ii 5 x 1 5 4 -4 x 1 5 4
c i zxzxz ii 3x3x3
d i x + x + x -y ii 6 + 6 + 6 -1 0

e i x+x+y+y ii 7+7+4+4
f i y -y ii 2 - 2

g i xxx+yxy ii 3x3+4x4
h i 5x + 3 x - 2 y ii 5x50 + 3 x 5 0 -2 x 4

T ab le 3.1

3 .4 The Language of Algebra

Expressions, equations and term s
There are som e o th e r w o rd s th a t have a special m e a n in g in algebra, and you m ust
u n d e rsta n d th e m as w ell. First o f all, try to u n d e rsta n d th e diffe re n ce betw een an expression
and an e q u atio n. Have a lo o k a t th is piece o f algebra:

3 x + 5 y - 10z+ 6

38|

Key terms
In algebra, term s are
numbers and letters that
are added or subtracted.
For example, in 3x + 5y,
3x and 5y are terms. 3x
is a term i n * and 5yis a
term my.
Expressions are groups
of terms to be added
or subtracted. They do
not have an equals sign.
They cannot be solved,
but may be simplified.
The coefficient of a
term is the num ber in
front of it, for example
the coefficient of 3x is 3.
Like term s have the
same tetters, for example
4zand 10z.
An equation has an
equals sign and can
often be solved.
maybe able to simplify
an expression, but not
solve it. You may be able
16 simplify an
equation.
^ 3 Beginning Algebra
This is an algeb raic expression. It is n o t an e q u a tio n since it stands a lo n e w ith o u t an equals
sign. It is m ad e up o f te rm s w h ic h are to be a dded o rs u b tra c te d . The te rm s are 3x, 5y, 10z
and 6.
3x is a 'te rm in x \ 5y is a ‘term in y , lO z is a 'te rm in z’, and 6 is a c o n s ta n t o r a n u m b e r term .
The 6 is a co n s ta n t te rm because it is alw ays 6, b u t 3x is n o t c o n s ta n t because it d e p e n d s on
w h a t x s tands for.
Each n u m b e r in fro n t o f a te rm is th e co efficien t o f th a t term .
N ow lo o k at th e fo llo w in g expression:
2x + l y - 3y + 4x
This is an expression th a t can be s im p lifie d . It has like te rm s . It has tw o te rm s in x and tw o
te rm s in y. We can w rite :
2x + l y - 3 y + 4x
= 2x + 4 x + 7 / - 3 /y
= 6x + 4y
This is ca lle d co lle c tin g like term s.
Each o fth e tw o e qu als signs show s th a t th e next line is e q u iv a le n t to th e o n e before , b u t has
been w ritte n in a n o th e r way. T hey d o n o t c o n v e rt th e expression in to an e q u a tio n .
B ut if w e are given a b it m ore in fo rm a tio n , fo r exam ple, th a t o u r expression is a c tu a lly equal
to s o m e th in g else, w e have an e q u a tio n .
For e xa m ple, 6 x + 4 y = 34 is an e q u a tio n .
An expression is like a phrase in English, and an e q u a tio n is m o re like a sentence. For
e xam ple , ‘ h o t and s to rm y w e a th e r’ is a phrase in English. It m eans m o re w h e n it b e co m e s a
s e n te n ce such as: ‘T oday w e are having h o t and s to rm y w e a th e r’ and w e have th e extra b it o f
in fo rm a tio n th a t it is to d a y th a t w e are ta lk in g a b o u t.
An e q u a tio n m ay be solved by fin d in g rep la ce m e n ts fo r th e va ria b le s w h ic h m a k e it a tru e
s ta te m e n t. For exam ple, w e can solve lO z - 3 = 17.
This is an e q u a tio n w h ic h becom es tru e w h e n z is replaced by 2.
1 0 x 2 - 3 = 17
So th e s o lu tio n to th e e q u a tio n is z = 2 , and in th is case it is th e o n ly s o lu tio n . T he e q u a tio n
6x + 4 y = 3 4 becom es tru e w h e n w e replace th e x by 3 and th e y by 4, because
6 x 3 + 4 x 4 = 1 8 + 16 = 34
So x = 3 a n d y = 4 is a s o lu tio n to th is e q u a tio n .
In th is case th is is n o t th e o n ly p o s s ib le s o lu tio n .
For e xam ple, x = 2.5 and y = 4.75 is also a s o lu tio n . C heck it fo r yo u rse lf!
So fa r w e have m a in ly used letters to repre sen t u n k n o w n s o r n u m b e rs. B u t re m e m b e r the
e xa m p le o f b u y in g ap ples and oranges?
We w ro te : Total cost (in cents) = 3a + 60.
Here a repre sen ts th e va ria b le co st o f o ne apple, in cents.
V a ria bles can be represented by w ords, letters o r sym bols.
r~
39
For e xam ple,

3xwhat=21
3x=21
3x1 = 21
3 x 0 = 21

In each case th e u n k n o w n can be replaced by 7 to m ake th e e q u a tio n true. For s im p lic ity it is
u sua l to use letters.

" \
Example 2
a 3x + 4y+y = 3x + 5y 7x + 10^=37 3a —4b
From the above, select:
i a term in x ii a pair of like terms
iii an equation iv an expression which is then simplified
v another expression vi a constant term
vii the coefficient of the term in k

b Can you find replacements fo r * and y that would make 7 x + 10^ = 37 true?

c I give a shopkeeper 10 cents. He gives me 4 mangoes and 4 cents change.

Write an equation to show this and so find the price of one mango.

d i Use the letters given to write an equation to represent the following statement:
'I buy 2 bags of crisps and 3 chocolate bars. I spend 12 cents altogether.’
Use x = th e cost, in cents, of a bag of crisps, and_y=the cost, in cents, of a chocolate bar.
ii Find one pair of possible replacements for x and y which would make your equation true.
Answer 2
a i 3x or Ix are both terms in x.
ii 4y and y are like terms.
iii 7x+ 10.v = 37 is an equation.
iv 3x + 4 7 +yisanexpressionw hichissim plified
3x 5y.
v 3a - 4b is another expression. ■-
vi 37 is a constant term.
vii 4 is the coefficient of the term in b.

By trying a few numbers we find that x = l and y = 3 would make this equation true.
7 x 1 + 1 0 x 3 = 7 + 30 = 37
Ifyou use rational numbers there are an infinite number of solutions.
For example, x = 2 and y = 2.3. Can you find some more?
c If m = the cost of one mango, in cents,
10 = 4m + 4 (10 cents = 4 x m cents + 4 cents change)
so 4m = 6
so m = 1.5
Hence, mangoes cost 1.5 cents each,
d i 2 x +3y = 12
11 x = 3 and y = 2 is one possible pair of values that would make this true.
 I 3 Beginning Algebra

Formulae and Substitution

Fo rm u lae are e q u a tio n s th a t are used fairly fre q u e n tly to ca lc u la te q u a n titie s and are
Key term arranged so th a t th e required q u a n tity is the subject o f th e fo rm u la . This m akes th e m
A form ula (plural c o n v e n ie n t to use. For exam ple, in o u r o rig in a l sm all p ro b le m o f the cost o f app le s and
form ulae) is used to oranges, w e ended up w ith the fo rm u la
calculate quantities, for
Total cost (in cents) = 3a + 60
example
speed = ^ il^ n c e . w here a represents th e cost o f each a p p le in cents.
time
This can be called a fo rm u la because it is arranged so th a t th e q u a n tity w e w a n t to fin d (to ta l
cost) is on its ow n on the left and so is th e s u b je ct o f the sta te m e n t.

W hen w e k n o w the cost o f an a p p le w e w ill be ab le to s u b s titu te th is in to replace a, and

c a lc u la te the to ta l cost. S uppose b is th e cost o f o ne orange, in cents, and T is th e to ta l cost, in
cents; th e n o u r fo rm u la co u ld b e co m e m ore useful:

T = 3a + 5b

T, a and b are th e u n k n o w n s o r v ariables because th e prices m ay vary fro m day to day.

W hen w e k n o w th e cost o f an a p p le and an orange on th e day w e can su b s titu te these

n u m b e rs fo r a and b and w o rk o u t th e to ta l cost on th e day.

S u b s titu tio n is re p la c in g u n k n o w n s o r variables by num bers, usually in fo rm u la e , so th a t

Key term answ ers m ay be c a lcu la te d . C a lc u la tin g th e answ er w h e n variables in an expression are
Substitution is s u b s titu te d by n u m b e rs is often calle d e v a lu a tin g th e expression.
replacing an unknown
variable by a num ber
so that a form ula or
expression may be Example 3
\
evaluated. a I think of a number («), multiply it by 4, add 6 , then take away the number I first
thought of.
Write a formula for the answer [A) in terms of n.
b Use the formula to find A when:
i «=3 ii h = 100 iii n = 11
Answer 3
a A =nx4+6-n
A = 4n + 6 - n
A = 3n + 6
b i w henn = 3 ii when n = 100 iii when n = 11
/l = 3 x 3 + 6 = 9 + 6 >4= 3 x 1 0 0 + 6 /l = 3 x l l + 6
A = 15 A = 306 >4= 39

Exercise 3.2 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e
1 M aria is m years old. Her father, Bakari, is n years o ld e r th a n Maria.
W rite an expression fo r th e sum o f th e ir ages.

2 A piece o f w o o d is 6.5 m etres long. Brian saws o ff and uses m m etres.

W rite an expression fo rth e length o f w o o d w h ic h is left.
3 Beginning Algebra j

3 A m ir sta rts his jo u rn e y to s c h o o l by w a lk in g fo r 10 m in u te s , and th e n takes a bus.

The tim e (t m in u te s) th e bus takes to get to th e s c h o o l d e p e n d s on th e tra ffic.
a W rite a fo rm u la fo r th e to ta l jo u rn e y tim e (T m in u te s ) in te rm s o f t.
b Find 7"w h e n f = 15.

4 S u b s t it u te ; ^ 3 and z = 5 in to each o fth e fo rm u la e b e lo w to fin d x.

a x=2y+3z b x=yz+2 c x = 4 y z - 3 z + 2y

5 Figure 3.1 sho w s a tria n g le w ith tw o sides o f le n g th a cm ,

an d o n e s ide o f le n g th 3 cm .
a W rite a fo rm u la fo r th e to ta l le n g th (1cm ) ro u n d th e
o u ts id e o f th e tria n g le ,
b Use th e fo rm u la to fin d /.w h e n a = 10.
c W hy can a n o t be
i 1.5? ii 1?

6 A re cip e re qu ire s 5 eggs, 0.5 k ilo g ra m s o f b u tte r a n d 0.5

Figure 3.1
kilo g ra m s o f to m a to e s .
Eggs c o s t e ce n ts per 10, b u tte r costs b cents p e r h a lf kilo g ra m
an d to m a to e s co st t ce n ts p e r kilog ram ,
a W rite a fo rm u la fo r th e to ta l co st (C cents) o f th e recipe,
b C a lcula te C w h e n e = Rs. 22, b = Rs. 58 and t = Rs. 12.

7 Evaluate th e fo llo w in g e xpressions w h e n x = 2 and_y= 3 .

a xy b y —x
c y2- * 2 d 3x+9y

3 .5 Addition and Subtraction

of Terms in Algebra
As w e have a lre a dy seen, a d d itio n and s u b tra c tio n o f te rm s in algebra is also c a lle d c o lle c tin g
like term s.

We c o u ld illu s tra te th e process by th in k in g o f a zoo w h ic h keeps a n te lo p e s and bears.

A n te lo p e s an d bears th e m s e lv e s are n o t v ariables o r u n k n o w n q u a n titie s , so w e w ill n o t

replace th e m w ith letters. T his exa m p le is ju s t to help y o u u n d e rsta n d h o w te rm s can be
m ove d w ith in an expression as lo n g as th e sign in fro n t o f th e te rm stays w ith th a t te rm .

Think: 'th e sign b e longs to th e te rm th a t fo llo w s it’.

The zoo starts w ith 10 a n te lo p e s and 5 bears, and th e n th e y tra d e 4 o f th e ir a n te lo p e s fo r 2

bears w ith a n o th e r zoo. Later o n th e y give aw ay 2 m o re a n telopes. H ow m a n y a n te lo p e s a n d
bears d o th e y n o w have? The s itu a tio n co u ld be w ritte n like this:

JwL
■■
the termfetlbUovis it |
10 a n te lo p e s + 5 b e a rs - 4 a n te lo p e s + 2 bears - 2 ante lo p e s

w h ic h can be rearranged to:

Terms can be written
in any order in the 10 a n te lo p e s - 4 a n te lo p e s - 2 a n te lo p e s + 5 b e a rs + 2 bears
expression as long as
they keep their signs. This gives us:
Only like terms 4 a n te lo p e s + 7 bears
can be added or
subtracted. So you can see th a t w e can rearrange th e sum as lo n g as w e keep th e sign w ith th e a n im a l
th a t fo llo w s it.

\
42
 ^ 3 Beginning Algebra

NOTE: Example 4
The term in * 2 is no t the Simplify:
same as the term in * . a 3 x -2 y + 2x + 5y b 6x2+ 2x + 3x + 5
C l + 6xy-5x-yx + 3 d x2+ x3+ 2x2+ 3x3
Answer 4
NOTE: a 3x -2 y + 2x + 5y = 3x + 2x + 5y-2y 6x2+ 2x+3x + 5
The term in xy/s the = 5x + 3y = 6x2+ 5x + 5
same as the te rm in g * C l + 6 x y -5 x -y x + 3 x2+ x3+ 2x2+ 3x3
(Remember that the = 4 + 5xy - bx = 3x2+ 4x3
multiplication can be
done in either order.)

Exercise 3.3 NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

S im p lify:

1 3 *+ 1 0 * 2 5* + lx - x

3 2x + 5 x - 4 y 4 2a + 5 a - 3 a + 6b

5 6 x -3 x + 2 y -y 6 3 *+ 1 0 -7
7 4z + 2 w + 2 z + w - 2 z 8 7 c -c + 6 d -3 -6 d

9 6 + 3a — 3 — a 10 4 x + y -3 x -y

11 8x2 + 4y2- l x 2- 2 f 12 6*2+ 2 *-3 *2+ *

13 x 2 + x y + 4 x 2 + 2x y 14 2 * 2+ / 2- * ^ + *2

15 3x2 + 2 xy —x y — 4y2 16 S *2- 5*3 + 2x2y + x 2y

17 5 * y - 3x?y - x 2/ + x 2y

3.6 Multiplication and Division

in Algebra
W hen yo u m u ltip ly o r d iv id e in a lgebra it is be st to be system atic.

Example 5
Simplify:
a 3ax4bx6cxa b 5x X 6x X 4y c 6dx5c+3d
d x2y + x2y e 3 - 3x2
Answer 5
a 3ax4bx6cxa = 7 2 x a x b x c x a b 5xx 6 x x 4 y= 1 2 0 x x x x x y

= 72 a2bc = 120 x2y

c 6dx5c + 3d d x2y -s- x2y

In division, just as _6dxsc_30dc _lodc x2y
2+2 = 1 , s o x -» -*= l ~ W 3d d x2y
In division, also deal = 10 c
with numbers first
NOTE:
e 3-5- 3x2
The & is in tfe fe n o m in a to r, arid m ust stay there. A com m on
_ 3 _ 1 error is to move it to the numerator, which is definitely wrong.
3x2 X 2
Exercise 3.4 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e
S im p lify:

1 5ax3b 2 6yx4z 3 3xx2x

4 lOx x 3x x 2 5 x x y x 3zx 2 6 5a s-5

7 3dx4axdx5b 8 8-5-2* 9 10 cd + 5c

10 4x+2 11 6-5-12 d 12 3ab + 2ab

13 5 a b x 4 cd 14 2d x 6c -5- dc

3 .7 W orking with Directed Num bers

We s h a ll m ee t d ire c te d n u m b e rs fre q u e n tly in algebra, and it is essential th a t yo u can w o rk
w ith th e m w ith c o n fidence. We firs t m e t d ire c te d n u m b e rs in C h a p te r 1, b u t n o w w e need to
w o rk w ith th e m .

Have a lo o k a t th e n u m b e r lin e in Figure 3.2.

— l— l— l— l— l— I— l— I— I— I— I— I— I— l— l— I— I— *"
_8 - 7 _6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Figure 3 .2 N um ber line

Addition and Subtraction of Directed Num bers

To s u b tra c t u sing y o u r n u m b e r line, s ta rt a t th e firs t n u m b e r and m ove to th e left.

You k n o w th a t 9 - 4 = 5.
On your number line stail ai 9 and go back 4 bteps to reach the diibwei 5.
H ow a b o u t 1 - 4 ?

S ta rt a t 1 on th e n u m b e r lin e and go back 4 steps to reach - 3 (negative 3), so

1 - 4 = -3

F o r- 3 - 4 , sta rt at negative 3 on th e n u m b e r line and again go back 4 steps.

You w ill fin d th a t negative 3 ta ke aw ay 4 is negative 7.

—3 — 4 = —7

The m in u s signs in fro n t o f th e 3 and th e 7 are b o th read as negative signs because th e y are
d ire c te d n u m b e r signs. The m in u s sign in fro n t o fth e 4 m eans take aw ay (s u b tra c t) four.
So ‘negative 3 take aw ay 4 is negative 7 ’. In practice, m a n y p e o p le say 'm in u s ’ in ste a d o f
'n e g a tiv e ’, b u t w e m u st be careful th a t th is does n o t cause confusion.

To ad d , you sta rt at th e first n u m b e r and m ove to th e right.

-6 + 15 = 9

S ta rtin g a t -6 and m o v in g 15 steps to the rig h t you arrive at p o s itive 9, (or s im p ly 9).
 ( 3 Beginning Algebra

There are tw o m o re w ays th a t you w ill see negative n u m b e rs w ritte n in books:

-6 c o u ld be show n as ~6 or as ( - 6 )

and th e p o s itive n u m b e rs co u ld be show n in fo u r ways:

+9 o r +9 o r (+9) o r ju s t 9

In th e exam ples and exercises th a t fo llo w , you w ill find all these fo rm s so th a t you get used to
th em .

Example 6

n i i i i i i i i i i i r
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Figure 3.3 N u m b e r line

U sing th e n u m b e r line in Figure 3.3, calculate:

a -4+3+2-6+5-1 b -6+5-1+3-4+2
c 3+ 2+ 5 - 6 - 1 - 4 d Why do all these give the same answer?
Answer 6
a -4+3+2-6+5-1 b - 6 + 5 - 1 + 3 —4 + 2
= -1 = -1
c 3+ 2+ 5- 6 -1 -4 d You can perform addition and subtraction in any order as
= -1 long as you keep the sign with the term that follows it.

Exercise 3.5 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e
C alculate:

1 7-3-5 +2- 8 2 10-2-1-3-4 +7 3 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 1 + 10

4 3-3 +4+ 2 -5 -1 5 -8 + 8 6 +7-7

7 -3 -2 -1 8 6-4+5 9 -8+9

10 0 - 5 + 10

The next th in g to u n d e rsta n d is w h a t it m eans w h e n you see s o m e th in g like:

8 - '2

w h ic h is read as ‘8 take aw ay (or s u b tra c t o r m inus) negative 2 ’.

Taking aw a y a negative n u m b e r is th e sam e as a d d in g th e sam e num ber.

There are m a n y w ays to try to e xp la in this, b u t m aybe w e sh o u ld ju s t lo o k at it as a d o u b le

negative m e a n in g a positive.

‘You are n o t g o in g to miss th e tra in to n ig h t’ m eans th a t ‘you are g o in g to catch th e train

to n ig h t’. This ty p e o f d o u b le negative is c o m m o n , so it helps us to re m e m b e r th e rule.

unlike signs (different If y o u r ba nk balance is o ve rd ra w n , and you are in d e b t by, say $100, it w o u ld sh o w a s -$ 1 0 0 .
signs) make a minus. If, fo r so m e reason, so m e o n e to o k aw ay th e d e b t, you w o u ld end up w ith n o th in g in th e bank,
++=+ b u t no lo n g e r in d e b t. Taking aw ay th e negative a m o u n t is th e sam e as a d d in g it.

- 1 0 0 --1 0 0 = - 100+ 100 = 0

In th e sam e way, a d d in g a p o s itive n u m b e r is th e sam e as a d d itio n , and a d d in g a negative

n u m b e r is th e sam e as s u b tra c tio n .

r~
45
Be sure th a t you re m e m b e r these facts:

+ +10 = + 10

— 10 = + 1 0

+ - 1 0 = - 10

—+ 1 0 = — 10

It is b e st to s im p lify any tw o signs th a t are to g e th e r (for exam ple, - ( - ) , - + o r + - ) before you

g o o n w ith th e c a lc u la tio n . W e co u ld call th e m d o u b le signs, and w ill refer to th e m again later.
So w h e n e v e r you m e e t a d o u b le sign s im p lify it before c a rry in g on.

Example 7
Calculate:

a 2 -4 b -1 9 + 7

c -1 2 -1 3 d 17 - - 3 (deal with the double sign first: a double negative

is a positive)

e 2 1 + (-7) (double sign first)

f 1 4 -+ 2 (double sign first)

g (-5 )-(-2 ) (double sign first)

Answer 7
a 2 -4 b -1 9 + 7 c -1 2 -1 3
= -2 = -1 2 = -2 5

d 17— 3 e 21 + (—7) f 1 4 -+ 2
= 17 + 3 = 2 1 -7 =14-2
= 20 = 14 =12

g (-5 )-(-2 )
= -5 + 2
= -3

Multiplication and Division of Directed

Numbers
The sam e rules d escribed fo r a d d itio n and s u b tra c tio n w ith d o u b le signs a p p ly here. Learn
these!
+ x + = + +-=- + = +

+ X —= - + 4 - - =

— X + = - - + + =

The rules are n o t so d iffic u lt to learn ify o u re m e m b e r th a t tw o like signs m ake a plus, and tw o
u n like signs m ake a m inus.
 [ 3 Beginning Algebra

W hen m u ltip ly in g o r d iv id in g d ire c te d n u m b e rs it pays to w o rk in o rd e r as be fo re . In

fa c t you s h o u ld a lw a y s be s y s te m a tic in a lg e b ra to a v o id u n n e c e s s a ry m ista ke s. First
de a l w ith signs, n ext th e n u m b e rs and la s tly, if th e re are any, th e le tte rs (see th e next
s e c tio n ).

Example 8
Calculate:
a -2 x -6 b -1 0 + - 5

c 20 x -7 d 55 + -11

Answer 8
a - 2 x -6 b -1 0 + - 5
= +2 x 6 = +10 + 5
= +12 = 2

C 20 x —7 d 5 5 + -11
= -20x7 = -5 5 + 11
= -14 0 = -5

To m ake th is a b s o lu te ly c le a r w e w ill d o o n e m ore m ixed exam ple.

Example 9
Calculate:

a ( - 2 ) - ( - 3 ) + (-4 ) b - 3 + -5

c -lx -6 d 2 + (-3)

e - 2 x (-2) x (-2)

Answer 9
a ( - 2 ) - ( - 3 ) + (-4 ) b -3 + -5 c -1 x -6
= -2 + 3 - 4 =-3-5 = +1x6
= -3 =-8 = +6

d (+2)+ (-3) e - 2 x (-2) x (-2)

= -2 + 3 = +4 x (-2)
_ _ 2
3
3 Beginning Algebra J

Exercise 3.6 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e
C alculate:

1 a 2+ 3 b -2 + 3 c 2-3 d -2 -3
e -2 — 3 f - 2 + +3 g - 2 + (-3) h (-2) +

2 a 2x3 b -2 x 3 c —2 x (-3) d 2 x-3

e -2 x + 3

3 a 6-5-3 b -6-5-3 c -6 -5- (-3) d 6 -5--3

4 a 2
4 »1 c -2
-4
d 2
-4

5 - 5 — 6 + -1 + 10

6 4 - (-2) + (-3) - 5

7 1 0 -(+ 3 )- (- 3 )
8 5 x (-2) x (-1)

9 6x3-5- (-2)

10 a —1 x —1 b -1 + -1 c -1 + -1
d (-1) x (-1) x (-1) e (-1) x (-1) x (- 1) x (-1)

11 —7 x -4 -s-+2

W orking with Directed Num bers in Algebra

T he sa m e rules a p p ly fo r w o rk in g w ith d ire c te d n u m b e rs in algebra as w e have ju s t covered in
th e p re vio u s tw o s e c tio n s w h e re w e used o n ly n u m b e rs .

Example 10
Simplify, where possible:
a 2a + - 3 a - b — 6 b b -6xx(-2y) c -6 x + [-2y)
Answer 10
a 2a + - 3 a - b — 6b = 2a - 3a - b + 6b
= —a + 5b

b -6 x x (-2 y) = +6x x 2y c - 6 x + (-2 y)

= +12 xy =-6x-2y

Exercise 3.7 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e
S im p lify , w he re p ossible :

1 -x X -2 y 3 -x + [- 2 y )
1

2
X
X
(N1

4 5 a2 -5- 2 6 3 a + (-6 b )
y
1
1

7 (~2x) X (—4y) 8 {-2x) + (-4 y) 9 xy x (~3x)

10 xy + (-3 x ) 11 xy -s- (—3 jc) 12 -3 y x - 2 x x

13 - 4 z + ( - 2 z) - (-3z*) 14 3a + 2 b + {-a) - (-f>)

\
48
 [ 3 Beginning Algebra

3 .8 W orking with Indices

We have a lre a d y m e t th e fa ct th a t x + x + x c a n be s h o rte n e d to 3x, and x x x x x can be
s h o rte n e d to x 1.

The 3 in x ' is a p o w e r o r index. The p lu ra l o f index is indices.

R aising to a w h o le n u m b e r p o w e r is a s h o rte r fo rm o f m u ltip ly in g s o m e th in g by its e lf m a n y

tim es. The n u m b e r o f tim e s it is m u ltip lie d by its e lf is sh o w n by th e p o w e r o r index.

If n u m b e rs are raised to a p o w e r th e a n sw e r m a y be c a lc u la te d , b u t if a lg e b ra ic va ria b le s are

raised to a p o w e r w e can o n ly s im p lify .

Tw o e x a m p le s m a y help:

25= 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 32

but x x x x x x x x x = x5

We can s till w o rk w ith p o w e rs o f a lg e b ra ic va ria b le s as w e w ill see in th e rest o f th is se ction.

W ritin g o u t x 3 x x 4 in lo n g h a n d :
Key term
x x x x x x x x x x x x x = x7
An index (plural indices)
or p o w er shows how In s h o rth a n d : x 3x x 4= x 3+4 = x 7
many o f a certain
num ber or variable W hen y o u m u ltip ly a n u m b e r o r a v a ria b le raised to a p o w e r by th e sam e n u m b e r o r v a ria b le
are to be m ultiplied raised to a n o th e r p o w e r you a d d th e pow ers.
together, for example
23 x 22 23+ 2 / 32
n4 = n X « X n X n .
or 2 x 2 x 2 X 2x 2 25 32

or 23 X 22 !x 4 32

A s im ila r a rg u m e n t can be a p p lie d to d iv is io n .

32

or = 2 5_ = 23

W hen yo u d iv id e a n u m b e r o r v a ria b le raised to a p o w e r by th e sam e n u m b e r o r v a ria b le

raised to a n o th e r p o w e r you s u b tra c t th e second p o w e r fro m th e first.

T h ere is o n e m o re ru le to learn fo r w o rk in g w ith pow ers.

(24)3 = (24) x (24) x (24) = 24+4+4 = 23x4 = 212

So as y o u s h o u ld see, raisin g to a fu rth e r p o w e r m eans m u ltip ly in g th e pow ers.

Learn th e s e th re e rules. The le tte rs n and m re p re se n t n a tu ra l o r c o u n tin g n u m b e rs.

3 Beginning fllgabra J

Example 1 1

a Calculate:
i 32x 3 3 ii 34+ 33 iii (32)2 iv 32+ 34

b Simplify, where possible:

i x4x x 5 ii x ^ x 2

iv x2+ x3

Answer 1 1
a i 32x 3 3 ii 34 + 33
= 9 x 2 7 = 243 (or3s; = 81 + 27 = 3 (or 31)
iii (32)2 iv 32+ 34
= 92= 81 (or 34) = 9 + 81 = 90

b i x4x x s ii x6+ x2 iii (x7)3

= x4+5= x 9 = X6_2 = X4
_ v-7x3 _ V21

iv x2+ x 3 No simplifying possible because unlike terms cannot be added.

v x3+ x* Like terms can be added.
= 2x3

Exercise 3.8 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e
1 C alculate:
a 42x 43 b 55+ 53 c 42 + 42

d 23- 22 e ( 2 3) 3

S im p lify, w h ere possible:

a x 4x x 5 b x 4+ x 5 c X3+ X3
d x3x x3 e x 6+ x 2 f 2x5x 3 x 6
g 2x* + 3X5 h (2 x ) x (2 x ) i (2 x ) 2
j ( 2 X 3) x ( 2 X 3) k ( 2 X 3) 2 I ( x 5) 9

S im p lify, as fa r as possible:
a 3X 4x x x 2X5 b 2x 6 x / x x 7

c 6X5x 3X4+ 2X3 d 9X3x 4X2 x 2 / + 3 /

So fa r w e have d e a lt w ith indices th a t co m e fro m th e set o f c o u n tin g num bers. We also have
to w o rk w ith indices th a t are fro m th e set o f integers. These w o u ld in c lu d e , fo r exam ple, x r2,
x°, xr1 and so on.

Look a t th is p a tte rn :
X2 = 1X X X X

X1= 1X X

x° = 1

X X X X2

You sh o u ld be able to see th a t x° = 1.

 ^ 3 Beginning Algebra

In fact, since x can stand fo r a n y th in g w e could say th a t a n y th in g raised to the p o w e r zero is one.

1000 000° = 1, 0.000 0034° = 1, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 °= 1,

( !!) " = ,, ( , » + r » c = i

Also, since x" * • * " ,= 1
o r ^ = 1 , which can
This m akes som e o f th e q u e s tio n s you m ig h t m eet rather easy!
You s h o u ld also see th a t negative pow ers in d ic a te th a t th e te rm s h o u ld be in v e rte d to m ake
the p o w e r positive.
In v e rt m eans tu rn up side d o w n , so = (R em em ber th a t x -1 can be w ritte n a s ^ p )
For exam ple,

*-*■ (i)’,=!' (ir=®’= f - d

You m ay also m e e t th e w o rd reciprocal, w h ic h is a fra c tio n inverted. For exam ple, th e
re cip ro ca l o f | is | .

Example 12
a Evaluate:
i 21 ii 2-* iii iv 2*x24
v 2-‘ + 2-3 vi (I)"’ vii (l|)"2
b Simplify, giving the answers in a form with positive powers:
i ii x10xx~3x x _1 iii + iv x5+ x_1
v (x1000)0 vi (2x)~2 vii 2x~2
c In each case, find a replacement for n which will make the statement true:
i 16 = 2" ii 1 = 2” iii f = (f)"
d Find a replacement for x in each ofth e following:
i 27 = 3* ii x3 = 64 iii ^ = 8
Answer 12
a I ii 2- = ^ = ^ m ^ = 2^=8
iv 2-‘ x 2 4= 2-lt4 = 23= 8 v 2 1+ 2-3 = 2-1 "3= 2 1+3 = 22= 4

«• (I)'-I *» nr-nr■(!)■■i
b i x " 3 x x 7 = a t 3+7 = x 4 ii x10x x ‘3x x _1= x 10"3' 1= x 6
III x ‘+X =X —
6_ y-8 +6 _ v-—2_ iv x5+ x~1= x5~~1= xs* 1= x6
V (x1000)° = l

vii 2x-i =-^

 c i2‘1= 16,son = 4
ii 2 2 = 4, and 2 -2 = ^, so n = -2
iii The fraction is inverted (turned upside down), so n = -1
d i3 2 = 9, 3 3 = 27, so x = 3
ii Tr yx=2
2 2 = 4 , 2 3 = 8 and 24 = 16, so x cannot be 2
Tryx = 4
42 = 16,43= 64, so x = 4
iii A = 1, and = 8 , so x = - 3

Exercise 3.9 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e
W o rk th ro u g h th is exercise carefully, ch e c k in g y o u r a nsw ers as you go.

1 Evaluate:
a 24 b 2^ c 2_1 x 23
d 2 -‘ + 23 e 5-2 x 5° f
(if
i
* ¥ - r r
k (3 0 I
i (€ ( ’! ) "
S im p lify:

c
■ (f)" M fr (fH fr
x'y2z3
f (x5^6) + (xy)"2
<■(€ e x3y-'z-'
In each q u e s tio n , fin d a re p la c e m e n t fo r n w h ic h w ill m ake th e s ta te m e n t true.

a 2600 = 2.6 x 10"

b
° 10000
1 -1 0 "
' Mir
f
- H lf • A-er ¥-(!)'
h 2" = 2 i 2" = 1
® 3§=(ir
j 0 .0 0 1 5 = 1 .5 x 1 0 " k *>=£ I 2x=(2xY

m 4x2= (2x)" n r ‘ x r 2= ^ o X~l -r*X~2=X"

p X3 X X = x” q x kx x = x" r x k+ x2= x"

S im p lify, w he re possible, w ritin g y o u r answ ers in a fo rm w ith p o sitive pow ers.

a 3x2+ 2x2 b 3x 2+ 2x 3 c 1
3x-
 [ 3 Beginning Algebra

3 .9 Brackets and Com m on Factors

Dealing with Brackets
In a rith m e tic w e are to ld to w o rk o u t brackets first (BoDMAS), b u t th is is n o t so easy in
algebra.

Look at th e fo llo w in g :

2 x (7 - 3)
= 2x4
= 8

But w h a t a b o u t 2 x ( x - y ) l

It is q u ite h e lp fu l to th in k o fth e p a ir o f brackets as a bag, o r b u ndle, c o n ta in in g * and - y .

The 2 te lls us th a t w e have tw o o f these bags, so if w e e m p tie d th e m on to the ta b le w e w o u ld

have tw o xs and tw o -y s .

This sho w s th a t 2 x [ x - y ) = 2 x - 2 y .

U sing alg e b ra ic s h o rth a n d w e can say

2 ( x - y ) = 2 x - 2y

This is ca lle d m u ltip ly in g o u t th e brackets, (or c o m m o n ly , g e ttin g rid o fth e brackets).

Does th is w o rk w ith n u m b e rs as w ell?

G oing back to o u r firs t exam ple,

2x(7-3) = 2 x 7 - 2 x 3

= 14 - 6 = 8

This is th e sam e answ er as before, so it d oes w o rk w ith num bers. H ow ever, w ith n u m b e rs it
is u sua lly q u ir k p r to w o rk n u t th e in sid p o fth e brackets firs t (re m e m b e r BoDMAS).

O nce th e brackets have been m u ltip lie d o u t w e can c o n tin u e w ith c o lle c tin g like te rm s
and so on.

Example 13
Multiply out the brackets.
a 2(c -l) b 2(3a-4b + c) c 5 x(6x + 7 y)
Answer 13
a 2 (c - 1 ) = 2 c - 2
b 2 (3 f l - 4 fe + c) = 6 a - 8 fc + 2 c
C 5x(6x + 7 y) = 3 0 x 2 + 3 5 xy
\ __________________________________________________________________________
3 Beginning fllgBhra J

Exercise 3.10 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e
M u ltip ly o u t th e b rackets.

1 2 (a + b) 2 6(3 + x) 3 3( x - y )

4 5(6 - b ) 5 4 (3 *-2 ) 6 7 (1 - 3 c )

7 5 (6 x + 5 y ) 8 8 ( x - y + 4z) 9 5(*2 + 4)

10 7 (2 ^ -3 f ) 11 4 (3 * y + 5z) 12 *(2 -3 ^ )

13 a(a + 2) 14 x (x -y ) 15 2 c(c + d)

16 3 m (2 m -n ) 17 4 x y (2 x - 9y) 18 7x2(3 — 2y + 4z)

A ll th e ru le s fo r m u ltip lic a tio n w ith signs also a p p ly to m u ltip ly in g o u t brackets, and th is is

o n e o f t h e m o s t c o m m o n areas w h e re m ista ke s o ccu r, so m ake d o u b ly sure th a t you w o rk
th ro u g h th e next e x a m p le a n d exercise a n d u n d e rs ta n d it clearly.

Example 1 4
Multiply out the brackets and simplify where possible,
a —4 (2 z —1)

C 5(x—y) —2(x+y)
Answer 1 4
a - 4 ( 2 z - 1) = - 8 z + 4 b - ( a - b + c)=-a + b - c

C 5 (x -y )-2 (x + y ) = 5 x - 5 y - 2 x - 2 y = 3 x - l y

You s h o u ld see fro m th is e x a m p le th a t y o u m u s t be ca re fu l w ith m in u s signs, p a rtic u la rly in

fro n t o f brackets.

Exercise 3.11 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e
M u ltip ly o u t th e b ra cke ts and s im p lify w h e re possible :

1 2(3 + 4 *) 2 -2 ( 3 + 4x) 3 x(3x + 4y)

4 -x (3x + 4y) 5 -x(3x - 4y) 6 - 2 x ( lx - 6 )

7 ~(x + y) 8 —(2 - z) 9 6p(q + 3 r - s )

10 -6 p (q + 3 r - s ) 11 x2y (y - 5) 12 -3 x 2(2 y -3 )

13 4a(—2 - 3a) 14 —4 a ( - 2 - 3a) 15 (x + y) - (x -y )

16 3(a + 2b) + 2(a + 3b) 17 -5(2x + 3y) - 4 (3 x + 2y) 18 -3 (-x -y )+ 4 (x -y )

19 —2 (* — 3y) - (x -y ) 20 x (x + y + z) - (.x2+ y + xz )

54 |

Key term
Common factors a re
fa c to rs th a t a re in m o re
th a n o n e te rm ; fo r
e x a m p le , in 3x y a n d 9 x 3,
3 a n d x a re c o m m o n
fa c to rs .
[ 3 Beginning Algebra
Com m on Factors
As usual, w e have to be ab le to d o th e o p p o s ite to m u ltip ly in g o u t th e brackets, and th is is
ca lle d ta k in g o u t c o m m o n fa c to rs o r fa c to ris in g
R e m e m b e r th a t c o m m o n m eans b e lo n g in g to all, and fa cto rs are th in g s th a t are m u ltip lie d
to g e th e r. We have a lre a d y d o n e so m e w o rk w ith c o m m o n fa cto rs in a rith m e tic w h e n w e
fo u n d th e HCF (h ig h e s t c o m m o n fa cto r) o f tw o o r m o re n u m b e rs.
The fo llo w in g e xa m p le s are d e sig n e d to h e lp y o u u n d e rs ta n d th e process o f fa c to ris in g in
algebra by c o m p a rin g th e process w ith th e a rith m e tic w o rk th a t you are fa m ilia r w ith .
Find th e HCF o f 20 a nd 35.
fa c to rs o f 20 = {1, 2 ,4 , 5 ,1 0 , 20}
fa c to rs o f 35 = {1 ,5 , 7, 35}
HCF = 5
so 20 = 5 x 4 and 35 = 5 x 7
Find th e HCF o f 3 ab and 6b2.
fa c to rs o f 3 ab = {1 ,3 , a, b, 3a, 3b, 3ab]
fa c to rs o f 6 b2 = { 1 ,2 ,3 , 6 , b, b2,2b, 3b, 6b, 2b2,3b 2, 6b2}
HCF- 3 b
so 3ab = 3 b x a a n d 6b2= 3 b x 2 b
In p ra c tic e it is n o t as c o m p lic a te d as it looks.
If w e are asked to fa c to ris e 3ab + 6b2, w e w o u ld p ro b a b ly see q u ite easily th a t 3 w o u ld go in to
b o th te rm s , g iv in g 3 x {a b + 2b2).
In o th e r w o rd s ,
3 ab + 6 b2= 3 (ab + 2b1)
H ow ever, th is is o n ly p a rtia lly fa c to ris e d as th e re is s till a fa c to r o f b in b o th te rm s in s id e th e
p a ir o f bra ckets, so w e fa c to ris e th a t o u t as w e ll.
3 ab + 6b2= 3 b(a + 2b)
This is n o w fu lly o r c o m p le te ly fa c to ris e d .
Example 1 5
\
Factorise completely:
a x y — 2y 2x b a b c + 4 a 2b
C x 2 — Z x 2y d 10m n + 5m
Answer 15
a x y - 2 y 2x
= x y ( l- 2 y )
b a b c + 4 a 2b
= a b (c + 4a )
C x 2 - 3 x 2y d 10m n + 5m
= x 2( l - 3y) = 5 m (2 n + 1)
3 Beginning nignnm J

Exercise 3.12 NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

Factorise c o m p le te ly :

1 8x + 4 ^ 2 1 5 a -2 5 b 3 4 x — 20

4 xy + 2x 5 x 2 — 2x 6 x 2- x

7 3xy + 9x 8 3X3 - 9x2y 9 3 a2 - 6 ab

10 x y z + 4yz 11 10y+100y2 12 5fg+tfgh

13 3 bx - 6xy 14 3b2x - 6 b x 15 4b2- 2 b

16 4 b2- b 17 x 2y 2- x y 18 7c2d 2- 2 1 c d 2

Exercise 3.13 NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

M ix ed exercise

1 W rite d o w n and s im p lify th e p ro d u c t o f th e s e th re e factors: 2x, 3x a n d - 4 z.

2 W rite d o w n and s im p lify th e su m o f th e s e th re e te rm s : 2x, - 5 x a n d 3y.

3 U s in g x = 6 , > '= - 1 and z = 2, e v a lu a te th e s e expressions:
a x2+ y b - x - y —z c x 2+ y 2- z 2
d / e y(x + 4) f x-3z
g z2( x y + y z - x z ) h xyz

Seem a w rite s d o w n an e xpression w h ic h has a te rm in x2 w h ic h has a c o e ffic ie n t o f 2, a

te rm in y w h ic h has a c o e ffic ie n t o f - 1 , and a c o n s ta n t w h ic h is - 5 . W rite d o w n Seem a’s
expression.

S im p lify th e fo llo w in g :
a x° b x+x C i
X
d xxO e xx 1 f x —x
g x+x+x+x h xr1 x x i (x 0) 2
j x x x x x v .v k x~2 x x 2 I i-x )2
m ( - x )3 n -(x x x )

Find pairs o f re p la c e m e n ts fo r x and y w h ic h w o u ld m a k e th e fo llo w in g true.

W rite y o u r answ ers a s x = ... and y = ...
Take y o u r values fro m th e s e t o f integers. (Part e has o n ly o n e p o s s ib le answer.)

a x+y=4 b xy = - 6 - = 2
y
d x-y= -2 e x y= 9 2x+y=5
g x 2 +_y2 = 25 h Vx + N/ 7 =5 4 *+ y = 5
Evaluate th e fo llo w in g :

a (if (W nr
d 2 ’x 1
nr
8 S im plify:
a - x + 4y - -7 x b ( - x )3 x 3x: c - 2 x x -3 y

d -x e 1
f
-X 2 x
; X X' - L fx i
X-2 X
9 Find re p la c e m e n ts fo r n\
a 10" = 10000 b 3" =
 I 3 Beginning Algebra

10 M u ltip ly o u t th e brackets a n d s im p lify w here possible:

a a(ab -b c ) b 2(3x + 4y) - x ll - 2y)
c 2a(3b + 4 c - 5a) + 10cr d 6 x - 3 x [ 2 + 3x)

11 F actorise c o m p le te ly :
a ab2- a 'b b 2x2- 6 x y + 4x
c 2xyz2 + 4x2y2z d 2 a b c - 4 a 2b2c2

12 S im p lify:
b a2x b‘ x a 1+ b2 c x2 x x ’ + x 2x x
a 3bAc[.6
e (a3)2 f U ”2)-1
a 2bc
13 Fleur can c a rry no m o re th a n 10 kilo g ra m s ho m e fro m th e m arket. She has b o u g h t b bags
o f su g a r a lre a d y and w o u ld also like to buy som e flour. Each bag o f sugar w eighs
0.5 kilo g ram s.
a W rite a fo rm u la to express the a m o u n t o f flo u r (/k ilo g ra m s ) she can buy in te rm s o f b.
b If b = 6, use y o u r fo rm u la to c a lc u la te /
c l f / = 4, h o w m a n y bags o f sugar has Fleur bought?

14 a Take 49 fro m 51. b Take 49 fro m 40.

c Take (2x + 3) fro m (x + 5).d Take x - y from x + y .
e D ivide 2 by 6 . f D ivide 2x by x2.

Exam-style questions J
15 Factorise c o m p le te ly 4 x y - 6xz. (0580 p a p e r 01 Q3 June 2004)

16 y = a + be
Find th e va lu e o f y w h e n a = - 3 , b = 2 and c = 8 . (0580 p a per 01 Q16a J u n e 2004)

17 W h e n x = 5 fin d th e v a lu e o f:
a 4x2 b (4x ) 2 (0580 p a p e r 01 Q4 N o ve m b e r 2004)

18 S im p lify th e fo llo w in g expressions.

a a2x d (0580 p a p e r 01 Q10 N o ve m b e r 2004)

19 a Expand and s im p lify

i 4 (2 f + 3) + 5, ii 6p + 3 q -2 (2 p - 5q).
b Factorise c o m p le te ly
25xiy2- 1 5 x 2y. (4024 p a p e r 11 Q17 J u n e 2014)

2 0 W rite d o w n th e va lu e o f n in each o f the fo llo w in g s ta te m e n ts,

a 1500 = 1 .5 x 10" b 0.00015 = 1 .5 x 1 0 ''
n (0580 p a p e r 01 Q17 N o ve m b e r 2003)
C 5" = 1

21 W rite d o w n th e va lu e o f | l a s a fra ctio n (0580 p a p e r 01 Q7 June 2003)

22 a y = 4 u v - 3 v Find th e value o f y w hen w = - 3 and v = 2.

b Factorise 4 u v - 3 v . (0580 p a p e r 01 Q 8 June 2003)

23 W ork o u t 4 -3 as a fra c tio n . (0580 p a p e r 01 Q5 June 2005)

2 4 W hen x = - 3 fin d th e va lu e o f x 3+ 2x2. (0580 p a per 01 Q 8 June 2005)

25 S im p lify th e fo llo w in g expressions:

a 9 r-4 s -6 r + s b q~ + q'" C p~xp~ (0580 p a p e r 01 Q16 N o ve m b e r 2005)
3 Beginning Algebra j

2 6 S im p lify:
a p 2x p 3 b q3 + q ^
c (r 2) 3 (0580 pa p e r 01 Q10 J u n e 2006)

2 7 Factorise c o m p le te ly :
a 7ac+14a b H ax 2+ 18xfl3 (0580 p a p e r 02 Q14 N o ve m b e r 2005)

28 a 4 ^ x 4 5 = 4 15. Find th e va lu e o f p.
b 2 7 -5- 21* = 24. Find th e v a lu e o f
c 5r= Find th e va lu e o f r. (0580 p a p e r 01 Q13 J u n e 2007)

29 a S im p lify 4a 3 x a2.
b S im p lify fu lly 3 x [ x + 5) - 2 ( x - 3). (4024 paper 01 Q7 J u n e 2009)
3 0 W rite th e fo llo w in g n u m b e rs in o rd e r o f size, s ta rtin g
w ith th e s m a lle st.
3: 3- 1 (-1 )3 3° (4024 p a p e r 01 Q3b N o ve m b e r 2007)

3 1 S im p lify (3X3)2. (4024 p a p e r 01 Q4a J u n e 2004)

3 2 S im p lify 25 x2-i-5x~4. (4024 p a p e r 01 Q3a N o ve m b e r 2006)

Working with Numbers I
Learning Objectives Syllabus sections 9 ,1 0 ,1 1 ,1 2 ,1 3 ,1 4 ,1 5 and 16

In this c h ap te r you w ill learn about: w orking w ith and w ith o u t a calculator
• units o f m ea su re m en t and conversion ratio and proportion
b etw een th em calculations w ith tim e , speed
• sim p le areas and volum es and o th e r rates
• estim atio n , a p p ro xim a tio n , lim its o f accuracy personal an d sm all business finance
and standard form sim p le and com p ound interest

4 .1 Introduction
This c h a p te r w ill give yo u m any o f th e s kills you need fo r y o u r n o n -c a lc u la to r paper, so
pay p a rtic u la r a tte n tio n to th e in s tru c tio n s regarding th e use o f c a lcu la to rs. You need to
p ra ctise w o rk in g w ith o u t a c a lc u la to r w here possible.

4 .2 Essential Skills NO CALCULATOR IN TH IS EXERCISE

1 W rite the se n u m b e rs in s ta n d a rd form :

a 12345 b 0.00034

2 W rite the se n u m b e rs in s ta n d a rd fo rm as n o rm a l num bers:

a 3 .4 5 x l O 6 b 5 .1 2 3 x l O '3

3 a C a lc u la te 27% o f 510.
b Find 42 as a pe rcentag e o f 700.

4 Find:
a i 0 .0 6 4 5 x 1 0 0 0 ii 83x10000
b i 0 .0 0 2 5 9 x lO '1 ii 7015- 1 0 6

4 .3 More Symbols
For th is c h a p te r you w ill need to kn o w th e fo llo w in g m a th e m a tic a l sym bols:

• ± m e a n s ‘plus o r m in u s ’.
• — and ~ m ean ‘a p p ro x im a te ly equal to ’.

59
4 .4 Units of M easurem ent
You are a lre ad y fa m ilia r w ith som e u n its o f m e a s u re m e n t, such as ce n tim e tre s , kilogram s,
hours, k ilo m e tre s p e r h o u r a nd litres.

The system s o f u n its th a t m o s t o f us use to d a y are v e ry m uch easier th a n th e o ld e r system s.

M ost are based o n pow ers o f ten, w h ic h m akes c o n ve rsio n s m u c h sim pler. T h e o ld system s
used in B rita in w e re all d iffe re n t.

For e xam p le , fo r length:

12 inches = 1 fo o t
3 fe e t = 1 yard
1760 yards = 1 m ile

M oney, m ass an d c a p a c ity w e re ju s t as d iffic u lt and a ll these con ve rsio n s had to be learned
fo r e x a m in a tio n s .

S o m e o fth e co n ve rsio n s th a t you need to k n o w to d a y are:

• Length 10 m illim e tre s (m m ) = 1 c e n tim e tre (cm)

1 0 0 c e n tim e tre s = 1 m e tre (m)

1 0 0 0 m e tre s = 1 k ilo m e tre (km )

• Mass 1000 m illig ra m s (m g) = 1 g ra m (g)

1 0 0 0 g ram s = 1 k ilo g ra m (kg)

1 0 0 0 k ilo g ra m s = 1 to n n e

• C a pa city (volum e) 1000 m illilitre s (m l) = 1 litre (/)

The o n e to w a tch o u t fo r is tim e !

T im e is s till m easured by an o ld system and is n o t based on p ow ers o fte n . You have to be

very c a re fu l a b o u t c h a n g in g it to a d e c im a l system .

• T im e 60 seconds (s) = 1 m in u te (m in)

GO m inutes — 1 hour (h)
24 hours = 1 d a y
7 days = 1 w e e k and so on.

A d d e d to these are c o m p o u n d units, such as k ilo m e tre s per h o u r (k m /h ). Also area

(such as c m 2) and v o lu m e (such as c m 3) u n its are d e riv e d fro m th e units o f length.

Sim ple Areas and Volum es

In th is se ctio n w e shall lo o k a t th e s im p le s t e xa m p le s o f areas and v o lu m e s by c o n s id e rin g
squares and rectangles, and cubes and c u b o id s . W herever po ssib le th e size o f a shape or
o b je c t is d escrib e d using s ta n d a rd d im e n sio n s, like le n g th , w id th and he ig h t, m easured in
d ire c tio n s a t rig h t angles to each other.

The are a o f a shape is th e a m o u n t o f surface it covers in tw o d im e n sio n s. This m eans th a t to

c a lc u la te an area w e need tw o le ngth m e a s u re m e n ts m u ltip lie d together. Figure 4.1 show s
th is fo r a square and a rectangle.
 ^ 4 Working with Numbers I

2 cm 2 cm

2 cm 3 cm

Fig u re 4 .1 Areas

The v o lu m e o f a s o lid is th e a m o u n t o f space it takes up in three dim e n sio n s. This m eans th a t

to c a lc u la te a v o lu m e w e need three length m e asurem ents m u ltip lie d together. Figure 4.2
show s th is fo r a c u b e and a c u b o id .

2 cm 3 cm

F ig u re 4 .2 Volum es

We w ill lo o k a t areas and v o lu m e s in m ore d e ta il in C h a p te r 8 .

The u n its o f m e a s u re m e n t fo r area and v o lu m e d e p e n d on w h ic h u n its o f length have been

used. If th e le n g th s are in ce n tim e tre s , th e area w ill be in sq u a re ce n tim e tre s, w h ic h is u su a lly
w ritte n as c m 2, an d th e v o lu m e w ill be in c u b ic c e n tim e tre s o r c m 3. Hence, th e u n its o f le n g th
m u s t be th e sam e in each c a lc u la tio n o f area o r vo lu m e .

Conversions for Length, Area and Volume Units

• Len gth l c m = 10 m m
l m = 1 0 0 cm
1 km = 1 0 0 0 m

• Area 1 c m 2 = 10 m m x 10 m m = 100 m m 2
1 m 2 = 1 0 0 cm x 1 0 0 cm = 1 0 0 0 0 c m 2

1 km 2= 10 0 0 m x 10 0 0 m = 1 0 0 0 000 m 2
• V o lu m e 1 c m 3 = 10 m m x 10 m m x 10 m m = 1000 m m 3
1 m 3 = 1 0 0 cm x 1 0 0 cm x 1 0 0 cm = 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 cm 3

1 km 3 = 10 0 0 m x 10 0 0 m x 10 0 0 m = 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 m 3

You w ill n o tic e h o w th e area and v o lu m e u n its are m uch larger th a n th e c o rre s p o n d in g u n its
o f le n g th . Figure 4.3 illu stra te s this.

Figure 4.3 sh o w s a lin e s egm ent o f le ngth lc m , and c o m p a re s it w ith a n o th e r o f le n g th 4 cm .

(A line s e g m e n t is p a rt o f a line. A line c ould, in th e o ry , go on forever.) We kn o w th e second
line s e g m e n t is 4 tim e s th e le n g th o fth e first.

Figure 4.3 th e n sho w s a square w ith a side o f l c m (area = l c m 2) and com pares it w ith a
squ a re o f side 4 cm . You sh o u ld be ab le to see th a t th is square a c tu a lly covers 4 x 4 = 16
c e n tim e tre squares. The area o f th is square is, th e re fo re , 16 c m 2.

S u b se q u e n tly, Figure 4.3 show s a cube o f side lc m and c o m p a re s it w ith a c u b e o f side 4 cm .

4 WortlngwithNumbers IJ

1 cm 4 cm

1 cm
4 cm
1 cm

4 cm

4 cm
1 cm

1 cm 1 cm

4 cm
4 cm

F ig u re 4 .3 Lengths, areas an d vo lu m es

e. Either get
-J rare needed, or try to visualise it
in the following way.
How m any 1 centim etre cubes would fit along one edge of the 4 centim etre cube to make one
row? How many rows of these cubes would be needed to make one layer?

So w hat is the volum e of the cube?

Now check using arithm etic. 4 cm x 4 cm x 4 c m = 43cm3 = 64 cm3.

Area q u e s tio n s are o fte n a c c o m p a n ie d by q u e s tio n s a b o u t th e p e rim e te r. The p e rim e te r is

Key term th e m e a s u re m e n t o f th e d is ta n c e all ro u n d a shape, and is c a lc u la te d by a d d in g to g e th e r th e
The p erim eter of a le n g th s o f a ll th e sides. R e m e m b e r th a t th e p e rim e te r is a le n g th m e a s u re m e n t.
shape is the sum of all
its sides. It is a length
measurement.
Example 1
a Calculate the area of a square with sides of length 6 cm.
b Calculate:
i the perimeter, and ii the area of a rectangle with length 3 m and width 4 m.
c Calculate the volume of a cube with sides of length 3 cm.

\
62
 1 4 Working with Numbers I

d Calculate the volume of the cuboid in the diagram.

e Calculate the area of the given shape.

f Calculate the volume of the given solid.

^4 cm

1 cm
2 cm

Mcm-H ---------- 3 c m ---------- *i

Answer 1
a Area of square = 6 cm x 6 cm = 36 cm 2
b i Perimeter of rectangle = 3 m + 4m + 3 m + 4 m = 14m
ii A r e a o f r c c t a n g le — 3 m x 4 m — 1 2 m ’

c Volume of cube = 3 cm x 3 cm x 3 cm = 27 cm 3
d Volume of cuboid = 8 cm x 5 cm x 4cm =160 cm 3
e Area = 5 c m x 5 c m + 5 c m x 2 0 c m = 125cm 2
f Volume = 4cm x 2 cm x 3 cm + 4 cm x 1cm x 1cm = 24 cm 3 + 4cm 3 = 28 cm 3

The units (centimetres) are included in these calculations to help you understand. Normally
you would not put them in until you w rite the answer.

Exercise 4.1 NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

1 C a lc u la te th e areas o f th e fo llo w in g :

a 3 km 500 m
90 m
2 km

6 cm 6 m
2 m
1 cm
T
4m
2 m
6 cm

7 cm
i
2m

63
4 Working with Numbers I J

2 C a lcu la te th e v o lu m e s o f th e fo llo w in g :
a A cu be o f side 7 m
b A c u b e o f side 10 cm

5m

2 m
l|m
- l!5 m
3m
d A c u b o id m e a s u rin g 2 c m b y 5 c m b y 2 0 c m

3 C a lcu la te th e p e rim e te rs o fth e fo llo w in g :

a 10 cm 7m
2 m
6 cm
5m

2 m

4 .5 Estimation
Key term B efore w e lo o k a t th e con ve rsio n o f u n its o f m e a s u re m e n t it w o u ld be h e lp fu l fo r you to fin d
Estim ation is a method y o u r pe rson a l a p p ro x im a tio n s fo r th e sizes o fth e units. For exam ple, a c e n tim e tre m ig h t be
o f m aking an informed th e w id th o f y o u r m id d le finger, a m e tre m ig h t be th e le n g th o f y o u r strid e , and a k ilo m e tre
guess at the size o f a th e le n g th o f p a rt o f a w e ll-k n o w n jo u rn e y . These ‘perso n a l s ta n d a rd s ’ s h o u ld be ones th a t
measurement or other are easy fo r yo u to rem em ber. C opy and c o m p le te Table 4.1, fillin g in y o u r o w n personal
value. standards.

S o m e e xam ples have a lready been suggested, b u t use y o u r o w n ify o u th in k o f b e tte r ones.
Add o th e r m e asurem ents ify o u can th in k o f any.

U n it P e rs o n a l s ta n d a rd
1 m illim e tre
1 c e n tim e tre
1 m e tre
1 k ilo m e tre fro m to
1 gram
1 k ilo g ra m
1 c u b ic m illim e tre fo r e xam ple, a grain o f sugar

1 c u b ic c e n tim e tre fo r exam ple, a sugar c u b e o r a sm all die

1 c u b ic m etre

T a b le 4 .1 P e rso n a l u n it a p p ro x im a tio n s

\
64
 [ 4 Working witli Numbers I

Project Try some or all of these to improve your visualisation of size.

1 Make a metre cube by using canes each of length 1 metre, and something like modelling clay
at the corners. It may be bigger than you expected. Imagine trying to fill it with sugar cubes.
How many would you need?
2 Ifyou can get a sheet of graph paper which is ruled in 1 millimetre squares, cutout a piece 10
centimetres by 10 centimetres. How many millimetre squares are on this sheet?
3 How could you put 1 million squares on your classroom wall?
4 Stand on a piece of lc m squared paper and draw around your foot. Use the squares to
estimate the area of your foot.
5 Estimate (make a sensible guess at) the volume of your index finger.
6 Estimate the volume of your classroom.
7 Estimate the number of people you could seat round one of the tables in your classroom
or at home.
8 Estimate the length of tim e it will take you to complete the next exercise.
9 Estimate the weight of this book. Check its weight on some scales to see how dose you were.

E s tim a tio n is an im p o rta n t skill. You w ill n o t alw ays be ab le to m easure th in g s accurately.
For e xa m p le, ify o u are c a te rin g fo r a large n u m b e r o f p e o p le you w ill have to e s tim a te th e
a m o u n t o f fo o d and d rin k you need to supply.

You p ro b a b ly find th a t lengths are th e easiest to estim ate, fo llo w e d by areas, and fin a lly volum es.

Key terms 4 .6 Approximation

Approximation It is a fa c t th a t m e a su re m e n ts can never be c o m p le te ly accurate. You k n o w th a t if y o u r frie n d
is expressing a
d raw s a lin e and says th a t it is exa ctly 15 cm lo n g and you m easure it y o u rs e lf you co u ld
measurement o roth e r
valueto a convenient p rn h a h ly m akp it ju s t a little m ore o r less th a n 15cm . The tru th is th a t h o w e v e r a ccura te o u r
orsensibledegreeof m e a s u rin g in stru m e n ts , w e can never be ce rta in o f any m e a su re m e n t.
accuracy. So w h a t d oe s itm e a n w h e n w e s a y th a ta line is 15cm long?
Rounding is the process
of w riting a num ber W e p ro b a b ly m ean 15 cm to the n earest centim etre.
to a stated degree of Look a t Figure 4.4.
accuracy according to a
rule. Degrees o f accuracy In each case d e c id e w h e th e r th e lin e is 14 cm , 15 cm o r 16 cm to the n earest centim etre.
could be, for example,
You s h o u ld fin d th a t a is nearest to 14 cm , b is nearest to 15 cm , c is nearest to 15 cm and d to
to the nearest whole
number, to the nearest 16 cm . B u t w h a t a b o u t e and f?
metre, to a stated There is a fa irly general a g re e m e n t th a t if a m e a s u re m e n t is h a lfw a y betw e e n tw o n u m b e rs
number of decimal
th e n w e take it to th e larger num ber. So e w ill be 1 5 cm and f w ill be 1 6 c m to th e nearest
places, o r to a stated
c e n tim e tre . This is th e rule th a t w ill be used fo r y o u r e x a m in a tio n s .
number of significant
figures. This process is calle d ro u n d in g to th e n earest c e n tim e tre . In c id e n ta lly it is also ro u n d in g to
th e n e a re s t w h o le nu m b er.
4 Working with Numbers IJ

_________________________ 14.1 cm____________________________

|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|lll^
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

_________________________ 14.7 cm______________________________

|iiii|iiii|-nri|iiii|iiii|iii]|iiiiiiiii|iiii|iiii|iiii|iiii|i[ii|iiii|[iii|ni[|iTiiiiiii|iiir[iin|rin[H'ii|inT[iiii|iii[|iiiipTiiii|iiri|iiii|iiii|iiii|mT
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

_________________________ 15.4 cm_________________________________

|iiiiliiii|iiii|iiii|iiii|iiii|iiii|iiii|iiii|iiii|Nii|iiii|iiii|iiii|iiiifmT|iiii|iiii|iiii|iiii|iiii|iiii|iiii|iiii|iiii|iiii|iiii|iiii|iiii|iiii|iiii|iiiip
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

_________________________ 15.6 cm__________________________________

|llil|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llil|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llli|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

_________________________ 14.5 cm_____________________________

|iiii|iiii|iiii|iiii|inr|iiii]iirr|iiii|iiir|rTTTjiiii|iiii|i!ii|iiii|iiii|iiii|iiii|iiii|iiii|iiii|iiii|iiii|iiii|ii!i|iiii|iiii|im’|iiii|iiii|iiii|iiii|iiii|iiTi
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

_________________________ 15.5 cm__________________________________

|llll|ll!l|llll|ll!l|!lll|llll|lfll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|l!ll|IIIIJIIII|llll||[Tf1llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|liri
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

F ig u re 4 .4 A p p ro x im a tin g lengths

Example 2
Round to the nearest centimetre:
a 14.358 cm b 14.4999 cm c 15.099 cm d 15.501cm e 16.5 cm
Answer 2
In each case ask yourself if the measurement is nearer to the whole number below it or the
whole number above it.
a 14.358 is nearer to 14, so 14.358 cm = 14 cm to the nearest centimetre,
b 14.4999 is close to 14.5, but it is still less than 14.5 so it is closest to
1 4:14.4999 cm = 14 cm to the nearest centimetre,
c 15.099 is closer to 15 than 16, so 15.099 cm = 15 cm to the nearest centimetre,
d 15.501 is closer to 16 than to 15, so 15.501 cm = 16 cm to the nearest centimetre,
e 16.5 is exactly halfw ay between 16 and 17, so using the rule we round to
17:16.5 cm = 17 cm to the nearest centimetre, by convention.

Exercise 4.2
R ound to th e nearest s ta te d u n it:

1 32.94 cm to th e n earest c e n tim e tre . 2 63.49 g to th e nearest gram .

3 705.501 kg to th e nearest k ilo g ra m . 4 610.889 m to th e nearest m etre.

5 500.471 km to th e nearest k ilo m e tre . 6 90.8 cm to th e nearest ce n tim e tre .

7 89.793 kg to th e n earest k ilo g ra m . 8 60.5 m to th e nearest m etre.

 ^ 4 Working with Numbers I

9 6 0.4999 9 m to th e nearest m etre. 10 799.5 to th e nearest w h o le num ber.

11 9.99 to th e n e are st w h o le n u m b e r. 12 99.99 to th e nearest w h o le num ber.

This idea o f ro u n d in g need n o t be c o n fin e d to ro u n d in g to th e nearest w h o le num ber,

c e n tim e tre o r gram and so on.

S u p po se yo u are asked to ro u n d 246 731 to th e n e a re s t ten .

The d ig it in th e te n s place is th e 3. It is h e lp fu l to d ra w a ‘s q u ig g ly lin e ’ after the 3 like this:

246 7 3 (1

Does th e 3 stay th e sam e o r d o e s it go u p to 4?

Look a t th e n u m b e r im m e d ia te ly a fter th e 3. it is 1, so 246731 is closer to 246730 than to

246 740. H ence, 246 731 = 246 730 to th e nearest ten.

You c o u ld be asked to ro u n d 5467 to th e nearest th o u s a n d .

By th e sa m e m e th o d th e s q u ig g ly lin e goes a fte r th e 5 because th is is in th e th o u s a n d s place.

5 (4 6 7

Is th is c lo s e r to 5000 o r 6000?

The n u m b e r a fte r th e 5 is 4, so th e a n sw e r is: 5467 = 5000 to th e nearest th o u s a n d .

Decim al Places
You m a y also be asked to ro u n d to a given n u m b e r o f d e c im a l places. D ecim al places are
c o u n te d to th e rig h t s ta rtin g a t th e d e c im a l p o in t, so in th e n u m b e r 893.45, th e 5 is in the
second d e c im a l place, and th e 4 is in th e firs t d e c im a l place.

Example 3
Round these numbers to the stated accuracy:
a 20 056 to the nearest ten
c 20 056 to the nearest thousand
e 3.4109 to 2 dp
g 351.499 to the nearest whole number.
Answer 3
a 20 05 {6 = 20060 to the nearest ten
c 20 {056 = 20000 to the nearest thousand
e 3.41 {09 = 3.41 to 2 dp
b 20056 to the nearest hundred
d 3.4109 to 3 decimal places (dp)
f 20.404 to 2 dp
b 200 {56 = 20100 to the nvearest hundred
d 3.410 {9 = 3.411 to 3 dp
f 20.40 {4 = 20.40 to 2 dp

g 351. {499 = 351 to the nearest whole number

Never round progressively. This means do not round the 4 to 5 and then the 1 to 2. This is
'j f l f t u s e 0,499 is less than 0.5, s |i§ fi^ u m b e r 3 5 0 9 9 is nearer to 352.
4 Working with Numbers I J

Exercise 4.3
R ound to th e stated accuracy:

1 239 to th e nearest ten 2 520.65 to th e nearest ten

3 7381.3 to th e nearest h u n d re d 4 649 to th e nearest h u n d re d

5 3985.6 to th e nearest ten 6 7959 to th e nearest h u n d re d

7 1234 to th e nearest th o u s a n d 8 56.1358 to 1 d e c im a l place

9 56.1358 to 2 d e c im a l places 10 56.1358 to 3 d e c im a l places

11 3.098 to 1 d e c im a l place 12 3.098 to 2 d e c im a l places

Key term
Significant Figures
Significant Figures T here is o n e m o re m e th o d o f a p p ro x im a tio n you need to know , and th a t involves th e idea o f
are literally the figures s ig n ific a n t figures.
in a number which are
To c o u n t s ig n ific a n t fig u re s you s ta rt a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e n u m b e r a n d c o u n t to th e
significant. For example,
5.01 has three significant rig h t, p a s t th e d e c im a l p o in t if necessary. L o o k in g a t th e n u m b e r 2 5 9 3 7 .0 6 5 ,2 is th e
figures, but 0.12 has. firs t s ig n ific a n t fig u re , 9 is th e th ird s ig n ific a n t fig u re , 6 is th e se v e n th s ig n ific a n t fig u re
oniytwo. a nd so on.

But th e re is o n e th in g you have to be careful of. Zeroes a t th e b e g in n in g o f a n u m b e r d o n o t

c o u n t as s ig n ific a n t figures, so in th e n u m b e r 0.005096 th e firs t s ig n ific a n t fig u re is 5, th e
seco n d is th e 0 th a t com es a fte r th e 5, th e th ird is 9 a n d th e fo u rth is 6 . The th re e in itia l zeroes
are pla ce h old e rs only, to te ll you w here th e d e c im a l p o in t belongs. An e x a m p le w ill he lp you
see th e s ign ifica nce o f this.

S up po se a d ista nce is m easured as 5096 m illim e tre s to 4 s ig n ific a n t figures, a n d th e n th is

le n g th is given in kilo m e tre s. 5096 m illim e tre s b e com es 5.096 kilo m e tre s. T his le n g th is n o t
m o re a ccurate th a n th e first, so m u s t s till be to 4 s ig n ific a n t figures. The zeroes o n ly te ll you
w h e re th e decim al point belongs, and dn not count as significant figures.

Zeroe s a t th e e n d s o f n u m b e rs p re s e n t a d iffe re n t p ro b le m . W e d o n o t k n o w to w h a t
a c c u ra c y a n u m b e r is given unless it is s ta te d . For e x a m p le , 2304 to 3 s ig n ific a n t fig u re s
is 2300, and 2304 to 2 s ig n ific a n t fig u re s is a lso 2300. The zeroes are re q u ire d as pla ce
h o ld e rs to s h o w th a t th e n u m b e r is tw o th o u s a n d th re e h u n d re d , b u t th e y d o n o t te ll us
a b o u t th e accuracy.

Example 4
Round these numbers to the stated number
of significant figures:
a 10.04 to 3 significant figures b 0.0079 to 1 significant figure
c 15 637 to 2 significant figures d 19.998 to 3 significant figures
e 0.01009 to 3 significant figures.
Answer 4
a 10.0 b 0.008 c 16000 d 20.0 0.0101
 ( fl Working with Numbers I

Exercise 4.4
n d to th e stated n u m b e r o f s ig n ific a n t figures (s.f.):

215.67 3 s.f. 2 215.67 2 s.f. 3 350.49 3 s.f.

4 350.49 1 s.f. 5 6009.156 3 s.f. 6 6009.156 2 s.f.

7 80.964 3 s.f. 8 0.19852 3 s.f. 9 0.19852 2 s.f.

10 1.00098 3 s.f. 11 0.0003946 3 s.f. 12 0.0003946 1 s.f.

13 10.149 3 s.f. 1 4 657 280 3 s.f. 15 657280 1 s.f.

The general in stru c tio n s on the fro n t o f y o u r e xa m ination papers w ill say so m e th in g like the
fo llo w in g : If th e degree o f accuracy is not specified in the q u estion, and if th e answ er is not
exact, give the answ er to three sig n ific a n t figures. Give answ ers in degrees to one de cim a l place.

Make sure th a t you u n d e rsta n d this, and fo llo w these in s tru c tio n s in all y o u r w o rk so th a t it
becom es n o rm a l fo r you to give y o u r answ ers in th is way. You m u st be careful n o t to m erely
‘tru n c a te ’ th e n u m b e r w ith o u t c o rre c t ro u n d in g . So fo r e xam ple, 3.4567... sh o u ld be given as
3.46 (ro u n d e d ) n o t 3.45 (truncate d).

R e m e m b er th a t if th e answ er w o rk s o u t exactly you m ay n o t need to ro und it.

Example 5
Using your calculator:

a Calculate 34.1 x 47.3 giving your answer correct to 4 significant figures,

b Calculate 76.3-5-14.2. c Calculate 31.52 + 2.
d Calculate one third of 302° (302 degrees).
Answer 5
a 34.1 x 47.3 = 1612.93 = 1613 correct to 4 significant figures,
b 76.3 14.2 = 5.373 239437 = 5.37 to 3 significant figures,
c 31.52 + 2 = 15.76 exactly,
d ± x 302° = 100.6666666... = 100.7°.
V
Exercise 4.5
1 C a lcu la te 354.1 x 67, g ivin g y o u r answ er to 4 s ig n ific a n t figures.

2 C a lcu late 278 + 34.

3 C a lcu late o n e th ird o f 16.7°.

4 C a lcu late 3 3 7 .3 8 + 6 .

4 .7 Limits of Accuracy
In m a th e m a tic s , w e m u s t be able to th in k b ackw ard as w e ll as fo rw a rd . So w e need to be
a b le to d e c id e exactly w h a t is m e a n t w hen a m e a su re m e n t is given to us as, say, 14 cm to the
nearest ce n tim e tre .

You sh o u ld be able to see th a t it co u ld have been, fo r exam ple, 13.6cm , o r 14.4cm . In fa c t it

m u st lie s o m e w h e re b etw een 13.5 cm and 14.5 cm . U sing o u r rule a b o u t th e h a lf w ay p o in t w e
fl WorHlnawithNumbers IJ
Key terms
The lim its of accuracy
are the smallest
arid largest values a
measurementmlght
take and still be within
the stated accuracy.
The upper bound or
Um it is the highest value,
and the low erboundor
lim it is the lowest value a
measurement might take.
k n o w th a t 13.5cm w o u ld ro u n d to 14cm , b u t 14.5cm w o u ld ro u n d to 1 5cm . So w e can say
th a t th e le n g th is greate r th a n o r e q u a l to 13.5 cm , b u t less th a n 14.5 cm.
If th e len gth o f th e line is /c m , w e w rite :
13.5 =£ l < 14.5
N otice th a t, since th e le n g th is given as I cm , w e d o n o t p u t th e c e n tim e tre s in th e answ er.
It is o n ly th e / w e are re fe rrin g to. This is as close as yo u can get to th e o rig in a l n u m b e r, and
13.5 and 14.5 are kn o w n as th e lim its o f accuracy, w h e re 13.5 is th e lo w e r lim it o r b o u n d
and 14.5 is th e h ig h e r lim it o r bo u n d .
Example 6
State the limits of accuracy for the following approximations:
a 735 to the nearest whole number
b 23.56 to 2 dp (decimal places)
c length x = 130 cm to 2 significant figures
d length y = 130 cm to 3 significant figures.
Answer 6
a 734.5 =£ 735 < 735.5 b 23.555 « 23.56 <23.565
c 1 2 5 c m « jc < 1 3 5 c m d 129.5cm <130.5 cm
Example 7
A metal bar is measured and found to be 10.5 centimetres in length (/), correct to the nearest
millimetre.
a What is the least possible measurement for the metal bar?
b State the upper bound of the measurement,
c Copy and complete the statement below:
........ =£ /cm<-----------
Answer 7
a The least possible measurement is 10.45 centimetres,
b The upper bound of the measurement is 10.55 centimetres.
isir ' ' ■ ■ ■ .
The U |® r p ® § p is always given as 10.55 even t h o u |^ ^ n o w t h a t it actually h a 4 ||§ e M f ¥
than 10.55, because 10.55 would round up to 10.6.
c 1 0 .4 5 =£ /c m < 1 0 .5 5
T h is is th e m o s t a c c u r a te w a y o f s ta tin g t h e b o u n d s b e c a u s e it c le a r ly s h o w s t h a t th e
m e a s u re m e n t c a n b e g r e a te r th a n o r e q u a l to 1 0 .4 5 , b u t it a c tu a lly h a s t o b e le s s th a n 1 0 .5 5 .
 [ 4 Working with Numbers I

Exercise 4.6
1 A w o o d e n rod is 157 cm to the nearest cm .
W hat is its least p ossible length?

2 A sheet o f pap er has a w id th o f w c m and a h eight o f h cm , b o th to th e nearest ce n tim e tre .

If w = 10 and Ai = 19, copy and c o m p le te the fo llo w in g ine q u a litie s:
a ........w < ............... b ........=s / ; < ..........

3 State the lim its o f accuracy fo r th e fo llo w in g a p p ro x im a tio n s .

In each case, co p y and c o m p le te the in e qualities.
a . .... 1 5 c m < ........ to the nearest c e n tim e tre
h . . . . =s 23.6cm < ........ to th e nearest m illim e tre
c ....= £ 3060 < ........ to the nearest ten
d . . . . * £ 9 9 . 7 < ........ to 3 s ig n ific a n t figures
e ....= £ 6 7 8 .9 < ........ to 1 d e c im a l place
f ....= £ 60 0 0 0 < .................. to 1 s ig n ific a n t figure
R .... « 3 0 0 < ........ to th e nearest hundre d
h ....= £ 99.9 < ........ to 3 s ig n ific a n t figures.

4 A c oin w eigh s 9 gram s co rre c t to th e nearest gram .

a W h a t is its least p ossible w eight? b State th e u p p e r b o u n d o f its w eigh t.

4 .8 Changing Units
You need to kn o w h o w to change o n e u n it o f m e a s u re m e n t to another. You m ay need to
lo o k ba ck to th e b e g in n in g o f th is c h a p te r to re m in d y o u rs e lf o f th e conversions o f u n its o f
m e asu re m e n t.

For exam ple, yo u are asked to change 0.75 km to ce n tim e tre s. The firs t th in g to ask y o u rs e lf is
‘would you need more or fewer centim etres?’

R e m e m b e r th a t a c e n tim e tre is o n ly a b o u t th e w id th o f y o u r fin g e r and a k ilo m e tre is an

easy w a lk in g d ista n ce o r w h a te v e r y o u r personal s ta n d a rd d istance is fro m th e ta b le you
c o m p le te d earlier. You o b v io u s ly need m a n y m ore ce n tim e tre s, so th e change w ill involve
m u ltip ly in g by a p o w e r o f ten.

We k n o w th a t 1 k ilo m e tre = 1000 m etres

1 m e tre = 100 c e n tim e tre s

so 1 k ilo m e tre = 1000 x 100 c e n tim e tre s

= 105 or 10 0 0 0 0 c e n tim e tre s

We need to change 0.75 k ilo m e tre s to ce ntim etres,

so 0 .7 5 km = 0 .7 5 x 1 0 0 0 0 0 cm
= 75000cm

A lte rn a tiv e ly , m ake th e change progressively:

0.75 km = 0.75 x 1000 m
= 750 m
= 750 x 100 cm
= 75000cm
4 Working wWi Numbers I J

Example 8
a Change to the units stated:
i 0.5 m to mm ii 1565 g to kg
iii 61m 3 to cm 3 iv 1.39 mm 2 to cm2.

b Calculate the following, stating the units in the answer.

i The area of a rectangle 3 metres by 4 centimetres.
ii The volume of a cuboid with the following
dimensions:
length = 2.1 metres, breadth = 1.5 metres
and height = 0.6 centimetres.

Answer 8
i You need more millimetres than metres, so
0.5 m = 50 cm = 500 mm
You need fewer kilograms than grams, so
1565 g = 1.565 kg
iii 61 m 3 = 61 x (100 x 100 x 100 ) cm 3 = 61000 000 or 6.1 x 107 cm 3
iv 1.39 mm 2 = 1.39 + (10 x 10) cm 2
= 1.39+ 100 cm 2
= 0.0139 cm 2
3 metres = 3 x l0 0 c m = 300cm
Area of rectangle = 300 cm x 4 cm = 1200 cm 2
or 4cm = 4 + 1 0 0 m = 0.04m
Area of rectangle = 3 m x 0.04 m = 0.12 m 2
0.6 cm = 0.6 + 1 0 0 m = 0.006 m
Volume of cuboid = 2.1 m x 1.5 m x 0.006 m
= 0.0189 m 3
or 2 . 1 m = 2 . 1 x 100 cm = 210 cm
and 1.5 m = 1.5 x 100 cm = 150 cm
Volume of cuboid = 210cm x 15Qcm x 0.6cm
= 18900cm 3

Exercise 4.7 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h i s e x e r c is e
1 C hange to th e stated units:
a 3.5 m to cm b 581 m m to cm c 4096 cm to km
d 0.57 km to m m e 0.812 kg t o g f 3 c m Jto m m 2
g 50 6 8 1 m 2 to k m 2 h 0.0067 m 3 to c m 3 i 2 10 ml to /

2 C a lc u la te th e areas o fth e fo llo w in g shapes. State th e u n its in y o u r answ ers.

b 81 mm
30 cm

6.5 cm 2.7 cm

67 mm

\
72
 1 4 Working with Numbers I

3 C a lcula te the v o lu m e s o f the fo llo w in g solids. State th e units in y o u r answers.

15 mm

1 m

98 cm
3100 mm

4 .9 W orking without a Calculator

E s tim a tio n is very useful in p ra ctica l s itu a tio n s ify o u have to w o rk w ith o u t a ca lcu la to r. For
sjjsjgrj ; exa m ple, Rama arrives at W ashington a irp o rt w ith Rs 523.5 in her pocket. She is to ld th a t
Re stands for rupee Re 1 is w o rth $0.02242. H ow can she q u ic k ly w o rk o u t a p p ro x im a te ly how m any d o lla rs she
(singular) and Rsst^nifc > sh o u ld e xp e ct w h e n she changes her rupees to dollars?
for rupees (plural).^*®-
- ;"5^ ’ The best w ay is to ro un d each n u m b e r to 1 s ig n ific a n t figure so th a t th e c a lc u la tio n becom es
easy. Re 1 is w o rth a b o u t $0.02, so Rs 500 are w o rth a b o u t Rs 500 x $0.02 = $10.

Rs 5 2 3 .5 = $10

Ify o u are w o rk in g w ith o u t a c a lc u la to r you m ay need to estim a te th e answ er by ro u n d in g to

1 s ig n ific a n t figure, o r you m ay need to ca lc u la te th e a nsw er by using y o u r skills o f a d d itio n ,

s u b tra c tio n , m u ltip lic a tio n and divisio n .

Example 9
a Estimate 7951x0.578. b Calculate 3 5 x 1 6 .
c Calculate (3.4 x l 0 6) + (5.9 x lO 5). d Calculate (2.1 x l 0 3) x (9 x lO 2).
A n sw e r 9
a 7951 x 0.578 = 8000 x 0.6 = 800 x 6 = 4800
b 35
16 x
210
350
560
c The next answer has been written out in detail so that you can follow each step ofth e
method.
(3.4 x 106) + (5.9 x 105)
= (3.4 x lO x lO 5) + (5.9 x lO 5)
= (34 x 10s) + (5.9 x 105)
= (34 + 5 .9 ) x l0 5
= 39.9 x 1 0 s
be written with the same = 3.99 x lO x lO 5
powers o f 10. Essential = 3.99 x 106
stepsare starred (’ ).

73
A ltern ative m ethod:
(3.4 x 106) + (5.9 x 10s)
= 340000 0 + 590000
3400000
590000 +
3990000
3 990 000 = 3.99 x 10 6
d (2.1 x 103) x (9 x 102)
= 2 .1 x 9 x l0 3x l0 2
= 1 8 .9 x l0 3+2
= 18.9 x 1 0 s
= 1 .8 9 x l0 x l0 5
= 1.89 x 106

Example 1 0
Given that 8.95 x 17.6 = 157.52, work out, without using a calculator:
a 89.5x1760 b 0.0895x1.76 c 157.52 + 8.95
d 157.52 + 17.6 e 15.752 + 89.5 f 1575.2 + 0.0176

Answer 1 0
There are tw o methods you can use for (a):
a either:
89.5 = 8.95 x 10 and 1760 = 17.6 x 100
so 89.5 x 1760 = 8.95 x 10 x 17.6 x 100
= 1 5 7 .5 2 x 1 0 x 1 0 0
= 157520
or we can first approximate to 1 significant figure to estimate the size
o fth e answer:
89.5 = 90 and 1760 = 2000
so 89.5 x 1760 = 90 x 2000 = 180 000
89.5 X 1760 = 157 520
b 0.0895x1.76 = 0 .0 9 x 2 = 0.18
SO 0 .0859x1.76 = 0.157 52
C 157.52 + 8.95 = 17.6
d 157.52 + 17.6 = 8.95
e 15.752 + 89.5 = 20 + 90 = 0.2
so 15.752 + 89.5 = 0.176
f 1575.2 + 0.0176 = 2000 + 0.02 = 100000
so 1575.2 + 0.0176 = 89500

Example 1 1
Estimate the following, giving your answer correct to 1 significant figure:
a VlTO b s/2000 c ^67

Answer 1 1
a Think to yourself ‘What number when squared would give an answer closest to 170?'
Try some numbers:
102 = 100, l l 2 = 121, 12 2 = 1 4 4 ,132= 169
so V169 = 13, and, as we only have to give the answer to 1 significant figure,
we can say V170 = 1 0 .
We can do a further check by finding 20 2 = 400, so v400 = 20.
Clearly, the answer we want to 1 significant figure is 10.
 [ 4 Working with Numbers I

Alternatively, we can say that the possibilities, to 1 significant figure, are 10 or 20.
Since 102 = 100 and 20 2 = 400, and 170 is closer to 100 than to 400, the answer is 10.
b 72000 = 720 x 100 = V 20 x VT00 = 10 x 720
To estimate s/20 try 4 2 = 16, and 5 2 = 25
16 is closer than 25 to 20, so, to 1 significant figure 720 = 4
1 0 x ^ 2 0 = 1 0 x 4 = 40
c To estimates/67 try some numbers:
4 3 = 4 x 4 x 4 = 64, and 5 3 = 5 x 5 x 5 = 125
so s/67 = 4 to 1 significant figure.

Example 12
Without using a calculator, work out the following:
a 1 .5 x 1 5 0 b 2349 + 81 c 21x340 d 49x210
Answer 12
These answers should give you some ideas for ways in which you can simplify some
calculations.
a 1.5 x 150 is one and a half times 150
1 x 150 + half of 150 = 150 + 75 = 225
b 2349 + 81 = ^ =i f
Divide by 9 and then by 9 again
2349 261_
9x9 9
c 21 x 340 = (20 + 1 ) x 340 = 20 x 340 + 1 x 340
= 6800 + 340
= 7140
Alternatively,
21 x 340 = 3 x 7 x 340 = 3 x 2380 = 7140
d 49 x 210 = (50 - 1) x 210 = 50 x 210 - 1 x 210
= 1 0 5 0 0 -2 1 0
= 10290
Alternatively,
49 x 210 = 49 x 3 x 7 x 10 = 147 x 7 x 10 = 1029 x 10 = 10 290
or
4 9 x 2 1 0 = 7 x 7 x 2 1 0 = 7 x 1 4 7 0 = 10290

Exercise 4.8 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e
1 H ank is g o in g to e xplore parts o f India, b u t he o n ly has a lim ite d tim e .
He fin d s th e distances betw e e n several citie s by lo o k in g on th e Internet.
B engaluru to D elhi is 2039 km.
Delhi to M um bai is 1405 km .
M u m b ai to K o lkata is 1916 km.
K o lkata to B engaluru is 1824km .
a E stim a te th e to ta l le ngth o f th is round trip .
b A ssu m in g H ank travels a p p ro x im a te ly 200 km per day, h o w m a n y days tra v e llin g
sh o u ld he a llo w fo r th is jou rn e y?

2 E stim ate th e answ ers to these c a lc u la tio n s:

a 238582 + 4 9 6 x 1 0 8 7 b (3.987 + 1.05)2 + (6.93 - 1.87)

c 4182 3944
210 5 2 .2 8

75
4 W eitm wHh Numbers IJ

3 C alculate, g iv in g y o u r a nsw ers in s ta n d a rd fo rm :

a (4.1 x 105) x ( 2 x 103) b (4.1 x 105) + (2 x 103)
c (7.12 x l O 6) + (3.56 x l O 7) d (9.012 x 105) - (1.1 x 102)

4 E stim a te th e fo llo w in g , g iv in g y o u r answ ers c o rre c t to 1 s ig n ific a n t figure:

a V 800 b ^66000 c V55

d V 550 e V 5500

5 C a lcu la te th e fo llo w in g :
a 55x24 b 1 .2 5 x 8 0 c 42x350
d 51x211 e 60 + 25 f 770 + 22

6 E stim a te th e fo llo w in g , g iv in g y o u r a nsw ers c o rre c t to 1 s ig n ific a n t figure:

a 23x^70 b 9 .3 5 x 7 .6 x 7 3 5 9
63
7 G iven th a t 0.675 x 2.8 = 1.89, w o rk o u t
a 6 7 .5 x 0 .0 2 8 b 189 + 28
c 0.189 + 6.75 d 0 .0 6 7 5 x 2 8 0 0 0

4 .1 0 W orking with a Calculator

Carla a tte m p ts th is c a lc u la tio n u s in g her c a lc u la to r:
3213 + 6156
29x52
She trie s th re e tim e s and gets th re e d iffe re n t answ ers:

a 1 4 251.3 4483 b 16799.5 8621 C 3217.082228

C h a n de r says n o n e o f th e s e is rig h t!

He has e s tim a te d th e a n s w e r by ro u n d in g each n u m b e r to 1 s ig n ific a n t figure, and do in g the

calculation mentally.
3213 + 6156 ^ 3000 + 6000 ^ 9000 = g
2 9 x5 2 30x50 1500

Carla tries once m ore. T h is tim e she p u ts bra cke ts ro u n d th e n u m e ra to r and th e d e n o m in a to r

and gets th e c o rre c t answ er.

d ( 3 ^ 1- 3 4 6 1 = 6 .2 1 2 8 6 4 721 = 6 .2 1 to 3 s .f.
(29x52)

She sho u ld have re m e m b e re d th a t th e lin e in a fra c tio n acts like a bracket, ty in g th e w hole o f
th e n u m e ra to r to g e th e r and th e w h o le o fth e d e n o m in a to r togethe r. Her c a lc u la to r, of course,
co u ld n o t see th is line and so in a, b a n d c d id n o t w o rk o u t th e n u m e ra to r and d e n o n in a to r
s ep arate ly before d o in g th e d iv is io n .

Can you w o rk o u t h ow C arla e n te re d th e sum in to h e r c a lc u la to r in each o f h e r firs t three

a tte m p ts? (She d id in so m e o f th e m in s e rt brackets, b u t n o t in th e best places.)

The m ora l o fth e s to ry is th a t w h e n you are asked to d o th is ty p e o f c a lc u la tio n , th e fi's t th in g

to d o is to in se rt th e brackets. You w o u ld be w ise a lso to d o an e s tim a te d c a lc u la tio n to check
y o u r answer.

R
 ^ 4 Working with Numbers I

Using your Calculator for Standard Form

C a lc u la to rs are c h a n g in g all th e tim e , and you need to get used to y o u r o w n c a lc u la to r.

For e xa m p le , to fin d th e sq u a re ro o t o f 16 d o you press th e square ro o t key fo llo w e d by 16 o r

do yo u have to ty p e 16 firs t, th e n press th e square ro o t key?

H ow d o y o u e n te r s ta n d a rd fo rm in y o u r calculator?

Try ty p in g 1.5 E XP

(som e o f th e n e w e r c a lc u la to rs have a b u tto n m arked ; if yo u rs has o n e use th a t

C~' ' ?
instead o ft h e exp b u tto n ).

Do you g e t 1.5 x 103? O r d o you g e t s o m e th in g like 1.5 3 o r 1.503?

Find o u t h o w y o u r c a lc u la to r s h o w s s ta n d a rd fo rm , so th a t you recognise it.

Type in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 891 23 4 , u n til y o u run o u t o f space on th e screen. Press th e e q u a ls sign and

have a n o th e r lo o k a t th e screen. Y our c a lc u la to r sh o u ld give th e n u m b e r in s ta n d a rd fo rm .
The c a lc u la to r m a y n o t s h o w th e x 1012on th e screen, b u t m ay ju s t s h o w a s m a ll n u m b e r (12).
H ow ever y o u r c a lc u la to r d is p la ys th e num ber, w hen you give th e a n s w e r in s ta n d a rd fo rm
you m u s t w rite x 1 0 12.

Example 13
Estimate the answers and then use your calculator to calculate the following:
a n/1 6.23+ 8.546 b 4963,+ 35^ x 3 4
79X23
c 5.12 x 102 + 6.34 x 103
Answer 1 3
a 716.23 +8.546 = 716 + 9 = 725 = 5
n/1 6.23 + 8.546 = ^(16.23 + 8.546) = 724.776 = 4 .9 7 7 5 4 9 ...
= 4.98 to 3 s.f.

tfP t

4 9 6 .3 + 3 5 .2 X 34 _ 5 0 0 + 4 0 X 30 _ 1700 _ -I
79x23 80X20 1600
496.3 + 35.2 X 34 _ (496.3 + 35.2 X 34)
79X23 (79x23)
= 0.931810...
= 0.932 to 3 s.f.

Check this calculation with your own calculator to make sure that your calculator uses
BODMAS and does not need an extra pair of brackets round the 35.2 x 34.

5.12 x 102 + 6.34 x 103 = 500 + 6000 = 5600 = 6.0 x 103

5.12 X 102 + 6.34 X 103 = 68 52 = 6.852 X 103
4 W»rtl— with Numbers I J

Exercise 4.9
Use your calculator to w o rk o u t th e follo w in g, first e stim atin g th e answer.
1 34.93 + 3 5 6 .1 x 0 .0 2 9 2 6 .5 9 8 x 3 .1 1 1 -2 4 .7 0 1 + 1 7 .3 x 2 8
3 34.9 + 3.005 , 2g 3g - 116.01 + 19.49
13.1 V 15.28-5.82
5 1.239 x l O 4- 5 .8 7 x l O 3 6 (3.967 X 105) x (7.65 x 103)

is when you m ultiply or divide a num ber by

at to) 1 .

0.000001

II numbers

yourself whether th e answers get larger

4 .1 1 Ratio
C a lc u la tin g a ra tio is a m e th o d fo r c o m p a rin g th e sizes o f tw o o r m ore q u a n titie s . For
Key term e xa m p le , H am ish w ishes to m ake b a sm a ti rice fo r a party. He decides to use 2 c u p s o f w a te r
A ratio compares the to 1 c u p o f rice as he n o rm a lly does.
sizes of two or more
This is th e ra tio, w a te r : rice = 2 :1 .
quantities that are
in proportion. It can be used fo r any vo lu m e s. For exam ple, if it w as a very big p a rty he m ig h t have to use
2 b u ckets o f w a te r to each 1 b u c k e t o f rice! F o ra m o re m o d e ra te p a rty he c o u ld use 6 cups
o f w a te r to 3 cu ps o f rice. T he ra tio w ill s till re m a in th e sam e.

M ap Scales and Scale Models

You m a y a lready be fa m ilia r w ith th e scale o f a m a p o r m odel.

You m ay see a m a p w ith a scale o f 1 : 20000. This m eans th a t every 1 u n it on th e m ap

repre sen ts 20000 o f these sam e u n its on th e g ro u n d . So fo r e xam ple, 1 c m on th e m ap
repre sen ts 20000 cm (200 m) on th e ground .

A m o d e l m ay be ‘h a lf scale’, o r 1 : 2. It m eans every 1 c m on th e m o d e l repre sen ts 2 cm on th e

real o b je ct.

The ‘Toy T ra in ’ D arjeeling H im alayan R ailw ay has a gauge o f 610 m m , w h ic h m eans th a t th e

d ista nce betw e en the tw o p a rallel tracks is 610 m m . A sta n d a rd , full-size tra in has a gauge o f
1435 m m .

R
 I 4 Working wttb Numbers I

The ra tio of: Toy Train gauge : s tandard gauge

= 6 10: 1435

We can s im p lify th is by d iv id in g b o th n um bers by the sm a lle st num ber, so

Toy Train gauge : s tandard gauge

= 1 : (1435 + 610)
= 1 :2 .3 5

If th e Toy Train w as a scale m o d e l, all its le ngth m e asurem ents w o u ld be in th e sam e ra tio as
th o se o f a s ta nd a rd train.

An a rc h ite c t is d e sig n in g a large b u ild in g fo r th e O lym p ic Games. In o rd e r to sh o w his clien ts

w h a t th e b u ild in g w ill lo o k like in th re e d im e n s io n s he b u ild s a scale m odel. The blocks th a t
w ill be used in th e a ctu a l b u ild in g are 450 m m long. The m o d e l b locks are 20 m m .

T h e s c a le o fth e m o d e l is:

m o d e l: b u ild in g
= 2 0 :4 5 0
= 1 :2 2 .5

This ra tio can be used to c a lc u la te all the o th e r m e a su re m e n ts in e ith e r th e m o d e l o r th e real

b u ild in g .

N ow th a t w e have seen h ow ra tio s are used in everyday life w e w ill see h ow to s im p lify and
c a lc u la te w ith th e m .

Sim plifying Ratios

Exam ple

• If necessary, re w rite m e a su re m e n ts in th e sam e units. 2 0 0 m :4 k m

200 m :4 0 0 0 m
• Drop tho units. 2 00:4 0 00
• D ivide b o th (or all) parts o fth e ra tio by any c o m m o n factor. 1 :2 0

Example 14
Simplify the following ratios:
a 3 6m 2:120000cm 2 b 5 0 0 g :1 .5 k g c 2 4 :3 6 :4 8
Answer 14
a 3 6m 2: 120000cm 2
= 36 x (100 x 100) cm2:120 000 cm 2
= 3 6 0 0 0 0 :1 20 0 00 (+10000)
= 36 :12 (+12)
= 3 :1
b 500g: 1.5kg o r5 0 0 g : 1.5kg
= 0.5 kg :1.5 kg = 5 0 0 g : 1500g
= 0 .5 :1 .5 (+0.5) = 500 :1500 (+ 500)
= 1 :3 = 1 :3
c 24 : 36 : 48 (+ 12)
= 2 :3 :4
4 Working with Numbers I J

Sim plifying Ratios of Fractions

Exam ple

C hange any m ixed n u m b e rs to im p ro p e r fra ctio n s. i^ :|

_ 3 3
2' 4

W rite b o th fra c tio n s as e q u iv a le n t fra c tio n s w ith th e sam e d e n o m in a to rs . = | :|

M u ltip ly b o th by th is c o m m o n d e n o m in a to r to get rid o f th e d e n o m in a to r.
T his is n o w a n o rm a l ratio. = 6 :3
D ivide b o th parts o fth e ra tio by any c o m m o n factors. = 2 :1

W riting Ratios as 1 : n or n : 1
You m a y s o m e tim e s be asked to give y o u r ratios in a s p e cific way, p a rtic u la rly to have one
p a rt e q u a l to 1. An e xa m p le o f th is w as w h e n w e changed th e exchange rate fro m o n e based
on A m e rica n d o lla rs to o n e based on Indian rupees e a rlie r in th is chapter.

• S im p lify th e ra tio as usual.

• D ivide b o th p a rts by th e s ide you need to express as u n ity (one).

Example 1 5
a Simplify the following ratios:
i 3 .1 ii 1
2 .5
5'2 3' 6
b Write the ratio 4 : 5 in the form:
i 1: n ii n: 1

Answer 15
a I I ­ 6 . 5 =_ 6:5 II l i ; I = I : | = ^ : I = 1 0 : 5 = 2 :1
S’2 10' 10 3 '6 3 6 6 '6
b A : 5 in fo rm 1 : n ii 4 : 5 in fo rm n : 1
= 4 + 4 :5 + 4 -4) = 4 + 5 :5 + 5 ■5)
= 1 :1 .2 5 = 0 .8 : 1

Exercise 4.10 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e
1 S im p lify th e fo llo w in g ratios:
a 3 :4 8 b 5 0 :7 5 :1 2 5 c 4 5 :3 6 0
d 15 litr e s : 3 litre s e 14000 m l : 2.8 litres
f 2 .5 c m :5 k m g 11 h 2 -f:1 §
6 7 2 4 5

2 A sch oo l has 25 teachers and 750 students. W rite th e te a c h e r : s tu d e n t ra tio in its s im p le s t

fo rm .

3 A b u ild e r m ixes up a m o rta r by m ixin g 3 shovels fu ll o f c e m e n t w ith 12 shovels fu ll o f sand.

W rite th e c e m e n t: sand ra tio in its s im p le s t form .

4 W rite th e fo llo w in g ratios in th e form n : 1.

a 81 litr e s : 9 0000 m l b 10 km :5 cm

5 W rite th e fo llo w in g ratios in th e fo rm 1 : n.

a 4 :1 b 6 k g :72000g
 1 4 Woriung with Numbers I

6 The area o f India is a p p ro x im a te ly 3 300000 k m ;'.

The area o fth e w h o le w o rld is a p p ro x im a te ly 5 1 0 000 000 km".
W rite th e ra tio area o f India : area o f w h o le w o rld in its s im p le s t form , g ivin g y o u r answ er
to 2 s ig n ific a n t figures.

7 An iceberg is flo a tin g in the sea. The iceberg has a m ass o f 900 tonnes. 810 to n n e s o fth e
iceberg lies beneath the sea. C alculate th e ratio o fth e m ass o fth e iceberg above th e sea
to the m ass b e lo w th e sea in th e form :
a 1 :n b n:1

Using Ratios
An easy w a y to deal w ith ratios is to use co lum ns. For exam ple, d iv id e $450 betw een Jo and
S andy in th e ra tio 2 : 3 . This m eans d iv id in g the $450 in to 5 e q u a l p a rts , and th e n g ivin g Jo
2 parts and Sandy 3 parts.

We need a co lu m n fo r Jo, a n o th e r fo r Sandy, and a n o th e r fo r th e to ta l n u m b e r o f parts.

Jo S andy Total
Parts 2 3 5 450 5 = 90, so one p a rt is $90.
Use 90 as a m u ltip lie r (5 x 90 = 450).
a m o u n ts 2x90 3x90 450
= 180 =270

Jo gets $180 and S andy gets $270.

(It is also w o rth ch e ckin g th a t 180 + 270 adds up to 450.)

Exam ple 16
a A map has a scale of 1 :2 5 0 0 0 0 . Sanjeev measures the length of his bicycle ride on the
map as 5 centimetres.
H o w fa r w ill h e c y c lc ? G iv e y o u r a n s w e r in k ilo m c tr o c .
b The ratio of boys to girls in a class is 4 :3 . Ifth e re a re 2 0 boys, how many students are
there in the class?
(In all the working shown on ratios the figures given or implied in the question are shown
in bold, to make the working clearer.)
Answ er 16

a Map Ground
Scale lx 2 5 0000
x5
Lengths 5 cm ?“
2 5 0 0 0 0 x 5 = 1250 000cm
4 Working with Numbers I
no t®
In question 5 you will
need four columns,
headed ‘Teachers’, 'Girls’,
‘Boys’ and ‘Total’
82
J
1250 000 cm = (1250 000 +100) m
= 12500 m
12 500 m = (12 500 +1000) km
= 12.5 km
Sanjeev will cycle 12.5 kilometres,
b For this question we are asked to find the total number of students, so we need
a ‘Total’ column.
Boys Girls Total students
Ratios (2 0 -4 = 5 4 \ 3 7
so the ix 5
multiplier is 5)
Numbers 20z
There are 35 students in the class.
Exercise 4.11 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h i s e x e r c is e
1 T he ch e m ic a l fo rm u la fo r w a te r is H 20 . T his m eans th a t o n e w a te r m o le c u le is m a d e o f
a to m s o f h ydrogen and oxygen in th e ra tio H : 0 = 2 :1 .
H ow m a n y a to m s o f h ydrogen and h o w m a n y a to m s o f oxygen are p re s e n t in 42
m o le c u le s o f H 20?
2 D ivide th e fo llo w in g q u a n titie s in th e stated ratios:
a R s 6 0 5 in t h e r a t io 4 : l b 8 3 1 .6 g in th e ra tio 1 : 5
c 4.5 m in th e ra tio 5 : 1 d $300 in th e ra tio 2 : 5 : 1 3
e 216 in th e ra tio 1 : 4 : 1 0 f 0.98 in th e ratio 3 : 1
3 T he scale o f a m a p is 1 :1 5 0 0 0 0 . W h a t d is ta n c e o n th e m a p represents 15 km on th e
g rou nd ? Give y o u r a n sw e r in s u ita b le units.
4 A p lan Is d ra w n so th a t 5 cm on the pla n repre sen ts 25 m on th e g ro u n d .
W h a t is th e scale o f th e plan?
5 A sch o o l has s ta ff (teachers) and s tu d e n ts in th e ra tio te a c h e rs : g ir ls : boys = 1 : 1 0 : 9.
H o w m a n y boys are in th e sch o o l if th e re are 700 s ta ff and students?
6 A bag o f sw eets has y e llo w , green, red and p u rp le sw eets in th e ratio y e llo w : green : red :
p u rp le = 2 : 3 : 5 : 1 .
T here are 15 red sweets,
a H ow m a n y sw eets are yellow ?
b H ow m a n y sw eets are th e re all togethe r?
7 Jan e and J ill each receive som e m o n e y in th e ra tio J a n e : J ill = 3 : 5. Jane receives $15.
H ow m u ch does J ill receive?
8 M o rta r is m a d e in th e ra tio c e m e n t: sand = 1 :4 . H ow m uch o f each is needed to m ake
5 tonnes?
9 M ina is using a m ap, b u t she does n o t kn o w w h a t th e scale o f th e m a p is. She does k n o w
th a t th e dista n ce (in a s tra ig h t line) betw e e n her h o m e and her school is 5.5 km. She
m easures th is d istance on the m ap and fin d s it to be 2 .2 cm .
 [ 4 Working with Numbers I

She m easures th e d istance betw een her ho m e and the railw ay sta tio n on the m ap.
It is 4 cm . H ow far does she live from the railw ay station?

10 A cla ssro o m m easures 2.5 m etres high by 6 m etres w id e by 8 m etres long,

a C a lcula te th e v o lu m e o fth e classroom .
N itro ge n and oxygen are th e m ain c o n s titu e n ts o f air.
N itro ge n and oxygen are present in a ir in th e ra tio 4 :1.
b C alcu late th e v o lu m e s o f (i) nitro g e n and (ii) oxygen present in th e classroom . Give
y o u r answ ers in m l

4 .1 2 Proportion
Direct and Inverse Proportion
A b u ild e r uses 400 bricks to m ake a w a ll 10 m etres long. H ow m any bricks w o u ld he need to
b u ild a w a ll 30 m etres long?

The a n sw er is clear: th e w a ll w o u ld be th re e tim e s as lo n g as before so he w o u ld need three

Key term tim e s as m a n y bricks. He w o u ld need 1200 bricks. This is ca lle d d ire c t p ro p o rtio n because as
Two items, or amounts, o n e q u a n tity (the le ng th o f w all) increases th e o th e r (the n u m b e r o f bricks) also increases in
are indirect proportion th e sam e ratio. N otice th a t o n ly tw o q u a n titie s are changing, th e length o f th e w a ll and th e
when the rate at n u m b e r o f bricks.
which they increase
or decrease is always T he b u ild e r takes th re e days to b u ild his w all. H ow lo n g w o u ld it take if he e m p lo y e d tw o
the same for both. o th e r b u ild e rs and th e y all w o rke d to g e th e r a t th e sam e rate?
They are in inverse The tw o q u a n titie s th a t are c h a n g in g are n o w n u m b e r o f b u ild e rs and tim e taken. W ith th re e
proportion when while
b u ild e rs w o rk in g on th e w a ll it s h o u ld ta ke one th ird o fth e tim e , so it w o u ld take o n ly one
one increases the other
decreases always at the day. This is inverse p ro p o rtio n because as o n e q u a n tity (the n u m b e r o f builders) increases
same rate. th e o th e r q u a n tity (the tim e taken) decreases in th e sam e ratio.
The w o rd s 'in th e sam e ra tio ' are im p o rta n t, b u t n o t easy to explain. A few exam ples sh o u ld
help.

1 As c h ild re n g et o ld e r th e y get ta lle r. T h is is n o t an e x a m p le o f p ro p o rtio n because

th e y g e t o ld e r a t an even rate, b u t th e y m a y g ro w ta lle r o v e r a p e rio d , and th e n stay
th e sa m e h e ig h t fo r a w h ile , and th e n g ro w again. H ence, age and h e ig h t are n o t in
p ro p o rtio n .
2 The fu rth e ry o u w a lk th e lo n g e r it takes. B ut so o n e r o r la te ry o u w ill get tire d and slow
d o w n so th is d ista nce and tim e are n o t in p ro p o rtio n .
3 If you are d riv in g at a co n s ta n t s peed th e fu rth e ry o u go th e longer it takes in th e sam e
ratio, so th is tim e th e distance and tim e are in p ro p o rtio n . N otice th a t w e are saying ‘th e
fu rth e r’ ... ‘th e lo n g e r’, so th is is d ire c t p ro p o rtio n . In th is exam ple th e q u a n titie s th a t are
c h a n g in g are th e d ista n ce and tim e . The speed is s ta yin g th e sam e.
4 If yo u d rive a fe e d distance, say 10 km , at a co n s ta n t speed, th e faster th is speed is th e less
tim e it takes to c o m p le te th e jo u rn e y . Here w e are s a y in g ‘th e fa s te r’ ... 'th e less’ so these
tw o q u a n titie s are in inverse p ro p o rtio n . Here th e dista n ce stays th e sam e and th e speed
and tim e vary.

r~
83
4 Working with Numbers I J

Example 17
a In 2015, in Britain, the costs for sending letters first class depended on weight. Are these
quantities in proportion?

W eight Cost
100 g £0.95
250 g £1.26
500 g £ 1.6 8
750 g £2.42
b i In one week a farm er uses 10 bales of hay for his 25 horses.
How many bales would he need in a week for 65 horses if they ate them at the
same rate?
ii How long would the 10 bales last for 2 horses at the same rate?

Answer 17
a This is an example of tw o quantities both increasing, but not in the same ratio,
so they are not in proportion.
Compare just two o fth e increases:
Weight Cost
100 x U.35 ^
0.95

250
J XZ5 2.375
J x 2.5
(not 1.26)
and 250 1.26

500
J
X2
2.52
J x2
(not 1.68)
b i Quantities varying are bales of hay and number of cows. Time stays the same (1 week).
Bales of hay Number of cows
10 ^ 25^
) x 2 .6 ) X2.6 (65-5-25 = 2.6)
26 65
Hence, the farmer needs 26 bales per week for 65 cows.

ii Quantities varying are time and number of cows. Number of bales (10) stays the
same. Would you expect the time that the bales would last to be more or less for
fewer cows?
With fewer cows to feed, the bales will last longer so you should check that your
answer is longer than one week.
Time Number of cows
1 week ^ 25 .
J x 12.5 j +12.5 (2 5 - 2 = 12.5)
12.5 “ 2 d

The farmer’s 10 bales will last 12.5 weeks with only 2 cows.
 [ 4 Working with Numbers I

Exercise 4.12 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e
1 State w h e th e r each o f the fo llo w in g are exam ples o f d ire c t p ro p o rtio n , inverse p ro p o rtio n
ur neither.
a C ost o f o ne stam p. C ost o f a n u m b e r o f the sam e stam ps,
b Age o f a ch ild . Size o f th e c h ild ’s shoes.
c N u m b e r o f cow s in a field. Length o f tim e th e grass w ill last (assum ing th a t th e y alw ays
eat a t th e sam e rate).
d The n u m b e r o f loaves o f a ce rta in ty p e o f bread and th e a m o u n t o f flo u r needed.

2 A tin o f p a in t w ill cover 5.2 m 2. H ow m any w h o le tin s w ill have to be purchased fo r a w a ll

20 m by 2.5 m?

3 C urtain m a te ria l costs $25 fo r 5 m etres. H ow m uch w ill 34 m cost?

4 It takes 25 m in u te s to d o a p a rtic u la r jo u rn e y at a steady speed o f 55 k m /h . H ow long

w o u ld it take at 45 k m /h? Give y o u r answ er to th e nearest m in u te .

5 It takes 25 m in u te s to travel 16 kilom e tres. H ow lo n g w o u ld it take to cover 40 kilo m e tre s

a t the sam e speed? Give y o u r a nsw er to th e nearest m in u te .

6 Three p a in te rs ta ke fo u r days to p a in t th e o u ts id e o f a house.

a H ow lo n g w o u ld it take six p a in te rs to p a in t th e sam e house at th e sam e rate?
b H ow m a n y p a in ters w o u ld be needed to p a in t th re e s im ila r houses in fo u r days?

4 .1 3 Tim e
As w e m e n tio n e d above, tim e is n o t d e cim a lis e d , so care is needed to w o rk o u t p ro b le m s
in v o lvin g tim e .

For e xa m ple , to chan ge tim e in hours, m in u te s and seconds to d e c im a l parts o f an h o u r o r

m in u te w ith o u t u sin g a c a lc u la to r w e need to d iv id e by 60, as in th e next exam ple.

Exam ple 1 8
W ith out using a calculator, change 9 hours 10 minutes to hours.
Answ er 1 8
10 minutes
minutes= 10 + 60 hours = =bU4 = b0.166666... = 0.167 hours to 3 s.f.
9 hours and 10 minutes = 9.167 hours to 3 s.f.

This c a lc u la tio n can be d o n e in th e sam e w ay w ith a ca lc u la to r.

Som e c a lc u la to rs w ill a lso a llo w you to e n te r tim e in hours, m in u te s and seconds using a
b u tto n m arked

The c a lc u la tio n w ill th e n change th e hours, m in u te s and s econds to d e c im a l parts o f an hour.

Try these:

1 To e n te r 9 hours, 10 m in u te s and 15 seconds:

E n te r C a lc u la to r d is p la y

9°10°15°

9.170833333
4 Working with Numbers I J

2 To e n te r 9 hours 10 m inutes:

9° 10°

9.166666667

3 To e n te r 9 m in u te s 10 seconds:

0°9°10°

0.152777778

N ow try:

1°15° (this c o u ld be 1 h o u r 15 m in u te s ,
o r 1 m in u te 15 seconds)

1°15°18° (this is 1 h o u r 15 m in u te s
and 18 seconds)

If y o u r c a lc u la to r does n o t w o rk exactly like th is you m ig h t have to e x p e rim e n t w ith th e s h ift

b u tto n as w e ll u n til you k n o w h o w to use it.

You m ig h t need to change d e c im a l parts o f an h o u r to hours, m in u te s a n d seconds, w ith o u t a

ca lcu la to r.

Example 1 9
Change 3.75 hours to hours and minutes.
Answer 19
0.75 hours = 0.75 x 60 minutes = 45 minutes
3.75 hours = 3 hours and 45 minutes

12-hour and 24-hour clocks

You s h o u ld be a b le to c o n v e rt betw een th e 1 2 -h o u r a n d 2 4 -h o u r clocks. To c h ange from th e
1 2 -h o u r to 2 4 -h o u r c lock, fo llo w these steps:

• If th e tim e is a.m ., add a zero at th e b e g in n in g if necessary to w rite as fo u r figures, and

d ro p th e 'a.m.'
• If th e tim e is p.m., add 1200 and d ro p th e ‘p.m .’

To chan ge fro m th e 2 4 -h o u r to th e 12-hou r c lock, fo llo w these steps:

• If th e tim e is less th a n 1200, add ‘a.m .’ and rem ove any zero at th e b e g in n in g .
• If th e tim e is la te r th a n 1200, s u b tra c t 1200 and a d d 'p .m .’

Example 2 0
a Change to the 24-hour clock:
i 8.15a.m. ii 2.45 p.m.
b Change to the 12-hour clock:
i 0800 ii 1514
Answ er 20
a i 8.15a.m . ii 2.45p.m.
= 0815 =1445
b i 0800 ii 1514
= 8 a.m. = 3 .14p.m.

86
 [ 4 Working with Numbers I

You need to be able to w o rk w ith tim e ta b le s and in te rn a tio n a l tim e.

The ro ta tio n o f the Earth m eans th a t the Sun rises at d iffe re n t tim e s in d iffe re n t p a rts o f
the w o rld . To a llo w fo r th is the w o rld is d iv id e d in to tim e zones so th a t close g e o g ra p h ic a l
lo c a tio n s can use th e sam e tim e.

Example 2 1
a A train leaves Edinburgh at 0845 and arrives in London at 1515.
How long does the journey take?
b A television programme starts at 6.55 p.m. and runs for 1 hour and 10 minutes.
At what time does it finish?
c How much time has elapsed between 1845 on Monday and 0830 on Tuesday?
d The tim e difference between Paris and New York on a day in summer is 6 hours.
i If it is 1023 in Paris on Friday what time is it in New York?
ii If it is 11.15 p.m. in New York on Monday what time is it in Paris?
Answer 2 1
a Counting-on is often the best way to deal with time.
From 0845 to 0900 is 15 minutes
From 0900 to 1500 is 6 hours
From 1500 to 1515 is 15 minutes
Hence, total time taken is 6 hours and 30 minutes, o r 6 ^ hours,
b 6.55 p.m. plus 10 minutes is 7.05 p.m.
7.05 p.m. plus 1 hour is 8.05 p.m.
Hence, the programme finishes at 8.05 p.m.
c Again, counting-on is probably best.
1845 to 1900 is 15 minutes
1900 to midnight is 5 hours
midnight to 0800 is 8 hours
0800 to 0830 is 30 minutes
Total 13 hours and 45 minutes
d The Earth rotates so that the Sun rises in eastern countries before countries further west.
That means that the time will be 6 hours earlier in New York than in Paris.
i It will be 0423 on Friday in New York.
ii It will be 5.15 a.m. on Tuesday in Paris.

4 .1 4 Rate
R ate is a m easure o f h o w o n e q u a n tity changes as a n o th e r changes.
Key term
Rate is a measure
of how one quantity
Speed
changes as another Speed is p ro b a b ly th e easiest rate to u n derstan d. Speed m easures h o w far you go in a given
changes. tim e . The faste r the speed th e fu rth e ry o u go in th is given tim e , so speed is c a lc u la te d by
d iv id in g d ista n ce gone by tim e taken.

If you tra v e l 32 km in 1 h o u r y o u r speed is 32 k m /h (32 k ilo m e tre s p e r h o u r). A s p e e d o f

90 k m /h m e a n s th a t you tra v e l 90 k ilo m e tre s in o n e hour. L ig h t tra v e ls a t a s p e e d o f n e a rly
3 x 10s m /s (m e tre s p er s econd). T h is m e a n s th a t lig h t tra v e ls 300 000 k ilo m e tre s in o n e
se co n d . A s n a il m ay tra v e l a t a s peed o f 0.5 m /h (or m u c h less!). T h is is 0.5 m e tre s in
1 hour.
87
 Exchange Rates
You w ill also com e across th e w o rd ‘ra te ’ w h e n you see exchange rates, w h ic h re p re se n t how
th e cu rre n c y o f one c o u n try re la te s in v a lu e to th a t o f a n o th e r co u n try.

Table 4.3 gives exchange rates ta ke n fro m a p a rtic u la r tim e on a p a rtic u la r day.

C u rre n c y
A m e rica n d o lla rs 1

In d ia n rupees 44.61322
B ritish p o u n d s 0.50537
S ing ap o re d o lla rs 1.54075
S o uth A frican rands 7.18385
Euros 0.75050

T a b le 4 .3 Exchange rates based on d o lla rs

This ta b le is based on th e A m e ric a n d o lla r, so it s h o w s h o w m a n y u n its o f each c u rre n cy you

w o u ld get fo r 1 dollar. The ta b le can also be based o n th e rupee.

A cc o rd in g to th e ta b le , th e ra tio o f d o lla rs to ru p e e s is 1:44.613 22.

To c h a ng e th is ra tio to m ake th e ra tio rupees (Rs) to d o lla rs w e need to d iv id e b o th parts of

th e ra tio by 44.61322, as s h o w n be lo w :

D ollars ($) Rupees (Rs)

4 4 .6 1 3 2 2
+ 4 4 .6 1 3 2 2 ) + 4 4 .6 1 3 2 2

1 + 44.6 1 3 2 2 = 0.02241
So Re 1 is e q u iv a le n t to $0.02241.
C opy and c o m p le te Table 4.4 s h o w in g th e exchange rates based on th e In d ia n rupee. N otice
th a t all th e rates are given to 5 d e c im a l places. The ta b le show s h o w m a n y u n its o f each
cu rre n c y yo u w o u ld get fo r Re 1.

The exchange rates are c o n sta n tly ch anging according to w h a t is happen ing in th e w o rld financial
m arkets, and th e rates given above m ig h t be co m p le te ly different by the tim e you com e to read this
book. Try to find o u t som e c u rre n t exchange rates by lo o k in g in a newspaper, o r on the Internet.

The o th e r th in g to re m e m b e r a b o u t e x c h a n g in g c u rre n c ie s is th a t th e bank o r bureau th a t

changes th e cu rre ncy fo r y o u w ill charge a c o m m is s io n to cover th e costs o f th e ir w o rk, so you
w ill neve r get th e to ta l a m o u n t y o u c a lcu la te .

C u rre n c y
In dian rupees 1

A m e rica n do lla rs 0.02241

B ritish p o un ds 0.01123

S ingapore do lla rs
S o uth African rands
Euros

T a b le 4 .4 E xchange ra te s b a s e d in ru p e e s
 ^ 4 Working with Numbers I

Gradient
Slope, o r g ra d ie n t is a n o th e r e x a m p le o f rate. The g ra d ie n t o f a hill is m easured by fin d in g
h o w m u c h th e h ill rises (vertical m e a su re m e n t) for each u n it in a h o riz o n ta l d ire c tio n
(h o riz o n ta l m e a su re m e n t). So you m ig h t say th a t a g ra d ie n t is 50 m etres rise fo r every
k ilo m e tre h o riz o n ta lly . The g ra d ie n t is 50 m /k m .

H ow ever, in p ra ctice , it is usual to use the sam e u n its o f m e a s u re m e n t b o th h o riz o n ta lly and
v e rtic a lly w h ic h m akes it u nnecessary to state th e units.

So 50 m e tre s p er k ilo m e tre w o u ld be 50 m etres per 1000 m etres o r 1 m etre per 20 m etres, a
g ra d ie n t o f 1 in 2 0 .
g radient = ^ O m e tre ^
1 kilom etre
50 metres _ 50 _ 1
1 0 0 0 metres 1000 20

G ra d ie n ts are also given as percentages, so 1 in 20 w o u ld becom e _ L x 100 = 5%.

Average Rates
You m ay see a sign a t th e to p o r b o tto m o f a steep h ill w a rn in g drivers to ta ke care. As Figure
4.16 sho w s, a g ra d ie n t o f a h ill given as 20% does n o t necessarily m ean th a t th e g ra d ie n t is the
sam e all th e w a y up th e h ill. T he g ra d ie n t w o u ld be given as an average g ra d ie n t, c a lc u la te d
by d iv id in g th e to ta l h e ig h t risen v e rtic a lly by th e to ta l d ista n ce covered h o riz o n ta lly .

F ig u re 4 .5 T h e g ra d ie n t o f a h ill

The sa m e a p p lie s to speed on a jo u rn e y . You m ay be asked to c a lc u la te th e average speed on

a jo u rn e y , w h ic h alw a ys m eans to ta l d is ta n c e tra ve lle d d iv id e d by to ta l tim e ta k e n . Parts o f
th e jo u rn e y m ig h t have been faster, and parts s lo w e r th a n th e average speed.

4 .1 5 Compound Units
C o m p o u n d u n its are u n its o f m e a s u re m e n t th a t are d e rived fro m o th e r units. E xam ples o f
c o m p o u n d u n its are k m /h o r g /c m 3. The u n its them selves te ll you h o w th e m e a s u re m e n ts
are c a lc u la te d . For e xa m p le , speed m easured in k ilo m e tre s p e r h o u r m eans th a t you fin d h o w
m a n y k ilo m e tre s are tra v e lle d in o n e hour, so you have to d iv id e d is ta n c e g o n e (in k ilo m e tre s)
by tim e ta k e n (in hours).

Key term G ram s p e rc u b ic c e n tim e tre gives th e m ass o f a b o d y per u n it vo lu m e , and is c a lc u la te d by

Density is the w eight d iv id in g th e m ass o fth e b o d y (in gram s) by th e v o lu m e o f th e b o d y (in c u b ic ce n tim e tre s ).
per unit volum e of a This is k n o w n as th e d e n s ity o fth e b o d y and d epend s on the m a te ria l it is m a d e fro m . Lead
material. has a h ig h d e nsity, so q u ite a s m a ll v o lu m e has a large mass. Feathers have a lo w d e n s ity , so
q u ite a large v o lu m e has a lo w mass.
4 Worhlngwltb Numbers IJ

Table 4.5 sho w s th e d e n sitie s o f som e m etals.

m e ta l k g /m 3
Lead 11389
Brass 8400
Iron 7850
C op pe r 8930
S ilver 10490

T a b le 4 .5 Densities o f m eta ls

C ents p e r m e tre o f m a te ria l is th e cost o f each m e tre o f th e m a te ria l. It w o u ld b e c a lc u la te d by

d iv id in g th e to ta l cost in ce n ts by th e to ta l le n g th in m etres.

M etres p er ce nts is th e n u m b e r o f m etres you co u ld b u y fo r each ce n ts and is c a lc u la te d by

d iv id in g th e le n g th in m etres by th e to ta l cost in cents.

Example 2 2
a Find the average speed in kilometres per hour for a car which travels 100 kilometres
in 1.5 hours.
b How far could you go at an average speed of 65 kilometres per hour for 2.5 hours?
c How long would it take to travel 50 kilometres at an average speed of 80 kilometres per hour?
d Change 15 metres per second to kilometres per hour.
Answer 2 2

100 km in 1.5 hours

= y y km in 1 hour
= 66.7 km in 1 hour
Average speed = 66.7 kilometres per hour
b 65 km i n i hour
= 65 x 2.5 km in 2.5 hours
= 162.5 km in 2.5 hours
Distance gone = 162.5 kilometres
c 80km i n i hour
= lk m in 580^ hour
= 50 km in 50 x ^oU hours = 0.625 hours
= 0.625 hours = 0.625 x 60 minutes = 37.5 minutes
Time taken = 37.5 minutes
d Distance gone Time taken
15 metres in 1 second
1 5 x 6 0 x 6 0 metres in 1 x 6 0 x 6 0 seconds
54000 metres in 1 hour
54 kilometres in 1 hour
So 15 metres per second = 54 kilometres per hour
 I 4 Working wilh Numbers l

Exercise 4.13 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e
1 W ood costs $4 per cu b ic m etre. Find th e cost o f a piece o f w o o d 5m by 20 cm by 50 cm .

2 The w o rld tu rn s th ro u g h 360° every 24 hours.

a H ow lo n g does it take to tu rn th ro u g h 80°? Give y o u r answ er in hours and m inutes,
b W h at angle has th e w o rld tu rn e d th ro u g h in 6 hours?

3 W ater has a mass o f 1000 kg p e r c u b ic m etre. C alculate th e mass o f w a te r in a s w im m in g

p o o l m e a su rin g 30 m x 20 m x 2 m.

4 A TV film starts a t 11.35 p.m. on W ednesday and finishes at 1.20 a.m. on Thursday. H ow
lo n g is th e film ?

5 A tra in leaves D elhi at 7.15 a.m . and arrives in Agra a t 9.45 a.m . The distance fro m D elhi to
NOTE: Agra is 206 km . C alculate th e speed o fth e train.
In question 5 remember
that speed is distance 6 A tra in leaves K olkata a t 2015 and arrives in Patna 10 hours later. A t w h a t tim e d oes it
gone in one hour. arrive in Patna?

7 C hange 35 gram s per c u b ic c e n tim e tre in to kilo g ra m s p e r c u b ic m etre.

8 4 c u b ic m etres o f a c o m p o u n d has a mass o f 5 tonnes. C a lcu la te its d e n sity in gram s per

c u b ic ce n tim e tre . (There are 1000 kg in 1 tonne.)

4 .1 6 Personal and Sm all

Business Finance
Best Buys
It can ofte n h a p p en th a t m a n u fa ctu re rs w ill o ffe r tw o d iffe re n t sizes o f a c o m m o d ity a t tw o
different prices, and you may wish to work out which one is the best buy. There are two
d iffe re n t w ays o f d o in g this, either:

• ch oo se th e one w ith th e lo w e s t cost per u n it v o lu m e (o r mass), o r

• ch oo se th e one w ith th e h ig h e s t v o lu m e (or mass) per u n it cost.

An e xa m ple sh o u ld m ake th is clear.

Exam ple 23
A shop is offering tw o sizes of a commodity:
A is a pack with a mass of 100 g costing Rs 75, and B is a pack of mass 75 g
costing Rs 50. Which is the better buy? You must show all your working.
Answ er 23
A B
100 g 75 g
Rs 75 Rs 50
4 Wtffl—wtthNumlHirsI J

First method
A: 100 g costs Rs 75 B: 75 g costs Rs50
1 g costs Rs ^ l g costs Rs | |
1 g costs Rs 0.75 l g costs Rs 0.67
So B is the better buy (1 g costs less).
A ltern ative m ethod
A: Rs 75 buys 100 g B: Rs 50 buys 75 g
R e lb u y s ^ g R e lb u y s |§ g
Re 1 buys 1.33 g Re 1 buys 1.5 g
So B is the better buy (Re 1 buys more).

Profit and Loss

P ro fit o r loss m ay be expressed as e ith e r an a m o u n t o f m oney, o r as a p e rce n ta g e o f the
o rig in a l cost price. A lw ays c a lc u la te th e a c tu a l p ro fit o r loss firs t a n d th e n , if re q u ire d , express
as a percentag e o f th e c o s t p rice , as sh o w n in th e e x a m p le below .

Example 2 4
Pierre bought 50 pens for €135, and sold 48 of the pens for €4 each. He kept the remaining
tw o pens to use in his shop. Calculate his percentage profit.
Answer 2 4
Cost price of pens =€135.00
Selling price of pens (48 at €4 each) = €192.00
Actual profit (selling p ric e -c o s t price) =€57.00
Percentage profit (€57.00 -s- €135 x 100%) = 42.2%

Key term
Interest is the am ount
you pay for borrowing
money, or the am ount
Sim ple and Compound Interest
you are paid for lending Ify o u p u t m o n e y in to a savings a c c o u n t a t a b a n k yo u w ill receive in te re s t, w h ic h is
money. It is calculated c a lc u la te d as a p ercentag e o f th e a m o u n t yo u have in th e a cco u n t. T he p e rce n ta g e varies
as a percentage or a c c o rd in g to th e b a n k and th e ty p e o f a c c o u n t, and is ca lle d th e in te re s t rate.
interest rate.
Simple interest is There are tw o w ays to c a lc u la te th is in te re s t, c a lle d s im p le in te re s t and c o m p o u n d in terest.
calculated on the original W hen s im p le in te re st is c a lc u la te d , th e in te re s t earn e d at th e end o f each year is n o t taken
am ount only, at the same
in to a c c o u n t in th e fo llo w in g year. For e xa m p le , it m a y be rem oved fro m th e a c c o u n t fo r o th e r
rate year after year.
purposes.
Compound interest
is calculated on the W hen c o m p o u n d in te re s t is c a lc u la te d , th e in te re s t earn e d each year is le ft in th e a c c o u n t and
original am ount plus all th e in te re st fo r th e fo llo w in g y e a r is c a lc u la te d usin g th is new (larger) sum .
the interest to date.

Calculating S im ple Interest

S im p le in te re s t = a m o u n t in v e s te d (o r b o rro w e d ) x in te re s t ra te (p e r a n n u m ) x tim e (in
years). So th e fo rm u la fo r c a lc u la tin g s im p le in te re s t is I = PrT, w h e re I is th e in te re s t, P is
th e p rin c ip a l (a n o th e r w o rd fo r th e a m o u n t in v e s te d o r b o rro w e d ), r is th e in te re s t rate
and T is th e tim e .

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Calculating Compound Interest

You can use the fo rm u la

Value o f inv e s tm e n t = p{ 1+ — )
I 100/
w here P is th e a m o u n t invested, r is the interest rate and n is the n u m b e r of years.

Exam ple 2 5
a Calculate the simple interest earned on an investment of $150 at a rate of 4% per
annum for
i ly e a r ii 2 years iii 9 months iv 15 months.

b Using the formula, calculate the annual rate of simple interest as a percentage when an
investment of $2000 earns $250 in 2 years,
c Using the formula, calculate the compound interest that will be paid on $1000 invested
at 2.01% for 5 years.
A nsw er 2 5
a i lnterest= 1 5 0 x ^ x 1 = $6.00 ii In t e r e s t = 1 5 0 x ^ x 2 = $12.00

iii Interest = 1 5 0 X ^ X ; | | = $4.50 iv Interest = 150x ^ x | | = $7.50

b l = PrT
250 = 2 0 0 0 x r x 2
250 = 4000r
r = i i r 0 -0 6 2 5
Annual rate of interest = 6.25%
c Value of investment after 5 years = 1000| 1+ — I
I 100J
= 1104.622125
= $1104.62
Interest received = $1104.62 - $1000
= $104.62

Intere st is also p a y a b le on any a m o u n t you borro w . It is c a lc u la te d in exactly th e sam e way.

Key term
Depreciation
Depreciation is the loss The v a lu e o f m a n y c o n s u m e r g o o d s decreases as tim e goes by. For exam ple, a car w ith a cost
of value o f goods as they w hen n ew of, say, $12000 m ig h t have lost 30% o f this value by th e end o fth e first year. If it w ere to
age. carry o n d e p re c ia tin g a t th e sam e rate th e ca lcu la tio n w o u ld be th e sam e as th a t fo r c o m p o u n d
interest, b u t w ith th e v a lu e fa llin g each year instead o f increasing. In th is case, how ever, th e rate
o f d e p re c ia tio n is 30% in th e first year, b u t it is likely to be less, say 20% in th e succeeding years.
The s e c o n d -h a n d ca r tra d e has ta b le s s h o w in g h ow the values o f m akes o f cars fall each year.
The d e p re c ia tio n rate is a fa c to rto ta ke in to a cco u n t w hen d e c id in g w h ic h c a rto buy.

Discount
You w ill o fte n see a sale a d v e rtis e d as, fo r exam ple, ‘25% o ff e v e ry th in g ’.

In th is sale an ite m n o rm a lly c o s tin g $405 w ill have 25% o f $405 taken off. This is $101.25.

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4 WertUngwithNumbers IJ

To c a lc u la te th e a m o u n t y o u w ill have to pay you can take th e d is c o u n t ($101.25) aw ay fro m

th e o rig in a l price ($405), to give $303.75 to pay.

H ow ever, it can be q u ic k e r to say th a t if you have a d is c o u n t o f 25% th e p e rcentag e you have

to pay is 75% o fth e o rig in a l price. Then th e c a lc u la tio n is: 75% o f $405 = $303.75.

Electricity Bills
E le c tric ity and o th e r u tility b ills (for exam ple, gas, w ater, and te le p h o n e ) are u s u a lly based
o n th e n u m b e r o f u n its used as show n on a m eter. The u n its w ill be a m easure used fo r th e
p a rtic u la r u tility , and w e n o rm a lly refer to th e m a s ‘u n its ’, w ith o u t having to w o rry a b o u t w h a t
e xa ctly th e y are. There are th e n va rious m e th o d s to c a lc u la te th e to ta l sum to pay, and you
w ill need to read each q u e s tio n c a re fu lly and fo llo w th e in s tru c tio n s . For e xa m p le , th e c o s t o f
th e ‘firs t’ u n its used m ay be d iffe re n t fro m th e re m a in in g units, as you w ill see in th e exam ple
given. T here co u ld also be a ‘s ta n d in g charge’ w h ic h you have to pay ju s t fo r ha vin g the
service c o n n e cte d , even if you have n o t used any units.

Example 2 6
I have just read my electricity meter, one month after the last reading.

Nov 12th 9 9 1 5 3
Dec 12th 9 9 6 7 6

Units cost £0.1276 each for the ‘first’ 170 units, and £0.0931 each for the remaining units.
There is no standing charge, but VAT is added at 5%. Calculate my total bill for this month.
Answer 2 6

Units used 9 9 6 7 6 -9 9 1 5 3 = 523 units

First units 170 at £0.1276 = £21.69
Remaining units (5 2 3 -1 7 0 ) = 353 units
353 at £0.0931 = £32.86
Total before VAT (£21.69+ £32.86) = £54.55
VAT at 5% (5 x 54.55 +100) = £2.73
Total after VAT (£54.55+ £2.73) = £57.28
Total bill = £57.28

Exercise 4.14
1 For each q u e stion:
i state w h e th e r th e re is a p ro fit o r loss,
ii th e a ctua l p ro fit o r loss,
iii th e p ro fit o r loss as a percentag e o f th e cost price,
and w o rk o u t

C ost price S e lling price

a $50 $45
b $50 $55
c Rs 365 Rs 456.25
d 10 fo r Rs 786 Rs 85 each
e 150 fo r £75 £0.55 each

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 1 4 Working with Numbers I

2 a Fred b o rro w s $1000 from th e bank. The bank charges 5% sim p le in te re st per annum .
C a lcu la te th e in terest payable after
i 8 m o n th s ii 1 year,
b C alcu late how lo n g it w o u ld take fo r an in v e s tm e n t o f $500 to earn $25 in te re st at a
rate o f 2% per annum .

3 On the Island o f E q uality e veryone earns the sam e a m o u n t (€25) per h o u r and everyone
pays a n n u a l in co m e tax at th e sam e rate (25%).
There is a personal a llo w a n c e o f €2500 per a n n u m w h ic h is tax free.
C a lcula te th e a m o u n t each o f these p e o p le pays in tax per annum ,
a Raj w o rks fo r 20 hours a w e e k and has th re e w eeks unp a id h o lid a y a year,
b Tam ara w orks fo r 175 hours a m o n th and has o n e m o n th unp a id h o lid a y per year,
c A n e t w o rks fo r 796 hours p e r year, and has no extra holiday.

4 An a p p ro x im a tio n used to c o n v e rt betw een kilo m e tre s and m iles is 8 k ilo m e tre s
= 5 m iles.
a W ork o u t th e a p p ro x im a te e q u iv a le n t o f 20 kilo m e tre s in m iles,
b W ork o u t th e a p p ro x im a te e q u iv a le n t o f 35 m iles in kilom e tres.

5 C hange th e fo llo w in g to th e u n its stated,

a 5.5 k m /h to m /s
b 60 m iles p er h o u r to k ilo m e tre s per h o u r (use th e a p p ro x im a te conversion
5 m iles = 8 kilom e tres).

6 Zac is m a k in g a p a p e rw e ig h t. He w ill choose betw een th e fo llo w in g :

a a c u b o id 10 cm x 2 cm x 4 cm , m a d e o f iron;
b a c u b e o f side 4 cm , m a d e o f copper.
Use th e ta b le o f d e n s itie s , Table 4.5, to w o rk o u t w h ic h w ill be th e h eavier
p a p e rw e ig h t.

7 A ssu m in g th e lig h t fro m a flash o f lig h tn in g arrives in sta n ta n e o u sly, b u t th a t the

sou nd tra vels a t 300 m /s, w o rk o u t h ow fa ra w a y a th u n d e rs to rm is ify o u c o u n t
10 seco nd s be tw e en seeing th e flash and hearing th e th u n d e r. Give y o u r a nsw er in
kilo m e tre s.

8 S u p riti buys 10 to y cars fo r R s50 each. She sells 7 fo r Rs 75 each, and th e n reduces th e
re m a in in g th re e and sells th e m in her sale at 2 0 % d is c o u n t on her previous s e llin g price.
C a lcu la te her p ro fit as a percentag e o f th e cost price.

9 A large (1 litre) b o ttle o f le m o n a d e costs £1.80, and a s m a ll (250 m l) b o ttle costs £0.44.
W hich is th e b e tte r buy?

1 0 A n ita is g o in g to buy a used car. She is m a k in g a choice betw een a Penti h a tc h b a c k and a
Q ua dri saloon.
The Penti uses 10 litres o f fuel to travel 90 kilo m e tre s, and th e Q uadri uses 15 litres to
travel 165 kilo m e tre s. W hich o f these tw o cars w o u ld be th e m o st e c o n o m ic a l to run? You
m ust sh o w all y o u r w orking .

1 1 Tom as g o t 36 m arks o u t o f a possib le 60 in his m a th e m a tic s test. He g o t 52 m arks o u t o f

75 in his science test. By c a lc u la tin g his percentage m arks fo r each te st fin d o u t w h ic h was
his b e tte r test.

12 Niraj b o u g h t a new car in 2014 c o s tin g $35 000.

The rate o f d e p re c ia tio n w as 46% in th e first year and 19% in th e second year. C alculate
th e va lu e o f th e car at th e end o f 2016.

13 A va lue d c u s to m e r is offered a 10% d is c o u n t on an item n o rm a lly w o rth $65.70.

H ow m u ch w ill th e y have to pay?
4 Working with Numbers IJ

1 4 A vid e o confe rence is to be arranged betw een R om e and Tokyo. T he tim e d iffe re n c e is
7 hours. R om e is w e st o f Tokyo. W hat tim e w o u ld it be in T okyo if th e c o n fe re n ce is
arran ged fo r 1113 R om e tim e ?

15 C a lcu la te th e value o f a b o n d purchased in 2015 a t a cost o f $5000, w ith a c o m p o u n d

in te re s t rate o f 2.35% , w h e n it m a tu re s in 2020.
(A b o n d in th is case is a c e rtific a te th a t provides a m e th o d o f saving, u su a lly fo r a fixed
te rm o r n u m b e r o f years. I t ‘m a tu re s ’ after th e fixed term and can th e n be co n v e rte d to
cash.)

Exercise 4.15
M ix ed exercise

1 A m in e ra l kn o w n as ‘fo o l’s g o ld ’ because it g litte rs like gold has th e c h e m ic a l fo rm u la FeS2.

Fe s tan ds fo r iron and S sta n d s fo r sulfur.
This m eans th a t 1 m o le c u le o f FeS2 c o n ta in s 1 a to m o f iron a n d 2 a to m s o f sulfur. H ow
m a n y a to m s o f (a) iron and (b) s u lfu r are present in 72 m o le c u le s o f fo o l’s gold?

2 T he a ir in th e classro om c o n ta in s 0.03% COr

A cla ssro om is 2.5 m etres high, 8 m etres lo n g and 6 m etres w id e ,
a C a lcu late th e v o lu m e o f th e room ,
b W ork o u t th e v o lu m e o f C 0 2 in th e room .

3 A cake requires 275 gram s o f flo u r, 250 gram s o f su g a r and 4 eggs.

A m rit w a n ts to m ake e n o u g h cakes to use u p all th e eggs in his re frigera tor.
He fin d s he has 10 eggs.
a H ow m uch flo u r and su g a r w ill he need to m ake th e cakes?
b H ow m a n y w h o le cakes can he make?

4 A flig h t leaves L o ndon a t 2135 on F ebruary 1st and arrives in B a n g k o k a t 1540 L o n d o n

tim e on February 2nd.
a H ow lo n g has th e flig h t taken?
The d ista nce betw een L o ndon and B angkok a lo n g th e p la n e ’sro u te is 8038 m iles,
b C a lc u la te th e speed o f th e p la n e in m ile s p e r hour. 1200 in L o n d o n is 1800 in
B a ngkok.
c W h at is th e tim e in B a ngkok w h e n th e p la n e arrives?

5 C hange th e fo llo w in g to th e stated units.

a 2 hours and 43 m in u te s to m in u te s b 7.15 ho u rs to ho u rs a n d m in u te s
c 3 hours 36 m in u te s to hours d 27 m in u ic -'to hours

6 The m ass o f Earth is a p p ro x im a te ly 5.97 x 10 24 kg.

T he m ass o f th e M oon is a p p r o x im a te ly ^ o f th e m ass o f th e Earth.
C a lcu la te th e m ass o f th e m o o n g ivin g y o u r a n sw e r to 3 s ig n ific a n t figures and in
s ta n d a rd form .

7 The dista nce o f th e M oon fro m Earth is 384.4 x 10 3 km.

a W rite th is in s ta n d a rd fo rm .
b C hange to m etres, g iv in g y o u r answ er in sta n d a rd form .

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Exam-style questions NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

8 A m o d e l o f a car has a scale o f 1: 25.

The m o d e l is 18cm long. C alculate, in m etres, the actual
le ng th of th e car. (0580 p a p e r 01 Q5 June 2004)

9 The le n gth o f a re cta n g u la r rug is given as 0.9 m, co rre c t to the nearest ten ce n tim etres.
The w id th o f the rug is given as 0.6 m, co rre c t to the nearest ten centim etres.
a W rite d o w n th e u p p e r b o u n d , in m etres, o fth e le ngth o fth e rug.
b Find th e lo w e r b o u n d , in m etres, o fth e p e rim e te r
o f the rug. (4024 p a p e r 12 Q 8 June 2012)

1 0 S h a m p o o is sold in tw o sizes, A and B.

A c o n ta in s 800 m l and costs $1.30. B c o n ta in s 1.5 litres and costs $2.30.
W hich is th e b e tte r value fo r m oney?
S h o w y o u r w o rk in g c le a rly . (0580 p a p e r 01 Q14 June 2004)

11 C arlos buys a box o f 50 oranges fo r $8 .

He sells all th e oranges in th e m a rk e t fo r 25 cents each,
a C alcu late th e p ro fit he m akes,
b C a lcu la te th e percentage p ro fit he m akes on th e
cost price. (0580 p a per 0 1 Q18 J u n e 2004)

12 a Add 55 m in u te s to 2.4 hours, g ivin g y o u r answ er in ho u rs and m inutes.

b The m ass o f a bag o f sugar is given as 1.5 kg, c o rre c t to th e nearest te n th o f a kilog ram .
W rite d o w n th e u p p e r b o u n d o f th is mass, g ivin g y o u r answ er in gram s.
(4024 p a p e r 11 Q4 N o ve m b e r 2011)

1 3 The len gth o f a road is 1300 m etres, co rre c t to th e nearest 100 m etres.
C opy and c o m p le te th is s ta te m e n t.
...............................m =£ road length < .........................................m.
(0580 p a per 0 1 Q 8 N o ve m b e r 2003)
14 a A bag c o n ta in s red and b lu e c o u n te rs in th e ra tio 3 : 8 .
There are 24 b lu e counters.
H ow m a n y red c o u n te rs are there?
b A m y and Ben share $360 in th e ratio 3 : 2.
H ow m uch is B en’s share.
(4024 p a p e r 12 Q4 June 2012)

1 5 The d ia g ra m show s a p o le o f le n g th I centim etres.

„ ----------------------------------------------------------------------- ; cm -------------------------------------------------------------------- » .

a Hassan says th a t 1= 88.2. R ound th is to th e nearest w h o le num ber,

b In fact the p o le has a le n g th 8 6 cm , to th e nearest ce n tim e tre .
C opy and c o m p le te the s ta te m e n t a b o u t I.
......................../ < ...................................
(0580 pa p e r 01 Q12 June 2003)

1 6 A nne to o k a te st in chem istry.

She scored 20 m arks o u t o f 50.
W ork o u t her percentage m ark.
(0580 p a per 01 Q3 June 2005)

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1 7 W rite, in its s im p le s t fro m , th e ratio
3.5 k ilo g ra m s : 800 gram s.
(0580 pa p e r 01 Q4 June 2005)

1 8 Yasm een is s e ttin g up a business.

She b o rro w s $5000 fro m a loan com pany.
T he loan c o m p a n y charges 6 % per year s im p le interest.
H ow m u ch in te re s t w ill Yasm een pay a fter 3 years?
(0580 p a p e r 01 Q l l June 2005)
8.95*13.05x1.97
2.92
a i W rite th e above expression w ith each n u m b e r ro u n d e d to o n e s ig n ific a n t figure,
ii Use y o u r a nsw er to fin d an e s tim a te fo r th e value o f th e expression.
(0580 p a p e r 01 Q19a June 2005)

2 0 Ed goes on a c a r jo u rn e y .
T he firs t 60 km o fth e jo u rn e y takes 45 m inutes.
T he re m a in in g 20 km o f th e jo u rn e y takes 30 m inutes.
C a lc u la te his average speed, in kilo m e tre s per hour, fo rth e w h o le jo u rn e y .
(4024 p a p e r 11 Q4 June 2010)

2 1 T h e scale on a m a p is 1 : 250000. A road is 4.6 cm lo n g o n th e m ap.

C a lc u la te th e a c tu a l le n g th o fth e road in kilo m e tre s. (0580 paper 0 1 Q 6 N ove m b er 2008)

22 a M aryam ’s h e ig h t is 1.52 m c o rre c t to th e nearest ce n tim e tre .

S ta te th e lo w e r b o u n d o f her height,
b The le n g th o f each o f M a rya m ’s paces is 0.55 m.
She w a lks a t a c o n s ta n t speed o f 2 paces p e r second.
C a lcu la te th e d istance, in kilo m e tre s, th a t she w a lks in o n e hour.
(4024 p a p e r 01 Q16 June 2004)

2 3 M a tth e w in vested $500 a t 6 % s im p le in te re s t per year.

C a lc u la te h o w m u ch in te re s t had been earned a fte r 8 m onths.
(4024 p a p e r 01 Q 19b June 2004)
24 a W hen Peter w e n t to H o n g Kong, he changed £50 in to $616.
C a lcu la te w h a t o n e B ritish p o u n d (£) w as w o rth in H ong K ong d o lla rs ($).
b It takes 8 hours fo r 5 p e o p le to p a in t a room .
H ow lo n g w o u ld it ta k e 4 people? (4024 p a p e r 01 Q5 June 2005)

2 5 A TV p ro g ra m m e lis t sh o w s th a t a film begins a t 2155.

T he film lasts fo r 100 m inutes.
A t w h a t tim e w ill it end?
Express y o u r a nsw er usin g th e 24 h o u rc lo c k . (4024 p a p e rO l Q12a June 2005)

2 6 The rate o f exchange betw e e n p o u n d s (£) and d o lla rs ($) w as £1 = $2.80. C alculate:
a th e n u m b e r o f d o lla rs received in exchange fo r £ 1 2 0 ,
b th e n u m b e r o f p o u n d s received in exchange fo r $224. (4024 p a p e r 01 Q3 June 2006)

27 a The tim e d iffe re n ce betw een B runei and L o n d o n is 7 hours.

So, w h e n it is 1900 in B runei, it is 1200 in London.
W hen it is 0330 in B runei, w h a t tim e is it in London?
b An a irc ra ft leaves B runei at 6.30 p.m . local tim e .
It arrives in D ubai at 1 0 p .m . local tim e.
The flig h t to o k 7 ^ hours.
C alculate the tim e difference betw een Dubai and Brunei. (4024 paper 01 Q 8 J i ie 2006)
 [ 4 Working with Numbers I

28 a Add to g e th e r 181 ce n tim e tre s and 14.85 m etres.

Give y o u r answ er in m etres,
b E xpress4 0 0 00 square m etres in square kilom e tres. (4024 paper 01 Q5 N ove m b er 2004)

2 9 An a to m o f h e liu m has a m ass o f 6 .8 x 10~2; kilogram s,

a Express th is m ass in gram s.
Give y o u r answ er in s ta n d a rd form ,
b A ro o m c o n ta in s 9 x 10 22 a to m s o f helium .
Find th e mass o f h e liu m in th e room .
Give y o u r answ e r in gram s as a no rm a l de cim a l
n u m b er. (4024 paper 01 Q12 N ove m b er 2004)

3 0 a C a lcu la te 5% o f $280000.
b A single c a rto n o f ju ic e costs $4.20.
A special o ffe r pack o f 3 c a rto n s costs $9.45.
Ali b o u g h t a special o ffe r pack instead o f 3 single cartons.
C a lcu la te his percentage saving. (4024 paper 01 Q18 June 2007)

3 1 By w ritin g each n u m b e r c o rre c t to 1 s ig n ific a n t figure, e s tim a te th e value o f

(4024 paper 01 Q4 June 2008)

3 2 It is given th a t 68.2 x 0.235 = 16.027.

H ence evalu ate
a 0 .0 6 8 2 x 2 3 5 0
b 160.27 + 0.0235. (4024 paper 01 Q5 J u n e 2008)

33 a A ja rc o n ta in e d 3 7 0 g o fja m .
U sm an ate 30% o f th e ja m .
W h a t m ass o f ja m re m a in e d in th e jar?
b In 2006 th e p o p u la tio n o f a to w n w as 30000.
T his w as 5000 m o re th a n th e p o p u la tio n in 1999.
C a lcu la te th e percentage increase in p o p u la tio n . (4024 pa p e r 01 Q14 J u n e 2008)

3 4 The Farth is 1.5 x 108 kilom etres from the .Sun

a M ercury is 5.81 x 10 7 k ilo m e tre s fro m th e Sun.
H ow m u ch n earer is th e Sun to M ercury th a n to th e Earth?
Give y o u r a n sw e r in sta n d a rd form ,
b A te ra m e tre is 10 12 m etres.
Find the distance o f the Earth from the Sun in teram etres. (4024 pa p e r 0 1 Q18 J u n e 2008)

35 a C on vert 0.8 k ilo m e tre s in to m illim e tre s .

b Evaluate (6.3 x 106) + (9 x 102), g ivin g y o u r answ er in s ta n d a rd form .
(4024 paper 01 Q 8 June 2009)

3 6 Five c lo cks a t a h o te l re ce p tio n desk sh o w th e local tim e s in five d iffe re n t citie s a t the
sam e m o m e n t.

LONDON MOSCOW SYDNEY TOKYO NEW YORK

07 38 10 38 16 38 15 38 02 38

a R osidah has breakfast at 0800 in Moscow.

W h a t is th e lo ca l tim e in Sydney?
b Elias catches a p lane in L o ndon and flies to New York.
He leaves Londo n a t 1130 local tim e.
The flig h t tim e is 8 hours 10 m inutes.
W ha t is th e local tim e in N ew York w hen he lands? (4024 paper 01 Q10 June 2009)
4 Working with Numbers I J

37 a T he rate o f exchange betw een d o lla rs and euros w as $0.8 to 1 euro.

C a lc u la te th e n u m b e r o f e uros received in exchange fo r $300.
b Find th e s im p le in te re s t on $450 fo r 18 m o n th s at 4% per year.
(4024 paper 01 Q5 N o ve m b e r 2007)
4 032 x 29 88
38 a E s tim a te th e value, c o rre c t to one s ig n ific a n t figure, o f ' ^y1 5 0 ’— •
b Sam ran 100 m etres in 12 seconds.
C a lc u la te his average speed in k ilo m e tre s per hour.
(4024 p a per 01 Q19 N o ve m b e r 2007)

39 a T he lo c a l tim e in S ingap ore is 7 hours ahead o fth e local tim e in Lon d o n .

A flig h t to L o ndon leaves S ingap ore a t 0300 local tim e.
T he flig h t takes 12 hours and 45 m inutes.
W h a t is th e local tim e in L o ndon w h e n it arrives?
b M ai cha n ges £250 in to dollars.
T h e exchange rate is £1 = $3.10.
H o w m a n y d o lla rs does she receive? (4024 pa p e r 01 Q5 N o v e m b e r 2009)

4 0 11 ............; ..........
s\ Paris to Creil Paris to Creil
|/ Adult 25 euros Child 17.50 euros

D u rin g a v is it to France, a fa m ily to o k a tra in fro m Paris to Creil.

T h e c o s t o f an a d u lt tic k e t w as 25 euros and th e c o s t o f a c h ild tic k e t w as 17.50 euros.
i H o w m u c h d id it c o s t fo r a fa m ily o f 2 a d u lts and 3 child ren?
ii Express th e cost o f a ch ild tic k e t as a percentag e o f th e cost o f an a d u lt tic k e t.
(4024 p a p e r 01 Q23a N o v e m b e r 2009)

4 1 T he d ia g ra m show s a fuel gauge in a car.

1
2

a W h a t fra c tio n does th e gauge show?

b T he fue l ta n k ho ld s 48 litres w hen it is full.
H o w m a n y litres m u s t be a dded to fill th e tank? (4024 pa p e r 01 Q3 N o ve m b e r 2005)

42 a The n u m b e r 3002.05 can be w ritte n as 3 x 10 3 + 2 x 10* + 5 x 10'.

G iven th a t x and y are integers, fin d th e v alues o f x and y.
b A b a n k exchanged Japanese yen and S ingap ore d o lla rs ($) a t a rate o f 6 6 yen = $1.
i C a lcu la te , in yen, th e a m o u n t received fo r $200.
ii C a lcu la te , in d o llars, the a m o u n t received fo r 33 000 yen.
(4024 paper 01 Q18 N o ve m b e r 2005)

43 a An e m p ty tin h a s a m a s s o f3 3 0 g .
W hen fille d w ith pow der, th e to ta l mass is 2.10 kg.
Find th e mass, in kilog ram s, o fth e pow der,
b Express 2.45 hours in m inutes. (4024 paper 1 Q2 N o v e m b e r 2006)

\
100
 ^ 4 Working with Numbers I

44 a Find th e fra ctio n w h ic h is exactly h a lfw a y b e tw e e n § and §.

_____ y 9
b E s tim a te th e value o f V 5000, g iv in g y o u r a n sw e r c o rre c t to o n e s ig n ific a n t figure,
c E v a lu a te 3° x 4 '. (4024 pa p e r 01 Q7 N o ve m b e r 2006)

4 5 It is given th a t N = 87 x 132.
a C o m p le te these s tatem ents.
8 8 x 132 = N + ...

87 x 131 = N - ...
b H ence eva lua te 8 8 x 1 3 2 - 8 7 x 131. (4024 p a p e r 01 Q15 June 2005)

46 a A coach left London at 2045 and arrived in E d in b u rg h th e next d a y at 0505.

H o w lo n g d id th e jo u rn e y take?
b T he distan ce betw een L o n d o n and E d in b u rg h is 660 km.
i A tra in to o k 5 hours 30 m in u te s to c o m p le te th e jo u rn e y .
C alculate its average speed.
ii The average speed o f a n o th e r tra in w as 150 k m /h .
H ow lo n g d id th is tra in take fo r th e jo u rn e y ?
Give y o u r answ er in hours and m in u te s . (4024 p a p e r 01 Q23 N o ve m b e r 2004)
 Working with Algebra
Learning Objectives Syllabus sections 1 7,2 0 and 22

In this c h a p te ry p u w ill: solve sim p le pairs o f lin e a r sim ultaneous

• solve s im p le eq u a tio n s equations.
« rearrange fo rm u la e
• start working with sequences

5 .1 Introduction
T his c h a p te r w ill p ro v id e you w ith m o re skills in th e use o f algebra. You s h o u ld begin to
feel m o re c o n fid e n t in th e lang ua ge o f algebra and th e use o f letters to replace num bers.
R e m e m b er to w o rk th ro u g h each w o rke d e x a m p le c a re fu lly before g o in g o n to th e exercise
th a t fo llo w s it.

The m o s t like ly e rrors yo u m ay m ake u sually in v o lve signs, p a rtic u la rly m in u s signs!
R e m e m b e rth e rules fo r plus and m in u s signs. Use th e n u m b e r lin e y o u m a d e in C hapter 1
w h e n necessary.

5.2 Essential Skills N O C A LC U LA TO R IN T H IS E X E R C IS E

S im plify:

a -1 -2 + 4 b -2 x 5 c - 1 x 0 d 3x6

e (5 )2 f -2 (x -y ) g - ( 3 + a)

S im plify:

a 3+ 0 b 3x0 c 0-5-2 d 2 + 1

3 2
e 2 x 1 g h
' ! 1 -3
3
j 3 -3 k I 4-5-4
' ft 3
m x+x n Oxxxy o 0 - a P J*

q 32 r x-x

W hich o f th e fo llo w in g are expressions and w h ic h are equations?

a 3+x-y b 6 (jc - 5) = 1 c 3+x-y=0 d 6(x-5)

\
102
 5 Working with Algebra

4 2x + 3 z - 5 y - 3 x + w
a W hich is th e te rm in y?
b W hich tw o te rm s are like term s?
c List th e variables.
d W h at is th e c o e ffic ie n t o f th e first term ?
e W hich sign be longs to th e te rm in z?

5 List pairs o f these o p e ra to rs th a t are inverses o f (undo) each other,

squa re d iv id e add s u b tract m u ltip ly square ro o t

5.3 Solution of Equations

You w ill re m e m b e r th a t w e looked at th e difference betw e e n expressions and e q u a tio n s in
C ha pte r 3. We note d th a t expressions m ay be s im p lifie d b u t n o t solved, b u t th a t w e can o fte n
fin d s o lu tio n s to e q u a tio n s. A s o lu tio n to an e q u a tio n is a n u m b e r th a t can replace th e le tte r
(for e xam ple, x) and m ake th e e q u a tio n a tru e s ta te m e n t.

A sim p le e xa m p le o f an e q u a tio n w o u ld be 2x + 3 = 11.

A little th o u g h t, o r perhaps tria l and error, w ill help you see th a t if th e v a ria b le * is re p la c e d by
th e n u m b e r4 th e e q u a tio n becom es 2 x 4 + 3 = 11, w h ic h is a tru e s ta te m e n t.

This m eans th a t th e s o lu tio n to th is e q u a tio n i s * = 4.

For sim p le e q u a tio n s like these it is often easy to ju s t lo o k a t th e e q u a tio n and see w h a t th e
s o lu tio n m u s t be (you are s o lv in g ‘by in s p e c tio n ’), b u t you w ill ra p id ly fin d th a t th e e q u a tio n s
b ecom e to o d iffic u lt to solve in th is way, so w e need to d e v e lo p a syste m a tic m e th o d to fin d
th e s o lu tio n .

It is useful to th in k o f e q u a tio n s as ite m s in a set o f b a la n c in g scales. O ur e q u a tio n a b o ve

has tw o sides, a le ft s ide and a rig h t side, and th e equals sign in th e m id d le te lls us th a t th e
tw o sides are ind ee d eq u a l to each other. We can use th is e q u a tio n to w o rk o u t a s y s te m a tic
m e th o d fo r s o lv in g e q uations.

R e m e m b e rin g th a t x a t th is m o m e n t re p re se n ts an u n k n o w n n u m b e r, le t us im a g in e
th a t th e tw o sid es re p re s e n t q u a n titie s w h ic h have m ass. If w e p u t th e tw o s id e s o f t h e
e q u a tio n in th e tw o sid e s o f a set o f scales (see Figure 5.1), th e n th e e q u a tio n te lls us th a t
th e y m u s t b a la n ce .

2x + 3 11

T
Figure 5.1 B alancing th e tw o sides o f an equation

So x represen ts an u n k n o w n n u m b e r o f gram s and th e scales also ca rry 3 gram s and

11 gram s. The le ft-h a n d scale pan carries 2 lo ts o fx g r a m s plus 3 gram s and th e rig h t-h a n d
scale pan carries 1 1 gram s.

103
5 Warning with Algebra J

They w o u ld stay in balance if w e rem oved 3 gram s fro m b o th pans, so:

2x+ 3 - 3 = 1 1 -3
2x = 8

We can n o w easily see th a t if 2x = 8 th e n x m u s t be one h a lf o f 8 .

2x = 8
x = 8 -2
x = 4 gram s

We have a rrived a t th e sam e s o lu tio n by th is m e th o d as w e did by in s pection.

The basis fo r o u r m e th o d is: th e e q u a tio n w ill stay in balan ce if w e d o th e sam e th in g to

bot h sides. You can add, s u b tra c t, m u ltip ly o r d iv id e as lo n g as you d o th e sam e to b o th sides.

It is g o od p ra c tic e to keep y o u r e quals signs in a s tra ig h t lin e d o w n th e page w hen you

are so lv in g e q u a tio n s , and alw ays w rite o n ly o n e s ta te m e n t o n each line, as in th e w o rk e d
e xam ples below .

Example 1
Clearly showing your working, solve the following equations.
a 3x + 1 = 7 b 5 x - 11 = 4 c 5 + 2x = 8
d 3x + 6 = 2 e 7 - 2 x = 13
Answer 1
a 3x+l =7
3x = 7 - 1 -1 from both sides)
3x = 6
x=6 + 3 + 3)
x= 2
b 5.x —11 = 4
5x = 4 + 11 +11 to both sides)
bx = lb
x = 15 + 5 + 5)
x=3
c 5 + 2x = 8
2x = 8 - 5 -5 )
2x = 3 m m '
x = 3+ 2 + 2) Oil this
x = — or 1.5) ^ . ^ oosttive f+ 5). ,
X 2
so to remove the 5 take
d 3 x +6 = 2 (subtract) 5 from both
3x = 2 - 6 - 6) sides.
3x = - 4
-4 + 3 3)
X 3
e 7 - 2 x = 13
- 2 x = 1 3 -7 7)
-2x=6
x= A + - 2)
-2
x = -3
 [ 5 Working with Algebra

The steps in these e q u a tio n s are all le a d in g to the line w here the x has been isola ted by itself
on th e le ft-h a n d side o f th e e q u a tio n , leaving the rig h t-h a n d side to be s im p lifie d if necessary.
It is as if w e are slo w ly u n p ic k in g th e e q u a tio n to get to the u n k n o w n o r v a ria b le x.

S im ple e q u a tio n s m ay also be solved by th in k in g o f n u m b e r m achines. Look at the n u m b e r

m a ch in e in Figure 5.2, w h ic h represents th e e q u a tio n from Exam ple 1 (d): 3x + 6 = 2.

The in p u t is x and th e o u tp u t is 2.

input .v - * * — x3 o u tp u t 2

Figure 5 .2 N um ber m achine for 3 x + 6 = 2

We n o w solve th e e q u a tio n by ru n n in g th e m ach in e backw ards, so th a t th e in p u t is 2 (see

Figure 5.3).

A in p u t 2
ou tp u t

Figure 5.3 Running th e n u m b er m ach ine backw ards

The o u tp u t is —| , w h ic h is th e s o lu tio n to the e q u a tio n .

This can be a useful te c h n iq u e fo r rearranging fo rm u la e w h ic h you w ill m eet la te r in th e

chapter, so practise n o w by w ritin g n u m b e r m achines fo r th e o th e r th re e e q u a tio n s in the
exam ple, and ru n n in g th e m in reverse to get th e solu tio n s.

Exercise 5.1 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e
Solve th e fo llo w in g e q u a tio n s e ith e r by in sp e c tio n if th e y are easy e n ough o r by our
system a tic m e th o d s howi ng y o u r work ing as in th e answ ers to Exam ple 1.

1 3 x + 4 = 10 2 5x = 20

3 * + 3 = 11 4 6x - 15 = 3

5 4x + 3 = 1 6 7 x - 15 = 13
7 llx — 10 = 12 8 7 + 4x = 8

9 - 2x = -10 10 -8 - 3 x = 10

11 -x = 9 12 —x = —7

13 14
r—

-x - 10 = 12
X
II
1

15 16 + 2 x = 31 16 2 - 3x = 7

In questions 15 and 16
you cart leave the answer
as a fraction, or give it as
a decimal if it is an exact
decimal.
The next ste p is to see w h a t h appen s w hen th e varia b le appears on b o th sides o f the
e q u a tio n , fo r exam ple: 3x + 2 = 4 - x.
The sam e m e th o d w ill apply, and it m ay help to g a th e ry o u r te rm s in x on th e le ft-h a n d side
o fth e e q u a tio n , and th e n u m b e r te rm s on th e rig h t-h a n d side. The x te rm is s u b tra c te d on
th e rig h t-h a n d side, so a d d in g x to b o th sides w ill rem ove it fro m th e rig h t-h a n d side.
3x + 2 = 4 - x

3x + 2 + x = 4 (+ x ) (this takes th e x to th e le ft-hand side)

4x + 2 = 4 (this is the line above s im p lifie d )

4x = 2 ( - 2 fro m b o th sides)

(+ 4)
(this is th e fra c tio n s im p lifie d by d iv id in g to p and
- 1
b o tto m by 2)

105
 Example 2
Solve the following equations:
a 5x - 3 = 7 + x b 2 - 4x = 9 + 9x
C 5 x -7 + 3 x = 1 0 x + 6 -6 x -3
Answer 2
a 5 x -3 = 7 + x I 2 - 4 x = 9 + 9x
5 x -3 -x = 7 (-x ) 2 - 4x - 9x = 9
4 x = 7 + 3 (+3) 2 -1 3 x = 9
4 x = 10 -1 3 x = 9 -2
x = 2 .5 (-5- 4 ) -1 3 x = 7

C 5 x -7 + 3 x = 1 0 x + 6 -6 x -3
8 x -7 =4x + 3
8 x -4 x = 3 + 7
4x = 1 0
x = 2.5

Exercise 5.2
Solve the following equations.

1 7x + 3 = 2x + 7 2 5x - 1 = 6x + 3
i—
1*

11
1

4 - 8x = 6 - x
CD

3 4
1
-^ 1
0
X

5 15 + 2x = 17 - 6x 6 2 3 - 3 x = - 7 x + 11
7 100 + 2x = 50 —25x 8 -8x + 4 = -16x + 8
9 11 —x = 11 + x 10 12a + 6 = 6a —17
11 7x + 3 - 5x + 2 = 6x 12 -8 a - 1 + 3a = 7 a - 6 + 5 a - 3
13 - l l - 1 2 y + 1 0 + 10>/ = 6)/ + 7-9>' 14 10 + 3 b - 5 = 12 + b - 3 b

The next ty p e o f e q u a tio n yo u m ay have to solve involves brackets, b u t o th e rw is e is no m o re

d iffic u lt. The first th in g to d o is to m u ltip ly o u t th e brackets and th e n proceed as above.
 ( 5 Working with Algebra

Exam ple 3
Solve the following equations.
a 7(x —3) = 3(x + 7) b 2(x + 3) = - 5 ( 2 x - 1)
C 9(3x - 1) - 6(2x - 1) = 5(3 + 5x)
Answ er 3
a 7 (x -3 ) = 3(x + 7) b 2(x + 3) = - 5 ( 2 x - 1)
7 x -2 1 = 3x + 21 2x + 6 = -lO x + 5
7 x - 3x= 21 + 21 2 x + 10x = 5 - 6
4x = 42
.42. y = 10^ or 10.5 12x = -1

9 ( 3 x - 1) - 6(2x - 1 ) = 5(3 + 5x)

27x - 9 - 12x + 6 = 15 + 25x
27x - 1 2 x - 2 5 x = 1 5 + 9 —6
-1 0 x = 18
x = —1.8

Exercise 5.3 NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

Solve th e fo llo w in g e q u a tio n s.

1 5(x + 7) = 4 (1 —x) 2 3 ( x - 1) = 8

3 9 (3 x -2 ) = 7x 4 4(5 —x) = 3(2 — 3x)

5 -2 (7 - 2x) = 7(3 + 2x) 6 - 3 ( - 4 x + 5) = 2 ( - x + 6 )

7 10(3x + 2) — (x — 1) = —7(x + 5) 8 - ( 3 x - 2 ) = 6(4 + 2x)

9 3(x —2) —7 ( x + l ) = - 2 ( 2 x + l ) - 3 ( x + 2) 10 a - 8(7 + a) = 16(2a - 1) - 5(a + 3)

E q u atio n s are often used to solve p ro b le m s. I he u n k n o w n n u m b e rs are given a le tte r or
letters and e q u a tio n s are w ritte n usin g th e given in fo rm a tio n . The e q u a tio n s m ay th e n be
solved a lg e b ra ic a lly to fin d th e u n k n o w n num bers.

Exam ple 4
Alex is 2 years older than Bernard and half Callista’s age. Bernard is 42 years younger than
Callista. Find the ages of Alex, Bernard and Callista.
Answ er 4
Let Alex be x years old.
Then Bernard is ( x - 2 ) years old, and Callista is 2 x years old.
Since Bernard is 42 years younger than Callista, Bernard is (2 x -4 2 ) years old.
We now have two expressions for Bernard’s age, and both must, of course, be equal.

2x - 42 = x - 2 (-x + 42)
2x - x = -2 + 42
x = 40
So, Alex is 40, Bernard is 38 and Callista is 80 years old.
V __________________________________ __________________________________

107
5 WorkingwithAlgebra J

You w ill fin d m o re e xa m p le s o f w ritin g a n d usin g e q u a tio n s th ro u g h o u t the b o o k .

Exercise 5.4 N O CALCULATOR IN T H IS EXERC ISE

Solve th e fo llo w in g .
1 3 * = -1 0 2 15 = 5 *

3 4 = 2x - 3 4 l l - 9 x = 7 x + 23

5 7x= 1 8 -x 6 6 ( a - 5 ) = 7(a + 2)
7 -3 (y + 2) = 4 ( y - l ) 8 6{b-3) + 2 [b + l) = 3{b-5)

9 5 x - 3 = 2x 10 16x - 10 + 2 x = 18x - 1 2 - 3x

11 4(c —5) —3(c — 1) = 2(c + 1 ) 12 - ( x - 1) + 2 (x + 1) = 5

13 2(3x - 5) = 5(x - 2) 14 - ( x + l) = 2 [ - x - 1)

15 21x- 3= 4
16 A tria n g le has tw o sides each o f le n g th 3 x ce n ti m etres, and one o f le n g th (2x + 5)
Key term c e n tim e tre s . T he p e rim e te r (sum o f a ll th e sides) o f th e tria n g le is 33 centim etres,
a F orm an e q u a tio n in x.
The perim eter of a
shape is the sum of all b S o lve y o u r e q u a tio n .
its sides. It is a length c H ence w rite d o w n th e le n g th s o f th e sides o f th e triangle.
measurement.
17 T o m a s has a p e n c il case c o n ta in in g o n ly red, b lu e and green pencils. T here are tw ic e as
m a n y red p e n c ils as b lu e p e n c ils a n d tw o m o re red pencils th a n green p e ncils. There are
23 p e n c ils a lto g e th e r in th e p e n c il case.
Let th e n u m b e r o f red p e n c ils b e x .
a W rite d o w n exp re ssio n s fo r th e n u m b e r o f b lu e pencils and th e n u m b e r o f green
p e n c ils in te rm s o f x.
b F orm an e q u a tio n in x.
c S o lve th e e q u a tio n .
d H encc write dow n tho num ber of each co lo u r of pcncil.

18 An e x a m in a tio n p a p e r is to have 20 q u e s tio n s a lto g e th e r. It has to cover algebra, s hape

a n d graphs.

T here w ill be 4 m o re q u e s tio n s on algebra th a n on graphs, and tw ic e as m a n y c u e s tio n s

o n s h a p e as on graphs.
a Let th e n u m b e r o f q u e s tio n s on gra p h s b e * .
W rite d o w n expressions fo r the num bers o f questions on algebra and shape in
term s o f x.
b Form an e q u a tio n in x.
c S olve th e e q u a tio n to fin d x.
d H o w m a n y q u e s tio n s w ill th e re be o n algebra?
19 The sum o f th re e c o n s e c u tiv e n u m b e rs is 114.
Let th e firs t o f th e n u m b e rs b e x .
Form an e q u a tio n in x a n d solve it to fin d th e th re e num bers.

20 The sum o f th re e c o n s e c u tiv e o d d n u m b e rs is 135.

Find th e th re e n u m b e rs.

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 5 Working with Algebra

Key terms
The s u b je c t of a
5 .4 Rearranging or Transform ing
formula is the q u a n tity
the form ula is designed
Form ulae
to find; for example, in
We have a lre a d y m e t so m e fo rm u la e . T he fo rm u la b e lo w is used to fin d th e speed o f an o b je c t
s = u t + j af2, sis the
such as a c a r (v) w h e n it w as in itia lly tra v e llin g at a ce rta in speed (w) and th e n a cce le ra te d (a)
subject.
fo r a c e rta in tim e (t ). We w ill a ssum e th a t the units fo r speed, a cce le ra tio n a n d tim e a re co rre ct
T ransfo rm in g
so th a t w e d o n o t have to w o rry a b o u t them .
a formula means
rearranging it to change The fo rm u la is v - u + at, w hich w e could read as ‘the final speed o fth e car is equal to its in itia l
the subject o fth e speed plus th e acceleration m u ltip lie d by the tim e fo r w hich th e car has been accelerating’.
formula.
The fo rm u la is a rra n ge d so th a t it is easy to fin d v. We say th a t v is th e s u b je c t o fth e fo rm u la .

For e xa m p le , if u = 10, a = 2 and t = 4,

u sin g v = u + a t
v = 10 + 2 x 4
v = 10 + 8
v = 18

B u t s u p p o s e w e w a n te d to fin d , say, u? The be st w a y is to re a rra n g e (o r transform) th e

fo rm u la so th a t u is th e s u b je c t. T h is m eans g e ttin g u on its ow n.

It can be h e lp fu l to u n d e rlin e th e v a ria b le th a t is to b e c o m e th e s u b je c t o fth e fo rm u la .

v = u + at

Then th e firs t ste p c o u ld be to w rite th e e q u a tio n th e o th e r w a y ro u n d .

u + at-v

Then, ju s t as in th e s o lu tio n o f e q u a tio n s , w e d o th e sa m e th in g to b o th sides o f th e fo rm u la ,

in th is case ta ke aw ay at
u —v —at (— at)

and th is is th e answ er.

N ow w e can fin d u, given v = 20, a = 10 and t = 0.5:

h = v - at
u = 2 0 -1 0 x 0 .5
w = 20 - 5
w = 15
This w as an easy re a rra n g e m e n t, b u t su p p o s e w e w ere asked to m a ke a th e s u b je c t o fth e
fo rm u la . W e w ill w o rk th ro u g h th e m e th o d a t th e sa m e tim e as s o lv in g a s im ila r e q u a tio n w ith
n u m b e rs in ste a d o f letters.

8 = 2 + 3a c o m p a re w ith v = u + at

3a+ 2 = 8 u + at = v (tu rn in g ro u n d )

3a = 8 —2 (—2) a t = v —u (— u)

At th is stage w e m u s t d iv id e b o th sides by t to leave th e a o n th e le ft-h a n d side. We m u s t

d iv id e th e w h o le o f th e rig h t-h a n d s ide by t, so it is safest to p u t brackets ro u n d th e rig h t-h a n d
side. This is e q u iv a le n t to w o rk in g o u t th e n u m b e rs (8 - 2) in th e e xam ple.

3a = 6 at={v-u)

109
5 Wortlng with Algebra J

a=~ a=^
3 (
The fo rm u la has been rearranged to m ake a th e s u b je c t.

N o w w e can fin d a given th a t v = 32, u = 14 an d f = 4:

a = % H
4

«-¥
a = 4.5

In th e se exam pies w e have been u s in g m a in ly w h o le n u m b e rs o r s im p le fra c tio n s , b u t if we

have to use n u m b e rs th a t re q u ire a c a lc u la to r, th e n w e sh o u ld give th e a n s w e r ro u n d e d ,
p ro b a b ly to 3 s ig n ific a n t figures.

Example 5
Solve the equations and rearrange the corresponding formulae to find a in each case.
a i 2o + 3 = 17 ii 2 a + b = c

b i 7=| ii
b
c i 14 = — ii p=-
a r o
d i 5(a - 1 ) = 3(o + 1 ) ii b(a -c ) = d(a + 1 )
Answer 5
i 2o + 3 = 17 2a + b= c
2o = 17 —3 2a = c - b
2o = 14 2a = (c- b)
fl = 7 a = (c ~ b)
2

7=f X=“
b
i =7 l= *
0 = 7x5 a =xx b
a = 35 a =bx
14 _ 28
P = 1a (x o both sides)
y
14 X o = 28 pxa = q
a= ^ o =Ai
14
a= 2 P

5 ( a - l ) = 3 (a + l) b(a -c ) = d(a + 1 )
5 f l- 5 = 3a + 3 a b -b c = ad + d
5 a -3 a = 3 + 5 a b - a d = d+bc (facto rise o u t a)
2a = 8 a(b-d) = (d + bc)
(d + be)
a=l (b - d )
a= 4

The next exercise provides s o m e p ra c tic e in re a rra n g in g fo rm u la e by c o m p a rin g w ith s im p le

e q u a tio n s.

110
 [ 5 Working with Algebra

Exercise 5.5 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h i s e x e r c is e
Solve th e e q u a tio n s and rearrange th e c o rre s p o n d in g fo rm u la e to m a k e * th e subject.

1 a x + 2= 5 b x+ b= d

2 X r X
a b —= z
3= 5 y
3 a 2x - 5 = 7 b ax - b = c

4 a 2x + 4 x = 9 b a x + bx = c
NOTE: 5 a 4x - 2 = x b ax - 2 = bx
Factorise first in
question 4 b 6 a 3+x-4x b 3 + x = ax

7 a 5 + 9x = x - 7 b a + bx = xc

8 a 1_ 2 b l = fc
3 x a x
* lu^

9 a b y
-j
II

' X

10 a jx = 1 0 b lx = b
a

As w as m e n tio n e d earlier, a n o th e r w ay to lo o k at re a rranging s im p le fo rm u la e is to use

n u m b e r m a ch in e s. T he fo llo w in g exa m p le s sh o w b o th m e thods.

Example 6
a Given S = ^n(a + l), w ith o u t using your calculator,
i find S w hen n = 1 0 ,a = 5 a n d /=15;
ii make a the subject o fth e formula;
iii find a when S = 100, n = 8 a n d /= 23.
b Given t=2n J j ; , using your calculator,

i find tw hen /= 15 and £ = 9 .8 , giving your answer correct to 3 significant figures;

ii m a k e /th e subject;
iii find / when t = 5 and g = 9.8, giving your answer correct to 3 significant figures.
Answer 6
a S = ^n(a + l)
i S = | x l 0 x ( 5 + 15)
S=100
ii S = ^n(a + l)
jn (a + l) = S
n(a + l) = 2S
«+/= f

iii fl = 2 x J 0 0 _ 2 3
8
a= 2

An alternative answer to part (ii):

Rearranging the formula using a number machine (see Figure 5.4). Always start by inputting
the letter you w ant to make the new subject.
5 Working with Algebra J

input a — ►- add I
> multiply by divide by 2
> output S

output a — « * - < take/

take I — divide by n
< multiply by 2 ----- input S

F ig u re 5 .4 Using a n u m b e r m achine

Result: a = — -Z
n

... . _______________ ____ „____;____

The number machine method only works when the new subject appears only once.

b t=2n.

t=2xnxm
t= 7.77

t=2nJl
N d T fc E = JL
g 2n
Remember that squaring
is the inverse of (undoes) Htf
findingthe square root.

in t - f e f x 9 J >
1= 6.21
An alternative answer for part (ii):
Number machine method for rearrangement (see figure 5.5).

input I - divide by g square root multiply by 2n

> output t

output / multiply by# square divide by 2n input t

Figure 5 .5 Using a n u m b er m achine

Result:/ = f e ) x £

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112

Key term
A sequence is a list
o f n um b ers o r te rm s
w hich va ry a c c o rd in g
to som e rule. Each
te rm is re la te d to th e
previous te rm , o r to its
place in th e sequence.
^ 5 Wortlngwitb Algebra
Exercise 5.6
In each o fth e fo rm u la e in q u e s tio n s 1 to 10 m ake the letters w ritte n in b o ld the s u b je c t o f the
fo rm u la .
j GmM GmM
2 3 u = a + (n - 1 )d
d2 F = d2
4 u = a + ( n - l)d 5 c= — 6
c h
7 s= — 8 S= 1 9
t t A
1 0 F = §C + 32
11 S = u t + j a t 2 S how th a t a = z(s ~ ut\
1 2 |b = 4a . Make:
a a b e c b d d th e subject.
13 2y + 3 x = 5
a M a k e y th e s u b je c t o fth e fo rm u la . b F in d y w h e n x = 6 .
1 4 A = nr2
a M a k e r th e s u b je c t o f th e fo rm u la .
b Using y o u r c a lc u la to r fin d r w hen A = 20, g ivin g y o u r a nsw er to 3 s ig n ific a n t figures.
15 / = *
C
a Find /w h e n b = 5 and c = 3.
b Rearrange th e fo rm u la , and w ith o u t using y o u r c a lc u la to r find c w hen
/ = 1.5 and b = 20.
1 6 A = j[ a + b )x h
a M ake h th e s u b je c t o fth e fo rm u la .
b W ith o u t using y o u r c a lc u la to r find Ii when A —15, a —12 and b =• 0.
5 .5 Sequences
Sequences are p a tte rn s o f n u m b e rs th a t fo llo w som e rule so th a t, once th e rule is k n o w n , any
m e m b e r o f th e sequence m ay be c a lcu la te d .
Each m e m b e r o f th e sequence is ca lle d a te rm , and has its o w n place in th e sequence.
For exam ple, th in k o fth e sequence o f square num bers. T he rule w o u ld be ‘square each
m e m b e r o f the set o f c o u n tin g n u m b e rs ’ and th e te rm s o f th e sequence w o u ld be
1 ,4 ,9 ,1 6 , 25, 3 6 ,...
As usual, th e d o ts sh o w th a t th e sequence goes on and on.
In th is sequence th e first te rm is 1, th e second term is 4, th e th ird te rm is 9 and so on.
Can you see th a t th e n in th te rm w o u ld be 81?
It can help to arrange th e sequence ve rtica lly, as in Table 5.1.
5 Working with Algebra J
The nth te rm in a
sequence provides
the rule for working
out every term in the
sequence, for example
ifth e n th te rm = 3 n + l
then the second term is
3 x 2 * l# 7 .
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1141
Term num ber Term Calculation
1 1 l2
2 4 22
3 9 32
4 16 42
5 25 52
6 36 62
7 49 72
8 64 82
9 81 92
T a b le 5 .1 Sequence of squares
W e n o w th in k a b o u t a g e n e ra l te rm . W e w ill c a ll it te rm n u m b e r n o r th e n th te rm (see
T a b le 5.2).
Term num ber Term Calculation
n n2 n2
Table 5.2 nth term of sequence of squares
T h e fo rm u la fo r th is sequence is: nth term = n 2. U sing th is fo rm u la you can fin d a n y te rm in
th e sequence.
Q u e stio n s a b o u t s equences w ill give you th e s ta rt o f a sequence, p ro b a b ly ask y o u to fin d th e
ne xt te rm o r tw o , and th e n ask you to fin d th e fo rm u la fo rth e n th term .
T he q u e s tio n s w ill ofte n s ta rt by g ivin g you a set o f d ia g ra m s fro m w h ic h you can fin d th e
seq ue nce o f n um bers.
These q u e s tio n s o n sequences can be tre a te d like puzzles. You th in k o f a p o s s ib le fo rm u la ,
te s t it, a nd a d ju s t it u n til y o u get it right. The sequences them selves p ro v id e th e clues you
need,
Finding the Clues
O n e w a y to fin d a fo rm u la fo r th e n th te rm is to w rite d o w n the d ifferences b e tw e e n
successive te rm s (h o w m u c h you need to add to o r s u b tra c t fro m a te rm to g e t th e next
te rm in th e sequence).
Take th e sequence: 5 , 8 ,1 1 ,1 4 ,1 7 ,2 0 ,2 3 ,...
W rite it in a v e rtic a l ta b le , as in Table 5.3.
Term num ber Term Difference
1 5
+3
2 8
+3
3 11
+3
4 14
+3
 ^ 5 Working with Algebra

Term num ber Term Difference

5 17
+3
6 20
+3
7 23

Table 5 .3 Term differences

For th is sequence th e difference betw een each te rm is a c o n s ta n t (+3).

This m eans th a t the fo rm u la fo r th e nth term is based on th e th re e tim e s table, o r3 n .

This is th e basis fo r th e fo rm u la , b u t you n ow need to te st o n e o r tw o te rm s because you

need to add a n o th e r n u m b e r to o b ta in th e co rre c t s ta rtin g p o in t. (The th re e tim e s ta b le
w o u ld n o rm a lly s ta rt w ith 3.)

U sing th e fo rm u la 3n:

w h e n n = 1 (the firs t te rm ) th e te rm w o u ld be 3 x 1 = 3, b u t it is a c tu a lly 5.

w he n n = 2 (the second term ) th e te rm w o u ld be 3 x 2 = 6 , b u t it is 8 .

We have to add 2 each tim e to m ake th e co rre c t sequence.

The n th te rm is 3 n + 2.

C heck by c a lc u la tin g th e 7th te rm .

The 7th te rm = 3 x 7 + 2 = 2 1 + 2 = 23, w h ic h is correct, so w e have fo u n d th e c o rre c t fo rm u la .

S o m e tim e s you m ig h t have to fin d a second set o f differences before th e y b ecom e c o n s ta n t.

T his c hanges th e fo rm o fth e fo rm u la .

Look a t th e sequence: 4 ,7 ,1 2 ,1 9 ,2 8 ,3 9 ,5 2 .......and lo o k a t th e differences show n in Table 5.4.

Term num ber Term First difference Second difference

1 4

+3
2 7 +2
+5

3 12 +2
+7
4 19 +2

+9
5 28 +2

+11
6 39 +2
+13
7 52

Table 5 .4 Second differences

5 Working with Algebra J

The differences have s e ttle d d o w n and becom e c o n s ta n t in th e second co lu m n .

This m eans th a t th e fo rm u la is based on n 2.

T estin g th e firs t tw o term s:

12 = 1, b u t th e te rm is 4
2 2 = 4, b u t th e te rm is 7

We need to add 3 each tim e to generate th e c o rre c t sequence, so th e fo rm u la is:

n th te rm = n 2 + 3

C heck th e 7th te rm : 7 2 + 3 = 49 + 3 = 52, so th e fo rm u la is correct.

As you get used to d o in g these questions you w ill p ro b a b ly n o t have to w rite th e te rm s in a vertical
table, b u t it can help a t first. The exam ples show the se ttin g o u t horizontally to save space.

Example 7
a Write down the first three terms and the 100th term when nth term = 2 n2- 3.
b Find the nth term for the following sequences:
i -4 ,1 ,6 ,1 1 ,1 6 ,2 1 ,2 6 ,... ii 6 ,9 ,1 4 ,2 1 ,3 0 ,...
iii 1 0 ,9 ,8 ,7 ,6 ,...
c For each of the sequences in part (b) find the 30th term.
Answer 7
a 2 x l 2 - 3 = -1
2 x 2 2- 3 = 5
2 x 3 2- 3 = 15
2 x l0 0 2- 3 = 19997

1 11 16 21

+5 +5 +5 +5 +5 +5

formula is based on 5 n
first term: - 4 = 5 x 1 - 9
nth term = 5n - 9

formula is based on n2
first term: 6 = l 2+ 5
nthterm = n 2 + 5
ii i
10 9 8

-1 -1 -1

fo rm u la is based on - I n (or ju s t - n)
firs t te rm : 10 = - 1 + 11
nth te rm = - n + 11
I 3 0 th te rm = 5 x 30 - 9 = 141 3 0 th te rm = 3 0 2 + 5 = 905
iii 3 0 th te rm = - 3 0 + 11 = - 1 9

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 [ 5 Working with Algebra

Exercise 5.7 NO CALCULATOR IN TH IS EXERCISE

1 4 ,5 ,6 ,7 ,...

For th e sequence show n a bove find:

a th e 50th term , b th e nth term .

2 7 ,8 ,9 ,1 0 ,...

Find: a th e 50th term , b th e n th term .

3 - 6 ,- 3 , 0 , 3 , 6 ,9 ,...

Find: a th e next tw o term s, b th e n th term , c th e 103rd te rm .

4 1 6 ,2 5 ,3 6 ,4 9 ,...

Find: a th e next tw o term s, b th e n th term , c th e 55th te rm .

5 3 ,6 ,1 1 ,1 8 ,2 7 ,3 8 ,...

Find: a th e next tw o term s, b th e n th term , c th e 19th te rm .

shape
number

number
of sides
number of
diagonals

a C opy th e d ia g ra m above and fill in th e b la n k spaces.

b H ow m a n y s id e s w o u ld th e re be in th e 50th shape?
c Find th e n th te rm fo r th e sides.
The /ith term for the diagonals is given by: /ith term — n +£ 2

d Find th e n u m b e r o f d ia g o n a ls in th e 50th shape.

5 .6 Sim ultaneous Equations

We have solved e q u a tio n s w ith o n e va ria b le (usually x), and n o w need to s tu d y e q u a tio n s
Key term w ith tw o variables, fo r e x a m p le ,;^ 2 x + 3.

A lin e a r e q u a tio n is This e q u a tio n is calle d a l i n e a r e q u a t i o n fo r reasons you w ill see in a la te r c h a p te r. There
an equation in tw o is n o t ju s t one va lu e o f x w h ic h w ill satisfy th is e q u a tio n because th e va lu e o f y needs to be
variables which will take n in to a cc o u n t as w ell.
produce a straight line
when it is drawn on a We can u sua lly fin d pairs o f values fo r x and y w h ic h satisfy th e e q u a tio n .
graph (see Chapter 7), S u ppose w e m a k e x = 4?
fo r e x a m p le y = 2 x - l .
Then y = 2x + 3
be co m e s y = 2x4 + 3
=8+3
7 = 11
5 Working with Algebra J

an d w e can say th a t x = 4 and y = 11 satisfy th e e q u a tio n , o r m a ke it true.

These values can be w ritte n as a p a ir o f n u m b e rs in brackets: (4,11).

N o tice th a t t h e * va lu e is alw ays w ritte n first.

We can fin d an in fin ite n u m b e r o f s o lu tio n s to th e e q u a tio n , all o f th e m pairs o f values

fo r x and y.

A n o th e r e xa m ple, supp o se x = 100?

y = 2x + 3
^ = 2x100 + 3
y = 203

So (100,203) is also a s o lu tio n to th e e q u a tio n .

We w ill p ic k a few s o lu tio n s to th e e q u a tio n , and you sh o u ld c h e ck if th e y are correct.

y = 2x + 3

S o m e s o lu tio n s : (4,11), (1,5), (-1 ,1 ), (0,3), (5,13), (100,203).

L o o k in g a t a n o th e r e q u a tio n :

y = 3x-2

an d som e o f its s o lu tio n s , c h o o s in g th e sam e values o f x to try:

(4,10), (1,1), (-1 , -5 ), (0, - 2 ), (5,13), (100, 298)

C o m p a rin g th e tw o lists you s h o u ld see th a t o n e s o lu tio n , (5,13), app e a rs in b o th lists.

You w ill see in a la te r c h a p te rth a t fo r any p a ir o f lin e a r e q u a tio n s th e re w ill be o n ly o n e

s o lu tio n w h ic h satisfies th e m both.

S o lvin g a p a ir o f lin e a r e q u a tio n s to fin d th e s o lu tio n w h ic h b e lo n g s to th e m b o th is c a lle d

Key terms s o lv in g th e m si mul t aneousl y. The tw o e q u a tio n s are ca lle d s im u lta n e o u s e q u a tio n s .
Simultaneous
S o m e tim e s tw o e q u a tio n s have no c o m m o n s o lu tio n , b u t all th e s im u lta n e o u s e q u a tio n s y o u
equations are two
will be given to solve will have a solution that is true for both of them.
equations, each with
two variables, which We need to fin d a m e th o d fo r s o lv in g s im u lta n e o u s e q u a tio n s because ju s t try in g s o lu tio n s
have a solution which m ig h t ta ke fo re v e r before w e fin d th e c o rre c t p a ir o f values.
satisfies both equations.
When drawn on a graph The m e th o d w e w ill use is ca lle d e l i m i n a t i o n because w e p u t th e tw o e q u a tio n s to g e th e r in
the lines cross at this a w ay w h ic h el i mi nat es one o f th e variables, e ith e r * o r / , to give an e q u a tio n w ith o n ly o n e
solution. va ria b le , w h ic h w e can solve.
Elim ination is a method
For exa m ple , c o n s id e r th e p a ir o f e q u a tio n s
for finding the solution
which satisfies both y+2x=l
simultaneous equations. and y + x=4.

If w e take th e second e q u a tio n aw ay fro m the first w e w ill e lim in a te t h e / term s.

y + 2x = 7
y J r X ~ a> s u b tra c t
0+ x = 3
x=3

N ow w e k n o w * w e can s u b s titu te x = 3 in to e ith e r o f th e o rig in a l e q u a tio n s .

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 [ 5 Working with Algebra

S u b s titu tin g x = 3 in the first e q uation:

y + 2x3=7
y+ 6 = 7
7=1
We w o u ld get the same result if w e s ubstituted x = 3 into th e second equation.

Try it y ours elf to check this.

The s o lu tio n for these tw o e q u a tio n s is (3,1).

You m ay have to add or s u b tra c t th e tw o equ a tio n s as the e xam ple shows.

Example 8
In each case solve the given pairs of equations simultaneously,
a y -x = 7 b 3_y+ 2x = 6
2y + x = 5 —3y —x = 3

Answer 8
a y -x = 1
2 y + x = 5 add
3 y + 0 = T2
7=12 + 3

y = 4

Substitutingy = 4 into the first equation

4 —x = 7 ( -4 )
-x = 3 (x -1 )
x = -3

Solution for these two equations is (-3,4).

b 3y + 2 x = 6
- 3 y - x = 3 add
0+ x = 9
Substitutingx = 9 into the first equation
3 jy + 1 8 = 6 (-1 8 )
3y = -1 2
y = - 4 (+ 3 )
Solution is (9, -4 )

N ow d o th is exercise, b u t re m e m b e r th a t you are try in g to e lim in a te x o r y . If, fo r e xam ple,

you ad d th e e q u a tio n s w hen you s h o u ld have s u b tra c te d th e n you w ill end up w ith a n o th e r
e q u a tio n in b o th x and y, w h ic h w ill get you now here. If th is happen s try again!

Exercise 5.8 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e
Solve th e s e pairs o f s im u lta n e o u s e q u a tio n s .

1 x + 5y = 6 2 3x+y = 8
x + 3y = 2 2x-y=2

3 y + 4x = 1 4 5y+7x = 8
3 / - 4x = 3 5y + 4x = 2
The tw o e q u a tio n s m a y n o t alw a ys have a te rm th a t can be e lim in a te d s tra ig h t a w ay, and you
m ay have to m u ltip ly o n e o f th e m by a n u m b e r firs t to get tw o te rm s th a t are s am e.

For e xa m ple, if w e w e re asked to solve:

y+3 x = ll
2y + x = 2

w e c o u ld m u ltip ly th e firs t e q u a tio n a ll th ro u g h b y 2 firs t so th a t b o th e q u a tio n s have th e te rm

2y in th e m . We c o u ld th e n s u b tra c t to e lim in a te th e 2y term s, le a vin g an e q u a tio n in x only.
The fo llo w in g m e th o d m akes y o u r w o rk in g ve ry c le a r and easy to fo llo w .

y + 3 x = 11 — 2y + 6x = 22 subtract
_ .. 2 y+ x = 2
2y + x = 2 ------- > / _-------- -
7 0 + 5x = 2 0
x= 4

S u b s titu te x = 4 in to th e firs t e q u a tio n .

> - + 3 x 4 = 11
y =-l
S o lu tio n is (4, -1 ).

It is e asier to add th e tw o e q u a tio n s th a n s u b tra c t because th e chances o f m a k in g a m is ta k e

w ith th e signs are less. If th e tw o te rm s y o u are try in g to e lim in a te have th e sa m e sign th e re is
s o m e th in g y o u can d o to h e lp p re v e n t sign errors.

F or exam ple, lo o k a t th e s e tw o e q u a tio n s :

/+ 3 x = 8

3y—2 x = 2
Set o u t th e w o rk in g as above, and in ste a d o f s u b tra c tin g , m u ltip ly th e w h o le o fth e s econd
e q u a tio n b y - 1 so th a t y o u can ad d . T his is easy beca u se all it m eans is th a t y o u c h a n g e every
sign in th e second e q u a tio n .
y + 3x = 8 — > 3^ + 9x = 24 ------- > 3y + 9x = 24
3 / - 2x = 2 -------» 3 / - 2x = 2 X ~ 1 > ~ 3^ + 2 x -~ ~ 2 ad d
7 7 0 + 1 1x = 22
x = 2

S u b s titu tin g in th e firs t e q u a tio n g iv e s / = 2, so th e s o lu tio n is (2,2).

P o ints to w a tch o u t for:

• R e m e m be r th a t th e a im is to e lim in a te o n e o fth e te rm s fro m each e q u a tio n .

• Look fo r te rm s in e it h e r x o r y w h ic h have th e sa m e c o e ffic ie n ts in each e q u a tio n .
• If y o u need to m u ltip ly o n e e q u a tio n by a n u m b e r to e q u alise th e c o e ffic ie n ts th e n
re m e m b e r to m u ltip ly th e wh o l e e q uat i on (in c lu d in g th e rig h t-h a n d side).
• If th e signs o fth e te rm s th a t you w a n t to e lim in a te are the same, it is easier to m u ltip ly o n e
e q u a tio n b y - 1 a n d a d d th e e q u a tio n s .
• If you m u ltip ly o n e e q u a tio n th ro u g h b y - 1 , ju s t c h a n g e every sign (in c lu d in g th e rig h t-
hand side) in th a t e q u a tio n .
• If th e signs o fth e tw o te rm s you need to e lim in a te are di fferent you ju s t add th e tw o
e q u a tio n s.
 ( 5 Working with fllgehra

Example 9 ■\
Solve each pair of equations simultaneously.
a 7 x -3 p ll b 2y + x = 5
x+y = - 3 2 x +y =7
Answer 9
a 7x 3>/ - 11 ------- > 7x 3 jk - 11
, x3 3x + 3 y = - 9
x ----------* , 0 , =2

* =5

S u b s t it u t e * ^ in the second equation:

l+y =-3
*-|in
ro
II
I
I

y=^ Answer: (1 ,= ^

b 2y + x = 5
2x+y = 7
Rearrange the first equation
Ar +T ?£-yv —R
J r tA 1 *r V — 110U ----- 'i 2x + 4y = 10
4- v —"7 \ ?y J- ii — "7 ^ ^ i 2 x - y = -7
-
3y= 3 3dd
y= i
S u b s titu te ;^ 1 in the first equation:
x + 2 x l= 5
x=3 Answer: (3,1)
V

Exercise 5.9 N O C A L C U L A T O R IN T H IS E X E R C IS E
Solve e ach p a ir o f e q u a tio n s s im u lta n e o u s ly .
1 - y + x = 15 2 y= 6 x -1 0 3 16x = 3 _ y -5 4 5x + 6y= 7
+ 3x = 5 37 = x+ 4 4x=y-l x + 2y=l

5 2x+_y = 5 6 2p-q = 4 7 3 * + 7 = -1 0 8 3 x + 2 ^ = 10
x + 2y = 4 p-3q = 2 x + 2^ = - 5 5x-4y=2
9 5 x -2 y = 1 7 1 0 7x — 2y + 5 = 0
3x + 4y = 5 3x - + 45 = 0

S im u lta n e o u s e q u a tio n s m a y be used to solve p ro b le m s w ith u n k n o w n num bers. A le tte r is

assigned to each n u m b e rth a t is u n k n o w n . The in fo rm a tio n ava ila b le is used to w rite do w n
e q u a tio n s u sin g the se letters. The e q u a tio n s are th e n solved s im u lta n e o u s ly to fin d these
u n k n o w n n u m b e rs.

■< NOTE: i f : '■ .

There must be at least as many independent equations as there are unknown numbers. In other
words, if there are two unknowns, such a s * and y, there must be at least two different bits of
information linking* and;/. Ifyou work through the next example you will see what is meant by
independent equations.
5 Working with Algebra J

Example 10
2y cm

x cm

2y cm

Figure 5 .6 P erim eters

Figure 5.6 shows a triangle and a rectangle with sides of unknown lengths.
The perimeter of the triangle is 10 centimetres, and the perimeter ofthe rectangle is
28 centimetres.

a Write down two independent equations in x and y using the above two separate pieces
of information.
b Solve these two equations simultaneously to find x and y.

c Write down the lengths ofth e sides ofthe rectangle.

Answer 10
a 2x + y=10 (from the triangle)
2x + 4y = 28 (from the rectangle)

2x + y = 10
2x + 4y = 28 subtract
-3y = - 1 8 (+ -3 )
y= 6
substitute_y = 6 into the first equation:
2 x + 6 = 10 (-6)
2 x = 10 - 6

2x = 4 (-=-2)
x= 2
x = 2 and ^ = 6

The rectangle has sides 2 centimetres and 12 centimetres.

Exercise 5.10 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e
M ixed exercise

1 Solve these equ a tio n s:

a 3x-x + 2 b 4 x -5 = 2 x -8 c 6 = 5(2x+ 3)
d lx + 6 -2 x = 9 x -2 e 3 (x -5 ) = 2(4 -3 x) f 5 (x -3 ) = -15x

\
122
 !v 5 Working with Algebra

g 2x + 3 = x - 3 h 3 x - 2(x + 1) = 2 ( x - 1)
i 4a + 3(3 - a) = 2(a + 1 ) - [2a - 1 )
j !?=46-7

2 R earrange these fo rm u la e to m ake th e letters in b o ld th e subject.

a A = nr2 b c l/= | d 4 = i( a + &)/

q + r
f a2 = b2 + c2 g p=v h A = B (x + c)

j 3a 2 + x 2 = b2 k V = ah I a= ^

m /1 = ^(a + b)/

3 a C opy th e p a tte rn below , and d ra w th e next shape.

shape
number

number
of lines

b Find th e n th te rm fo r th e n u m b e r o f lines,
c Find th e n u m b e r o f lines in th e 99th shape.

4 Find th e n th te rm fo r th e fo llo w in g sequences.

a 2 6 10 1 4 ...
b -3 0 3 6 ...

c 4 2 0 -2 ...

5 Solve th e fo llo w in g pairs o f s im u lta n e o u s e q u a tio n s.

a y = 3x + 5 b 2y + 3 x = 6 c 5 7 + 3 x = 1 9
y — ~x t l y \ x — 3 y ±x —A

6 Yasm in th in k s o f tw o num bers. She says th a t th e sum o fth e tw o n u m b e rs is 57, and th e

d iffe re n ce betw e e n th e tw o n u m b e rs is 15.
a Let th e n u m b e rs be x and y.
Form tw o e q u a tio n s in x a n d y .
b Solve the tw o equations sim ultaneously to find the tw o num bers th a t Yasmin th o u g h t of.

2x cm

(y + 3) cm (x + y) cm

The p e rim e te r o f th e rectangle is 36 ce n tim e tre s, and th e p e rim e te r o f th e square is

48 ce n tim e tres.
Use th e in fo rm a tio n given to c a lc u la te th e d im e n s io n s o fth e rectangle.

8 As w e have seen in C h a p te r 4, th e fo rm u la used to c a lc u la te s im p le in te re st \ sl = Pr T

w h ere I is th e s im p le interest, P is th e p rin c ip a l (or a m o u n t), r is th e rate o f in te re st (as a
percentage) and T is th e tim e (in years),
a Rearrange th e fo rm u la to m ake P th e su bject,
b C opy and c o m p le te th e ta b le by c a lc u la tin g th e m issing values.

123
5 WoiHlngwttmUflBbra J

NOTE: It can be easier to m ake th e calcu latio n ify o u convert th e percentage rate
in to a decim al firs t.

/($) P($) r (%) T (years)

i 1000 3.25 0.5
ii 75 10 2
iii 1500 2500 10
iv 66.50 100 13.3

Exam-style questions J
9 Make s th e s u b je c t o fth e fo rm u la p = s t - q . (0580 p a p e r 01 Q12 June 2005)

10 Solve th e e q u a tio n 5 x - 7 = 8 . (0580 p a p e r 01 Q5 N o ve m b e r 2005)

11 b = m (a - c )
a Evaluate fcw hen m = 5, a = 8 and c = - 3 .
b R earrange th e fo rm u la to m ake c th e s u b je c t (4024 p a p e r 11 Q 10 June 2013)

12 a The te rm -to -te rm rule fo r a sequence is

( m u ltip ly th e p re vio u s te rm by 3 and s u b tra c t 1. )

The firs t th re e te rm s in th is sequence are 1 , 2 and 5.

W rite d o w n th e next tw o te rm s in th is sequence,
b The n th te rm o f a second sequence is given by th e expression An - 3.
Find th e n u m b e r in th is sequence th a t is clo s e st to 150.
c The n th te rm o f a d iffe re n t sequence is given by th e expression n2 + 1 .
i W rite d o w n th e firs t fo u r te rm s o f th is sequence.
ii H ence w rite d o w n an expression, in te rm s o f n. fo r th e n th te rm o f th e fo llo w in g
sequence.
0 3 8 15 ...
(4024 p a p e r 1 1 Q18 N o ve m b e r 2014)

13 a Solve th e e q u a tio n s:
i 3 x —4 = 14
ii ^ = 5
iii 3(2z - 7) - 2(z - 3) = -9 .
b D onna s e n tp postca rd s and q letters to her friends.
i The to ta l n u m b e r o f postcards and letters she sent w as 12.
W rite d o w n an e q u a tio n in p and q.
ii A sta m p fo r a postca rd costs 25 cents and a s ta m p fo r a le tte r costs 40 ce rts.
She sp e n t 375 cents on sta m p s a ltogether.
W rite d o w n a n o th e r e q u a tio n \np and q.
iii Solve these e q u a tio n s to fin d the values o f p and q. (0580 pa p e r 03 Q4 _ jn e 2008)

1 4 s = ~ ( a + b)
a Evaluate s w hen n = 200, a = 3.6 and b = 5.7.
b Rearrange the f o rm u la to m ake b the subject. (4024 paper 11 Q12 N o v e n b e r 2014)

124
 ^ 5 Working with Algebra

15 Solve th e s im u lta n e o u s e q u a tio n s

3x + y = 9 5 ,
x + y = 29. (4024 p a p e r 01 Q'J J u n e 2005)

16 C = | ( F - 32)
a C a lcu la te C w h en F = - 4 .
b Express F in te rm s o f C. (4024 p a p e r 0.1 Q9 J u n e 2005)
1 1
17 a W rite d o w n th e next tw o te rm s in th e sequence 2 0 ,1 6 j , 1 3 ,9 2 »6 , . . .
b W rite d o w n an expression, in term s o f n, for the nth term o fth e sequence 1 ,4 ,7 ,1 0 ,1 3 ,...

(4024 p a per 01 Q4 N o ve m b e r 2004)

18 The n th te rm o f a sequence is —2.

a W rite d o w n th e first th re e te rm s o fth e sequence, expressing each te rm in its s im p le s t
fo rm .
b The /cth te rm in th e sequence is
Find th e va lu e o f k. (4024 paper 1 Q21a and b J u n e 2009)

19 Solve th e s im u lta n e o u s e q u a tio n s

2 x - 7=16,
3x + 2y = 17. (4024 paper 01 Q16 N o v e m b e r 2007)
mv - mu
2 0 The fo rce a c tin g on an o b je c t d u rin g a c o llis io n is given by th e fo rm u la F =
t
a Given th a t m = 4, v = 5, w = 3 and ( = 0.01, fin d th e va lu e o f F.
b R earrange th e fo rm u la to m ake m th e su b je ct. (4024 paper 01 Q9 N o ve m b e r 2009)

2 1 A series o f d iagram s, using th re e types o f tria n g le , is sh o w n below . The tria n g le s are

grey, w h ite o r black.

TTTH
TT T ▼TTY
▼▼▼ TTTY
KA TTTT
Diagram 1 Diagram 2 Diagram 3 Diagram 4

The ta b le b e lo w show s th e n u m b e rs o f each ty p e o f tria n g le used in th e dia g ra m s.

Diagram 1 2 3 4 n
Grey triangles 2 4 6 X
White triangles 1 4 9 y
Black triangles 0 2 6 z

a C o m p le te th e c o lu m n fo r D iagram 4.
b By c o n s id e rin g th e n u m b e r p a tte rn s in th e ta b le , fin d , in te rm s o f n, expressions fo r
x , y and z. (4024 paper 01 Q24 N o v e m b e r 2007)

/
125
 Geometry and Shape l
Learning Objectives Syllabus sections 2 8 ,2 9 ,3 0 ,3 1 ,3 2 ,3 3

In this chapter you will: learn the properties of three-dimensional

• practise drawing accurately using a ruler, shapes and their nets
compasses and a protractor start learning about similar and congruent
• learn facts aiboutafigtes connected with shapes
triangles, parallel lines, polygons and circles tisvean introduction to lociis
• learn about symmetry make simple scale drawings
• construct triangles accurately

6 .1 Introduction
For th is c h a p te r you w ill need a p ro tra c to r, a p a ir o f com passes, a ruler, a p a ir o f scissors
and so m e tra c in g paper.

There is q u ite a lo t o f p ra c tic a l w o rk and accurate d ra w in g in th is chapter. This is designed

to he lp yo u u n d e rs ta n d th e shapes a n d th e ir p ro p e rtie s and th u s m e m o ris e th e m . You w ill
fin d o u t fo r y o u rs e lf m a n y o f th e fa cts th a t y o u need to know . H ow ever, bear in m in d th a t
these are n o t proof s o fth e facts. For th is course you d o n o t need to k n o w th e proofs, b u t
you d o need to be a b le to recalt th e facts.
It is an essential p a rt o f y o u r course th a t you have skills in using g e o m e tric a l in stru m e n ts . If
yo u feel c o n fid e n t th a t you can use a p ro tra c to r and a p a ir o f com passes co rrectly, and you
m easure th e lines and angles in th e e ssential skills exercise accurately, you can go s tra ig h t
on to S e ction 6.4, ‘ Lines and an gles’; o th e rw is e , read S ection 6.3, 'G e o m e tric in s tru m e n ts ’.

6 .2 Essential Skills NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

1 Use a p ro tra c to r to m easure th e angles betw e e n each o f these pairs o f lines.

126
 [ 6 Geometry and Shape I

2 Use a ru ler to m easure these lines.

6 .3 Geom etric Instrum ents

The easiest p ro tra c to r to use is the c irc u la r ty p e illu s tra te d in Figure 6.1, as sim p le as possible,
w ith angles up to 360°. W ith a 360° p ro tra c to r you can m easure angles greater th a n 180°
w ith o u t ha vin g to d o a c a lc u la tio n .

W hen you use th e p ro tra c to r m ake sure th a t the zero lies a ccu ra te ly on o n e o f th e arm s o f
th e angle, and th a t you c o u n t ro u n d th e scale w h ic h starts a t zero, ro u n d to th e o th e r arm , as
sh o w n in th e illu s tra tio n s.

The ce n tre o f th e p ro tra c to r m u s t c o in c id e w ith th e p o in t o f th e angle ify o u are m e asuring

an angle, as show n in Figure 6.1a. It m u st c o in c id e w ith th e end o f th e line on w h ic h you
w a n t to d ra w th e angle as show n in Figure 6.1b. Ify o u have any d o u b ts a b o u t y o u r use o f the
p ro tra c to r check th e exam ples c a re fu lly and m ake sure th a t you can o b ta in th e values given
in th e answ ers.

F ig u re 6 .1 a Measuring an angle: the angle measures 40° b Drawing an angle: the angle
being drawn is 125°

The best p a ir o f com passes have a sm a ll w heel in th e c e n tre w h ic h you ro ta te to o p e n the

com passes to th e req uired length, and a piece o f lead ra th e r th a n a p e ncil to d ra w th e curve.
These w ill n o t slip w h ile you are using th e m , w h ic h fre q u e n tly happen s w ith o th e r types.
In questions on shape Figure 6.2 show s an exa m p le o f th is typ e o f com pass, and a 180° p ro tra cto r.
and geometry, you may
be asked to construct, to
draw and measure, or
to calculate an answer.
If the question says
calculate you have
not answered it if you
rely on drawing and
: § g f i P | . S o y $ must
F ig u re 6.2 A pair of compasses and a 180° protractor
answer the question as
w B H b I ^ m B I ou
Make sure th a t y o u r p e n cil is sharp to m in im is e e x p e rim e n ta l error!
must show a calculation
if that is required. I M ost o f th e d ia g ram s in th is c h a p te r are n o t d raw n to scale, so unless you are asked to
m easure an angle o r side you w ill need to c a lc u la te it.
6 Geometry and Shape I J

6 .4 Lines and Angles

A ngles are m easured in degrees. O ne degree is a c o m p le te tu rn d iv id e d in to 360 e q u a l parts,
so 360° is a c o m p le te tu rn . If you stand in a ro o m fa c in g th e d o o r and tu rn ro u n d u n til you are
fa c in g th e d o o r again you have tu rn e d th ro u g h 360°. This m ig h t sound a stra n g e n u m b e r to
use w h e n w e are used to th e m e tric system in w h ic h w e m ig h t e xpect a c o m p le te tu rn to be
d iv id e d in to 100 o r 1000 e q u a l parts. H ow ever, 360 tu rn s o u t to be a very g o o d ch o ic e because
th e n u m b e r 360 has so m a n y d iffe re n t factors. This m eans th a t m o re fra c tio n s o f c o m p le te
tu rn s m ay be w ritte n as a w h o le n u m b e r o f degrees. For exam ple, one sixth o f a c o m p le te tu rn
is 60°, b u t o n e sixth o f 1 0 0 is 16.6666666...

To s ta rt w ith , w e m u s t m ake sure th a t w e are a ll ta lk in g a b o u t th e sam e ty p e s o f angles, w h ic h

are illu s tra te d in Figures 6.3-6.8.

An ang le b etw e e n 0° and 90° is c a lle d an acu te angle.

An ang le o f 90° is a rig h t angle.
An an g le b e tw een 90° and 180° is an o b tu se angle.
An an gle o f 180° is a s tra ig h t angle.
An an gle b e tw e e n 180° a n d 360° is a reflex angle.
An a ngle o f 360° is a c o m p le te tu rn .

Also note:

• Angles on a s tra ig h t line a d d up to 180°.

• A ngles ro u n d a p o in t a d d up to 360°.

Exercise 6.1
M easure th e angles a to f sh o w n b e lo w and ch eck w ith th e answ ers in th e back o fth e b o o k to
m a ke sure th a t y o u have th e c o rre c t m easurem ents.

Figu re 6 .4 right angle Figure 6 .5 ob tu se angle

0-
Figure 6 .6 straight angle Figure 6.7 A reflex angle Figure 6 .8 A complete turn

Angles and lines are usually given capital letters to nam e them in a diagram , as show n in Figure 6.9.

Figure 6 .9 aAngle/4BC b Line PQ

\
128
 [ 6 Geometry and Shape!

The a ngle show n in Figure 6.9a is angl e ABC (or CBA). F ollo w th e le tte rs ro u n d so th a t the
le tte r a t th e p o in t o f th e angle is in the centre o f the th re e letters. (In th is case th e ce n tre o f
ABC is B, and the sides o fth e angle are the lines /AB and BC.)

N o ta tio n :
NOTE:
In this chapter either • A b b re v ia tio n s fo r angle ABC are Z A BC or ABC.
symbol may be used. If th e re is n o d o u b t a b o u t w h ic h angle w e are referring to it m ay be ca lle d ju s t Z B o r B.
• The line is m ore s im p ly referred to as the line PQ (or QP).

The o rd e r o f th e letters does n o t m a tte r except th a t, as stated above, angles m u st have the
le tte r at th e p o in t o fth e angle in th e centre o fth e g ro u p o f th re e letters.

Example 1
In the triangle shown below name the angles marked x ,y and z.
A
P, ^

Answer 1
x is either /C A B or /C A P (or CAB or CAP) or, because there is no doubt about which angle we
are referring to, it can be called / A (or A).
y is /P C S . It cannot be called / C because there are three angles at C ( / ACP , /P C B
and /A C B ).
z is /A P C , (to distinguish it from ZB P C ).

Exercise 6.2
1 N am e th e angles and sides sh o w n by sm a ll letters in th e d ia g ra m s be lo w .

K
Q

2 M easure th e angles and sides nam e d in the d ia g ra m s below .

1129
6 Geometry and Shape I J

3 For each o f th e a ngles b e lo w , s ta te w h e th e r it is a c u te , o b tuse, reflex o r a rig h t angle.

25° d 125° e 225° f 325° g 100°

h 90° i 89° j 189° k 174°

4 U sing th e fa cts th a t ang le s o n a s tra ig h t lin e add u p to 180° and angles a ro u n d a p o in t a d d
u p to 360°, fin d th e va lu e o f jc in each o fth e fo llo w in g d iagram s.

Key terms 6 .5 Pairs of Lines

Parallel lines never
A pair o f lines draw n on p a p e r can be p a ra lle l (they never meet), or if th e y are n o t parallel
meet.
they m u s t in te rs e c t at so m e p oint. This p o in t o f inte rs e c tio n m ay not be on th e paper, b u t if
Perpendicular lines are
the lines w ere ex te n d e d th e y w o u ld e v e n tu a lly intersect s om ew h ere.
at 90° to each other.
If th e lines intersect a t right angles th e y are said to be p e rp e n d ic u la r to each other.
\
130
 [ 6 Geometry and Shape I

Figures 6 .1 0 -6 .1 3 sh o w : p a ra lle l lines and the arro w s t h a t w e use to signify th a t the

lines are parallel; lines t h a t are n o t parallel b u t d o n o t inte rs e c t on th e page;
in te rs e c tin g lines; p e r p e n d ic u la r lines w ith the little squ a re w h ic h in d ic a te s
a right angle.

Key terms
H orizontal lines are
parallel to the surface of
the Earth.
Figure 6.12 Intersecting lines Figure 6.13 Perpendicular lines
Vertical lines are
perpendicular to the
surface ofthe Earth. Lines m a y also be horizontal (p a ra lle l to th e surface o fth e earth, o r to th e h orizon if it is n o t
hilly), o r vertical (at rig h t angles, o r p e rp e n d ic u la r, to th e g round ).

It is usu al to d ra w h o riz o n ta l lines across th e page and v e rtic a l lines up and d o w n th e page, as
in Figure 6.14.

Vertical line

-| Horizontal line

Figure 6.14 Vertical and horizontal lines

Exercise 6.3
Use th e w o rd s pa ra lle l, in te rs e c tin g , p e rp e n d ic u la r, h o riz o n ta l o r v e rtic a l to describe th e
fo llo w in g :

1 R ailw ay lines. 2 An e le c tric ity pole.

6 Geometry and Shape I J

3 The side o f a house. 4 The to p and side o f a door.

5 Tw o edges o f a p yra m id . 6 T he tw o lines th a t m ake up th e le tte r X.

8 The rails o f th e fence.

If o n e line d ivid e s a n o th e r lin e in to tw o e qual parts it is ca lle d th e b isecto r o f th e line. In

Figure 6.15 th e line/46 bisects th e line PQ at th e p o in tX . The tw o dashes on each sid e o f X
s h ow th a t PX and XQ are e q u a l in length.

If one line divides a n o th e r line into tw o equal parts and

Q is a t right angles it is called th e p erp en d icu lar bisector
o fth e line. This is show n in Figure 6.16 w here AB is the
perp e n d icu la r bisector o f RS.

Figure 6 .1 5 B is e c to r

A If th e lines are b o th d iv id e d in to e q u a l parts th e y are

th e b isectors o f each o th e r, as show n in Figure 6.17
(they co u ld also be th e p e rp e n d ic u la r b ise cto rs o f
each o th e r as show n in th e second d ia g ra m ). The
single dashes on one o fth e lines s h o w th a t b o th parts
are e q u a l in length, b u t are n o t e qual to th e lines w ith
d o u b le dashes.
Figure 6 .1 6 P e rp e n d ic u la r b is e c to r

132
 I 6 Geometry and Shape I

Figure 6.17 a Equal bisectors b Equal p erp en d icu lar bisectors

Investigation The shortest distance from a point to a line

Measure the lengths of all the lines between the point A and the line XY'm the diagrams
in Figure 6.18.
In which diagram is the line the shortest?
What could you say about the tw o lines (or the angles) in the diagram you have chosen?

A A A

Figure 6.18 Shortest distance from a point to a line

You should find that the shortest distance from a point to a line is the perpendicular from the
point to the line.

The Shortest distance between two parallel lines

Measure the lengths shown in Figure 6.19.
What could you say about the line which has the shortest length? Ifyou are to measure the
distance between two lines, you have to use the shortest distance.

You should find that the shortest distance between parallel lines is along the line which is
perpendicular to both of them.

6 .6 Triangles
Triangles m ay e ither be:

• scalene (w ith no sides o r angles equal to each other)

• isosceles (w ith tw o sides and tw o angles equal)
• e q u ila te ra l (with all three sides equal and all three angles equal to 60°).
6 Geometry and Shape I J

They m ay also be:

• rig h t-a n g le d (w ith o n e angle e q u a l to 90°)

• a c u te -a n g le d (w ith all th re e angles less th a n 90°)
• o b tu s e -a n g le d (w ith o n e a ngle g re a te r th a n 90° and less th a n 180°

Example 2
Describe each of the triangles shown below.

Answer 2
a Right-angled, isosceles Scalene, obtuse-angled
c Isosceles, acute-angled Equilateral

Sum of the angles of a triangle

Practical work
J 1 For each o fth e triangles shown below measure the angles and find the sum ofthe angles.

2 Draw any triangle, and cut it out.

Tear off each angle as shown in Figure 6.20.
Rearrange the torn-off angles to fit on a straight line.

What is the angle sum of a triangle?

In each o f these cases you should find th a t th e angles add up to about 180°,
In fact, th e angle sum o f a triangle is 180°.

134
 [ 6 Geometry and Shape I

You w ill be asked to draw triangles accurately using either a ruler and protractor, or a ruler
and compasses, or m aybe all three. You will be asked to leave in y our 'c o n s tru c tio n ' lines to
s h o w h o w you have draw n the triangle. This show s y our w o rk in g and you will p ro b a b ly lose
m arks ify o u rub th e m out.

6 .7 Methods for Constructing

Triangles Accurately
F o llo w th e c o n s tru c tio n s b e lo w to m ake sure th a t you are ab le to repro duce th e tria n g le s
NOTE: yourself.
Beforedrawing any 1 In tria n g le ABC, AB = 7 cm , ABAC = 30°, ZC BA = 50°.
diagram accurately make
a rough sketch with the
given measurements
marked on it, as in Figure Rough sketch
6.21. ft does not matter
which way up you draw
the triangles, but in this
case it is convenient to
make the given side the
base of the triangle. Figure 6.21 Rough sketch of required triangle

The in fo rm a tio n w e have been given to d ra w th is tria n g le is tw o angles, o n e a t each end o f a

side. It is kn o w n as angle, side, a n g le and a b b re via te d to asa.

Method
Draw th e base 7 cm long, fo llo w e d by the
co rre c t angles a t each end o f th e base.
Make th e arm s o f th e angles lo n g e n ough
so th a t th e y cross. Do n o t rub o u t th e
s u rp lu s lengths, as th is is p a rt o f y o u r
c o n s tru c tio n m e th o d (see Figure 6.22).

M easure AC a nd CB in y o u r d ia g ra m . They
Figure 6.22 Constructing the triangle s h o u ld be a b o u t 5 .4 cm and 3.6 cm.

2 In tria n g le DEF, DE = 5 c m , £ F = 4 c m and D F = 3 c m .

This in fo rm a tio n is kn o w n as side, side, side and is a b b re v ia te d to sss.

Again, sta rt w ith a rough sketch (see Figure 6.23).

D
Rough sketch

Figure 6.23 Rough sketch

6 Geometry and Shape I J

Method
D raw FE 4 c m long. O pen th e com passes to 3 c m a nd, w ith th e p o in t a t F, d ra w an arc above
th e lin e as sh ow n. R epeat fo r th e o th e r side, w ith th e p o in t o f th e com passes a t f , m a k in g sure
th a t th e arcs cross. J oin th e sides (see Figure 6.24). Do n o t rub o u t y o u r c o n s tru c tio n lines.

F ig u re 6 .2 4 C onstructed trian g le

M easure y o u r a ngle DFE. It s h o u ld be a b o u t 90°.

3 In tria n g le GHJ, GH = 8 c m ,H J = 9 c m and Z G H J = 10°.

T his in fo rm a tio n is side, a n gle, side and is a b b re v ia te d to sas. It is im p o rta n t to n o te th a t th e

an gle given is betw een th e tw o given sides (see th e rough sketch in Figure 6.25). This is kn o w n
as th e in c lu d e d a n g le .
G

Rough sketch

F ig u re 6 .2 5 Rough sketch

T his m e th o d is s tra ig h tfo rw a rd , and you sh o u ld d ra w y o u r ow n. C heck th a t it is c o rre c t by

m e a s u rin g GJ. It sh o u ld be a b o u t 9.8cm .

Example 3
Try to draw each ofth e following triangles accurately. If it is impossible, explain why.
a /\ b

4 cm

10 cm

Answer 3
a

10 cm

The lines do not make a triangle.

In order to make a triangle any two sides must add up to more than the third side.

\
1361
 ( 6 Geometry and Shape I

b We cannot even start on this one because there are no length measurements given, so
we do not know how large to make it.
Example 4
Calculate the angles marked with letters in these triangles.

a Calculate the values o f* and y and b Calculate the value of x and hence
hence write down the sizes of the angles write down the sizes o fth e angles in
inthetriangle46C . triangle DEF.
A D

Answer 4
a y=2x (isosceles triangle)
x + 2 x + y = 180 (angle sum of a triangle)
so x + 2 x + 2 x = 180
5.x = 180 (+ 5)
x = 36
The angles are 36°, 72° and 72°
b x + (x + 10 ) + (x + 20 ) = 180 (angle sum of a triangle)
3x + 30 = 180 (-3 0 )
3 x = 150 (+ 3 )
x = 50
The angles are 50°, 60° and 70°

Exercise 6.4
1 Try to d ra w a ccu ra te ly each o f th e tria n g le s described o r sketched below .
If th e y are im p o s s ib le to d ra w try to describe w hy, and th e n see if you can w rite d o w n
som e rules a b o u t th e in fo rm a tio n you need to d ra w triangles.
In each case w h ere you have been able to d ra w th e tria n g le , (i) m easure th e angles o r
sides m a rked w ith a letter, and (ii) w rite d o w n th e a b b re v ia tio n fo r th e in fo rm a tio n given.

NOTE:
Calculate the third angle
first.

10 cm

137
6 Geometry and Shape I J

B e fore you c a rry on w ith th is exercise, ch eck y o u r answ ers to q u e s tio n 1 w ith th e answ ers
a t th e b a ck o f th e b o o k .

2 C o n s tru c t a c c u ra te ly each o f th e s e tria n g le s . M easure the re m a in in g sides a n d angles.

a Use co m p asses a n d ru le r o n ly fo r b Use com passes and ruler o n ly fo r

c o n s tru c tio n . c o n s tru c tio n .

3 Find th e values o f th e le tte rs in th e d ia g ra m s below .

\
138
 ^ 6 Geometry and Shape I

6 .8 Angles in Parallel Lines

Key term A line cro ssin g a p a ir o f p a ra lle l lines is ca lle d a tra n s v e rs a l. You d o n o t have to re m e m b e r
A transversal is a line this nam e, b u t it m akes e x p la in in g d ia g ra m s easier. A tra n sve rsa l p ro d u c e s sets o f e q u a l
which cuts a pair of angles, as sh o w n in Figure 6.26. The angles m a rke d w ith a d o t are all e q u a l and th e angles
parallel lines. m a rked w ith a cross are also all e q u a l.

Figure 6 .2 6 Angles m a d e by a tran svers al

You do need to re m e m b e r th e na m e s o f pairs o f a ngles in p a ra lle l lines.

The angles m a rke d w ith an a in Figure 6.27 are ca lle d a lte r n a te angles. You can recognise
Key terms th e m because th e y are in a Z shape, o r because th e y are o n a lte rn a te sides o f th e transversal.
A lternate angles are
between the transversal
and the parallel lines on
alternate sides ofthe
transversal.
Corresponding angles
are equal angles on
the same side ofthe
transversal.
Vertically opposite
angles are made when
two straight lines cross. The angles m a rke d w ith th e le tte r c in Figure 6.28 are c o rre s p o n d in g angles. T hey can be
They are opposite at recognised by b e in g in an F shape, o r th a t th e y are in c o rre s p o n d in g p o s itio n s b e tw e e n th e
the vertex or point of transversal and th e p a ra lle l lines.
intersection.
Finally, th e re are angles th a t are n o t asso cia te d w ith p a ra lle l lines. These are sh o w n in Figure
6.29, m a rke d w ith a v, and are c a lle d v e rtic a lly o p p o s ite angles. T hey are recognised as
angles in an X shape, o r because th e y are o p p o s ite a t th e v e rte x o f tw o angles m a d e b e tw e e n
in te rs e c tin g s tra ig h t lines.

Of course, th e tw o o b tu s e angles in th e in te rs e c tio n are also v e rtic a lly o p p o s ite and equal.

139
6 ftwmnmiiSfcapti J

Example 5
A
Find the sizes, in degrees, of the angles marked with letters in the diagram. Give reasons for
your answers.

Answer 5
a = 60° (angles on a straight line add up to 180°)
b = 12 0 ° (either vertically opposite to the given angle, or angles on a straight line with a)
c = 60° (vertically opposite too)
d = 12 0 ° (b and d are alternate angles, or d is corresponding with the given angle)
e = 60° (c and e are alternate angles, or a and e are corresponding angles)
/ = 12 0 ° (either vertically opposite to d or corresponding to b)
g = 60° (either vertically opposite to e or corresponding to c)

As y o u can see, m o s t ang le s m a d e w ith p a ra lle l lin e s are th e sam e! There is o fte n m ore th a n
o n e w ay to reach th e answ er.

Exercise 6.5
Find th e sizes, in degrees, o f th e angles m a rke d w ith letters.

Key terms
A shape has line 6 .9 Sym m etry
sym m etry if it fits
exactly on itself when it
is folded along its line o f
Line Sym m etry
sym m etry. A shape is said to have lin e s y m m e try if y o u can fo ld it o ver a lo n g a line so t h a t one side fits
exactly on to p o f the other. T he line a lo n g w h ic h y o u fold the s hape is c alled an axis or line

|l40|

Key term
A shape has rotational
sym m etry about a
point if it fits exactly on
itself when rotated about
th a t point through an
angle less than 360°.
[ 6 Geometry and Shape I
o f s y m m e try . In th is case e ith e r axis (p lu ra l axes) or line o f s y m m e try can be used. There m a y
be m a rk e d w ith d o tte d lines, and th e n u m b e r o f axes o f s y m m e try is given fo r each shape.
X T
Figure 6 .3 0 Axes o f s y m m e try , a Tw o lines o f s y m m e try b O ne line o f sym m etry
c Six lines o f s y m m e try
Rotational S ym m etry
A shape is said to have ro ta tio n a l s y m m e try if it can be picked u p and ro ta te d (b u t n o t
tu rn e d over) th ro u g h an angle less th a n 360° to fit again in to its o w n o u tlin e . The n u m b e r o f
w ays it can be m a d e to fit is ca lle d th e o rd e r o f ro ta tio n a l sy m m e try .
Figure 6.31 sho w s an e q u ila te ra l tria n g le w ith one c o rn e r m arked w ith an x so th a t w e can
m ore easily see it tu rn and c o u n t th e n u m b e r o f tim e s it fits in to its o w n o u tlin e .
/
141
6 Geometry and Shape I J

Starting Turn once Repeat

position clockwise

Figu re 6 .3 1 R o ta tio n a l s y m m e try

O ne m o re tu rn returns th e tria n g le to its s ta rtin g p o s itio n . It has ta ke n th re e tu rn s , so th e

Key term ro ta tio n a l s y m m e try is o f o rd e r 3.
A shape has ro tatio n al
0 m arks th e cen tre o f ro ta tio n a l s y m m e try o fth e tria n g le .
sym m etry about a
point if ft fits exactly on
itself when rotated about
that point throy 0 ;|n
angle less than 360°. \
E xam ple 7
The n u m ber of ti mes it
Find the order of rotational symmetry of each of these shapes.
will fit on itself before a
complete rotation is its
order ofsyiriinetry.

A nsw er 7 v
a Marking part of the shape with a dot, we see that it can be turned twice.

This shape can fit into its own outline in tw o different ways, so it has order of
symmetry = 2 .

If n e c e s s a ry m a r k o n e o f t h e p o in ts o f t h e s t a r w it h a d o t, t o h e lp y o u s e e t h a t i t c a n b e
tu r n e d fiv e tim e s t o re a c h its o r ig in a l p o s it io n . It h a s o r d e r o f r o t a t io n a l s y m m e t r y = 5.
N o tic e t h a t th e le t t e r Z h a s n o lin e s o f s y m m e t r y , a n d th e s ta r h a s fiv e lin e s o f s y m m e t r y .

142

NOTE:
Double check any lines
of symmetry you might
see in shape 8 . If in doubt
copy and cut out the
shape and fold it.
NOTE:
Take care... the shaded
triangles in shape 9
cannot be put on to the
unshaded triangles!
Key term
A q u a d rila te ra l shape
has four straight sides
I 6 Geometry and Shape I
Exercise 6.6
State th e n u m b e r o f lines o f s y m m e try (if any) and the o rd e r o f ro ta tio n a l s y m m e try fo r each
o f th e sha pe s sh o w n below .
R e g u la r p e n ta g o n
6 7
Using Sym m etry
We have seen th a t a lin e o f s y m m e try in a shape m eans th a t the shape can be fo ld e d a lo n g
th a t lin e a n d o n e s id e w ill fit exactly over th e other. This m eans th a t pairs o f angles on each
side are e q u a l an d le n g th s o f c o rre s p o n d in g sides are e qual. In p a rtic u la r, if a line, AB, crosses
a lin e o f sy m m e try , XY, th e n th e lin e o f s y m m e try m u s t be th e p e rp e n d ic u la r b is e c to r o f th e
line/16. T his is s h o w n in Figure 6.32.
A
and-
B
L ine of
s ym m e try Fold line
F ig u re 6 .3 2 Line crossing line o f sym m etry
Exam ple 8
The following shape has a line of symmetry,
marked XY on the diagram.
Find th e values o f a, b, c, d, and e.
An sw er 8
We are told that the line XY is a line of symmetry, so we can use symmetry to find the
required sides and angles.
a = b = 90° c = 35° d = 10 cm e = 7cm
6 .1 0 Quadrilaterals
A q u a d r ila te r a l is a s h a p e w ith fo u r s tra ig h t line sides. The sum o f its fo u r angles is 360°. The
lines jo in in g o p p o s ite a n g le s are ca lle d diagonals. You need to k n o w th e na m e s and
p ro p e rtie s o f th e s p e cia l q u a d rila te ra ls given in Table 6.1.
This is p re se n te d in th e fo rm o f a ta b le w h ic h you sh o u ld c o p y and c o m p le te , and th e n check
your a n s w e is a t th e back o f th e b o o k before c o n tin u in g .
6 Geometry anil Shape I J

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144|
 I 6 Geometry and Shape I

Example 9
Find the angles marked with letters in the following quadrilaterals. In each case state your reasons.

a Find the value of x in the diagram and b Find, stating your reasons, the values of
hence write down the sizes o fth e angles. a, b, c and d in the diagram.
State your reasons.

Answer 9

a 97 + X + ( x - 10) + (x + 3 0 ) = 3 6 0 (the angle sum of a quadrilateral is 360)

9 7 + 3 x - 1 0 + 30 = 360
117 + 3 x = 3 6 0 (-117 )
3x = 243 (+3)
x = 81
The angles are: 81°, 7 1 ° and 11 1 °

b a = 1 8 0 -7 0 (angles on a straight line)

a = 110
fc+ c = 1 8 0 — 110 (angle sum of a triangle)
b+ c = 70
b = c= 35 (isosceles triangle)
c+d= 70 (alternate angles)
d = 7 0 - c = 35

Example 1 0
Using the diagram below explain how you know that AB is parallel to DC.
A

Answer 10
ZABD = 70° (isosceles triangle)
ZADB = 180 - 70 - 70 = 40° (angle sum of a triangle)

ZCBD = ZDBC = I M r 100 = 4 0 ° (angle sum of an isosceles triangle)

So ZADB = ZDBC = 40°

and AB and CD are parallel, with ZADB and ZDBC alternate angles.

145
6 Geometry and Shape I J
Key term
Polygons have three or
more straight sides.
A regular polygon has
all of its angles equal,
and all of its sides equal.
\
146
Exercise 6.8
Find th e values o fth e letters in th e fo llo w in g shapes.
P a rallelogram Kite
Trapezium
R ectangle
Trapezium
R hom bus
7 Explain h o w you k n o w th a t PQ is para lle l to RS in th e
diagram .
6 .1 1 Polygons
Polygons are m a ny-sided shapes. T hey in c lu d e tria n g le s and q u a d rila te ra ls . You need to
k n o w th e nam es o fth e re g u la r polygons s h o w n in Table 6.2. R egular m eans th a t all th e sides
are o f th e sam e le n g th and all th e angles are th e sam e. A lth o u g h w e d o n o t usually say it, a
re gular tria n g le w o u ld be an e q u ila te ra l tria n g le (all th e sides have th e sam e length and all
angles 60°), and a re g u la r q u a d rila te ra l w o u ld be a square (all th e sides have th e sam e le n g th
and all angles 90°).
 [ 6 Geometry anil Shape I

Investigation

1 Copy Table 6.2 for use in parts 2 and 3 of the investigation. You do not need to draw the
shapes until you have read through part 2 , but leave plenty of space in the last column
where you w ill construct the shapes.

Nam e N um ber of sides In terio r angle Shape

Square
4 sides
(regular quadrilateral)

Regular pentagon 5 sides

Regular hexagon 6 sides

Regular heptagon 7 sides

Regular octagon 8 sides

R e g u la r n o n a g o n 0 sides

Regular decagon 10 sides

Table 6 .2 Regular polygons

Drawing regular polygons,

a Using angles at the centre.
Regular polygons can be constructed from isosceles triangles as
shown in Figure 6.33.
The angle shown at the centre of the pentagon is obtained by
dividing 360° (the complete turn) by 5 (the number of sides in the
pentagon), to give 72°.
The angles are drawn accurately, and the sides of the triangles are
drawn all having the same length. An easy way to do this is to use
Figure 6.33 Constructing a regular pentagon
your compasses, opening them to the length that you need to
draw the pentagon; 2 centimetres is a convenient size. With the
compass point on the centre, mark each line as shown.

f ------
14 7
6 Geometry and Shape I J

b The hexagon is the only polygon that is made up from equilateral

triangles. It can be drawn by the above method or by drawing a
circle, then stepping round the circumference using the compasses,
as shown in Figure 6.34. If you keep your compasses at exactly the
same length as the radius o fth e circle you should be able to fit in
six steps round the circumference. Join these to form the hexagon.
Complete the right-hand column of Table 6.2 by drawing each o fth e
polygons as accurately as possible.
Calculating the Interior and exterior angles in regular polygons.
Figure 6 .34 constructing a
regular hexagon

Figure 6.35 is a diagram of part of a polygon, showing an interior and an

exterior angle.

exterior
in te r io r a n g le
angle JX j

Figure 6.35 Interior and exterior angles

You will see th at the interior angle = 180° - exterior angle.
You need to be able to calculate these angles in any polygon. There are several methods for
doing this. We will look at two.
a Calculating the exterior angle first.
The pentagon in Figure 6.36 has all the exterior angles shown.
Figure 6.36 Exterior angles o f a
Imagine th at you are walking round the outside o fth e pentagon, each tim e you come
pentagon
to a corner you turn through the angle shown. You start facing the sun a M and
continue round, turning five times until you face the sun again, back at A. You have
turned through 360°. Since we are talking about a regular pentagon each turn is one
fifth of a complete turn (see Figure 6.37),
Each exterior angle = ~ = 72°.
Each interior angle = 180 - 72 = 108° (angles on a straight line),
b Finding the total interior angle first.
The pentagon in Figure 6.38 has been divided into three triangles, with all of them
drawn from one point on the pentagon. Each of these triangles has a total angle
sum of 180°, so the total interior angle of the pentagon is 3 x 180 = 540°.
540
Each individual interior angle o fth e regular pentagon is th u s : = 108°.
5
c Using a formula.
If you prefer to learn form ulae you could use the following, where n is the num ber of Figure 6.37 Exterior angles of a
sides in the polygon. pentagon are 72°
Total interior angle of any polygon = 180 x (n - 2)
Interior angle of a regular polygon = 180x (” 2)

There are other methods. Look at your constructions of regular polygons and see if they suggest
another method.
Complete the final column of Table 6.2 by calculating the interior angles for each polygon.
What do you notice about the size of the interior angle of a regular polygon as the num ber of
sides increases?
Figure 6.38 Pentagon
divided into triangles

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 I 6 Geometry and Shape I

Exercise 6.9
1 Calculate the to ta l in te rio r a ngle for a 15-sided polygon.

2 C alculate th e e xterior angle in a regular 12-sided polygon.

3 Calculate th e a ngle a in this regular hexagon.

4 ABCDE is a regular p e n ta g o n , w ith centre 0, and side DE exte n d e d to F.

NOTE:
This isalongquestion.
Make it easier by drawing
a larger version Ofthe
diagram and marking
in each angle as you
calculate it. :

C alculate:
a AEF b AED c AEO d OAE
e AOC f CAO g CAE
H ence e x p la in h o w yo u k n o w th a M C a n d DE are pa ra lle l.

5 The d ia g ra m sh o w s th e e x te rio r an g le o f p a rt o f a re g u la r p o ly g o n w ith n sides. C a lc u la te n.

6 The to ta l in te rio r a n gles o f a re g u la r p o ly g o n a d d u p to 2520°. C alculate:

a th e n u m b e r o f sides
b th e in te rio r an g le o f th e p o ly g o n .

6 .1 2 Circles
O nce again th e re are w o rd s c o n n e c te d w ith c irc le s th a t y o u need to know . Figures 6.39-6 .44
s h o w th e se nam es, m a n y o f w h ic h y o u w ill p ro b a b ly k n o w already.

Fig u re 6 .3 9 C ircu m feren ce Fig u re 6 .4 0 D ia m e te r and sem icircle

The d ia m e te r d iv id e s th e circle in to tw o
halves. Each half is a sem icircle.

149
6 Geometry and Shape I J

minor
segment

Figu re 6 .4 2 Chord

A ch o rd div id e s a c irc le in to tw o parts.

Each p a rt is a segm ent.

major / major
arc I sector

Figu re 6 .4 3 Arc and Sector Figure 6 .4 4 Tangent

Tw o radii (plural o f radius) d ivid e a circle A ta n g e n t is a line o u ts id e the circle w h ic h

in to tw o parts. Each p a rt is a sector. ju st touches th e circle, m aking a single
Each p a rt o fth e circum ference is an arc. p o in t o f contact.

Practical work
J
Try these tw o constructions, making your drawings as accurate as possible (sharp pencil!).
1 Draw a circle with your compasses, radius 10cm. Mark the centre accurately.
Draw a tangent at any point, making sure it just touches the circle, as in Figure 6.44.
From the point of contact o fth e tangent and the circle draw a radius to the centre ofthe
circle.
Measure the angle between the radius and the tangent.
Figure 6.45 Radius and tangent
Ifyou have been accurate you should find that the angle betw een a tang ent and th e
radius a t th e p oin t o f contact is 90° (see Figure 6.45).

This also makes sense ifyou consider the symm etry of the diagram in Figure 6.46.
The diam eter is a line of symmetry o fth e circle. The tangent is a straight line. Folding the
diagram along the diam eter makes one half of the diagram fit onto the other half, as in
Figure 6.46. In particular, the angles between the diam eter and the tangent must be the
same. They must both be half a straight angle, and so must both be 90°.
2 Draw a circle of radius 10 centimetres and mark the centre.
Draw a diameter accurately through the centre of the circle. Mark the diameter with the Figure 6.46 Tangent, radius
letters A and fi. and symmetry
Mark a p o in t,/, anywhere on the circumference.
Join this point to the ends o fth e diameter as shown in Figure 6.47, making a triangle ABX.
Measure the angle AXB.
Repeat with other positions of X on the same circle, and with circles with different radii.
Ifyou have been accurate you should find that the angle AXB is always 90°.

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150
 ^ 6 Geometry and Shape I

This angle is referred to as the angle in a semicircle because the diameter divides the circle
into tw o semicircles.
You have shown that th e angle in a semicircle is a right angle.

NOTE:
There is one other point to notice about circles. In many questions about circles you will
find isosceles triangles, because all the radii are equal length, and a triangle made with
two radii and a chord will be an isosceles triangle. Look out for isosceles triangles in
questions on circles! F'gure 6-47 An8le in a
sem icircle

Example 11
The diagram shows a circle with centre O.AOB is a diameter, DBT is a tangent, and ZCOB = 40°.
Find, giving reasons,
a ZACB b ZABD c ZOCB
d ZOCA e ZCAO f ZODB

Answer 11

a ZACB = 90° (angle in a semicircle)

b ZABD = 90° (angle between tangent and radius)

c ZOCB= 1 8 0 -4 0 = 7 0 ° (isosceles triangle)

2
d ZACO = 90 - 70 = 20° (ACB is a right angle)

e ZCAO = 20°

I'
(isosceles triangle)

ZODB = 180 - 9 0 - 4 0 = 50° (triangle ODB is right-angled)

Exercise 6.10
C alcu la te th e values o f th e letters in these diagram s. 0 is th e centre o f each circle.

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6 Geometry and Shape I J

6 .1 3 Solid Shapes
There are a fe w basic s o lid shapes th a t you need to know .

S olid figures are shapes in th re e d im e n s io n s , and are n o t easy to d ra w on tw o -d im e n s io n a l

paper. T hey have faces, edges and v ertices (the p lu ra l o f vertex). These are s h o w n in th e
d ia g ra m o f a cube in Figure 6.48.

An edge is th e line w h e re tw o faces m eet, and a vertex is th e p o in t w h e re m o re th a n tw o faces

m eet. Ify o u lo o k at Figure 6.48, yo u s h o u ld be a b le to see th a t it has 6 faces (o n ly th re e are
visib le ), 12 edges (o n ly 9 are v isible) and 8 vertices (only 7 are visible). Ify o u fin d th is d iffic u lt
to visu a lise try d ra w in g in th e in v is ib le edges w ith d o tte d lines, as in Figure 6.49.

vertex

Figure 6 .4 8 Parts o f a cube F igu re 6 .4 9 The hidden edges o f a cube

Table 6.3 is d iv id e d in to prism s and o th e r s o lid s w h ic h w e shall call n o n -p ris m s . P rism s are
Key term so lid s w h ic h have th e sam e cross-section all th e w a y th ro u g h th e shape. An e x a m p le o f a
A prism is a solid which p rism w o u ld be an u n sharpen ed hexagonal p e ncil, as in Figure 6.50, because you c o u ld cu t
has the same cross- th ro u g h it at rig h t angles a nyw here a lo n g its le n g th and th e cross-sectio n w o u ld a lw ays be
section all the way th e sam e hexagon. ________ — ■
throughout its length.
A c y lin d e r is also a prism because you can c u t
th ro u g h it a t any place a lo n g its le n g th and its
cross-sectio n w ill alw ays be th e sam e circle. Figure 6 .5 0 A h e x a g o n a l p ris m

\
152)
 lv 6 Geometry and Shape I

Exercise 6.11
C opy and c o m p le te Table 6.3.

Prism s
N um ber N um ber Num ber
N am e S h ape E x am p le
o f faces o f edges o f v e rtic e s
A
Cube dice 6 12 8

A / ) box of
C uboid 6 (a) (b)
[ P m atches

C ylin de r 3 2 0

Trian gu la r prism / \ _j. - - (c) (d) (e)

N o n -p ris m s

Sphere ( ru b b e r ball 1 0 0

T etra hedron
(tria n g u la r based
pyram id) 1? (f) (g) (h)

Square (or 1\
t\
\\ th e pyram ids
square-based) (0 (j) (k)
o f Egypt

A
pyram id

Cone 2 (I) (m)

T a b le 6 .3 Solid shapes

6 .1 4 Nets
As w e m e n tio n e d earlier, so lid s are d iffic u lt to d ra w on paper, so it is useful to be a b le to d ra w
Key term th e n e t o f a so lid . This is a tw o -d im e n s io n a l shape th a t can be c u t and fo ld e d to m a ke th e
The net of a solid is a th re e -d im e n s io n a l shape. Tw o exam ples are show n in Figure 6.51.
two-dimensional shape
which can be cu t and
folded to make the
three-cimensional solid.

Figure 6 .5 1 Nets, a A cube b A square pyram id

153
6 Geometry and Shape I j

S om e nets are n o t as o b v io u s as these. C o p y th e d ia g ra m s in Figure 6.52 o n to paper o r card,

c u t th e m o u t and see if th e y can be fo ld e d in to any o f th e shapes given in th e table.

Figure 6 .5 2 N ets

N o t all shapes w ith six squares w ill m a k e a cu b e . Try th is one in Figure 6.53.

Figure 6 .5 3 A net?

Exam ple 12
Draw accurately a net for a tetrahedron (triangular-based pyramid) with all edges = 2 cm.
Answ er 12
In the diagram AB was drawn first.

Exercise 6.12
1 D raw a ccu ra te ly a n e t fo r th e c u b o id s h o w n 2 W hat s o lid w o u ld this net m ake?

154

Key terms
C o n g ru e n t shapes have
exactly the same size
and exactly the same
angles.
S im ila r shapes have
exactly the same angles,
but are different sizes.
^ 6 Geometry and Shape I
6 .1 5 Sim ilar and Congruent Shapes
a b e d
Figure 6 .5 4 T ria n g le s
Look a t th e tria n g le s in Figure 6.54. They all have th e sam e angles and all lo o k th e sam e
shape, b u t so m e are d iffe re n t sizes.
Figures th a t h ave e xa ctly th e sa m e shape a n d e x a c tly th e sam e size are c a lle d co n g ru e n t.
The p a ir o f tria n g le s b and d a b o v e are a set o f c o n g ru e n t tria n g le s . T ria n g le s a a n d c
are a ls o a n o th e r p a ir o f c o n g ru e n t tria n g le s , b u t th e y are n o t c o n g ru e n t w ith th e firs t
set o f tria n g le s .
Figures w h ic h have exactly th e sam e shape b u t d iffe re n t sizes are called sim ilar. For e xam ple,
tria n g le s c and d are sim ilar.
S im ila r tria n g le s are easy to recognise because th e y have
e q u a l angles, b u t it is n o t so easy to recognise s im ila r ------
q u a d rila te ra ls . For exam ple, lo o k a t th e rectangles in Figure
6.55.
All th e re cta n g le s have angles o f 90°, b u t o n ly a and b are ----------
. . a b e d
s im ila r .
For q u a d rila te ra ls th e sides have also to be in th e sam e ratio. Figure 6 .5 5 R e cta n g le s
In th e re cta n g le s e and f i n Figure 6.56, rectangle ABCD has
sides o f 3 c e n tim e tre s and 7 ce n tim e tre s, and rectangle WXYZ has sides o f 4.5 c e n tim e tre s and
10.5 c e n tim e tre s . The ratios o fth e c o rre s p o n d in g sides are 2 :3 , as show n. Therefore, e and f
are sim ila r.
e A____________ 7 cm___________ B
AD_ _ _3_ _ 6 _ 2
3 cm V/Z 4.5 9 3
AB _ 7 _ 14 _ 2
WX 10.5 21 3
D C
f W______________ 10.5 cm____________ X
4.5 cm
Z Y
Figu re 6 .5 6 S im ilar rectangles
R egular p o ly g o n s w ith th e sam e n u m b e r o f sides are all e ith e r s im ila r o r c o n g ru e n t to each
other. For e xa m p le , all e q u ila te ra l tria n g le s are e ith e r s im ila r o r c o n g ru e n t and all regular
p e n ta g o n s are e ith e r s im ila r o r con g ru e n t.
You w ill n o tic e th a t c o n g ru e n t figures are also sim ilar, b u t s im ila r figures are n o t necessarily
c o n g ru e n t.
6 Scemetnr and Shape I J

Exercise 6.13
1 M atch pairs o f s im ita r letters fro m th e s e le ctio n below .

W W iii v ww
a b c d e f

1 1 1 W * atr (DO
g h i j k

2 M atch pairs o f c o n g ru e n t figures fro m th e s e le c tio n below .

6 .1 6 Scale Drawings
You have already m et scales on m aps and on d ia g ra m s and solid objects. We will now
practise c o n s tru c tin g s om e accurate scale drawings.

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 1 6 Geometry and Shape I

Exam ple 14
An architect is drawing the plan of a proposed house. She uses a scale of 1 centimetre to
represent 1 metre. She starts with a rough sketch on which she can mark the proposed
measurements.
X

4m

5m
3m

7m 2 m 4m
Rough sketch

a Draw an accurate plan of the house,

b Measure the diagonal length from X to Y.
c What will be the length of this diagonal, in metres, in the finished house?
Answer 14
a X

E
u

oE
in
E
u

7 cm 2 cm 4 cm
b 14.8 cm
c 14.8 m

Exercise 6.14
1 A ship sails 20 kilo m e tre s due east fro m p o rt P. The c a p ta in th e n alters course to avoid a
busy s h ip p in g lane and sails 22 kilo m e tre s due s outh. T he s hip th e n tu rn s due east again
and sails fo r 36 kilo m e tre s, to reach a p o in t Q.

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157
6 BMiiMinramsiMpei J

The sketch show s th is in fo rm a tio n .

N
A N

W-

20 km

22 km

36 km Q

a M ake a scale d ra w in g u sing a scale o f 1 c e n tim e tre to 5 kilom e tres,

b J o in P and Q, and m easure th e le n g th o f th e line in ce n tim e tre s ,
c H ow fa r is th e sh ip fro m p o rt P I

2 The d ia g ra m show s th e re la tio n s h ip o f fo u r to w n s ,/!, 6 , C a nd D.

a Make a scale d ra w in g , u sing a s u ita b le scale,

b Use y o u r d ra w in g to fin d th e distance, in kilo m e tre s, b e tw e e n A and C.

Key term
A locus (plural loci) of
points is the possible
6 .1 7 Locus in Two Dim ensions
positions of those points
The Latin w o rd locus m eans ‘p la c e ’. T h in k o f th e w o rd s ‘lo c a tio n ’ o r ‘lo c a lity ’.
defined by some rule.
The positions may be T h e p lu ra l o f locus is loci. T he loci w e w ill be c o n s tru c tin g are based on th e shapes w e have
in one (a line), two (an stu d ie d in th is chapter.
area) orthree (a volume)
dimensions.
Methods for Constructing Loci
Construct the follow ing loci to ensure th a t you know ho w to do each one. The first locus is a circle.

1 1 a C o n s tru c t th e locus o f p o in ts in t w o d im e n s io n s th a t are 1.5cm fro m a p o in t m a rk e d -4.

b Shade th e locus o f p o in ts th a t are m o re th a n 1.5 c e n tim e tre s fro m A.

p Method
Ify o u are n o t sure a b o u t w h a t the locus in any q u e s tio n w o u ld be, m ak e a rough sketch
s h o w in g s o m e o f th e p o in ts th a t you k n o w w o u ld be in the locus. This w ill help you to see
w h a t shape you should be draw ing.

The required locus is a circle, radius 1.5cm , w ith its centre at A, because all th e p oints o n a
circle are an equal distance from th e centre (see Figure 6.57).
 ( 6 Geometry and Shape I

You w ill be expected to d ra w loci accurately, and

s o m e tim e s you w ill be asked to d ra w th e m w ith a
re stricted set o f in s tru m e n ts such as a p a ir of
NOTE: / \ com passes and a s tra ig h t edge only. The ‘s tra ig h t e d g e ’
It is no good measuring • m eans th a t you can use y o u r ruler to d ra w lines, b u t n o t
with a ruler and then \ A to m easure a n ything. You c a n n o t use a p ro tra c to r o r set
adding fake 'construction \ J square.
lines’ afterwards.
V . _____ The m e th o d you have used is show n by y o u r
c o n s tru c tio n lines, w h ic h m u st be left in. This is
e q u iv a le n t to s h o w in g y o u r w o rk in g w hen asked to
Figure 6 .5 7 Locus o f points
d o so in o th e r q u e stions. Ify o u d o n o t leave in yo u r
1.5cm from /4 (the line) and m ore
c o n s tru c tio n lines you w ill p ro b a b ly get no m arks fo r
th a n 1.5cm from /4 (the shading).
th a t p a rt o f the q u e s tio n .
NOTE;
In alt these constructions The exam ples sh o w w h a t is m e a n t by c o n s tru c tio n lines.
make your arcs
The next tw o loci are based on th e shape o f a rhom bus.
reasonably large. The
less Before yo u s ta rt d ra w in g th e next locus, fo llo w th e m e th o d to c o n s tru c t th e rh o m b u s show n
in Figure 6.58.
X
5 cm Draw a line WY 8 cm long.
W- O pen y o u r com passes to 5 cm and, w ith th e com pass
p o in t at I/I/, d ra w arcs above and b e lo w th e line WY.
Z
Rough sketch W ith o u t a lte rin g th e com passes m ove th e com pass
p o in t to Y and d ra w arcs above and b e lo w to
Figu re 6 .5 8 Rough sketch o f a in te rse ct th e firs t set o f arcs a t X and Z.
rhom bus
Jo in X a n d Z to W and Y.

J oin X and Z to get th e rh o m b u s show n in Figure 6.59.

From o u r study o f th e sym m etry o f the rhom bus earlier

in the c hapter w e kn o w th a t the diagonals o f a
rhom bus bisect each o th e r at rig h t angles, so XZ is the
perpen dicular bisector o f INY.

Look a t th e rh o m b u s PQRS in Figure 6.60. Any p o in t

Figure 6 .5 9 C onstructed rhom bus
on th e d ia m e te r QS is th e sam e d istance fro m P as
it is fro m R. C opy th e figure, m a rk a few p o in ts on
QS extended in e ith e r d ire c tio n and m easure the
distances to check th is fact.

The d o tte d lines in Figure 6.60 show

o n e exam ple. Here, P T - TR.

This is th e fa ct th a t is used in the

c o n s tru c tio n o fth e next locus.

Figure 6 .6 0 Distances from vertices o f a rhom bus

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6 Geometry and Shape I J

2 a C o n s tru c t th e lo cu s o f p o in ts th a t are e q u id is ta n t (equal distance) fro m tw o points/1

and B. Use a s tra ig h t edge a n d com passes only,
b Shade th e region w h ic h is c lo s e r to B th a n to A
c J oin AB. W hat is th e n a m e given to th e lin e o f th e locus you drew in p a rt (a) in re la tio n
to th e line/AS?

Method
If y o u are n o t sure w h a t to draw , m a rk one p o in t th a t is a t th e
X sa m e d is ta n c e fro m A as it is fro m B. Try to fin d a n o th e r, and
th e n a n o th e r, u n til y o u kn o w w h a t is required.

O pen y o u r com passes to m ore th a n th e h a lf th e

d is ta n c e b e tw e e n th e tw o points. P u t th e co m p a ss p o in t on
B
A a n d d ra w a p a ir o f arcs above and b e lo w th e lin e betw e e n A
and B.

Keep th e com passes e x a c tly th e sam e b u t pla ce th e ir p o in t on

><
F ig u re 6 .6 1 Locus of
poin ts e q u id is ta n t from
poin ts A and B
B. D raw tw o m o re arcs a b o v e and b e lo w w h ic h s h o u ld in te rs e c t
w ith th e firs t p a ir o f arcs. Use y o u r ru le r as a s tra ig h t edge to
jo in th e tw o p o in ts o f in te rs e c tio n . The fin is h e d a nsw er sh o u ld
lo o k like Figure 6.61.
a W e have d ra w n a rh o m b u s, b u t w ith o u t jo in in g tw o
o fth e sides. As w e have seen above, th e s y m m e try
o f th e rh o m b u s m eans th a t w e have d ra w n th e
p e rp e n d ic u la r b ise c to r o f AB.

b Figure 6.62 repeats th e dia g ra m fo r cla rity, b u t you

w o u ld n o t b e expected to d o this. As before, th in k
o f p o in ts th a t are c lo se r to B th a n to A

c T he lo cu s w e have d ra w n is th e p e rp e n d ic u la r
bisector of AB.
T h e ne xt lo cu s is also based on a rh o m b u s b u t w ith a
Fig u re 6 .6 2 Points c loser to 6 s lig h tly d iffe re n t m e th o d o f c o n s tru c tio n . Before you
th an to A go o n to th e n e x t locus, d ra w accurately th e rh o m b u s
s ketched in Figure 6.63.

Figu re 6 .6 3 Rough sketch o f rh om bus

Draw a lin e BC, lo n g e r th a n 5 c m , and m easure and d ra w the angle ABC = 30°.

O pen y o u r com passes to 5 c m and, w ith th e co m p a ss p o in t a t 6 , draw an arc o n b o th arm s o f

th e a n g leABC. These in te rs e c tio n s are A and C.

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 I 6 Geometry and Shape l

K eeping y o u r c om passes to the s a m e m e as urem ent, p u t the p o in t at A and then at C, d ra w in g

inters ec ting arcs as in Figure 6.64.

The in te rs e c tio n o f these t w o arcs is D. Join BD.

F ig u re 6 .6 4 C o n s tru c te d rh o m b u s

Once ag ain w e have c o n s tru c te d a rh o m b u s . In th is case w e are g o in g to use th e fa c t th a t th e

s y m m e try o f th e rh o m b u s m eans th a t BD is the b is e c to r o f angle ABC.

In p a rtic u la r, an y p o in t on BD is at th e sam e d istance fro m BA o r BA e xte n d e d as it is fro m

BC o r BC e xte n d e d . As before, c h e c k a fe w p o in ts on BD to c o n firm this. Figure 6.65 show s
o ne such p o in t w ith d o tte d lines to in d ic a te th e sh o rte s t d ista n ce to BA e xte n d e d , and to BC
exten de d . R e m e m b e r th a t th e s h o rte s t d istance from a p o in t to a lin e is th e p e rp e n d ic u la r
fro m th e p o in t to th e line.

F ig u re G .S5 S h o rte st d is ta n c e s to e xte n d e d sid e s

3 a U sing a s tra ig h te d g e and com passes only, d ra w th e locus o f p o in ts th a t are

e q u id is ta n t fro m th e lines AB and BC sh o w n in Figure 6 .6 6 .
b S h ad e th e lo cu s o f p o in ts w ith in the tria n g le ABC w h ic h are c lo s e r to AB th a n to BC.
c W h a t is th e n a m e used to d e s c rib e th e lin e you d re w in p a rt (a)?

Method
As before , ify o u are n o t sure w h a t th e locus w o u ld lo o k like alw ays try to fin d a fe w p o in ts
th a t w o u ld be o n th e lo cus u n til y o u see w h a t has to be draw n.

Ify o u w o rk e d th ro u g h th e last e x a m p le you sh o u ld be able to see fro m th e d ia g ra m h o w th is

locus is c o n s tru c te d .

S ta rt w ith y o u r co m p a s s p o in t on B, m a rk in g an arc on b o th arm s o f th e angle.

Move y o u r com pa sses to th e p o in ts o f in te rs e c tio n betw een each arc and line in tu rn and
m a rk a p a ir o f arcs as s how n.

Join th e p o in t B to th e in te rs e c tio n o f th e arcs.

6 Geometry and Shape I J

We have again d ra w n p a rt o f a rh o m b u s , w h ic h as w e k n o w fro m e a rlie r w o rk , has a line o f

s y m m e try w h ic h , in th is case, d iv id e s ZA B C in to tw o eq u a l parts.

a a

However tempting it is

Fig u re 6 .6 6 Construction of locus of points dividing angle ABC into two equal parts

b The s h a d in g in p a rt (a) show s th e re q u ire d locus,

c The lo cu s is th e b is e c to r o f a n g le ABC.

4 C o n s tru c t th e lo cu s o f p o in ts th a t are 2 c e n tim e tre s fro m th e given lin e s e g m e n M B .

Method
Im a g in e th a t th e lin e is a le n g th o f w ire th a t is s tre tc h e d tig h tly b e tw e e n tw o posts. A d o g is on
a leash th a t is a tta c h e d to a rin g th a t is free to run a lo n g th e line. T he locus o f p o in ts w o u ld be
repre sented (in m in ia tu re !) b y th e fu rth e s t p o in ts th e d o g co u ld reach.

O pen y o u r c om p asses to 2 c e n tim e tre s , and a t A and th e n a t B d ra w s e m icirc le s as s h o w n in

Figure 6.67.

J o in th e se m icirc le s to m a ke lines o n each s ide o f AB th a t are 2 c e n tim e tre s fro m AB.

Figu re 6 .6 7 Constructed locus

You s h o u ld n o w have e n o u g h in fo rm a tio n to a n s w e r q u e s tio n s o n locus.

Example 1 5
a Draw a rectangle >46CD with AB = 8 centimetres and BC = 6 centimetres,

b Construct the angle bisector of angle ABC.

c Construct the perpendicular bisector of BC.

d Shade the region where the points are closer to BC than to AB, and closer to AB
than to DC.

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162
 ^ 6 Geometry and Shape I

Answer 15

A t------------

The next e x a m p le is p ro b a b ly m o re c o m p le x th a n you need, b u t it does usefully sh o w h ow to

c o n s tru c t loci.

Example 16
A guard dog is tied to a building on a leash that is 5 metres long. The building is 3 metres by
3 metres, and the dog is tied 1 m etre from the end of one of the short sides as shown. Using
a scale of 1 centim etre to represent 1 metre, construct a diagram to show the extent of the
ground outside the building that the guard dog can patrol.

163
6 Geometry and Shape I J

Exam ple 17
Do not use a protractor in this construction,
a Construct an equilateral triangle with sides 3 cm.
b Construct the locus of points that are 2 cm outside the triangle,
c Shade the locus of points that are outside the triangle and less than 2 cm from the
triangle.
Answ er 17

Exercise 6.15
1 C opy th e d ia g ra m , and c o n s tru c t th e b is e c to r o f angleX V Z u s in g a p a ir o f com passes a n d a
s tra ig h t edge only.

2 C opy the d ia g ra m and c o n s tru c t th e loci o f p o in ts th a t are e q u id is ta n t fro m AB and CD.

Use a p air o f com passes a n d a s tra ig h t edge only.
There are two lines
of points that are
equidistant p m these
two intersecting lines.

3 A, B and C are three villages as s h o w n in the d ia g ra m .

a Draw an accurate d ia g ra m o f t h e lo c a tio n o f t h e three villages using a su ita b le scale.
A radio m ast is to be placed in a p o s itio n th a t is an equal distance fro m each of the
villages.

\
164)
 ^ 6 Geometry and Shape I

b C o n s tru c t th e locus o f p o in ts t h a t are e q u id is ta n t from:

i AandB ii SandC iii AandC.

c Mark the p o s itio n o f t h e radio m ast, la b e llin g it R.

d Measure the distance o f th e m a s t fro m th e villages, c o n v e rtin g y o u r answ er to

k ilom e tres.

B
7 km

A < 6 km

5 km ' x

4 Repeat q u e s tio n 3 for th e th re e villages X, Z a n d Z s h o w n below.

4 km
*V - -? Y

3 km \ / 6 km
\\ //
V
Z

Exercise 6.16
M ixed e x e rc is e

1 The d ia g ra m sh ow s a tria n g u la r p a rk w ith gates a t A, B and C.

A

A fo u n ta in is to be p la ce d so th a t it is an e q u a l d istance fro m BA and BC.

a U sin g a scale o f 1 c e n tim e tre to re p re se n t 2 m etres, d ra w th e tria n g le accurately,
b D raw th e lo cu s o f p o in ts th a t are e q u id is ta n t fro m BA and BC, using a s tra ig h t edge and
c o m pa sses only.
The fo u n ta in is also e q u id is ta n t fro m /I and B.
c D raw th e lo cu s o f p o in ts th a t are e q u id is ta n t fro m A and B, using a s tra ig h t edge and
c o m pa sses only,
d M ark th e p o s itio n o f th e fo u n ta in and la b e l it F.
The w a te r fro m th e fo u n ta in sprays o v e r a c irc le o f radius 2 m etres,
e U sing th e given scale d ra w th e locus o f p o in ts th a t are 2 m etres fro m F.
f M ake a p p ro p ria te m e a s u re m e n ts on y o u r d ra w in g to fin d (in m etres):
i h o w clo se th e spray co m e s to th e g a teA
ii th e d is ta n c e o f th e fo u n ta in fro m gate C.
6 Geometry and Shape I J

2 D escribe th e s y m m e try o f each o f th e d iagram s be lo w .

3 C a lcu la te th e sizes o f th e angles and sides m a rk e d w ith le tte rs in th e fo llo w in g d iagram s.

In each case give reasons fo r y o u r a nsw ers and s ta te th e u n its in y o u r answ ers.

15 cm

4 D escribe th e locus o f p o in ts in th re e d im e n s io n s w h ic h lie b e tw e e n 10 c m and 10.5 cm

fro m a fixed p o in t, /A.

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1661
 ^ 6 Geometry and Shape I

Exam-style questions
________________________"_______________________ y

M any o f th e s e q u e s tio n s are b ased on dia g ra m s th a t w ill have to be co p ie d in to y o u r ow n

exercise b o o k . Try usin g tra c in g paper.

5 C hoose a q u a d rila te ra l fro m th e lis t to c o m p le te each s ta te m e n t.

Kite P a ra llelog ra m R ectangle R hom bus Square Trapezium

A ..................................................has fo u r equal sides and fo u r angles o f 90°.

b A .................................................. is ju s t one p a ir o f p a rallel sides,
c A .................................................. is ju s t one p a ir o f o p p o s ite angles equal and its
d ia g o n a ls b ise ct at 90°. (4024 paper 11 Q l l June 2013)

6 B ABCDE is a regular p e n tago n.

NOT TO
X \ A SCALE O f f is a s tra ig h t line.
C
C alculate:
a angle-4FF
b angle DAE. (0580 p a per 02 Q17 N o ve m b e r 2005)
D E F
4
7 a i U sing a ru le r and com passes only, c o n s tru c t
NOT TO
th e above tria n g le accurately.
SCALE
ii U sing th e tria n g le you have draw n, m easure
and w rite d o w n th e size o f angle ACB.

b In th e d ia g ra m be lo w , tw o p o in ts , P and Q, are
jo in e d by a s tra ig h t line.
Q

i C op y th e d ia g ra m a n d d ra w th e locus o f all th e p o in ts th a t are 4 c e n tim e tre s fro m

th e line PQ.
ii On th e sa m e d ia g ra m , u s in g a s tra ig h t edge and com passes o nly, c o n s tru c t th e
locus of the points that arc equidistant from P and Q. S h o w a ll y o u r c o n s t r u c t io n
lines.
iii S hade th e region w h ic h c o n ta in s th e p o in ts th a t are closer to P th a n to Q a n d are
less th a n 4 c e n tim e tre s fro m th e lin e PQ. (0580 p a p e r 03 Q4 N o ve m b e r 2004)

8 C opy th is d ia g ra m . (You can use tra c in g paper.)

In th is q u e s tio n s h o w c le a rly all y o u r c o n s tru c tio n arcs,

a U sing a s tra ig h t edge and com passes only, c o n s tru c t on th e diagram :
i th e p e rp e n d ic u la r b is e c to r o f BD
ii th e b is e c to r o f an g le CDA.

b S hade th e region, in sid e th e q u a d rila te ra l, w h ic h is nearer to D th a n B a n d nearer to DC

th a n DA. (0580 paper 02 Q17 J u n e 2004)

167
6 Geometry and Shape I J

9 C opy th is tria n g le .
A

a In th is p a rt o f th e q u e s tio n use a s tra ig h t edge and com passes only.

Leaving in y o u r c o n s tru c tio n lines,
i c o n s tru c t th e a ngle b is e c to r o f a ngle ACB
ii c o n s tru c t th e p e rp e n d ic u la r b is e c to r o f AC.
(a d a p te d fro m 0580 p a p e r 02 Q22 N o v e m b e r 2005)

NOT TO
SCALE PQ is a c h o rd o f a circle, ce n tre O. A ngle OPQ = 35°.
C a lcu la te a ngle POQ.
(0580 p a p e r 01 Q l l J u n e 2004)

11

In th e d ia g ra m , DE is a d ia m e te r o f th e circle, ce n tre O.
AEB is th e ta n g e n t a t th e p o in t E. The lin e DCB cuts th e circ le a t C.
Angle DEC m 25°.
a W rite d o w n th e size o f a ngle DCE.
b C a lc u la te th e size o f a ngle CDE.
c C a lc u la te th e size o f a ngle DBE. (0580 p a p e r 01 Q 23 Ju n e 2005)

1 2 The d ia g ra m show s a re g u la r hexagon and a square.

NOT TO C a lculate th e values o f x and y.

SCALE (0580 p a p e r 01 Q 15 June 2007)
 [ 6 Geometry and Shape I

13 In th is q u e s tio n th e d iagram s are n o t to scale.

a C a lcula te th e value o f s. b C alculate the value o f t.

C o m p le te th e e q u a tio n x + 2 y = . C o m p le te th e e q u a tio n x + y -

iii Solve th e s im u lta n e o u s e q u a tio n s given by y o u r answ ers to parts c(i) and c(ii) to
fin d th e values o f x a n d / . (0580 p a p e r 03 Q4 J u n e 2004)

1 4 The d ia g ra m show s th re e p a ra lle l lines.

c Find z. (4024 p a per 11 Q l l N o ve m b e r 2010)

15 a C opy these d ia g ra m s and d ra w all th e lines o f s y m m e try on th e shapes. (Shape 6 is a

re g u la r polygon.)

Shape A

b W rite d o w n th e o rd e r o f ro ta tio n a l sy m m e try o f s hape A

(0580 p a per 01 Q12 J u n e 2006)

169
6 fiflometryandShapel J

16 a C a lc u la te th e size o f o ne e x te rio r angle o f a re g u la r h eptago n

(seven-sided polygon). Give y o u r a nsw er c o rre c t to 1 d e c im a l place.

b d A E

NOT TO
SCALE

F B C G

In th e d ia g ra m above, DAE and FBCG are p a rallel lines.

4C = BC and a n gle FBA = 130°.
i W h a t is th e s pecial nam e given to triangle-4BC?
ii W ork o u t th e values o f p , q, r, s and t.
c J, K and L lie on a circle w ith c e n tre 0.
KOL is a s tra ig h t line and angle JKL = 65°.
Find th e v a lu e o f y.

NOT TO
SCALE

(0580 p a p e r 03 Q9 N ove m b er 2005)

NOT TO
SCALE

E F
In th e d ia g ra m , AB, CD and EF are pa ra lle l lines.
Angle/16C = 25° and angle C EF= 130°.
C alcu late a ngle BCE. (0580 paper 0 1 Q10 June 2007)

18 G n

NOT TO
SCALE

A E
EG is a d ia m e te r o f t h e circle th ro u g h E, C and G.
The ta n g e n M E B is parallel to CD and an g leAEC = 68°.
 ^ 6 Geometry anil Shape I

Calculate the size o f t h e f o llo w in g angles and give a reason for each answer:
a angle CFG b angle ECG c angle CGE d angle BCD.

(0580 paper 03 Q 4 N o v e m b e r 2008)

19 In the diagram , EAF is a straight line and AB is parallel to CD.

AB bisects FAC and CAB = 58°.
Find the value of

(4024 paper 01 Q5 J u n e 2004)

20 a The in te rio r a ng le o f a re g u la r po lyg o n is 160°.

H ow m a n y sides does it have?
b ABCDE... is p a rt o f a regular p o ly g o n w h ic h has in te rio r angles o f 160°.
CDLM is a square.
C D

Find
i th e value o f x ii th e value o f y. (4024 p a p e r 01 Q20 N o ve m b e r 2004)

21 a T hree o f th e angles o f a q u a d rila te ra l are each 95°.

Find th e fo u rth angle,
b Each in te rio r a n gle o f a re g u la r p olygon is 165°.
H ow m a n y sides has th e polygon? (4024 paper 01 Q10 N o v e m b e r 2005)

2 2 The 7 sided po lyg o n in th e d ia g ra m has 6 angles o f x° and o n e o f / .

a Draw th e line o f sy m m e try on th e diagram .

b \ f y = 126, c a lc u la te th e value o f x.
(4024 paper 01 Q13 N o ve m b e r 2006)

/
171
6 Geometry and Shape I J

2 4 In th e d ia gram , th e lines BA, DC and EF are p a ra lle l.

ABC = 140° and BCF = 115°.

B

Find

a DCB
b DCF
c EFC- (4024 p a p e r 0 1 Q17 Ju n e 2007)

2 5 The fo llo w in g list gives th e nam es o f six shapes.

S quare R ectangle E q u ila te ra l tria n g le
Kite T rapezium P arallelogram
From th is list, w rite d o w n th e nam e o f th e s h a p e w h ic h alw ays has
a ro ta tio n a l s y m m e try o f o rd e r 3
b ro ta tio n a l s y m m e try o f o rd e r 2 and e xa c tly 2 lines o f sy m m e try
c o n e lin e o f s y m m e try only. (4024 p a p e r01 Q l l June 2008)

2 6 In th e diagram ,/16C D is p a rt o f a re g u la r p o ly g o n .

D Each in te rio r a n g le is 165°.

H ow m a n y sides does th is p o lygon
have?
a b p q is p a rt o f a n o th e r regular
polygon.
This p o ly g o n has 12 sides.
C a lculate x.
(4024 p a p e r 01 Q18 N o ve m b e r 2007)

2 7 W rite d o w n th e letters o f all th e shapes w h ic h have

a exactly 1 line o f s y m m e try

b ro ta tio n a l s y m m e try o f o rd e r 2 . (4024 p a p e r 01 Q2 N o ve m b e r 2004)

Shape A

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172
Learning Objectives Syllabus sections 2 4 ,2 5 ,2 7

In this c h a p te r you w ill: • use graphs to solve sim u ltan eo u s e q u a tio n s

• d ra w straight line graphs by p lo ttin g points • d raw up tab les o f coordinates fo r curves
• look a t som e ev e ryd ay graphs • p lo t th e curves.
• learn a b o u t gradients o f straight line graphs
• use th e general e q u a tio n o f a straight line in
th e form y = mx + c

7.1 Introduction
You m u s t have seen g ra p h s in m a n y places in e veryday life. A graph is a g o o d v isu al
m e th o d fo r d is p la y in g th e re la tio n s h ip betw e e n tw o q u a n titie s o r m easures. For e xa m p le ,
a n e w s p a p e r m ay have a graph to sh o w h ow th e price o f o il has increased o v e r a p e rio d o f
tim e . A fte r w o rk in g th ro u g h th is c h a p te r you s h o u ld have a b e tte r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f b o th
c o m m o n ly used g ra p h s a nd th o s e th a t d is p la y a lgebraic re lationships.

7.2 Essential Skills N O C A L C U L A T O R IN TH IS E X E R C IS E

1 C opy and c o m p le te th e se n u m b e r lines.

a — i--------1
-------- 1
-------- 1--------1
------- 1--------1
-------- 1
------ 1
--------- 1
---------- 1-------►
1 2 5

b — l------------------------------------------------------------------- 1------1-------------- 1-------------- 1-------------- 1-------------- 1-------------- 1

-6 0 4

2 C a lc u la te th e fo llo w in g :

a -2 -5 b 2 x (-3) c ( - 3 ) 2d - 3 2

e 1| f 1 - (-6 )

3 S im p lify th e fo llo w in g :

a — b ^ c — d ^ e 4
21 6 -1 0 -7 -1

4 List th e integer v alu es th a t satisfy th e fo llo w in g in e q u a lity :

-3 x =£ 3
7 Algebra and Craphs I J

7.3 Axes, Coordinates, Points and Lines

M ost gra ph s yo u m e e t w ill be d ra w n on a grid w ith x - a n d y -a x e s as in th e d iagram .

The p o s itive d ire c tio n s o f th e x - and 7 -axes are m arked w ith arrow s and th e letters x and y.
T he x-axis is a lw ays across th e page, a nd th e y -a x is is up and d o w n th e page (see Figure 7.1).

y
I1
I
1
■D“
I
1

•
0

0 8 6 4 - 2 0 o X
1
o_
A-
....

I
1
_c_
1
1o_
1
■i1n
L .1
F ig u re 7 .1 x -a n d jy -a x e s

The axes are m a rke d w ith scales like th e n u m b e r lines you have a lre a d y dra w n , a nd th e tw o
Key term: scales cross a t th e zero on b o th lines. This p o in t, w h e re th e y cross, is calle d th e o rig in , o r
Axes on a graph are two o fte n ju s t given th e le tte r 0 . It is m arked w ith a zero on th e grid. The n u m b e rs on th e scales
lines which cross at right m a rk th e g rid lines, n o t th e spaces betw een th e m .
angles and are used to
All the p oin ts on th e grid can be nam ed by giving th e ir x - and ^-coordinates. T h e x -c o o rd in a te
locate the positions of
points. is always givpn first, and show s how far from the origin th e p o in t is in th e x -d ire rtio n . Then th e
The x- and ^-co o rd in a te Shows h o w far from th e origin th e p o in t is in th e y-d ire c tio n .
^-coordinates o f a point Take, fo r e xam p le, a p a ir o f c o o rd in a te s (6 , 8 ).
on a graph locate the
exact position of that You can p lo t th is p o in t by s ta rtin g at th e o rig in , g o in g 6 steps in th e x -d ire c tio n (across), a n d
point relative to a pair th e n 8 steps in the_y-direction (up).
o f axes.
Figure 7.2 illu s tra te s this.
The origin on a graph is
the point where the two y
axes cross. n
u

8- u/
8)

6-
A

eL

0- — 3 —4 2 0 < Lt i 10 X
0
A

0
F ig u re 7 .2 P lo ttin g (6 , 8 )
 I 7 algebra and Graphs I

Exercise 7.1
1 a D raw a grid w ith b o th th e axes ru n n in g from - 1 0 to +10, as in Figure 7.1.
b P lo t and label th e fo llo w in g points:
i A (6,1) ii 6 , ( - 5 , - 3 ) iii C ,(4 ,-6 ) iv D , ( - 8,5)
2 a D raw a n o th e r grid as in q u e s tio n 1.
b P lo t and lab el th e fo llo w in g points:
i A (3 , 2 ) ii 6 , ( 6 , 2 ) iii C ,(3,7)
iv D A - 6 , 2 ) v £ , ( - 3 ,2 ) v i F ,(-3 ,7 )
c J o in A, B and C to fo rm a tria n g le ,
d J o in D, E and F to fo rm a n o th e r triangle,
e In w h a t w ay are th e tw o tria n g le s th e same?
f In w h a t w ay are th e y different?

3 W rite d o w n th e c o o rd in a te s o f a ll th e p o in ts in th e d ia g ra m below .

t
m

(C
6

b 9 £

£ a
-■ 0 - 8 — 6 _ 4 - 2 o’ U
r
4 e P 10
e
1
X
o

/i
U
a
M
*
g
1
- 10-
-
7 Algebra and Graphs I J

We can n o w see h o w p o in ts are s p e cifie d , w ith th e ir x- and _y-coordinates given in th a t o rd e r,

and w ritte n in brackets. The p o in ts can also be given c a p ita l letters to d is tin g u is h th e m .

N ext w e need to see h o w to specify lines on th e grid.

Example 2
Draw three more grids as above.
a i On the first grid plot and join up all the points with x-coordinate 3, that is, points
from the set:
{(3,-10), (3 ,-9 ), ( 3 , - 8 ),...,(3 ,1 0 )}
ii What can you say about all the points on the line you have drawn?
b i On your second grid plot and join up alt the points from the set:
{(-5 , -10), (-5 , -9 ), (-5 , - 8 ),..., (-5 ,1 0 )}
ii What do you think this line would be called?
c i On your third grid plot and join up all the points which have the x- and/-coordinates
equal to each other.
That is, all the points from the set:
{(-1 0 ,-1 0 ), ( - 9 ,- 9 ) , ( - 8 , - 8 ),..., (10,10)}
ii What would you call this line?
Answer 2
V t t
Y
>r
10 - J \
t
I 4 *
1t
8"
I
I i I
6 - 4 »
I >t
I \
>t
- 4 - 4 ►
I Nr
f 4 \
>t
2‘

=..1 0 _
fil
4. - 2 Jo > >t
4 > _e)_ - i - 10 - X
I8 " *> t
4
- 2 '
I
l >
4- t
J
i

- 6 "
I >t
4 <

-8 “
i / I

T 7

ii All the points have their x-coordinate equal to 3.

The line is called x = 3, and its equation isx = 3.

>1 v
>\ IU
i s "T "'
/ r> o
. ;
i
>k b
4
1
\ t
4 4
>* i
i
tL

-1 0 8 _
6 /?;-4
<
_
? 0 e R 10 X
— f
< d.
‘

—4
—— •— — ...

-H -6 -- —

— - : -8
\

' - lU

ii This is the linex = -5 .

\
176
 [ 7 Algebra and Graphs I

Exercise 7.2
1 On a grid d ra w th e lines:
a y = l b x = -3 c y = -x

2 W rite d o w n th e nam es fo r th e lines I and m draw n in th e dia g ra m below .

V
1u
I
R-
1I0
O I
I
A-
I

i I\ t
-1 0 - 8 - 6 4 -2 0 ( ) 10 X
—c.
II...
m —HA
— R
U
IO.
—o
!
A i1\j
—

We have been re fe rrin g to th e nam es o f lines, b u t fro m n ow on th e y w ill be referred to as th e

e q u a tio n s o f th e lines.

So fo r e xam ple , th e line g o in g up and d o w n th ro u g h x = - l w ill be called th e lin e w ith

e q u a tio n x = - l , o r m erely th e lin e x = - l .

The lines d o n o t have to go th ro u g h integer values o f x or y. The line = 0.75 w o u ld jo in all the
p o in ts w h o s e /-c o o rd in a te s w ere e q u a l to 0.75.
7 Algebra and Braphs I J

7.4 Everyday Graphs

You w ill see g ra phs in new spapers, on te le v isio n , in a d v e rtis e m e n ts and so on. We w ill lo o k
a t lin e gra p hs in th is chapter, and in th e c h a p te rs on sta tis tic s you w ill see exa m p le s o f o th e r
kin d s o f graphs, fo r e xam ple b a r ch a rts and pie charts.

T he g ra ph in Figure 7.3 is an e xa m p le o fth e change o f v alue o fth e US d o lla r c o m p a re d w ith

th e UK p o u n d o ve r five days in o n e p a rtic u la r w eek. The p o in ts s h o w th e values a t th e close o f
business each evening.

F ig u re 7 .3 D o lla r/p o u n d exchange rate

We can see th a t on Tuesday e ve n in g th e fin a n c ia l m a rke ts closed w ith $2.02 = £1. T his is
sh o w n on th e v e rtic a l axis as 2 . 0 2 $/£, in o th e r w o rd s fo r every 1 p o u n d you g e t 2 . 0 2 d o llars.

Example 3
The diagram shows a travel graph for a walking trip Abel and Gerry made. They both set out
from Abel’s home, and an hour later they were at a point 6 ,5 kilometres from Abel’s home.
They rested for a short time and then continued for one more kilometre to D before turning
round and go in g hom e. The w hole ti Ip lo o k 4 hours.

a Find their average speed from:

i AtoB ii S to C iii C to D iv D to f.
b For how long did they rest?
c What was their average speed from A to D?
d What was their average speed for the whole trip?

hours
Tim e
 [ 7 ftlgedra and Graphs I

Answer 3
a i There are two methods for calculating speed, the first is to use the formula:
, distance gone ,
average speed = time taken (see chapter 4)
Average speed = 5 km /1 hour = 5 km/h
ii Average speed = 0 km/h, since they did not move
iii Average speed = 1 k m /^ hour = 2 km/h
An alternative method which you might prefer is to work out how far they would have
gone in one hour.
They travelled 1 kilometre in half an hour, so they would have gone 2 kilometres in
1 hour if they had continued at the same pace. So their average speed is 2 km/h.
iv From D to E they travelled six kilometres in 2 hours, so they would have travelled
three kilometres in one hour.
Average speed is 3 km/h.
b From 6 to C the line is horizontal, the distance from home does not change, but the time
changes by half an hour, so they rested for half an hour,
NOTE:
Remember that average c From A to D is 6 kilometres, and they took 2 hours altogether. That is 3 kilometres in
speed for a whole 1 hour, so again the average speed is 3 km/h.
journey is:
d The total journey, there and back, was 12 kilometres and took 4 hours, so their average
total distance gone speed was 12 + 4 = 3 km/h.
total tim e taken

Example 4
\
a Draw a conversion graph to convert kilometres per hour into miles per hour for
0 =£ kilometres per hour =s 280, using the fact that 5 miles = 8 kilometres.
Use 2 mm graph paper.

b The speed restriction in Britain in built-up areas is 30 mph.

Use the graph to convert this to km/h.
c The fastest Form ula One average speed recorded in a certain yeai w a s 243 km/h correct
to 3 sig n ifican t figures. Change this to m iles per hour.

d Cricketers are fast bowlers if they bowl at speeds between 140 and 160 km/h. Find the
difference between these two values expressed in miles per hour.
Answ er 4
a 5 miles = 8 kilometres, so 50 miles = 80 kilometres.
Travelling 50 miles in one hour is the same as travelling 80 kilometres in one hour, so
50 mph = 80 km/h.
The line is drawn through (0,0) and through (80,50), as shown.

179
7 Algebra and Graphs I J

b The line goes through (48,30), so 30 mph = 48 km/h.

c From the graph, 243 km/h = 152 mph.

d From the graph, 140 km/h = 88 mph and 160 km/h = 100 mph.
The difference between the tw o speeds is 12 mph.
V __ _____________

Example 5
Stopping distances for cars with good tyres, good brakes and on a dry road surface are
shown in the table.

speed (kilometres/hour) 0 32 48 64 80 96 112

distance (metres) 0 12 23 36 53 73 96

a Use the table to plot a graph with distance on the vertical axis, and speed on the
horizontal axis. Use 2 mm graph paper.

b If the average length of a car is 4 metres, find how many car lengths will be needed to
stop if a car is travelling at 90 km/h.

c Find the minimum safe distance you should allow between your car and the one in front
if both cars are travelling at 60 km/h.
Answer 5

Speed
b From the graph, stopping distance at 90 km/h = 64 metres.
One car = 4 metres, so 64 metres = 64 + 4 = 16 car lengths.

c From the graph, stopping distance at 60 km /h = 32 metres, so the minimum safe distance
is 32 metres.

\
180
 [ 7 Algebra and Graphs I

Exercise 7.3
1 1he graph show s the n u m b e r o f daylight hours for a certain to w n in the northern
, lem isphere on the first day of every m onth.

Hours
of
dayl i ght

J J A
Mo n t h

a W hich m o n th has the m o st d a ylight?

b For h o w m a n y m o n th s are th e re m ore th a n 10 hours o f daylight?

2 On a ce rta in day th e exchange rate fo r UK p o u n d s (£) to In d ia n rupees (Rs.) w as 1 p o u n d =

80 rupees.
a D raw a graph to show th is in fo rm a tio n , fo r 0 =£ p o u n d s (£) =£ 100. Use 5 m m squared
paper.
b Use th e graph to find:
i th e value o f £75 in rupees (Rs.)
ii th e n u m b e r o f p o u n d s you w o u ld get in exchange fo r Rs. 3000.

3 An e le c tric ia n charges $10 c a llo u t fee and $15 per h o u r w o rk e d . The c a llo u t fee is charged
regardless o f h o w m uch w o rk is done, if any, and has to be a dded to every bill.
a D raw h o riz o n ta l axes w ith 0 =s tim e in hours =£ 10 and ve rtica l axes w ith 0 =£ cost in
d o lla rs =£ 180.
Use 5 m m squared paper,
b D raw a graph s h o w in g charges fo r up to 10 hours w o rk ,
c From th e graph h o w m uch w o u ld be charged fo r 5.5 hours?
d A b ill cam e to $122.50. H ow m a n y hours d id th e e le c tric ia n w ork?

4 The gra ph show s tw o jo u rn e y s m a d e by A n to n and B e thany fro m school.

Distance 3
(km)
Anton's
home

Bethany's
home

School -►
4.00 4.30 5.00 5.30 6.00 6.30 7.00
Tim e (pm)
7 Algebra and Graphs I J

A n to n left at 4.30 p.m ., had a m eal a t h o m e and th e n re tu rn e d fo r an e ve n in g gam es

m atch . B e thany left s c h o o l a t 4.00 p.m .
a H ow lo n g did A n to n s p e n d a t hom e?
b H ow lo n g d id it ta ke B e th a n y to reach hom e?
c H ow fa r is B e th a n y ’s h o m e fro m th e school?
d W h at w as B e th a n y ’s average speed on h e r jo u rn e y hom e?
e W ho tra ve lle d th e fastest?

W e have been s tu d y in g d is ta n c e -tim e gra p h s in th is se ctio n . We w ill go on to s tu d y speed­

tim e grap h s in C h a p te r 18.

7.5 Graphs with Algebra

G raphs can also be d ra w n to illu s tra te a lg e b ra ic e q u a tio n s w h ic h show th e re la tio n s h ip
be tw e e n tw o variables, c o m m o n ly x and y.

Look, fo r exa m p le, at th e e q u a tio n y = 2 x + 3.

T here is no single s o lu tio n to th is e q u a tio n b u t th e re is a set o f s o lu tio n s th a t can be show n

on an x - y graph.

We can fin d a fe w m e m b e rs o f th is s o lu tio n set by try in g d iffe re n t values fo r x a n d c a lc u la tin g

th e c o rre s p o n d in g values o f y.

T ry in g x = l,

th e n y = 2x1 + 3

7=5

T h is s h ow s t h a t x = 1 ,^ = 5 is o n e s o lu tio n to th is e q u a tio n .

T h is s o lu tio n can be p lo tte d o n th e g raph as (1,5).

We co u ld try o th e r values o f x, fo r e xa m p le , x - 91.5:

7 = 2 x 9 1 .5 + 3 = 186

So th e p o in t (91.5,186) w o u ld also re p re se n t a s o lu tio n to th e e q u a tio n and c o u ld be p lo tte d

on a graph.

N egative values o f x also can be trie d . For e xam ple,

when x --2 , y = 2 x - 2 + 3,

so y = - l,

g iv in g th e p o in t ( - 2 , - 1 ).

T his is cle a rly a ra th e r ha p h a za rd w a y o f fin d in g s o lu tio n s , and it is m ore usual to d e c id e a set

o f values f o r * and c a lc u la te th e c o rre s p o n d in g v a lu e s o f y, and p u t th is s o lu tio n set in a table.

Drawing Straight Line Graphs

As an e xam ple o f th e m e th o d , usin g th e e q u a tio n y = 2x + 3 w e w ill draw the g raph for values
o f x: - 3 =£ x =£ 3.

W hen x = -3 , y = 2 x - 3 + 3,

so y = - 3.

\
182]
 [ 7 fllgedra and Graphs I

Table 7.1 s h o w s the values o f x a n d / for x = - 3 to x = 3.

X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

y -3 -1 1 3 5 7 9

n I/ T a b le 7 .1 y = 2 x + 3

0 C heck these v alues for y o u rs e lf to m ake sure you k n o w h o w to find them .

-- This type of q u e s tio n w ill often give you som e o f the values o f y, b u t n o t all, and you
7
w ill be asked to find th e others.
cD
The ta b le s h o w s t h a t / v a r i e s from - 3 to 9, so th e /- a x is m u s t be d ra w n for values o f / :
5o V = 2x + 3 - 3 =£ / =£ 9 (see Figure 7.4).

4A N o te th e fo llo w in g p oints:
J
Q, f • S traig ht lines s h o u ld alw ays be d raw n w ith a ruter.
/
< • Use th e ruled, c o o rd in a te lines on the graph pap e r to find th e x and / values.
L.
/ • The line m a y be c o n tin u e d to the edge o f the grid a lth o u g h in this case w e have
( I o n ly been asked to p lo t p o in ts betw een x = - 3 and x = 3.
/ • W rite th e e q u a tio n f o r t h e line beside th e line you have d ra w n on th e graph.
- 3_ ? ) -1 0 1 ? 3 • Make sure th a t w h a te v e r scale you choose is evenly spaced on b o th axes.
1
) 1I For exam ple, d o not label an axis like in Figure 7.5.
/ 2
—r~
( Q
| 2
j
F ig u re 7 .5 Incorrectly lab elled axis
Fig u re 7 .4 / = 2x + 3

Exam ple 6

Draw the graph of / = - x + 5 for values of x: - 3 =£ x =s 3.

A nsw er 6

X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
7 Algebra and Graphs I J

Example 7
\
a Draw and label each of the following lines on the same graph.
i x=3 ii x = -2 iii / = - 4iv y = l
b i Where do all the points whose x-coordinate is 0 lie?
ii What is the equation of the/-axis?
c What is another name for the lin e / = 0?
A nsw er 7
a
y
?

1 y = 1

-? _ 0 i
—I 1

2 O X = 3

y = - 4

b i The points with x-coordinate equal to zero lie on the/-axis.

ii The equation of the /-axis is x = 0.
c The lin e / = 0 is the x-axis.

V __________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 7.4
For q u e s tio n s 1 to 7 d ra w th e s tra ig h t lin e g ra p h s fo r th e values o f x given. Use th e sam e scale
on b o th axes.

B e side each g ra ph w rite its e q u a tio n and th e va lu e o f / w h e r e th e line cuts th e /-a x is .

1 y = x - 3 =£ x =£ 3 2 / =x+2 - 3 «£ x =S 3

3 y - x - 1 -3 « x ^ 3 4 / = 2x - 3 =£ x =£ 3

5 / = 2x + 2 - 3 =£ x =£ 3 6 y=3x-3 - 2 =£ x =£ 4

7 / = 5 -2 ^ x « 4

8 W h a t d id you notic e a b o u t the e q u a tio n o f each line and th e value o f / w h e r e the line c urs
Key term th e /-a x is ?
The/-in te rc e p t is the
point where a line cuts The value o f / w h e r e th e line cuts t h e / - a x i s is called t h e /-in te rc e p t, and y o u s h o u ld have
the/-axis. seen in the exercise above th a t it is the s a m e as th e c o n s ta n t te rm in each e q u a tio n . Where
th e re is no c o n s ta n t te rm th e line goes th ro u g h th e o rigin (th e /- in te r c e p t is 0).

\
184
 ^ 7 Algebra anil Graphs I

Understanding Straight Line Graphs

An e q u a tio n w ill be a s tra ig h t line w h e n it is p lo tte d on a g raph if it o n ly has term s in x a n d /o r
/ , and a c o n s ta n t te rm . If th e c o n s ta n t te rm is zero it w ill n o t be show n in the e q u a tio n , and
th e lin e w ill go th ro u g h th e o rig in as you have seen.

The e q u a tio n s o f s tra ig h t lines d o n o t have te rm s in / , / ' , x 2, x y or - , o r any o th e r te rm s like

these.

Earlier w e lo o k e d a t th e g raph o f / = 2x + 3.

W hen x = 0 , / = 3. T h e re fo re w e k n o w th a t th e /- in te r c e p t (w here th e line cuts, o r in te rce p ts,

th e /-a x is ) is 3, as w e fo u n d w h e n w e p lo tte d and d re w th e graph.

The e q u a tio n c o u ld have been w ritte n in o th e r ways:

y=2x + 3
y -2 x = 3
y -2 x -3 = 0
_ > -3
X 2
or 2 x -y + 3 = 0

These are a ll th e sam e e q u a tio n a n d w ill give th e sam e s tra ig h t line graph w hen p lo tte d .

The firs t fo rm is th e easiest to use, a n d gives us th e m o s t im m e d ia te in fo rm a tio n a b o u t the

graph, such as th a t it c u ts th e /- a x is a t / = 3. It also te lls us a b o u t th e g ra d ie n t o f th e graph, as
w e shall see.

Gradients
For th e rest o f th is s e c tio n w e are g o in g to use e q u a l scales on b o th axes so th a t w e can c o u n t
th e squ a res to c a lc u la te th e g ra d ie n t.

R em em be r th a t g ra d ie n t is th e ste epness o f a line, and is m easu re d by

Key term ^ change i n /
l he g ra d ie n t is g ra d ie n t — , a y
b change in x
a measure o fth e
steepness o f 3 line on a You m ig h t fin d it h e lp s you to re m e m b e r w h ic h w a y u p th is fra c tio n s h o u ld be ify o u d ra w a
graph. tria n g le (lik e a h ill) a n d fit in th e w o rd s 'u p ’ and ‘a lo n g ’. H ills have g ra d ie n ts and th e w o rd s fit
c o n v e n ie n tly , as s h o w n in Figure 7.6.

F ig u re 7 .6 G rad ien ts

The g ra d ie n t o f a lin e th a t slo p e s u p fro m left to rig h t is p o s itive , w h ile one th a t slo p e s do w n
fro m left to rig h t is negative. These signs c o u ld be a d d e d to th e h ill as sh o w n in Figure 7.7.

Gradient

F ig u re 7 .7 P o sitive a nd neg a tive g ra d ie n t

7 Algebra and Graphs I J

Example 8
Find the gradients of these line segments. Give your answer in its simplest terms. (A line
segment is just part of a line. In general a line could goon forever!)

Ill IV

i ^ = | ii gradient = | iii ^ =§

gradient = | gradient = 1 gradient = 0

iv Line slopes backwards, so comparing with .

gradient = ^6 o r —
wb h i c h simplifies to: gradient = ^ o r - f33

Example 9
Draw line segments with the following gradients:
a 2 b -1 c
d I e |
Answer 9

NOTE:
Compare each fraction with a|^ g, and remember that negative gradients
slope backwards.
 [ 7 Algebra and Graphs I

a 2 = ^. Therefore, along 1 and up 2 (or, along 3 and up 6 ):

b Either -1 = -y, therefore, along 1 and down 1;

or - 1 = 4 j, therefore back 1 and up l(o r back 6 and up 6 ):
You should see that either way of looking at it gives a line sloping
backwards.

c Either therefore along 3 and down 2;

o r - ! = ;^ , therefore back 3 and up 2 .

Again, either way gives a line sloping backwards.

d | is 3 along and 2 up:

e | is 2 along and 5 up:

V .

• L o o king a t these exam ples, you can see th a t it m akes no difference to the gradient o fth e line if
w e c o u n t 5 m m squares o r 1 cm squares, as long as w e use the sam e in both directions.
• H ave yo u n o tic e d th a t a g ra d ie n t o f 1 slopes a t 45° to th e horizontal?
• W h a t can y o u say a b o u t a g ra d ie n t o f zero?
• G ra d ie n ts b etw e e n 0 and 1 (such as 4 in th e exa m p le above) slo p e a t less th a n 45°.
• G ra d ie n ts b ig ge r th a n 1 (such as are steeper th a n 45°.
• G ra d ie n ts w h ic h are negative m ake th e sam e angles w ith th e h o riz o n ta l, b u t slope
b a ckw a rds.
• A lo n g 1 and up 2 is th e sam e as a lo n g 2 and up 4 and so on. Alw ays give y o u r g ra d ie n t in
its s im p le s t form .
7 Algebra and Graphs I J

As yo u have seen th e re are th re e w ays th a t m ig h t help you to deal w ith n e g a tiv e gradients.

The firs t is to n o tic e th a t negative g ra d ie n ts slo p e b ackw ards, and deal w ith th e m accordingly.

The seco n d is instead o f a lo n g and up to c o u n t a lo n g and d o w n . S o - | is - y , th a t is 3 a lo n g

and 2 d o w n .

The th ird is instead o f a lo n g and up to c o u n t b a c k and up. S o - | is - y , th a t is 3 back and 2 up.

W hatever you do, do n o t c o u n t back and dow n o r you w ill end up w ith a positive gradient again!

N o tic in g these th in g s w ill help yo u ensure th a t y o u get th e c o rre c t answ er.

Exercise 7.5
1 Find th e g ra d ie n ts o f th e fo llo w in g lin e segm ents. Give each a n sw e r in its s im p le s t term s.

2 D raw lin e s egm ents w ith th e fo llo w in g gradients:

b 3
C “ 4
6
f 1 i 5
3 M atch th e se lin e s egm ents w ith th e ir p o s s ib le gradients.

. _ .. _ ... 2 . 1
I 2 11-3 III g IV —2
4 C opy and c o m p le te th e ta b le b e lo w fo r th e fo llo w in g g ra d ie n ts o f lines a nd th e angle each
lin e w o u ld m ake w ith th e x-axis.
T w o have been d o n e fo r you.
1 2 3
a g ra d ie n t = ^ b g ra d ie n t = j c g ra d ie n t = 5

d g ra d ie n t = 5 e g ra d ie n t = ^ f g ra d ie n t = ^

A ngle m ade less th a n 45° exactly 45° be tw e e n 45°

w ith x-axis an d 90°
G radient 1 1
2 ,5 ,

Drawing Straight Line Graphs w ithout

Using a Table of Values
We n o w k n o w e nough to be able to recognise and sketch stra ig h t line graphs very quickly. For
exam ple, lo o k in g a t y = 3 x + 1, w e k n o w th a t it crosses th e y -a x is at 1, and has a gra d ie n t of 3.

3 is the sam e as so c o m p a rin g w ith a| ^ g , w e get 1 a lo n g a n d 3 up.

\
 I, 7 Algebra and Graphs I

Go to th e /- in te r c e p t (0,1), and d ra w a line w ith a g ra d ie n t o f 3 by s te p p in g 1 a lo n g and 3 up

repeatedly, as in Figure 7.8.

1 ■ I
r lo -
7

1)

L>
—
- 4

3
-
2

11

4 _
3 _ 2 _ 1 0 1 2 4
■1
2

F ig u re 7 .8 Drawing/ = 3x + 1

O f course, 1 a lo n g and 3 up is th e sam e as 1 ba c k and 3 dow n, as you can see.

Example 10
a Sketch the graphs of:
i y = 2x+2 ii y= -x -2

b Match the following diagrams with their possible equations.

iii IV

A. y = j x + 1 B. y = xC. y = -6x + l D. x = 4

Answer 10
a i

6 /

4
/
y = 2x +
\
-4
/
-4 0 2 4
- T4
-2 - r -
/
b i B ii D iii A iv C
V.
r
189
7 Algebra and Braphs I J

Drawing a Straight Line Graph W hen It is not

in the Form y = m x + r
E xam ple 1 1
Draw the graph of 3y + 2x = 6 .
A n sw er 1 1
When x = 0, 3 /+ 0 = 6 3y = 6 y -2
The graph goes through the point (0,2).
When y = 0, 0 + 2x=6 2x = 6 x= 3
The graph goes through the point (3,0).
Checking with one more point:
When x=2, 3y+2x2 = 6 3y + 4 = 6 3y = 2
The checkpoint is (2, |) .

Exercise 7.6
D raw th e fo llo w in g s tra ig h t lin e graphs by any o f th e m e th o d s w e have used.
1 y = -2 x - 3 2 2 y - 3 x = 12 3 y = ^x + 2

4 5 / + 2x=10 5 6 /-3 x + 1 2 = 0 6 y = x+ 5

The General Form of a Straight Line Equation

We have been w o rk in g so fa r w ith e q u a tio n s in th e fo rm of_y = a te rm in x and a co n s ta n t
te rm , fo r exam ple:

y = 5x + 3

W hen th e e q u a tio n is arranged in th is w ay it can be c o m p a re d w ith th e g e n e ra l e q u a tio n o f a

s tra ig h t line, w h ic h is

y=m x+c

In th is general fo rm , m repre sen ts th e g ra d ie n t and c repre sen ts th e /-in te r c e p t.

For e xa m ple, fo r th e e q u a tio n

y = 5x + 3
m = 5 and c = 3

It is im p o rta n t to n o tic e th a t th e y te rm has to be l y fo r th is to be true.

For exam ple, ify o u have th e e q u a tio n ,

3y = 5x - 6

190
 ( 7 Algebra anfl Graphs I

then you need to rearrange it first into the c orrect form:

3^ = 5 * - 6 (+3)
y = \x - 2

N ow m = | and c = - 2.

The line 3 / = 5 x - 6 c uts th e y -a x is a t - 2 and has a g radient o f | .

The e q u a tio n s m ay also be given in o th e r form s and have to be rearranged.

Exam ple 12
For each equation find the values of m and c.
a 2y = 5x - 4 b 3 /-3 x -5 = 0 C 5x = 4y + 1

Answ er 12
a 2y = 5 x - 4 (+:2)
7=§ x -2
5 T
m = j c= -2

b 3 > < -3 x -5 = 0 (+ 3 jc+ 5) c 5x = 4 y + l (turnaround)

3y = 3x + 5 (-5- 3 ) 4y+ l = 5x (-1 )
y=x+| 4y = 5 x - l (-5-4)
m= 1 c= | ?=

» = 4! c = - 4l

Exercise 7.7
For each equation find the value of m and the value of c. CXN
y = \x - 5 2 2y + x = 3 3 'vt-
II
1
1
4 x + y + l= 0 5 5 x -4 _ y = 20 6
y=£f
CX>

7 2 x + 3 y -4 = 0 y = f+ 3 9
V*

8
II
O
O

>—1

y = 2x
H

11 12
X
II

ii
i

13 y = - x 14 x+y=4

Finding Gradients W hen the Scales Are Not

the S am e on Both Axes
7 Algebra anil Graphs I j

b Find the gradient o fth e line joining the points (3 ,-4 ) and (-2 ,-1 ).

Answer 13

Choose two points on the graph, for example (1,6) and (-3, -2 ) as shown.
The change in la n d the change in xhave to be read from the axes. Counting the squares
will not work when the scales are different on both axes.

Forthe change in / , think ‘how do you get from - 2 to 6 ?’ These are the tw o/-coordinates.
The answer is you add 8 .
So the change i n / = 8 .
For the change in jc, think ‘how do you get from - 3 to 1?’ The answer is you add 4.
So the change in x = 4.
The gradient of the line is change in ? = 1 = 2
change in x 4

■N 0 T E : ■ ■' i ■
In this particular case you could have chosen the p d fttt whi
(-2 ,0 ) a nd (0,4), and read 4 units on the /-axis and 2 units on
of | = 2. However, it is important that you understand thefii
you are given might not be shown cutting both axes.

b The points are: (3, -4 ) and (-2 , -1 ).

For the change in /, ask yourself‘how do you get fro m - 4 to -1? ’
Change i n / = +3.
For the change in x, ‘how do you get from 3 to -2 ? ’
Change in x = -5 .
The gradient of the line is c^ange m y = =-|
change in x —5 5

Ifyou prefer you can plot the tw o points on a grid and find the gradient from the grid,
t a k in g a c c o u n t o f th o seal© y o u h a v o c h o s e n .

Finding the Equation of the Straight

Line on a Graph
To fin d th e e q u a tio n o f a s tra ig h t line, fin d its g ra d ie n t (m) and th e /-in te r c e p t (c) a n d use
y = m x + c.

Example 14
Find the equation of the line shown on the grid in Example 13 above.
Answer 14
Gradient, w = 2, and/-intercept, c = 4.
S o/ = m x + c b e c o m e s / = 2x + 4._________________________________
 I 7 Algebra and Graphs I

Exercise 7.8
Find th e e q u a tio n for each of the lines s how n in questions 1 to 4.

5 Find th e g ra d ie n t o fth e line jo in in g th e p o in t (2,4) to th e p o in t (10,5).

6 Find th e g ra d ie n t o f th e line jo in in g th e p o in ts (1 ,-3 ) and (-2 , 6 ).

Parallel Lines
Parallel lin es have th e sam e g ra d ie n t, b u t w ill c u t th e /-a x is a t d iffe re n t places.

For e x a m p le ,/ = 5 x + 6 a n d / = 5 x - 2 b o th have a g ra d ie n t o f 5, b u t c u t th e /-a x is at 6 and

-2 respectively.

You m ay be asked to fin d p a rallel lines w hen th e e q u a tio n s are n o t arranged c o n v e n ie n tly in
th e / = m x + c fo rm , so you m ay have to rearrange th e e q u a tio n s in to th is fo rm first.

Example 1 5
a Find a pair of parallel lines from these equations.
i y —3x + 5 = 0 ii y —2.x+ 4 = 0 iii 2 / - 3 = 4x iv 5y = 2x
b Write down the equation of a line which is parallel to y = -x + 4.
Answer 1 5
a i y —3x + 5 = 0 ii y —2x + 4 = 0
/ = 3 x -5 y = 2 x -4
m =3 m =2
iii 2 / - 3 = 4x iv 5y = 2x
2y = 4x + 3 y= x
y = 2x + | w=|
m = 2
So the lin e s /- 2 x + 4 = 0 and 2 / - 3 = 4x both have the same gradient and are parallel.

b Any line parallel to the given line will be acceptable.

For example, y = -x + 6 .

193
 Exercise 7.9
1 Find th e p a ir o f p a ra lle l lines.
a 3/ = x -9 b 2 y -6 x -9 c 1 5 /-5 x + 7 = 0

2 W rite d o w n th e e q u a tio n o f a lin e p a ra lle l to 2 y - ^ x - 3 .

3 Find th e g ra d ie n ts o f each o f th e se lines to fin d a p a ir th a t are parallel.

2 /
Jj
-4 - 2 0 / A
2 I

(
4/

Using Graphs to Solve Simultaneous Equations

We have a lre a d y solved s im u lta n e o u s e q u a tio n s u sin g algebra in C h a p te r 5. W e s h a ll n o w
lo o k a t a g ra p h ic a l m e th o d .

The g ra p h s o f s tra ig h t lines lin k e very sin g le p o in t w h o s e x - and /-c o o rd in a te s o b e y th e

e q u a tio n fo r th e line. T his in c lu d e s all th e ra tio n a l n u m b e rs as w e ll as th e integers. N o o th e r
p o in t on th e grid has x - a nd /-c o o rd in a te s w h ic h o b e y th is e q u a tio n .

Look a t th e firs t d ia g ra m in Figure 7.9, w h ic h is th e graph o f / = 2 x + l .

F ig u re 7 .9 Solving sim u ltaneous equations

You can see th a t w h e n , fo re x a m p le , x = 2.5, t h e n / = 6 .

B u t th is p o in t also lies on th e line 2y = 2x + 7.

(Check: w h e n x = 2 .5 ,2 / = 5 + 7 , 2 / = 12, / = 6 .)

If th is e q u a tio n is p lo tte d on th e g raph you w ill see th a t it crosses t h e / = 2 x + 1 at th e p o in t

(2.5, 6 ), as in th e second d ia g ra m in Figure 7.9.

S im u lta n e o u s e q u a tio n s are e q u a tio n s w h ic h share a p o in t in c o m m o n , so th a t th e x- and

/-c o o rd in a te s o b e y b o th e q u a tio n s . If tw o s im u lta n e o u s e q u a tio n s are p lo tte d on a graph
th e n th e p o in t w h e re th e y cross is a s o lu tio n to b o th e q u a tio n s . W hen you are asked to solve
tw o e q u a tio n s s im u lta n e o u s ly, you are lo o k in g fo r th e p o in t w h ich satisfies b o th o fth e
e q u a tio n s.

Tw o s tra ig h t lines w ill alw ays cross unless th e y are parallel, in w h ic h case th e y n ever m eet.
 I 7 Algebra and Graphs I

Example 16
a i Find graphically the solution to these two simultaneous equations:
y =x + 2 3x + 2y = 9
ii Solve the two equations simultaneously by an algebraic method.

b Show that these two equations cannot be solved simultaneously:

y = 2x + 1 3y-6x+l

Answer 16
a i y=x+2
m = l,c = 2
3 x + 2y = 9
when x = 0,;y = 4.5
w h e n y = 0, x = 3
Checkpoint: w henx = 2 ,y = 1.5
Solution: x = 1 , 7 = 3

| \ !
/
| / y = X+
4 /
/
3 c 1 ,: J)

?/
/ + 2y = 9 -
/ 1
/
/
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 \ 4

ii y = x + 2 y -x = 2 x2 2 y -2 x = 4
2y + 3x = 9
3x + 2y = 9 ----- 2y + 3 x= 9 -5 * = -5
subtract
x = l, y = 3
b y = 2 x + l, m = 2
3y = 6x + 1 (*3 )
y=2x + \, m= 2
The lines are parallel and will never meet.

Exercise 7.10
1 y+x=l
y -2 x= l
Solve th is p a ir o f s im u lta n e o u s e q u a tio n s :
a by a g rap h ical m e th o d b by an algebraic m e th o d .

2 Solve these pairs o f sim u lta n e o u s e q u a tio n s by a gra p h ica l m e th o d ,

a x+y = 2 b y=3x+8
y=x+4 2x + y = 3
7 Algebra anti Graphs I J

7.6 Drawing Curves

So far w e have lo o k e d at e q u a tio n s th a t p ro d u c e s tra ig h t lin e graphs, b u t o th e r e q u a tio n s
p ro d u c e curves w h ic h you need to be a b le to draw .

E q ua tio ns o f s tra ig h t lines are easy to p lo t, and are often draw n on 5 m m sq u a re d paper.

H ow ever, curves m a y w e ll be d ra w n on 2 m m squared graph p a p e r to a llo w p o in ts to be

p lo tte d m o re accurately. The scales on th e tw o axes need n o t be th e sam e, and th e y ofte n
need to be d iffe re n t to get m o re o fth e g raph on a re asonable a m o u n t o f paper.

The a p p ro a ch is s till th e sam e. You w rite d o w n a set o f values fo r * , and c a lc u la te th e

c o rre s p o n d in g va lu e s o f / . D raw up a ta b le , and th e n p lo t th e curve.

S om e e xam ples w ill m ake th is clear.

Example 17
Draw the graph o fth e equation / = x 2 for values of x: - 3 =£ x ^ 3.
Use a scale of 1 centimetre to represent 1 unit on each axis.
Answer 17
y=x2
X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y 9 4 1 0 1 4 9

y=

way up, or upside down.

It may be symmetrical
about the/-axis as this is,
or about some other line
parallel to the/-axis.

Example 18
The table shows values of x a n d / for x: -2 =£ x =s 2 forthe e q u a tio n / = 2x 2 - 3.

X -2 -1 0 1 2

y 5 -1 -3 -1 5
 ( 7 Algebra and Graphs I

a Use the table to draw the graph o fy = 2x 2 - 3 .

Use a scale of 1 centimetre to represent 1 uniton they-axis and 2 centimetres to
represent 1 unit on the x-axis.

b Use your graph to solve the equation 2x 2 - 3 = 0.

Give your answers correct to 1 decimal place.
Answ er 18
y

b 2x 2 - 3 = 0 is found on the graph of y = 2x 2 - 3 when 7 = 0 . The line 7 = 0 is the x-axis,

so the solutions to the equation 2x2- 3 = 0 are the points where the curve cuts the x-axis:
x = - 1.2 o r x = 1 .2 .
V _______________________________________________________________________

Example 1 9
\
1 1 1 1
X -4 -2 -1 1 2 4
2 4 4 2

1 1 1 1
y 4 2
-1 -2 -4 4 2 1 2 4

Use this table of values of x and y to draw the graph of y = -1 for x: - 4 =s x =£ 4.

Use a scale of 1 centimetre to represent 1 unit on both axes.
Answer 19

V
In th e a n sw e r to th e last exam ple, you w ill see a d iffe re n t k in d o f g raph. This graph never
cu ts th e y -a x is . W hy is this? To fin d w h e re a graph c u ts th e y -a x is w e m u s t p u t x = 0 in to th e
e q u a tio n .

W hen* = 0 ,7 = ^ b e c o m e s / ^ , o r 7 = 1 + 0.

1 + 0 m ea n s ‘ h o w m a n y zeros go in to 1?' This m akes no sense. To try to u n d e rs ta n d th is use

y o u r c a lc u la to r to fin d th e a nsw er to th e fo llo w in g d iv is io n sum s:

1+ 0.1 =
1+ 0.01 =
1+ 0.001 =
1+ 0.0001 =
1 + 0.00001 =

1 + 0 .0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 =

D ivide by a s m a lle r a nd s m a lle r n u m b e r, th e a n s w e r gets la rg e r and larger. You c o u ld say th a t

zero is in fin ite ly s m a ll so 1 + 0 m u s t be in fin ite ly large. In th e g ra p h o f y = ~ y o u see th e c u rve
g e ttin g c lo s e r a nd clo se r to th e y -a x is , b u t w e c o u ld n ever d ra w a g ra p h large e n o u g h to fin d
w h e re it m ig h t to u c h th e ^-a x is .

S im ila rly, see ify o u can w o rk o u t an a rg u m e n t to s h o w w h y y can n ever be zero w h e n y = ~-

Try d iffe re n t values o f * to see h o w close you c o u ld get to 7 = 0 .
 I 7 Algebra ana Graphs I

Com pleting a Table of Values for a Curve

Example 2 1
Find t h e mis s in g va lu es f r o m th e ta b le f o r t h e e q u a t io n
y = 2 x 2 - 3 x - 5 f o r v a l u e s o f x : - 3 =£ x =s 3.

X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

7 a b c d e / 8

Answer 21
a y = 2 x 2- 3 x - 5
b y = 2 x (—2) 2 - 3 x ( - 2 ) - 5
y = 2 x (-3)2- 3 x (-3) - 5
/= 8 + 6 -5 = 9
7 = 2 x9 + 9 -5
b= 9
y = 1 8 + 9 - 5 = 22
o = 22

C / = 2 x ( - 1 ) 2- 3 x (-1 ) - 5 d / = 2 x (0 ) 2 - 3 x 0 - 5 y = 2 x l 2- 3 x l - 5
/= 2 + 3 -5 = 0 /= 0 - 0 - 5 = - 5 _y = 2 - 3 - 5 = - 6
c= 0 d= - 5 e = -6

f / = 2 x 2 2- 3 x 2 - 5 g y = 2 x (3)2 - 3 x (3) - 5
y = 8 -6 -5 = -3 / = 18- 9 - 5= 4
/= -3 g= 4

Exercise 7.11
C opy an d c o m p le te th e ta b le fo r each o f th e e q u a tio n s given.

X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

y a b c d e f g

1 y = x2 2 y = i?

3 / =- ( x * 0 , so you c a n n o t fin d d in th is case)

4 y = x 2+ x 5 y = x 2- x 6 y = x 2+ 2

7 y = -x2 8 / = -x3 9 y = x 2- x - 5

10 y = - x 2- 2x + 1

W hen y o u are sa tisfie d th a t you have th e co rre c t answ ers to th e above exercise th e n carry on
to th e next exercise, ta k in g careful n o te o fth e fo llo w in g points.

• The scales d o n o t have to be th e sam e on b o th axes.

• C urves sh o u ld neve r be d ra w n w ith a ruler.
• C urves sh o u ld be s m o o th , w ith o u t angles.
• Ify o u have to s u d d e n ly change d ire c tio n to in c lu d e o n e p o in t you have p ro b a b ly m a d e an
error, e ith e r in th e c a lc u la tio n o r in th e p lo ttin g o f th e p o in t. Go back and check.
• W rite th e e q u a tio n beside th e cu rve and see ify o u can m ake c o n n e c tio n s betw een th e
e q u a tio n and th e shape o fth e graph.
7 Algebra and Graphs I J

Exercise 7.12
U sing th e values yo u fo u n d in th e a b o ve exercise, d ra w th e fo llo w in g cu rve s fo r x: - 3 =£ x *£ 3.

1 y = x2 0 9 2 7 =^ -2 7 ^ y ^ 2 7

3 y = J (x *0 ) -3 = £ > /« 3 (y * 0 ) 4 y = x? + x - l^ y ^ U

5 y = x *-x - l= £ y « 1 2 6 j = ^ + 2 - 2 5 =£;/=£ 29

7 j)/ = - x 2 -9 = £ > /= £ 0 8 jy = - x 3 - 2 7 =£>-=£ 27

9 y = xl - x - 5 -6 *£ y « 7 10 y = - x * - 2 x + l -1 4 = £ jy = s 2

Exercise 7.13
M ix e d ex e rcise
1 T he graph show s th e flig h t o f a b a ll th ro w n fro m a h e ig h t o f 1 m e tre a b o ve th e g round ,
a H ow fa r aw a y fro m th e pe rso n w h o th re w it d o e s it la n d o n th e gro u n d ?
b W hat is its m a x im u m height?
c W ill th e b a ll c le a r a w a ll 1.5 m e tre s high 7.2 m e tre s away?

Horizontal distance (metres)

W h a t is th e e q u a tio n o f th e lin e g o in g th ro u g h each o f th e fo llo w in g sets o f points?

a (1,1), (0,0), (3,3), ( - 2 , - 2 )
b (1 ,-1 ), (0,0), (3 ,-3 ), (-2 , 2)
c (5,0), (5,1), (5 ,3 ), ( 5 ,-4 )
d (1 ,-2 ), (3 ,-2 ), ( - 1 , - 2 ) , (0 ,-2 )

For values x: - 3 =£ x »£ 3 d ra w each o fth e fo llo w in g lines:

a y=x b y= x+ 2 c y = x -4
d y=2x e y = —2x

For values o fx : - 3 « x « 3 d ra w each o fth e fo llo w in g curves:

a y = x2 b y = x* + 2
c y = -x * d y = x 2- 3

An e xam in er is m a rk in g th e fo llo w in g answ ers to q u e s tio n s on curves. A ll o f th e n lose

m arks. Can yo u see w hy?

\
200
 I 7 Algebra and Graphs I

y = x 2 + x - 2, -3 <: x ^ 2

6 From y o u r k n o w le d g e o f th e g ra p h s in th is chapter, try to m a tch each graph to a p o ss ib le

e q u a tio n .

i y = x3 iii y = 1 - x
iv y = - x 2+ 1 v y = x 2- 2 v i 'y = -Y

7 Find th e g ra d ie n ts o f each o f th e s e lines.

O.
/
/ A
/
/
1, / /
?
2

-4 / - 2
/
0 2 4 2
/ 0 1 2

/ 1 / 2

8 a Draw a g ra p h to s h o w th e c o n v e rs io n o f S ingapore d o lla rs to Swiss francs. The

e xchange rate is:
1 S in g a p o re d o lla r = 0.8 Sw iss francs.
The h o riz o n ta l axis s h o u ld show :
0 =£ S in g a p o re d o lla rs =£ 100
b Use y o u r g ra ph to c o n v e rt 45 Swiss francs to S ingapore d o llars.
7 Algebra and Graphs I J

Exam-style questions
9 a C opy th e ta b le and th e grid. The ta b le show s c o rre s p o n d in g values o f x an d y fo r th e
fu n c tio n :
y = f ( x * 0 ).

X -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6

y -1 2 -1 5 -3 0 60 12 10

i Fill in th e m issin g values o f jy in th e ta b le above.

ii P lo t th e p o in ts on th e grid b e lo w and d ra w th e graph f o r - 6 ^ x = s - l and 1 6.

b W rite d o w n th e o rd e r o f ro ta tio n a l s y m m e try o f th e graph.

(0580 p a p e r 03 Q 4a J u n e 2007)

Time of day

Ali and Ben each m a d e a jo u rn e y b e tw een tw o tow ns, P and Q, th a t are 60 k m apart.

\
202)
 1 7 Algebra and Graphs I

These tw o jo u rn e y s are show n o n th e travel graph,

a C a lc u la te A li’s speed.
b Find the n u m b e r o f m in u te s after 3 p.m . th a t Ali and Ben passed each other,
c Find h o w far Ben had tra v e lle d w hen he m e t Ali.
d C hris left P a t 3 p.m . and tra v e lle d to Q at a speed o f 30 k m /h .
On a c o p y o f th e d ia g ra m , d ra w th e graph th a t represents Chris's jo u rn e y.
( 4 0 2 4 p a p e r 11 0 2 3 N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 1

11 The grap h b e lo w show s th e a m o u n t a p lu m b e r charges fo r up to 6 hours w ork.

120

100

80

Charge ($) 60

40

20

0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (hours)

C opy th e grid and a nsw er th e fo llo w in g q uestions.

a H o w m u ch does he charge fo r 3 ^ hours w ork?

b The p lu m b e r charged $50.
H o w m a n y hou rs d id he w ork?
c A n o th e r p lu m b e r charges $16 per hour.
i Draw a line on the grid to show his charges. Start your line at (0, 0).
ii W rite d o w n th e n u m b e r o f h ours fo r w h ic h th e tw o p lu m b e rs charge th e sam e
a m o u n t. (0580 p a per 01 Q21 N o ve m b e r 2005)

12 W rite d o w n th e e q u a tio n o f th e s tra ig h t lin e th ro u g h (0 ,-3 ) w h ic h is parallel

t o y = 2 x + 3. (0580 p a per 01 Q12. J u n e 2007)

M onday Tuesday W ednesday T hursday Friday S aturday S unday

M in im u m
4 6 0 -2 -4 2
te m p e ra tu re °C
M axim um
8 10 5 7 2 7
te m p e ra tu re °C

The ta b le show s th e m in im u m and m a x im u m te m p e ra tu re s on six days o f a w eek. C opy

th e ta b le and th e grid.
a i On S u nday th e m in im u m te m p e ra tu re w as 5 °C lo w e r th a n on S aturday.
The m a x im u m te m p e ra tu re w as 2°C h ig h e r th a n o n Saturday.
Use th is in fo rm a tio n to c o m p le te th e table,
ii Find th e d iffe rence betw e e n th e m in im u m and m a x im u m te m p e ra tu re s on
Thursday.

/
203
 b Use th e ta b le to c o m p le te th e graphs b e lo w fo r all seven days.

c Use y o u r g ra p h s to fin d :
i on h o w m a n y days th e te m p e ra tu re fe ll b e lo w - 1 °C,
ii w h ic h d a y had th e largest d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n m in im u m and m a x im u m
te m p e ra tu re s .
d The fo rm u la fo r c h a n g in g degrees C elsius (C) to degrees F ahre nheit (F) is

F = ^ - + 32.

Use th e fo rm u la to c h ange 6 degrees C elsius to degrees Fahrenheit.

S how all y o u r w o rk in g . (0580 p a p e r 03 Q3 J u n e 2005)

14 A w a lk e r leaves his house a t 1000 and w a lk s to w a rd s a s h o p p in g centre a t a c o n s ta n t

speed o f 5 k m /h .

A c y c lis t leaves th e sam e house 10 m in u te s later.

He tra ve ls a lo n g th e sam e road a t a c o n s ta n t speed o f 20 k m /h u n til he reaches th e

sho pping centre w hich is G km from the house.

T he c y c lis t s to p s a t th e s h o p p in g c e n tre fo r 14 m in u te s.

He th e n re tu rn s to th e house a lo n g th e sam e road a t a c o n s ta n t speed o f 20 k m /h .

a The d is ta n c e -tim e graph fo r th e w a lk e r is d ra w n below . On a co p y o f th e axes, d ra w
th e d is ta n c e -tim e g raph fo r th e cyclist.

Distance
from
house
(km)

Time of day

b Using th e graphs, find

i the t im e w h e n the cyclist, on his return jou rn e y , m eets the walker,
ii th e d istance fro m th e house w h e n this m e e tin g takes place.
(4024 paper 1 1 Q22 Ju n e 2010)
 [ 7 Algebra and Graphs I

15 a C o p y a n d c o m p le te th e ta b le o fv a lu e s fo r th e e q u a tio n 7 = x 2 + x - 3 .

X -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

y 9 -1 -3 -1 9

b On a co py o f th e grid, d ra w th e graph o fy = x 2 + x - 3 .

c W rite d o w n th e c o o rd in a te s o fth e lo w e s t p o in t o fth e curve,

d i Draw th e line o f s y m m e try o fth e graph.
ii W rite d o w n th e e q u a tio n o f th e line o f sym m etry.
(0580 p a p e r 03 Q7 N o ve m b e r 2008)

16 T he d iag ra m show s th e d is ta n c e -tim e graphs o fth e jo u rn e y s o f Ali and Bala fro m h o m e to

sch oo l.

T h e y leave h o m e to g e th e r and fo llo w th e sam e route.

Ali runs to sch oo l an d Bala cycles.

Time (t minutes)

a H ow lo n g does it take Ali to run th e firs t 700 m?

b E stim ate th e d ista n ce betw een Aliand Bala w hen t = 3.
c Find B ala’s speed w hen t = 2.6.
d Find B a la’s speed w hen ( = 3.5. (4024 p a p e r 01 Q 21 N o v e m b e r 2004)
 Length, Area and Volume I
Learning Objectives Syllabus sections 10,34,35

In this ch a p te r w e carry on th e w o rk started in calcu late areas o f rectangles, triangles,

C h ap ter 4, and in p a rticu la r you w ill: circles and trapezia
• learn a b o u t u nits o f length, area and w o rk o u t to ta l surface area an d volum es
v o lu m e o f th ree-d im e n sio n al objects
• carry o u t calcu latfons involving lengths
and perim eters

8 .1 Introduction
T he m e a s u re m e n t and c a lc u la tio n o f lengths, areas and v o lu m e s are an essential p a rt
o f m o d e rn life. We m a y be b u ild in g a house, m a k in g clothes, d ra w in g m aps, p la n n in g
routes fro m o n e c ity to a n o th er, c a lc u la tin g th e area o f a field o r th e v o lu m e o f w a te r in a
reservoir. You w ill be a b le to th in k o f m a n y m o re exam ples.

We lo o ke d a t le n g th , area and v o lu m e b rie fly in C hapter 4. This c h a p te r goes in to it in m ore

d e tail. A void using y o u r c a lc u la to r w here possible.

8 .2 Essential Skills
1 C opy th is ta b le s h o w in g con versions fo r length, area and v o lu m e units, and fill in th e
m issin g num be rs.
Keep fo r fu tu re reference.

M e a s u re m e n t U n it E q u iv a le n t W o rk in g
Length 1 cm . .. 1 0 . ...m m
1 m ............. cm
Area 1 cm 2 ............. m m 2 10 mm x 10 mm
lm 2 ............. c m 2 100 cm x 100 cm
V o lu m e 1 cm 3 ............. m m 3 ........m m x ........ m m x ........ m m
1 m3 ............. cm 3 ........cm x ......... cm x .......... cm
C apacity 1 m illilitre 1 cm 3
1 litre 1000 ml
1 litre 1000 cm 3
1 m '; 1000 litres

\
206
 ^ 8 Length, Area and Volume I

2 a H ow do y o u ‘u n d o ’ squaring?
NOTE: b W ha t is th e inverse o f cubing?
In this chapter none of c Use y o u r c a lc u la to r to find th e fo llo w in g . If the answ ers are n o t exact, give to •;
the diagrams are drawn s ig n ific a n t figures.
to scale.
i 13‘ ii 713 iii 133 iv ^1 3

8 .3 Length
A le ng th is a m e a s u re m e n t in one d im e n s io n . It m ay be th e le n g th o f a s tra ig h t line, or of a
cu rved line m easured a lo n g the curve. A d d in g lengths to g e th e r m akes a lo n g e r le n g th , and
m u ltip ly in g by a n u m b e r g reate r th a n one likew ise m akes a lo n g e r length. For e xam ple,
Key terms
3 c m + 4 cm = 7 cm , and 2 c m x 4 = 8 cm . H ow ever, m u ltip ly in g by a n u m b e r betw een zero and
Length is a
o ne m akes a s h o rte r len gth. For exam ple, 0 . 5 x 2 cm = lc m ( o r i x 2 c m = lc m ) .
measurement in one
dimension. Lengths d o n o t have d ire c tio n , so are alw ays positive.
5 cm
J L

5 cm 5 cm

a. . . .... r
5 cm

F ig u re 8 .1 Square

Figure 8.1 show s a square w ith each side o f length 5 ce n tim e tre s. The distance (or le n g th ) all
th e w ay ro u n d th e sq ua re is ca lle d th e p e rim e te r. The p e rim e te r can e ith e r be c a lc u la te d by
a d d in g all th e le ng th s tog ethe r,

5 cm + 5 c m + 5 cm + 5 cm = 20 cm
o r it m ay be c a lc u la te d m o re s im p ly in th is case by m u ltip ly in g o ne le ngth by 4 since th e
le ng ths are a ll th e sam e:

4 x 5 c m = 20cm

You w ill e n c o u n te r fo rm u la e in th is c h a p te r w h ic h w ill help yo u to c a lc u la te lengths, areas and

v o lu m e s, and it is im p o rta n t th a t you u n derstan d a little a b o u t them .

As you can see fro m th e above, if th e side o fth e square w as o f length a ce ntim etres, th e n th e
fo rm u la fo r th e p e rim e te r co u ld be e ither:

p e rim e te r = a cm + a cm + a cm + a cm
or p e rim e te r = 4 x a c m

The le n g th s have e ith e r been a dded to g e th e r or, since th e y are all th e sam e, th e y have been
m u ltip lie d by 4.

It is n o t usual to w rite th e u n its in th e c a lc u la tio n , b u t it is d o n e here to m ake th e ideas

clearer. H ow ever, you m u s t state th e u n its in th e answ er, and all th e m e asurem ents in a single
c a lc u la tio n m u s t be in th e sam e units. So, fo r exam ple, you c a n n o t m ix c e n tim e tre s w ith
m etres in a single c a lc u la tio n .
8 Length, Area and Volume I J

Example 1
Find the perimeters o fth e following shapes,
a
5m
6 cm
6 m

4 cm /4 cm

4 cm 6.5 m

1 m
L
10 cm
“1 r
Answer 1
a Perim eter = 6 + 3 x 4 = 6 + 12
Perimeter = 18 cm

b Perimeter = 5 + 6 + 5.5 + 6 + 6.5 + 6 (or5 + 5.5 + 6 .5 + 3 x 6 )

= 35m

c The units of measurement must all be made the same before addition, so either
Perimeter = 100 + 1 0 + 1 0 0 + 1 0
= 220 cm
or
Perimeter = 1 + 0.1 + 1 + 0.1
= 2.2m

Practical investigation
J
As you already know, the perim eter of a circle is called the
circumference. For this experim ent you need a cylindrical object
such as a tin. If possible find one w ithout a lid, or widening, at
the end. A piece of drainpipe is ideal, or some other piece of
tube. You will also need a strip of tracing paper long enough to
wrap round the cylinder.
Rule a pencil m ark across the strip of paper, and then wrap it
tightly round the cylinder, so that the end overlaps the pencil
mark (see Figure 8.2). Trace the pencil mark onto the overlap.
The pencil marks should coincide exactly.
Now take off the paper strip and measure between the pencil
marks. This is the circumference o fth e circle which is the shape
of the cross-section o fth e cylinder.
Also measure the diam eter of the cylinder, by taking the largest
measurement you can find across the circular end.
 [ 8 length, area and Wolume I

Copy and enter your measurements into Table 8.1. Two sets have already been entered.

circumference 26.3 cm 14.5 cm

diameter 8 .2 cm 4.5 cm
circumference 3.2 3.2
diameter
(to 1 dp)

T a b le 8 .1 M ea suring a c y lin d e r

If you can, make the same measurements on one or tw o other cylinders and include these results.

Possible Experimental Errors

Not holding the paper strip tightly round the cylinder before tracing the mark.
Not measuring the diam eter correctly (remember that it is the widest part of the circle).
The cylinder curves out (like the rim o f a tin) or in (like the base of a battle) making it hard to
get an accurate measurement.

Ifyou have managed to avoid all these errors you should get a close similarity between the
numbers along the bottom row.

The n u m b e r y o u have fo u n d is an a p p ro x im a tio n to n (3.141...), a n u m b e r y o u m e t in

C ha pte r 1. Pi (7t) is an irra tio n a l num ber. H ow ever, it is th e ra tio o f th e c irc u m fe re n c e o f a
c ircle to its d ia m e te r. H ow can w e say it is an irra tio n a l n u m b e r a n d th a t it is th e ra tio o f th e
c irc u m fe re n c e to th e d ia m e te r o f a circle? The reason is th a t to be ra tio n a l a n u m b e r m u s t be
ca p a b le o f b e in g expressed as th e ra tio o f tw o integers. It is im p o s s ib le to fin d a c irc le w h ic h
has in te g e r m e a s u re m e n ts fo r b o th d ia m e te r and circum ference.

We n o w have th e in fo rm a tio n to w rite a fo rm u la fo r th e c ircu m fe re n ce o f a c irc le in te rm s o f its

dia m e ter.
If th e d ia m e te r is d, th e n th e c ircu m fe re n ce = nd.

You a lre a d y k n o w th a t th e d ia m e te r o f a circle is tw ic e th e radius, so if th e radius

is r, th e n th e c irc u m fe re n c e = n x 2 r = 2 n r .

Exam ple 2
Calculate:

a the circumference of a circle which has a radius of 15 cm

b the diam eter of a circle which has a circumference of 34 cm

c the length of one side of a square which has a perimeter of 13 cm

d the perim eter of the shape below, which is a semicircle and a rectangle.

10 cm

209
8 Length, Area and Volume I j

NOTE: Answer 2
Use the jc button on your a Circumference = 2nr
calculator; = 2 x 7 ix l5
= 94.247779...
Circumference = 94.2 cm

NOTE: b Circumference = 7t x diam eter

Check whether the 34 = 7t x diam eter (+7t)
circumference in part a d ia m e te r = ^
seems reasonable:
= 10.822536...
radius = 15 cm, so
diam eter = 10.8 cm
diam eter * 30 c m , '
and circumference The perim eter of a square is the four sides added together, or 4 times the length of one
is approximately 3 side.
times the diameter,
Perimeter = 4 x s id e
so it is approximately
13 = 4 x side (+4)
90 cm. The answer is
reasonable. vJS§Sl s id e = i5
4
The length of one side of the square = 3.35 cm

Draw a dotted line to show the semicircle and the rectangle.

Is the working in
part b reasonable?
The circumference is
approximately 3 times
the diameter and 3 times
10 cm is 30 cm, so 10.8 cm
is reasonable. . . - ■
------------ 10 cm
5cm
The semicircular end of the shape has a diam eter of
5 cm (the same as the other side of the rectangle).
Curved e n d = ^ x 7t x 5
Perimeter = 10 + 5 + 10 + i x 7t x 5
= 32.85398...
Perim eter= 3 2 .9 cm

Example 3
A triangle has sides of length x, x + 2 and 2x - 1 centimetres. The perim eter of the triangle is
30 cm. Calculate the lengths of the sides of the triangle.
Answer 3
The perimeter = x + (x + 2) + (2x - 1 )
= Ax+1
The perimeter = 30 cm
4x + 1 = 30
4x = 29 (-1 )
x = 29 + 4 = 7.25 cm (+4)
The sides of the triangle are 7.25 cm, (7.25 + 2) cm and (2 x 7 .2 5 -1 ) cm.
The sides are 7.25cm, 9.25cm and, 13.5cm.

\
210
 ^ 8 Length. Area and Volume I

NOTE:
In all the following
examples the dotted lines
are only thereto help
you; they are not part
ofthe perimeter, area
or volume ofthe shape.
Arrows on sides indicate
parallel lines, and single
or double marks on sides
indicate equal lengths.
Diagrams are not drawn
to scale, so you cannot
assume that the sides are
in proportion to those
shown in the diagrams.
Example 3
triangle has sides of length x,x + 2 and 2 x - 1 centimetres. The perimeter ofth e triangle is
30 cm. Calculate the lengths o fth e sides ofthe triangle.
Answer 3
The perimeter = x + [x + 2) + (2x - 1)
= 4x+1
The perimeter = 30cm
4x + 1 = 30
4x = 29 (-1 )
x = 2 9 - 4 = 7.25 cm (+4)
The sides of the triangle are 7.25 cm, (7.25 + 2) cm and (2 x 7.25 - 1 ) cm.
The sides are 7.25cm, 9.25cm and, 13.5cm.

Example 4
Calculate the perimeter of the following shape. All the angles are right angles.
NOTE:
In all these examples it is ------10 cm ----------
wise to copy thedjagram
and mark in the lengths
of all the sides before
you try to calculate the
answers. For example, 4 cm 8 cm
ifyou are asked to find
the perimeter of a shape
which has pairs of equal
sides, then mark the
i
lengths on all the sides.

Answer 4
Copying the diagram and enlarging to allow room for the extra numbers:

■»------------------10 c m ---------------------►

2 cm J Li 2 cm
2 cm 2 cm
J L

Ifyou were to make 4 cm 4 cm 8 cm

this shape with, say, a
length ofstring it would
require exactly the same 1 r
2 cm 2 cm
t l | | | h as forthe simple
rectangle! 2 cm 2 cm
i r
10 cm

It is now easy to find the perimeter.

Perimeter = (8 x 2) + 2 x 4 + 2 x 10 = 16 + 8 + 20 = 44 cm
8 Length. Area and Volume I J

Exercise 8.1
1 C a lcu la te th e p e rim e te rs o f th e fo llo w in g shapes.
a b e
3 cm
P P

6 cm 6 cm

6 cm 5 cm
6 cm

2 cm 6 cm
V

2 C a lcu la te th e circ u m fe re n c e s o f th e fo llo w in g circles:

a rad iu s 5 cm b d ia m e te r 5 cm
c rad iu s 7.15 m d d ia m e te r 105 cm

3 C a lcu la te th e p e rim e te rs o fth e fo llo w in g shapes:

a A se m icircle , radius 4 cm . b A square, w ith a q u a rte r o f a c irc le
re m o ve d fro m th e corner.

c A re cta n g le w ith a s e m icirc le on tw o o f d A recta n g le w ith a s e m icirc le re m o v e d

th e sides. (The d o tte d lines are d ra w n to fro m o n e edge.
h e lp yo u see th e shape; th e y are n o t p a rt
o fth e perim eter.)

e Tw o sem icircle s jo in e d by tw o s tra ig h t lines each 1 c m long.

212
 [ 8 Length, Area and Wolume I

4 C a lcu la te x in each o f th e fo llo w in g ,

a P e rim ete r = 20 cm
(x + 3) cm

b A circle w ith circu m fe re n ce = 15 cm and d ia m e te r = x c m .

c A circle w ith radius x m and c ircum ference = 11 m.
d A re ctan gle w ith p e rim e te r = 24 cm.
J L

(x - 2 ) cm
n r
(2x + 5) cm

5 Find, by c a lc u la tio n : ^
a th e length o f th e s h o rte s t side
b th e le n gth o f th e lo ngest side in th e dia g ra m
below .

All th e m ea su re m ents are in c e n tim e tre s and th e

p e rim e te r is 3 7 cm .

8 .4 Area
Key terms
Area is a m easurement An dfed is d m e a s u re m e n t In tw o d im e n sio n s. For exam ple, it c o u ld be a m easurem ent of
in tw o dimensions. th e a m o u n t o f surface on o n e page o f th is bo o k. If you th in k o f th e a m o u n t o f surface on a
postage s ta m p co m p a re d w ith th e a m o u n t o f surface on th e e n velope you w ill get so m e idea
o f area. You co u ld m ake a reasonable guess at h o w m a n y sta m p s w o u ld be needed to cover
th e w h o le surface o f th e envelope. Areas o f rectangles are reasonably easy to visualise, it is a
little h a rd e r w hen th e shape is irre g u la r o r even has curved edges.

Because th e area o f a shape is a m e a s u re m e n t in tw o d im e n s io n s it needs tw o le ngth

m e a su re m e n ts to d e fin e it. For exam ple, th e area o f a re cta n g le is c a lc u la te d by m u ltip ly in g
its le ng th by its b re a d th (Figure 8.3).

Length (/)
J L

Breadth (b)

i r

F ig u re 8 .3 Area o f a re c ta n g le

Area o f recta n gle = lb

The un its o f area are square units. S uppose th e length and bre a d th are m easured in
ce n tim etre s:

area = /c m x b c m = Ib c m x cm = lb c m 2
8 Length. Area and Volume I J

T his m eans th a t th e tw o m e a s u re m e n ts m u s t be in th e sam e un its (th a t is, b o th in

c e n tim e tre s , o r b o th in m etres, and so on).

T he u n it o f area, 1 c m 2, is th e a m o u n t o f surface covered by a square m e a s u rin g 1 cm by 1 cm ,

as sh o w n in Figure 8.4.

1 cm

1 cm

F ig u re 8 .4 U n it square

T he area o f a re cta n g le is th e n u m b e r o f 1 c e n tim e tre squares th a t it covers. For exam ple,

lo o k in g a t th e re c ta n g le d ra w n on th e o n e c e n tim e tre squared p a p e r s h o w n in Figure 8.5, y o u
w ill see th a tw e can a c tu a lly c o u n t th e n u m b e r o f squares.

F ig u re 8 .5 Area o f a rectangle

T h e re cta n g le is 5 c e n tim e tre s lo n g a nd 3 c e n tim e tre s w id e , and covers 5 x 3 = 15 c e n tim e tre

squares. The area o fth e re cta n g le is 1 5 c m 2.

T h e le n g th a nd b re a d th m ay n o t necessarily be w h o le num bers.

NOTE:
The lengths ofthe sides
F ig u re 8 .6 R ectangle
may be called length,
breadth, width or
height. Whatever they T he re cta n gle in Figure 8 .6 covers 4 w h o le squares, 9 h a lf squares and 2 q u a rte r squares.
are called they must be This is 4 + 9 x | + 2 x j - = 4 + 4.5 + 0.5 = 9 c e n tim e tre squares.
measurements at right
angles to each other. T he re cta ng le m easures 4.5 cm by 2 ce n tim e tre s , so its area is 4.5 x 2 = 9 c m 2.

• A re a o f a re c ta n g le = le n g th x b re a d th

\
214
 I 8 Length, Area and Volume I

Area of a Triangle
O ther shapes th a t you k n o w can be related to the rectangle by various means. For exam ple,
the right-angled triangle is half a rectangle, as s how n in Figure 8.7.

Fig u re 8 .7 Area o f a right-angled triangle

The area o fth e re ctan gle is b a s e x height, so th e area o fth e tria n g le is h a lf th e base x height.

The fo rm u la fo rth e area o f th is tria n g le is ^W i.

A re ctan gle can be d ra w n ro und any tria n g le , as show n in Figure 8 .8.

F ig u re 8 .8 Area o f any triangle

The area o fth e rectangle is b a s e x he ig h t, and you s h o u ld be ab le to see th a t th e area o f

th e tria n g le is h a lf th a t o f th e rectangle, so th e area o f th e tria n g le is h a lf th e base tim e s th e
height. H ow ever, it is essential to see th a t th e h e ig h t is a lin e d raw n fro m o n e vertex o fth e
tria n g le p e rp e n d ic u la r to th e o p p o s ite side. The ‘ base’ and th e 'h e ig h t’ o fth e tria n g le are
a lw a ys p e rp e n d ic u la r to each o th e r. The ‘base’ does n o t alw ays have to be a t th e b o tto m o f
th e tria n g le as lo n g as th e tw o m e a su re m e n ts are a t rig h t angles, as you can see fro m th e
other exam ples of triangles in Figure 8.9.

Fig u re 8 .9 H eight and base m easu rem en ts fo r any trian g le

In each case th e base and th e h e ig h t are a t rig h t angles to each other.

1
• The area o f a t r i a n g l e = p base x perpendicular height
 Example 5
Calculate the area of this shape.

4 cm Total height = 7 cm

Answer 5

The shape is a rectangle with a triangle on top. The height of the triangle is 7 cm - 4 cm =
3 cm, and the base of the triangle is 6 cm.
Area of recta ngle = 4 x 6 = 24 cm 2
Area of triangle = ^ x 6 x 3 = 9 cm 2
T o ta l a r c o o f s h a p e — 2 4 I 9 — 33 c m 2

Example 6
Calculate the area of the shape in Example 4.
Answer 6
Redrawing the shape with all its measurements marked on it:

10 cm
2 cm If c 2 cm

2 cm 2 cm
J " r
i i
4 cm 4 cm 8 cm

1 r
2 cm 2 cm
2 cm 2 cm
i r
10 cm

There are different ways to work through this question.

 I 8 Length, Area and Volume I

You could divide it into rectangles in different ways. Take, for example, the dotted lines
shown above. There are now 2 rectangles measuring 10cm by 2cm, and one measuring
14cm by 4cm.
Area = 2 x 10 x 2 + 14 x 4 = 40 + 56 = 96 cm2.
Or, you could calculate the area ofth e rectangle measuring 14 cm by 8 cm, and take away 4
squares each measuring 2 cm b y 2 cm.
Area = 1 4 x 8 - 4 x 2 x 2 = 1 1 2 -1 6 = 96 cm2.
In the question about the perimeter of this diagram, we saw that the perimeter was, in fact,
the same as that ofth e 14 cm by 8 cm rectangle. In the case ofthe area, however, it is not the
same.
This shows th a t tw o different shapes w ith th e same perim eter w ill not necessarily have
the same area.
V _______________________________________________________________________

Exercise 8.2
All th e m e a su re m e n ts in th is exercise are in ce n tim e tre s.

1 C a lcu la te th e areas o fth e fo llo w in g shapes by d iv id in g th e m up in to rectangles and

tria n g le s w he n necessary.

R e m e m b e r:

The d o u b le m arks on th e sides o fth e d ia g ra m s in d ic a te eq u a l lengths.

The d o tte d lines are th e re to help you; th e areas to be fo u n d are enclosed by so lid lines.

il

2 C a lc u la te * in each o f these diagram s.

a Area = 10 c m 2 b Area = 30 c m 2
J L t
4
+
X
i r n r
X 8
8 Length, Area and Volume I j

The Area of a Circle

F ig u re 8 .1 0 Area o f a c irc le

In th e firs t d ia g ra m in F igure 8.10, y o u can see th a t th e area o fth e c irc le is less th a n th e to ta l

area o f th e fo u r squares. T h e area o f each sq u a re is r 2, w h e re r is th e radius o f th e circle . So th e
area o fth e c irc le is less th a n 4 r2.

In th e se co nd d ia g ra m in Figure 8.10 y o u can see th a t th e area o fth e c irc le is m o re th a n th e

area o fth e in s id e square. T h is sq u a re is m a d e u p fro m tw o tria n g le s ; each w ith a base 2 r in
le n g th , and each w ith a h e ig h t o f r. T he area o f o n e tria n g le is:

1 x base x h e ig h t = | x 2r x r= r2

So th e area o fth e c irc le is m o re th a n 2 r 2.

2 r 2 < area o f c irc le < At2

It se em s p o s s ib le th a t th e area is a b o u t 3 tim e s th e ra d iu s s q u a re d , a n d y o u can c h e c k th is by

d ra w in g c ircle s o n g raph p a p e r and c o u n tin g th e squares.

In fa c t th e m a g ic n u m b e r is o n ce again n.

1 1 !
W e n o w have tw o fo rm u la e c o n n e c te d w ith circles:
inm
V.V®**'>■" ’' v ¥i~ ’ * V

Exam ple 7
Calculate the area of this shape. It is a square with side
4cm with a semicircle removed
from it.
A nsw er 7
The area of the square = 4 x 4 = 16cm 2
The radius o fth e circle is 2 cm x 4)
The area of the whole circle is nr2= n x 2 2 = 4jt cm 2
The area ofth e semicircle is^ x 47t = 2 x n = 6.28318... cm

N
218
 I 8 Length. Area and Volume I

The area of the shape = square - semicircle

= 1 6 -6 .2 8 3 1 8 ...
= 9.71681...
The area of the shape = 9.72 cm 2

NOTE:
Check for you rself whether this seems reasonable.

Exercise 8.3
1 C a lc u la te th e areas o f th e fo llo w in g :
a a c irc le w ith ra d iu s 6 cm b a c irc le w ith ra d iu s 3.2 m etres
c a c irc le w ith d ia m e te r 8 cm d a s e m ic irc le w ith radius 6 cm
e a s e m ic irc le w ith d ia m e te r 8 . 1 cm

C a lc u la te th e areas o f th e s h a p e s sh o w n in Exercise 1, q u e s tio n 3.

C a lc u la te * in each o f th e fo llo w in g :
a a c irc le , area 1 7 c m 2, radius x c m b a circle, area 1 2 c m 2, d ia m e te r jc cm
ife . c a s e m ic irc le , area 5 c m 2, ra d iu s x c m d a s e m ic irc le , area 6 c m 2, d ia m e te rx c m

What In question 3 c 4 C a lc u la te th e s h a d e d area. T he large c irc le has

what would be the area a d ia m e te r = 7 .5 c m , a n d th e s m a ll c irc le has
o f the whole circle if the d ia m e te r = 3 c m .
semicircle is 5cm2?

The Area of a Trapezium

In Figure 8.11, th e s o lid lin e sh o w s a tra p e z iu m , WXYZ. T he le n g th s o f th e tw o p a ra lle l sides are
terms a c m and b c m . T h e d is ta n c e b e tw e e n th e p a ra lle l sides, o r h e ig h t o f th e tra p e z iu m , is h e m . A
A trapezium d o tte d lin e Is d ra w n across a d ia g o n a l d iv id in g th e tra p e z iu m In to tw o tria n g le s , tria n g le WXZ
(plural trapezia) is a an d tria n g le XYZ. T he base o f tria n g le WXZ is a c m a n d its h e ig h t is h e m . T he base o f tria n g le
quadrilateral with two X V Z is frc m a n d its h e ig h t is h cm .
•parallel sides.
W .............. a c m ..................*- X

-bcm
F ig u re 8 .1 1 Area o f a tra p e z iu m

r
219
The area o f tria n g le XYZ r x base x h e ig h t

= jb h

And th e area o f tria n g le WXZ

So th e area o fth e tra p e z iu m = ±bh + ±ah

The area o f th e tra p e z iu m is u s u a lly w ritte n as:

You m a y p re fe r to re m e m b e r in w ords:

Example 8
Calculate the areas o fth e following shapes.
a ABCD is a parallelogram. b PQRS is a trapezium.

c Calculate the shaded area o fth e shape shown below. The diam eter o fth e circle is 3 cm .

Answer 8
a Draw a line from C perpendicular to AB. The resulting right-angled triangle could be
moved so that its hypotenuse BC fits along AD, forming a rectangle.

The area o fth e rectangle is 10 x 4 = 40cm 2.

Area of ABCD = 40 cm 2
 ^ 8 Length, Area and Volume l

The area of a trapezium = ^ x the sum of the parallel sides x the distance between them

= ^ x (6 + 8 )x 5

= | x 14 x 5

Area of trapezium = 35 cm 2

This shape is made up from a rectangle, a right-angled triangle and a circle.

Separating out the shapes:

6 cm

5 cm D ia m e te r = 3 cm
R adius = 1 .5 cm

Area of rectangle = 6 x 5 = 30 cm 2
Area of triangle = 1 x (2 0 -6 ) x (5 + 5)

= 1 x 1 4 x 1 0 = 70cm2
Area of circle = jcr2= 7Cx 1.5 2 = 7.06 85...
Total area of shape = rectangle + triangle - circle
= 30 + 7 0 -7 .0 6 8 5 ...
= 92.931... cm 2
Total area = 92.9 cm 2

In th e a n sw e r to Exam ple 8 (a), w e c a lc u la te d th e area o f th e p a ra lle lo g ra m by tra n s fo rm in g it

in to a rectangle. This w ill alw ays be possible.

H ow ever, if yo u p refer to learn a fo rm u la , th e n you can use th e fo llo w in g :

Exercise 8.4
C alcu la te th e sha de d areas o f th e se shapes.

221
8 Length, Area and Volume I J
Key term
The to ta l surface area
of a three-dimensiorrpl
object is the sum Of the
areas of each' o f its faces.
222
Triangle base = height = 5 cm
Square, side = 5 cm
Circle diameter = 5 cm
10 cm
3 cm
6 cm 7 cm
5 cm
6 cm
Total Surface Area
You m a y be asked to c a lc u la te th e to ta l surface area o f a th re e -d im e n s io n a l o r s o lid shape.
T his is th e areas o f all th e faces o fth e s o lid a d d e d to g e th e r. It can be useful to d ra w th e net <of
th e s o lid firs t (see C h a p te r 6 ).
im a g in e you are g o in g to m ake th e s o lid o u t o f card. The to ta l surface area is th e a m o u n t o f
card y o u w o u ld use.
R e m e m b e r th a t a s o lid c u b o id w o u ld be m a d e o f six re cta n g le s o r squares, w h ile a box
w ith o u t a lid w o u ld have o n ly five re cta n g le o r square faces, w ith th e sixth side b e in g o p en.
 [ 8 Length, Area and Wolume I

Answer 9
a Draw the net of the cylinder.

The net consists of a rectangle and two circles.

NOTE:
Ifyou find this difficult to
visualise, think of a tin
with a label all round it.
Take off the labetwhich
will be a rectangle. The
two ends of the tin are
the circles.
The length of the rectangle is the same as the cm
circumference of the circular ends.
Length of rectangle = 7tx d ia m e te r = 7t x 6 cm = 18.849...cm
Area of rectangle = 8 x 18.849... = 150.796... cm 2
Radius of circular ends = 3 cm
Area of one circle = nr2= k x 3 2 = 28.274... cm 2
Total surface area = rectangle + 2 circles
= 150.796...+ 2 x 28.274...
= 207.34... cm 2
Total surface area = 207cm2
The surface area of a cylinder can always be calculated by drawing the net, as you can
see in this example.
However, ifyou prefer to learn a formula you can use the following:

b The cuboid has six rectangular surfaces.

There are 2 rectangles 12 x 5 ,2 rectangles 3 x 5 and 2 rectangles 12 x 3.
Total surface area = 2 x l 2 x 5 + 2 x 3 x 5 + 2 x l 2 x 3
= 1 20+ 3 0 + 72 cm 2
Total surface area of cuboid = 222 cm 2
V ________________________________________________________________

Exercise 8.5
C alcu late th e to ta l surface area o f th e fo llo w in g :

1 a box w ith no lid 2 a fo o d can w ith its lid s till on

- » 6 cm»-
3 cm

223
8 Length, Area and Volume I J

8 .5 Volum e
A v o lu m e is a m e a s u re m e n t in th re e d im e n s io n s . For exa m p le , th e a m o u n t o f w a te r th a t a
Key terms b o ttle can h o ld , o r th e a m o u n t o f space a b ric k takes up. As yo u w ill realise by now , th re e
Votum eisa d im e n s io n s m e ans th a t th re e le n g th m e a s u re m e n ts are needed to c a lc u la te a v o lu m e . You
measurement in three can also use an area and a le n g th to c a lc u la te a v o lu m e because th e area is a lre a d y m a d e up
dimensions. fro m tw o le n g th m e a s u re m e n ts m u ltip lie d togethe r.

A v o lu m e can e ith e r be m easured in c u b ic u n its, fo r exa m p le , c m 3, o r in u n its o f capacity.

C a p a c ity is, fo r exa m p le , th e a m o u n t o f a liq u id th a t a c o n ta in e r can hold.
Key terms
U n its o f c a p a c ity are, fo r exa m p le , titres an d m illilitre s . T he c a lc u la tio n s are th e sam e, it is o n ly
r is the amount
th e u n its used w h ic h are d iffe re n t, (see th e ta b le in S e ction 8.2 a t th e b e g in n in g o fth e c h a p te r
of liquid a container can
fo r conversions.)
hold.
T he u n it o f v o lu m e in Figure 8.12 is a c u b e w ith sides m e a s u rin g lc m , an d its v o lu m e is 1 c m x
l c m x l c m = l c m 3.

4 cm
/ y y
v 2 cm

2 cm

F ig u re 8 .1 2 V o lu m e o f a cuboid

T h e c u b o id m easures 4 cm x 2 cm x 2 cm . It is m a d e up fro m 16 o n e c e n tim e tre cubes, so its

v o lu m e i s 4 x 2 x 2 c m 3.

The fo rm u la fo r th e v o lu m e o f a c u b o id is:

Volum e of a Cylinder or Prism

A prism is a s h a p e w h ic h has th e sam e c ro ss-se ctio n th ro u g h o u t, and fo r o u r p urposes, it has
its en ds a t rig h t angles to its length.

A c y lin d e r is a p rism , as is a c u b e o r a c u b o id .

A prism can have a tria n g u la r cro ss-sectio n, o r a p e n ta g o n a l o r hexagonal cro ss-se ctio n .
M any p e n c ils have h e xagonal cross-sectio ns; b e fo re it is sh a rp e n e d such a p e n c il w o u ld be a
hexag o na l p rism . S o m e c o n ta in e rs fo r sw eets are tria n g u la r prism s. Beam s m a d e fro m steel
fo r th e c o n s tru c tio n o f b u ild in g s can have c o m p lic a te d cro ss-sectio ns, such as H shapes, b u t
th e y are s till prism s.

T he v o lu m e o f each o f these prism s is c a lc u la te d by m u ltip ly in g th e area o fth e c ro ss-se ctio n

by th e le n g th (or h e ig h t if it is s ta n d in g up!) o f th e prism .

• Volume o f a prism = area o f cross-section x length.

• Volume o f a cylind er= area o f circular end x height

A
224
 ^ 8 length. Area and Volume I

Example 10
Calculate the following:

a The volume of a triangular prism which has a cross-section which is a triangle with a
height of 3cm and a base of4cm . The length ofthe prism is 15cm.
+
3 cm
t

4 cm

b A pipe has a cross-section which is a circle with diameter 2.5cm. The length o fth e pipe is
105 m. How much water can it hold? Give your answer in litres.
Answer 1 0
a The area ofth e triangular end (or cross-section) ofthe prism is:
basex height
Area of end = | x 4 x 3 = 6 cm 2
Volume = area of end x length
= 6 x 1 5 = 90 cm 3
Volume of prism = 90 cm 3

b The area ofth e circular end o fth e pipe = nr 2

The radius ofth e pipe = | x 2.5 = 1.25cm
The units must be the same for the radius and the length, so we can choose either
centimetres or metres.
Working in metres:
the radius ofth e pipe = 0.0125 m
A re a o f e n d = n * 0 .0 1 2 5 2 m 2
Volume of pipe = area of end x length
= 7t x 0.01252x 105 m 3
= 0.051541... m 3
Volume = 51.541 litres (1 m 3 = 1000 litres)
Volume of pipe = 51.5 litres
V _______________________________________________________________________

Exercise 8.6
1 C a lcu la te th e c a p a c ity o fth e c u b o id in Exercise 8.5, Q uestion 1.
(1 m illilitre = 1 c m 3)

2 C a lculate the c a p a c ity o fth e c y lin d e r in Exercise 8.5, Q uestion 2.

3 C a lcu la te th e v o lu m e o fth e prism in Exercise 8.5, Q uestion 3.

4 C a lcu late the v o lu m e o f th e prism in Exercise 8.5, Q uestion 4.

225
8 Length, Area and Volume I J

5 Calculate the volumes of these prisms:

/ /
Area of
/ end = 4 cm2
215 cm

6 A cuboid has a volume of 25cm3. Its length is 5 cm, and its breadth is 2.5 cm. Calculate the
height of the cuboid.

7 The length of a triangular prism is 16 cm, and its volume is 36 cm3. Calculate the area of
the cross-section ofthe prism.

8 The volume of a cylinder is 18cm3, and its height is 4 cm. Calculate the radius of the
circular cross-section ofthe cylinder.

9 A plastic pipe has a cross-section as shown in the diagram. The outer circle has a radius of
20cm, and the inner circle has a diameter of 10cm.
a Calculate the shaded area.
b The pipe is 1 metre long. Calculate the volume of plastic used to make the pipe,
c Calculatethecapacityofthepipe.givingyouranswerin millilitres.

Calculations ‘in Terms of n r

In your non-calculator paper you may be asked to give your answer to questions involving
circles'in terms of n ’. This avoids having to make calculations with n (=3.14159...) when a
calculator is not available.

Example 1 1
W ith out using a calculator work out the volume of a cylinder of radius 7 cm and height
15 cm. Give your answer in terms of n.
Answer 1 1
Volume of cylinder = area of cross-section x height
= rcx 7 2 x l 5
= ti x 7 x 105
= 7cx735
Volume = 7357 ic m 3
 ^ 8 length, Area anil Volume I

You might also have to give your answer in terms of other letters as well, which can avoid all
calculation.

Example 12
Acylinder has a base radius xcm and a volume of 20 cm3
Work out the height of the cylinder in terms of k and x.
Answer 12
Volume of cylinder = area of base x height
_ , . ,. volume
So height = ------- 7T----
area of base
Area of base =nxx2
height = -^ c m
rcx2

Exercise 8.7 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e
1 The figure shown below is made from two semicircles, of diameters 10cm and 4cm.
Giving your answers in terms of n, calculate
a the perimeter b the area of the shape.

10 cm

2 The figure shown in question 1 is the cross-section of a prism with a volume of l/cm3.
Giving your answer in terms of V and n, find an expression for the length of the prism.

■*------------------- /cm ------------------- ►

The diagram above shows a rectangle with a circle removed from it. Find, in terms of b, I, r
and n expressions for
a the total perimeter, and b the area of the remaining piece.

Exercise 8.8
M ixed exercise
1 A farmer has three steel drinking troughs.
A has a semicircular cross-section, 6 has a triangular cross-section, and C is a cuboid. All
are open at the top.
8 Length, Area and Volume I J

a C a lc u la te th e area o f steel re quired to m a n u fa c tu re each tro u g h (th a t is: th e to ta l

surface area o f each tro u g h ),
b C a lc u la te th e c a p a c ity o f each tro u g h .
c Find th e r a tio — ^ um e— fo r each tro u g h ,
surface area
d W hich is th e m o s t e c o n o m ic a l shape (m a x im u m v o lu m e fo r m in im u m steel)?

$25 cm

2 A la b o ra to ry m e a s u rin g c y lin d e r has a c a p a c ity o f 250 m illilitre s

w h e n fille d to th e to p .
It has a d ia m e te r o f 5 c m and a h e ig h t o f/ic m .
C a lcu la te h.

3 A n o th e r m e a s u rin g c y lin d e r is 20 c e n tim e tre s ta ll and has a

c a p a c ity o f 1 0 0 m illilitre s w h e n fille d to th e to p w ith w ater.

a C a lc u la te th e radius o f th is cylinder,
b T he c o n te n ts o fth e m e a su rin g c y lin d e r are p o u re d in to
a c o n ta in e r w h ic h is a c y lin d ric a l beaker w ith a radius
o f 2 .5 c m . H o w d e e p is th e w a te r in th e beaker?

4 T he d ia g ra m show s a recta n g le and a tria n g le . The p e rim e te r o fth e re c ta n g le is 2 0 cm ,

and th e p e rim e te r o fth e tria n g le is 16cm .

J L

a cm

n r
(a + b) cm

U sing th e in fo rm a tio n given:

a S h ow th a t, fo r th e rectangle, 4a + 2b - 20.
b Find th e e q u a tio n c o n n e c tin g th e sides o fth e tria n g le and its perim eter,
c Solve th e tw o e q u a tio n s s im u lta n e o u s ly to fin d a an d b.
d W rite d o w n th e le n g th and b re a d th o f th e rectangle.

\
2281
 I 8 length. Area and Volume I

5 The d ia g ra m show s a p a ra lle lo g ra m and a rectangle. The p e rim e te r o f th e p a ra lle lo g ra m is

22 cm , and th e p e rim e te r o f th e rectangle is 14cm .

a cm

(a + b) cm

Form tw o e q u a tio n s in x and y, and solve th e m s im u lta n e o u s ly to fin d th e d im e n s io n s o f

th e pa ra lle lo g ra m .

Exam-style questions Part 1 j

NOT TO
SCALE

a The d ia g ra m show s th e plan fo r a new soccer field.

Th e le n g th o fth e p itc h is 90 m etres.
The idtiu length : w idth b 5 . 3.
C a lcu la te th e w id th o fth e pitch,
b T he c en tre circle has a circu m fe re n ce o f 57.5 m etres.
C a lcu la te th e radius. (0580 p a p e r 01 Q17 J une 2006)

T he so lid show n is a c u b o id w ith length

3 cm 4 c m , w id th 2 c m and h e ig h t3 c m .
NOT TO
SCALE a D raw an accurate n et o f th e c u b o id on 1
c e n tim e tre squared paper,
b U sing y o u r net, c a lc u la te th e to ta l
4 cm surface area o f th e cu b o id .
(0580 p a p e r 01 Q18 June 2006)

A cube o f side I m etres has a v o lu m e o f 20

c u b ic m etres.
NOT TO
SCALE C a lcu la te th e v alue o f /.
(0580 paper 01 Q5 June 2006)

229
8 Length. Area andWolumoI J

9 A 400 m e tre ru n n in g tra c k has tw o s tra ig h t sections, each o f le n g th 120 m etres, a nd tw o

s e m ic irc u la r ends.

120 m a C a lc u la te th e to ta l le n g th o f
th e c u rv e d s e ctio n s o f th e
tra ck.
b C a lc u la te d , th e d is ta n c e
b e tw e e n th e p a ra lle l s tra ig h t
s e c tio n s o f th e track.
(0580 p a p e r 01 Q18 N o v e m b e r 2005)

10 T he d ia g ra m show s a c y lin d ric a l ta n k.

T he radius is 3 0 c m a n d th e h e ig h t is 8 0 c m .
NOT TO a C a lc u la te th e area o f th e base o f th e ta n k ,
80 cm
SCALE b C a lc u la te th e v o lu m e o f th e ta n k in litres.
(0580 p a p e r 01 Q19 J u n e 2004)
30 cm''.

A large ta n k , in th e s hape o f a c u b o id ,
NOT TO has a sq u a re base o f side 350 c m an d
SCALE h e ig h t 200 cm . T h e ta n k is fille d w ith
w ater.

Find, in litres, th e v o lu m e o f w a te r it
h o ld s w h e n fu ll.
(0580 p a p e r 01 Q15 N o v e m b e r 2004)

NOT TO
SCALE

The d ia g ra m sh o w s h a lf o f a circle, c e n tre O.

a W h a t is th e sp e cia l n a m e o f th e lin e /IB ? b AB = 12 cm .
i C a lcu la te th e p e rim e te r o f th e shape.
ii C a lc u la te th e area o f th e shape. (0580 p a p e r 01 Q22 N o v e m b e r 2004)

1 3 T he d ia g ra m show s a s w im m in g p o o l w ith c ro ss-se ctio n ABCDE.

T he p o o l is 6 m etres lo n g and 3 m etres w ide.
AB = 2 m, ED = 1 m and BC = 3.6 m.

6 m

1 m
NOT TO
SCALE

3.6 m

\
2301
 ^ 8 Length, Area and Volume I

a i C a lcula te th e area o f the cross-sectio n ABCDE. S h ow y o u r w o rk in g .

ii C a lcu late the v o lu m e o f th e w a te r in th e p o o l w h e n it is full.
Give y o u r answ er in litres. [1 c u b ic m etre is 1000 litres.]
iii O ne litre o f w a te r evaporate s every h o u r fo r each square m etre o f th e w a te r surface.
H ow m a n y litres o f w a te r w ill evap o ra te in 2 hours?
b A n o th e r p oo l h o ld s 61500 litres o f w ater.
Jo n uses a ho se p ip e to fill th is pool.
W ate r flo w s th ro u g h th e ho se p ip e a t 1000 litres per hour.
i C alcu late h o w lo n g it takes to fill th e pool.
Give y o u r answ er in hours and m inutes.
ii C hange 61500 litres to gallons.
[4.55 litres = 1 gallon.]
iii Every 10 000 gallo ns o f w a te r needs 2.5 litres o f purifier.
H ow m a n y litres o f p u rifie r does Jon use fo r th is pool?
iv The p u rifie r is sold in 1 litre b o ttles.
H ow m a n y b o ttle s o f p u rifie r m u s t Jon buy fo r th is pool?
(0580 p a per 03 Q 6 N o ve m b e r 2005)

1 4 The area o f a square is 42.25 c m 2.

W ork o u t th e le ng th o f o ne side o fth e square. (0580 p a per 01 Q4 N o ve m b e r 2008)

15 a i C a lcu la te th e area o f a c irc le w ith radius 3.7 ce n tim etres.

ii A can o f to m a to e s is a c y lin d e r w ith radius 3.7 c e n tim e tre s and h e ig h t h
cen tim e tre s. The v o lu m e o fth e c y lin d e r is 430 c u b ic ce n tim e tre s. C a lc u la te h.
b T w elve cans fix exactly in sid e a box 3 cans long, 2 cans w id e and 2 cans high.

W rite d o w n th e le n g th , w id th and h e ig h t o fth e box.

C alculate th e v o lu m e o fth e box.
C a lcu la te th e percentag e o f th e v o lu m e o fth e box
occu p ie d by th e cans.
(0580 p a p e r 03 Q5 J u n e 2008)

Exam-style questions Part 2 J intobkerose

16 A b lo c k o f w o o d is a c u b o id , 10 c m by 6 cm by 2 cm .
Find
a its v o lu m e
b its surface area.
10

(4024 p a per 01 Q7 N o ve m b e r 2004)

17 In th is shape all th e le ngths are in centim etres.

J R W o rk o u t
10
P a th e perim eter,
20 b th e area.
12 (4024 paper 11 Q1 June 2013)

3_c
8 Length, Area and Volume I J

1 8 In th e d ia g ra m , ABCD is a d ia m e te r o fth e c ircle centre P.

AB = BC = CD = 2x c e n tim etres,
a Find an expression, in te rm s o f x and n, fo r th e
circu m fe re n ce o f th is circle,
b The p e rim e te r o fth e shaded region consists of
tw o se m icircle s w h o se d ia m e te rs are AB and CD,
and tw o s e m icircle s w h o se d ia m e te rs are AC and BD.
Find an expression, in te rm s o f x and n, fo r th e area
o fth e shaded region.

(4024 p a p e r 01 Q14 J u n e 2007)

1 9 The d ia g ra m show s a s o lid c u b o id w ith base 1 0 c m by 6 cm .

T he h e ig h t o f th e c u b o id is x centim etres.

Find an expression, in te rm s o fx , fo r th e to ta l
surface area o f th e c u b o id .
T he to ta l surface area o fth e c u b o id is 376 c m 2.
F orm an e q u a tio n in x a nd solve it to fin d th e
h e ig h t o f th e cu b o id .

(4024 p a p e r 01 Q7 J u n e 2008)

ABCDEF represents an L-shaped piece o f glass w ith

A B = A F = 3 0 c m and CD = 15cm .
The glass is c u t to fit th e w in d o w in a d o o r and th e
shaded tria n g le DEG is rem oved. D G - 1 3 c m and
£G = 5 c m .
a S how th a t D E = 12 cm .
b F o rth e re m a in in g piece o f g\ass ABCDEF, fin d
i its p e rim e te r
ii its area. (4024 p a per 01 0 2 2 a and b Ju n e 2009)

2 1 T he d ia g ra m show s a c o n ta in e r c o n s istin g o f tw o
cylin d e rs fastened togethe r.
The lo w e r c y lin d e r has radius r c e n tim e tre s and
h e ig h t 2 /i ce n tim e tre s.
The u p p e r c y lin d e r has radius 2 r c e n tim e tre s and
h e ig h t h ce n tim e tre s.
W ater w as p o u re d in to th e c o n ta in e r a t a c o n s ta n t rate.
The c o n ta in e r w as fille d in 12 m inutes.

a C a lcu la te th e tim e ta ke n to fill th e lo w e r cylinder,

b On th e axes below , d ra w th e graph s h o w in g h ow th e d e p th ,
d c e n tim e tre s, o f w ater, changes d u rin g th e 1 2 m inutes.
(4024 paper 01 Q13 N o ve m b e r 2007)

3h ~T ~ T ' ‘ 1---------
I I
Depth I I
-I------------ (
(d cm) 2h I I
I I
I I
h ~ r- -1 ----------
i
i I
_L_
0 4 6 8 10 12
Time (minutes)

232
 [ 8 Length, Area and Volume I

22 Wall

enclosure

35

A fa rm e r w ishes to b u ild a re c ta n g u la r e nclosure against a s tra ig h t w all.

He has 39 id e n tic a l fence panels, each 1 m etre long.
O ne p ossible a rra n g e m e n t, w h ic h encloses an area o f 70 m 2, is show n in th e d iagram and
recorded in th e ta b le below .
Find th e le n g th o f th e en clo su re w h ic h w o u ld co n ta in th e largest area.
W rite d o w n th is le n g th and th e largest area.
Record all y o u r tria ls in th e table.
M arks w ill be a w a rd ed fo r clear, a p p ro p ria te w orking .

W id th (m) 2

Length (m) 35
Area (m 2) 70

(4024 paper 01 Q15 N o ve m b e r 2007)

23 The d ia g ra m show s a s o lid prism o f length

T he cross-sectio n , ABCD, is a tra p e z iu m .
/46 = 2 cm , SC = 5 cm , CD = 6 cm , D/4 = 3 cm
an d angle ADC = 90°.

a C a lcu la te th e area o f tra p e z iu m ABCD.

b C a lcu la te th e t o t a l surface area o f th e c
(4024 p a p e r 01 Q16 N o ve m b e r 2011)
 Trigonometry I
Learning Objectives Syllabus section 36

In th is c h a p te r you w ill learn ab o u t: bearings

• th e ta n g e n t, sine an d cosine ratios in right- angles o f e levatio n a n d depression
angled triangles
• Pythagoras’ th e o re m

9 .1 Introduction
T rig o n o m e try in vo lve s th e c a lc u la tio n s o fth e angles an d th e le n g th s o f sides in tria n g le s.

You have seen th a t tria n g le s need th re e m e a s u re m e n ts to d e fin e th e m exactly. In th is

ch a p te r, o n e o f th e s e m e a s u re m e n ts w ill b e a rig h t angle. T h e o th e r tw o m e a s u re m e n ts
m ay be tw o sides o r o n e sid e a n d a n o th e r angle.

You w ill need g rap h p a p e r o r sq u a re d p aper, p ro tra c to r, ru le r a nd a s c ie n tific c a lc u la to r fo r

th is cha pte r.

Please n o te th a t if yo u are asked to c a lc u la te m e a s u re m e n ts in tria n g le s yo u m u s t sh o w

y o u r c a lc u la tio n a n d n o t rely o n a scale d ra w in g ! This does n o t m ean th a t y o u c a n n o t
o c c a s io n a lly m a ke a scale d ra w in g to c h e ck y o u r o w n w o rk , o r to try to u n d e rs ta n d a
p ro b le m better. Do n o t, how ever, g ive it as y o u r fin a l answ er!

9 .2 Essential Skills
R ound to 3 s ig n ific a n t figures.
a 56.1935 b 7.9514 c 6.1445

R ound to 1 d e c im a l place.
a 60.199 b 72.954 c 14.57801

Find x, g iv in g y o u r answ ers to 3 s ig n ific a n t figures if n o t exact.

a x2= 4 b ^ =5 c x 2 = 10.34

C a lcu la te x, g iv in g y o u r answ ers to 3 s ig n ific a n t figures if necessary.

CN
oS

a 6.9x = 5.1 b 73 = — • c
II

J 4.6
M ake x th e su b ject:
a ax = b b
-f
O
<3
II

\
234
 ! 9 Trigonometry!

a Find th e area o f a square o f side 3.9 centim etres.

Key term
The tan g e n t ratio is
usually shortened to
tangent. The tangent
of an angle in a right-
angled triangle is the
ratio of the length of
the opposite side to the
length of the adjacent
side.
b Find th e le n g th o f th e sides o f a square w ith area 5.7 c m 2, g ivin g y o u r answ er to 3
s ig n ific a n t figures.
NOTE:
In your answers to the questions in this chapter give all angles to 1 decimal place, and the lengths
of all sides to 3 significant figures unless otherwise stated or the answers are exact. Always give the
units of the lengths as part of your answer.

9 .3 The Tangent Ratio

Practical Investigation

To get the most out of this work you need to be as accurate as possible, so have a sharp pencil
and w ork carefully.
Before you start work make sure that your calculator is in degree mode.
Try this to check: press W f 1 451 I = [ , If your calculator has a different logic you might have
to press I 45 f 1tan f|. Either way you should get 1 exactly. If you
get either 1.6... or 0 . 8 5 . . your calculator is in the wrong mode
and you may have to refer to your instruction book to change
it to degrees. Most calculators wilt show either a D or deg on
the display if they are in degree mode, but it can be very small
ant) difficult to read.
It is very im portant that you get to know your own calculator,
its logic (the order in which things must be entered) and Its
settings.
• Take a s h e fto flm m or 2 mm squared
graph papfer and draw x- and y-axes with scales of lc m to
represent 1 unit on each axis.
• Draw an angle with its vertex at the origin and one side
along the x-axis as in the top diagram in Figure 9.1. Make it
a different angle from the one shown, and make the lines at
least 12 cm long.
• At convenient places (where the line crosses the
intersection of two grid lines) draw some perpendiculars
from the top line down to the base line as in the lower
diagram in Figure 9.1, thus making a set of similar
triangles.
• Starting with the smallest triangle, copy and complete
Table 9.1 for your own drawing. The ^-measurement is F ig u re 9 .1 T h e ta n g e n t ra tio
the height of the triangle, and the x-measurement is the
length of the base of the same triangle.
• Calculate —to 2 decimal places.

r
235
9 Trig— nwtryl J

9.1, but yours will not be the same,

the same value a II the w ay along,

al error (even the thickness of
jld be very similar. If one is very
j t m aae a mistaKe.
adding up alt the values along
entered in that row.

W h a t can w e learn fro m this?

Key term
In o u r rig h t-a n g le d tria n g le s w e m ea su re d th e a n g le at th e o rig in , and th e n w o rk e d o u t th e
In a right-angled triangle
the side opposite the v a lu e o fth e ra tio ^m easurem ent' ^ oes ^ ' s re m 'n<^ y o u ° f th e g ra d ie n t o f a line?
right angle is the longest Can you see th a t th e y -m e a s u re m e n t is th e le n g th o fth e side o p p o s ite the angle, and th e
side and is called the x -m e a s u re m e n t is th e le n g th o f th e side ne xt to th e a ngle?
hypotenuse.
T he m a th e m a tic a l n a m e fo r s o m e th in g w h ic h is n e x t to (or next d o o r to) is a d ja c e n t.

The tria n g le has o n e m o re side, th e o n e o p p o s ite th e rig h t angle, w h ic h is th e lo ngest side

a nd is ca lle d th e h y p o te n u s e .

236
 ^ 9 Trigonometry!

The na m es o fth e sides are su m m a ris e d in

Figure 9.2.

Ify o u have tro u b le seeing w h ic h side is

a d ja c e n t to and w h ic h is o p p o s ite y o u r angle,
d ra w a s tra ig h t lin e a rro w fro m w ith in th e
angle, as in Figure 9.2. The side it p o in ts to
is th e o pp osite side. The longest side is th e
h yp o ten use , so th e o n e re m a in in g is th e
a d ja c e n t side.

It is im p o rta n t th a t y o u are sure y o u can w o rk

F ig u re 9 .2 O p p o site, a d ja c e n t and
o u t and re m e m b e r w h ic h s ide is w h ic h b efore
hypo tenuse
yo u go on.

Also, y o u need to n o te th a t a lth o u g h th e

h y p o te n u s e is a lw a ys th e lo n g e s t side, and
alw ays o p p o s ite th e rig h t a n gle, th e o th e r tw o
sides can c h a n g e p laces a c c o rd in g to w h ic h o f >
Q.
th e o th e r tw o an g les y o u are using. Ify o u are
£CD
in te re ste d in th e o th e r angle, as y o u can see in D
Figure 9.3, th e o p p o s ite a n d a d ja c e n t c hange CO
a®
places.

L o o k in g b a ck a t o u r in v e s tig a tio n w o rk , you

m a y have w o n d e re d w h y w e pressed I shift 1
I tan f o n th e c a lc u la to r. F ig u re 9 .3 For th e o th e r angle
T he reason is th a t th e ra tio fo r
an y a n g le in a rig h t-a n g le d tria n g le has been given th e n a m e ta n g e n t, a n d ta n is s h o rt fo r
ta n g e n t. Here, th e w o rd ‘ta n g e n t’ d o e s n o t refer to a lin e to u c h in g a c u rve , w h ic h is also c a lle d
a ta n g e n t.
Wo say that the tangent of an angle in a right angled triangle is the ratio

A Note about Calculators

If y o u r c a lc u la to r has a key la b e lle d [fAnsT|. you can press it to e n te r th e a n sw e r to th e p re v io u s
c a lc u la tio n . If it d o e s n o t have th is key y o u m a y be a b le to use th e 1 = I] key. You can see th is
in th e e x a m p le b e lo w .

Y our c a lc u la to r p ro b a b ly s h o w s th e [I tan f key w ith to n -1 w ritte n a b o ve it. T h is is a v e ry

c o n v e n ie n t n o ta tio n fo r in v e rse ta n , o r s h ift ta n . Pressing [ftanT][’| 20 |] fin d s th e ta n g e n t o f 20°
(0.363 970234...), and ' shift j [p in t] (o r ta n -1) 0.363970234 gives th e a n g le b ack again.

Try this: e n te rp T i ^ p r j ] [ r = ~ | ]

read th e d is p la y (it s h o u ld read 0.70020 ...)

■

press shift f [| ta n \ j Ans f j = [ (o r press ) shift j ta n f | = |])

read th e d is p la y (it s h o u ld read 35 exactly)

press [| ta n I] [| Ans I] [| = j] (o r press [fta n i][| = I])

read th e d is p la y ...

This is ju s t to c o n v in c e y o u th a t ta n and ta n -1 are inverses o f each o th e r!

237
9 Trigonometry! J

Example 1
a Find the tangents of the following angles. Give your answers to 4 decimal places,
i 20° ii 38° iii 43.1° iv 77.2°

b Giving your answers correct to 1 decimal place if not exact, find the angles whose
tangents are:
i 0.3249 ii 0.8916 iii 1 iv 6.5184

Answer 1
i tan 20° = 0.3640 ii tan 38° = 0.7813
iii tan 43.1° = 0.9358 iv tan 77.2° = 4.4015

i tan-10.3249 = 18.0° ii tan’ 10.8916 = 41.7°

iii tan’ 11 = 45° iv tan"16.5184 = 81.3°

Exercise 9.1
1 Find th e ta n g e n ts o f th e fo llo w in g angles. Give y o u r a nsw ers to 4 d e c im a l places,
a 56° c 27.12° e 60°
b 75° d 30° f 49.4°

2 G iving y o u r answ ers c o rre c t to 1 d e c im a l place if th e y are n o t exact, fin d th e a n gles w h o s e

ta n g e n ts are:
a 0.1651 c 1.6571 e 14.5710
b 0.8013 d 5.9503 f 0.5

We n o w are a b le to m ake use o f th e ta n g e n t ra tio , and firs t w e w ill fin d an a n g le in a rig h t-

a ng le d tria n g le w h e re tw o o f th e sides are know n.

Flere is a g o o d ro u tin e to fo llo w in o rd e r to get th e best p o s s ib le answ er.

R e m e m b e r th a t th e ta n g e n t ra tio is adjacent side 1 's ° ften a b b re v ia te d to

Check that the triangle has a right angle.
If necessary sketch th e tria n g le .
Label th e sides in th e tria n g le OPP a nd ADJ, in re la tio n to th e angle you are c a lc u la tin g .
C a lc u la te th e ta n g e n t ra tio as a d e cim a l.
W rite d o w n th e d e c im a l, b u t d o n o t c le a r y o u r c a lc u la to r.
Press ] shift | [| tan |] jA n s f (or [ shift ]] j tan [ j = |]) to get th e angle.
W ith o u t ro u n d in g w rite d o w n th e a ngle to a fe w d e c im a l places.
Give th e a n sw e r c o rre c t to 1 d e c im a l place.

Example 2
In the diagram, triangle/4SC has
angle BAC = 90°, BA = 5 cm and CA = 7 cm.
Find angle BCA. Give your answer correct
to 1 decimal place.

\
238
 [ 9 Trigonometry!

For the best possible

resuIts followthe above
method. DO NOT ROUND

finding tan-1 or you will

lose accuracy. This is
referred to as premature
approximation, and
is an error that can so
easily be avoided. Never
round until the end of

question.
Exercise 9.2
C a lcula te th e angle B in each o f these triangles. M easurem ents are all in ce n tim e tre s. Give
y o u r answ ers co rre c t to 1 d e c im a l place unless exact.

6 In triangle-ABC, ZBAC = 90°, AB = 10 cm a n d ^ C = 7 c m . C a lcu la te ZABC.

7 In triangle/4B C , ZBC A = 90°, AC = 7 .9 6 cm and BC = 3 .5 2 cm .
C a lcu la te ZABC.

Finding a Side
If yo u are given an a n gle and th e le n g th o fth e o p p o s ite side you can use the
ta n g e n t ra tio to fin d th e length o fth e a d ja c e n t side. A lte rn a tiv e ly , if you are
given th e le n g th o fth e a d ja c e n t side and an angle you can fin d th e length
o f th e o p p o s ite side. Q

Finding the Opposite Side

We w ill s ta rt w ith fin d in g the length o f an o p p o s ite side.
U sing th e tria n g le PQR in Figure 9.4 as an exam ple,
w e w ill c a lc u la te th e le ng th o f QR.
P
ADJ
F ig u re 9 .4 F in d in g th e o p p o s ite
9 Trigonometry! J

The routine is as follows.

Check the right angle.

Label the sides.
Writedown: tan angle QPR = ^ j
Fill in the known measurements: tan 60° = ^ -
Using normal algebra methods
rearrange: 7 x ta n 60o= 0PP (x7)
Enter into calculator: 7 x tan 60° =
Write down calculator display: 12.12435...
Round to 3 significant figures: 12.1
Answer: Q/?= 12.1cm

Finding the Adjacent Side

Using triangle XYZ in Figure 9.5 as an example,
calculate side YZ.

This is a good time to start using a convenient

new notation. If the length of a side is unknown
it may be referred to by using the lower case
letter ofthe opposite angle, as shown in Figure
9.5. We use x to represent the length of the side
opposite/.
F ig u re 9 .5 Finding th e a d jace n t
Check the right angle.
Label the sides.
Write down: tan angle YZX= OPP
ADJ
Fill in the known measurements: tan 25° = 4.1
Use algebra methods to rearrange: x x tan 25° = 4.1 (xx)
4.1
•tan 25°
X tan25°
Enter into calculator: 4.1 * t a n 2 5 ° -
Write down calculator display: 8.79247...
Give answer to 3 significant figures: 8.79
Answer: VZ= 8.79cm

Example 3
In triangle OFF, angle OFF is a right angle, angle FDE is 56°, and FFis 6.3 centimetres.
Calculate the length of OF.
Answer 3
tan = opp
ADJ
6.3
tan 56° = 56°
/
/ cm
/ x tan 56° = 6.3 (xf) ADJ
f=
/ = 4.249 4 0...
(+tan56°>
6.3 cm
/ = 4.25 OPP
Answer: OF = 4.25 cm

\
240
 I 9 Trigonometry!

Exercise 9.3
1 C a lcu la te th e len gth s o f each side m arked w ith a le tte r in th e fo llo w in g triangles.
The le ng ths are all in ce n tim etres.

2 C a lcu la te th e sizes o f th e angles o r th e lengths o f the sides m arked w ith letters in the
fo llo w in g tria ng le s. All th e le ngths are in centim etres.

10.2

9 .4 The Sine and Cosine Ratios

Ify o u w ere to repeat th e practical w o rk a t the sta rt o f th is chapter, b u t th is tim e m easure the
length o f th e h ypotenuse in each triangle, you w o u ld find th a t n o t o n ly is the ta n g e n t ratio

[ x ' or ACU)c o n s ta n tfo re a c h a n s le- b u ts o a re th e ra tio s § 5 ? ( h y p ) a n d ( h w ) '

OPP
The r a t i o n s is calle d th e SINE o f th e angle, n o rm a lly a b b re v ia te d to SIN.
HYr
The r a t i O p ^ is calle d th e COSINE o f th e angle, n o rm a lly a b b re v ia te d to COS.

You w ill n e e d to le a rn th e th r e e ra tio s .

A m ade up ‘w o rd ’ is o fte n used to re m e m b e r these ratios:

SOHCAHTOA

r
(241
9 Trigonometry I J
Key terms
The sine o f an angle iii
a right-angled triangle
is the ratio o f the length
o f th e opposite side
to the length o f the
hypotenuse _ to s h o w th a t, fo r e xa m p le , S in e e q u a ls O p p o s ite o v e r H y p o te n u s e .
The cosine o f an angle
in a right-angled triangle
is the ratio o fth e length
o fth e adjacent side
to th e length o fth e
242
This sta nd s for:
S in = O p p / H y p , C o s = A d j / H y p , T a n = O p p / A dj
it m a y be h e lp fu l to w rite :
0 A 0
S H C H T A
You m a y w a n t to m a ke u p y o u r o w n w a y o f re m e m b e rin g th e ratios, b u t w h a te v e r you do, y o u
need to learn th e m !
The ro u tin e s fo r u s in g sines a n d c osines are th e sa m e as fo r ta n g e n ts, b u t it is n o w m ore
im p o rta n t to la bel th e sides o fth e tria n g le to w o r k o u t w h ich ra tio to use.
We w ill w o rk th ro u g h o n e e x a m p le to s h o w th is step.
Find th e le n g th o fth e h y p o te n u s e in tria n g le STU in Figure 9.6.
In th is tria n g le , w e are given an an g le and th e o p p o s ite side and are asked to fin d the
h yp ote nu se.
Label th e sides w e are u s in g (in th is case OPP a n d HYP).
C hoose a p p ro p ria te ly sine, c o s in e o r ta n g e n t. U sing SOHCAHTOA w e can see th a t it is
SINE, w h ic h lin ks OPP and HYP.
OPP
W rite d o w n : sin =
HYP
Fill in th e m e asurem ents. sin 30° = -
u
Use algebra to rearrange: m x sin 30° = 5 (x « )
U = —r—- ---- (-5- sin 30°
sin 30°
E n te r5 + sin 30° in to c a lc u la to r.
W rite d o w n d isp la y: 10
A n sw er is exact so u = 10
Answ er: S f= 1 0 c m
Example 4
Calculate the measurements represented by letters in the following triangles. State the units
in your answers.
 [ 9 Trigonometry!

NOTE: Answer 4
Remember, we are sin OPP
HYP
always referring to the
sin a = } | = 0.666 66.
ratios of the lengths of
sin-1 Ans = 41.813...
sides. The lengths must
always be expressed a = 41.8°
in the same units. (For cos _ HYP
ADJ
example, in cm or m or
km, but not in mixtures of cos 50° = ^
b
any two!) 14 x cos 50 ° = b (x 14) L
b = 8.999020...
6 = 9.00 cm 1 4 \ b
cir, OPP HYP ADJ
HYP X^50°

sin 40° = |
cx sin 40° = 6 (x c )
c
\ 6
c- 6 (xsin 40°) \O P P
sin 40°
c = 9.3343...
/4 0 ° \
c
HYP

Exercise 9 .4
Use th e s in e an d co s in e ra tio s to a n s w e r th e fo llo w in g questions.

1 C a lc u la te ZACB.

7 metres

C a lc u la te ZIGH. 4 C a lc u la te JK.
K

is m 400 cm 4.4 cm
ii
NO Tt;
5In fjjues' H
thetriang!
the sides
to do the calculations. In 5 In tria n g le MNP, Z P = 90°, Z M = 31°, A/P = 10.6 cm . C alculate th e le n g th o f A/M.
each question just sketch
a right-angled triangle 6 In tria n g le QRS, Z Q = 90°, RS = 9 .4 6 cm , SQ = 5 .1 2 cm . C a lcu la te Z S .
and make sure that you
7 In tria n g le TVW, Z l/= 9 0 ° , V W - 11.5 cm , Z T =80°. C alculate th e le n g th o f WT.
write the correct letter
: b^S ie the right angle, 8 In tria ng leX K Z , Z Y = 9 0 ° ,Z X = 5 1 m etres, Z X = 57°. C a lcu la te th e le n g th o fZ K
otherwise your answer p
will be wrong! 9 In tria n g le ABC, Z C = 90°, AB = 12.7 cm , AC = 11.3 cm . C a lcu la te Z B .

10 In tria n g le DEF, Z F = 90°, Z D = 37°, D F = 7.23 m etres. C a lcu la te th e le n g th of DE.

9 Trigonometry I J
Key term
Pythagoras’ th eo rem
defines the relationship
between the lengths of
the three sides in a right-
angled triangle.
\
244
9 .5 Pythagoras’ Theorem
There is o n e m o re useful re la tio n s h ip th a t you need to know , th is tim e c o n n e c tin g th e le n g th s
o f a ll th e sides o f a rig h t-a n g le d tria n g le . The th e o re m a c tu a lly c o n n e c ts th e areas o fth e
squares d ra w n on each o f th e sides, and fro m these w e can w o rk o u t th e le n g th s o fth e sides.
P ythagoras w as a Greek p h ilo s o p h e r w h o lived 2500 years ago. He fo u n d th a t th e 'square on th e
h y p ote nu se o f a right-ang led tria n g le is eq u a l to th e sum o fth e squares on th e o th e r tw o sides’
This has been ve ry im p o rta n t e ver since and is used e v e ry d a y in, fo r e xa m p le , a rc h ite c tu re ,
e n g in e e rin g , su rveying, science and so on. It w as e sp e c ia lly im p o rta n t fo r th e G reeks in th e ir
a rc h ite c tu re .
Figure 9.7 illu s tra te s P ythag oras’ th e o re m .
You w ill see th a t th e 'sq u a re on th e h y p o te n u s e ’ and th e
‘squares on th e o th e r tw o sid e s’ have been draw n.
Ify o u tra ce th is d ia g ra m and c u t th e tw o s m a lle r squares
u p in to s m a lle r pieces you w ill be a b le to fit these pieces
exa ctly o n to th e la rger square, s h o w in g th a t th e sum o f
th e a reas o f th e tw o s m a lle r squares is in d e e d eq u a l to th e
a rea o fth e largest square.
Figure 9.8 show s an easy m e th o d fo r c u ttin g o ne o f th e tw o
s m a lle r squares in to pieces w h ic h can be rearranged w ith
th e s m a lle s t sq uare to fit exa ctly on th e largest square. You
can use th is m e th o d fo r any rig h t-a n g le d tria n g le ify o u
w a n t to ch e ck th is th e o re m .
B B
Draw a right-angled triangle. Draw BD parallel to AC. Cut out a,b,c,d and e and
Draw accurately the squares Produce XC to Y so that arrange on to a',b',c\ct,
on each of the sides. X / i s a straight line. and e‘ to exactly cover the
square on the hypotenuse.
Figure 9.8 Proving Pythagoras’ theorem
In p ra ctice th e use o f th is th e o re m m eans th a t w e can fin d th e le n g th s o f a ny o f th e th re e
sides o f a rig h t-a n g le d tria n g le if w e kn o w th o s e o f th e o th e r tw o sides.
For e xam p le , su p p o se w e need to fin d th e th ird side w hen th e h y p o te n u s e is 10 cm , a n d o n e
o fth e o th e r sides is 4 cm . We w ill call th e u n k n o w n s id e x The le n g th s o f th e sides are in
c e n tim e te rs (see Figure 9.9).
 { 9 Trigonometry I

Sketch th e tria n g le .
NOTE: Draw th e squares as recognisable squares.
If you draw the The areas o f th e tw o s m a lle r squares add to Area = 1 0 x 1 0
squares tdb carelessly m ake th e area o fth e largest square, so the area = 100
you will not benefit, o fth e squ are w e w a n t m u st be th e difference
Area
from the visual be tw ee n th e o th e r tw o. = 16 4
information which x 2 = 100 - 16
X
helps you to see which x 2 = 84
two squagtpaddljly|f We u n d o s q u a rin g by square ro o tin g .
Area = x2
make the third. x=M
x = 9 .1 6 5 1 5 ...
Answ er: x = 9.17 cm
Figure 9 .9 U sin g P y th a g o ra s ’ th e o re m

Exam ple 5
In triangle ABC, AB = 6.5 centimetres, BC = 2.3 centimetres and angle ABC = 90°.
a Sketch the triangle, showing all the given measurements,
b Calculate the length of AC.
Answ er 5

2.3

B 6.5

The area ofth e square on the side CB = 2.32

The area ofth e square on the side/4B = 6.52
The area ofth e square on the side/lC = b2
From the figure we can see that b2= 2.3* + 6.52
b2= 47.54
b = sl47.54
b = 6.894 92.
Answer /4C = 6.89cm

W o rk th ro u g h th e fo llo w in g exercise using th e sam e ro u tin e , d ra w in g th e tria n g le a n d th e

squares on each side.

Exercise 9 .5
1 C a lcu la te BC. 2 C alculate EF.

245
 3 In tria n g le PQR, ZP R Q = 90°, PR = 6 m , Q R = 11 m . C a lc u la te PQ.

4 In tria n g le XYZ, ZZ Y X = 90°, Z Y = 4 .2 cm , ZX = 5.7 cm . C a lc u la te XY.

O nce you are c o n fid e n t th a t you can see w h ic h tw o squares on w h ic h sides a d d to give the
sq u a re o n th e th ird it is no lo n g e r necessary to d ra w th e squares, b u t re m e m b e r th a tth e tw o
s m a lle r sq ua re s a d d to give th e largest.

Exercise 9 .6
C a lcu la te th e le n g th s o fth e sides m a rk e d w ith le tte rs in th e fo llo w in g d ia g ra m s. S ta te th e
u n its in y o u r answ ers.

4 5 115 mm 6

We w ill n o w pra ctise c h o o s in g P y th a g o ra s ’ th e o re m o r th e sine, cosine and ta n g e n t ratios to

solve rig h t-a n g le d tria n g le s b e fo re g o in g on to use th e m to solve problem s.

• R e m em be r th a t these o n ly a p p ly to rig h t-a n g le d tria n g le s .

• Draw th e d ia g ra m and w rite in th e given m e a su re m e n ts.
• W rite a s m a ll le tte r b e s id e each m e a s u re m e n t you are asked to find.
• You n o w need to lo o k c a re fu lly at th e d ia g ra m to d e c id e h o w to c a lc u la te th e in fo rm a tio n .
Ifyou are given tw o sides and asked to find th e th ird you w ill need to use P ythagoras’ theorem .
 [ 9 Trigonometry I

If yo u are given tw o sides and asked to fin d an angle, o r given an angle and a side, you w ill
need to use th e sine, cosine o r ta n g e n t ratios. In th is case label th e sides OPP, ADJ and
HYP to h e lp you d e c id e w h ic h ra tio to use.
R e m e m b e r SOHCAHTOA.

Exercise 9 .7
3 C alculate Gl.

5 cm

4 C a lc u la te JK. 5 C a lc u la te NM. 6 C alculate PR.

J Q 1.5 m

10 cm
K

7 In tria n g le STL/, Z T U S = 90°, ST = 1 0 .5 c m .S U = 7 c m . C alculate ZSTU.

8 In tria n g le VWX, Z X V W = 90°, 1 4 /X = 8 c m ,X l/= 6 .8 1 c m . C a lcu la te ZVXW.

9 In tria n g le XYZ, Z X Y Z = 9 0 °, XY= 5.7 cm , Z Y = 4.3 cm . C a lcu la te ZXZY.

Exam ple 7
The diagram shows the triangle ABC and the
p e rp e n d ic u la r^ from A to the side BC.
Using the information on the diagram, calculate: \ 6 cm
a AD
b AB /f3 5 °
D
1
5 cm
\C
Answ er 7 “

LetXD be xcm and AB be_ycm as shown in the diagram.

yy ' ^ \ 6 cm

/f3 5 ° "I \
B D 5 cm u

In triangle ADC, AC is the hypotenuse.

Using Pythagoras’ theorem , x2= 62- 5 2
x2= U

247
9 Trigonometry I J

*=\/Ti
* = 3.316624...
x = 3 .3 2
AD = 3.32cm
Let AB b e /c m as shown in the diagram.

In triangle ABD, angle ABD = 35°, AD is the OPP side, and AB is the HYP.
sin=5EE
bl" HYP
3 .3 1 6 6 2 4 ...
sin 35° =
y x sin 35° = 3.316624...
3 .3 1 6 6 2 4 ...
” sin35°
(-5- sin 35°
y = 5.782357...
> = 5.78
AB = 5.78 cm

There are other shapes which have right-angled

triangles, although they are not necessarily
immediately obvious.

For example, the line of symm etry of an isosceles

triangle, or the diagonal of a rectangle, both divide
the diagram into tw o equal right-angled triangles as
shown in Figure 9.10.

F ig u re 9 .1 0 Finding right-angled
trian g les

Example 8
ABC is an equilateral triangle with side 10 centimetres. Calculate the height ofth e triangle.
Answer 8
Sketch the triangle and draw the perpendicular height, AD.
Let the height be h cm.
D is the midpoint of CB (symmetry of an equilateral triangle).
In triangle ACD, AC = 10 cm, CD = 5 cm and ZADC = 90°.
Using Pythagoras’ theorem,
h1= 102- 5 2
h2= 75
h = 775 = 8.66025...
/i = 8.66cm
The height ofth e triangle is 8.66 centimetres.

\
248
 ^ 9 Trigonometry I

Exercise 9 .8
NOTE: W h e n n ecessary d ra w sketch es b e fo re a n s w e rin g th e q u e s tio n s .

1 P ythag orean trip le s are sets o f w h o le n u m b e rs w h ic h , w hen used as th e le n g th s o f th e

sides o f a tria n g le , m ake it a rig h t-a n g le d tria n g le .
For exam ple, 3 ,4 and 5, because 32 + 42 = 52.
a Find the m issin g n u m b e r fro m each o f these sets o f P ythagorean triples,
i 5 ,.... 13 ii 6 , 8 ,... iii ...,2 4 ,2 5

b A set square is a rig h t-a n g le d tria n g le used fo r d ra w in g o r s e ttin g o u t rig h t angles.

Lena was on a b u ild in g site and needed to lay o u t a rectangle fo r th e fo u n d a tio n o f a
b u ild in g . She had o ne s trip o f w o o d 5 m etres lo n g and a n o th e r 7 m etres long, a saw
and a ta p e m easure. D escribe how she c o u ld m ake a set square.

2 C a lcu la te th e le n g th o fth e d ia g o n a l o f a square w h ic h has sides o f 4 cm .

3 C alcu late th e h e ig h t o f an e q u ila te ra l tria n g le w h ic h has sides o f le n g th 10cm .

4 The dia gram show s th e side o f a house w ith a p itc h e d roof. BC and CD are 4.5 m etres each.
AB and DE are 6 m e tres and AE is 8 m etres.

C C a lcu la te th e to ta l h e ig h t o f th e house.

A E

5 ABCD is a tra p e z iu m . AB is 5 c e n tim e tre s, AD is 4 c e n tim e tre s and DC is 8.5 ce n tim e tre s .

C alculate
□"
a BC b ZBCD c ZABC.

6 U sing th e d ia g ra m , c a lc u la te th e le n g th AE.
A

In th e d ia gram b e lo w , AB = 16 c e n tim e tre s, AD = 20 c e n tim e tre s, CD = 15 c e n tim e tre s.

C C alculate
a BD b BC c ZB D C .

(249
9 Trigonometry! J
Key terms
A bearing gives the - v v ;
d irection of one place
from another relative to
due north.
The m ariner’s compass
expresses a bearing
direction with reference
to the four main
directions, N, S, E and W.
Key term
Three-figure bearings
express the direction
as an angle measured
clockwise starting with
000° at due north.
\
250
9 .6 Bearings
A b e a rin g is th e d ire c tio n o f o n e place fro m a n o th e r, using
d u e n o rth as th e reference d ire c tio n .
The m a r in e r ’s com pass, s h o w n in Figure 9.11, uses the fo u r
m a in d ire c tio n s , N o rth , S o u th , East a n d W est. These can
th e n be d iv id e d in to fo u r m o re d ire c tio n s , as s h o w n in th e
d ia g ra m . T he o rd e r o f th e le tte rs fo r each b e a rin g is alw ays
given w ith th e m a in b e a rin g firs t, w ith n o rth an d so u th
b e fo re east a nd w est. For e xam ple, w e w o u ld say n o rth ­
w e st, n o t w e s t-n o rth .
H a lfw a y b e tw een n o rth and n o rth -e a s t is n o rth -n o rth -e a s t F ig u re 9 .1 1 The m a rin e r’s
o r NNE, a n d in b e tw e e n n o rth -e a s t and east is e a s t-n o rth ­ com pass
ea st o r ENE.
Example 9
Name, and give the abbreviations for, the following bearings:
a Halfway between south-west and west
b Halfway between south-east and south.
Answer 9
a West-south-west, or WSW.
b South-south-east, or SSE.
W ith th e m a rin e r’s co m p a ss th e re is a lim it to h o w
a ccu ra te ly yo u can m easure b e arings because th e
n a m in g o f th e b e arings w o u ld b e c o m e v e ry confusing.
The b e a rin gs used m o re o fte n to d a y are th re e -fig u re
bearings.
For th r e e -fig u re b e a rin g s , n o rth is 000°, east is 090°,
s o u th is 180°, and w e s t is 270°.
This is s h o w n in Figure 9.12.
As you w ill see, th e angles are m easured in a c lo c kw ise F ig u re 9 .1 2 T h re e -fig u re bearings
d ire c tio n , s ta rtin g fro m n o rth , 000°, and g o in g a ll th e
w a y ro u n d to 360°, w h ic h is n o rth again. This a llo w s m any m o re d ire c tio n s to be s p e cifie d
clearly, fo r e xa m ple, 021° w h ic h w o u ld be d iffic u lt to express w ith th e m a rin e r’s com pass.
A ngles less th a n 100° n o rm a lly have a zero in fro n t to m ake th e m th re e -fig u re .
000
Using Three-figure Bearings
Figure 9.13 show s tw o to w n s , A lpha and Beta. We need to
k n o w th e b e a rin g o f A lp h a from Beta.
The w a y th is is w ritte n is im p o rta n t, because fro m Beta
m eans th a t yo u m u s t im a g in e y o u rs e lf s ta n d in g a t Beta and
tu rn in g to lo o k to w a rd s A lpha. F ig u re 9 .1 3 U s in g th re e -
fig u re b e a rin g s
 [ 9 Trigonometry I

Stand a t Beta, face n o rth (000°) and tu rn to y o u r rig h t (clockw ise) u n til you are facing A lpha.
The angle you have tu rn e d th ro u g h is th e th re e -fig u re b e a rin g o f A lpha fro m Beta.

It is ve ry c o n v e n ie n t to have a 360° p ro tra c to r fo r m e a su rin g bearings. Ify o u d o n o t have

a 360° p ro tra cto r, you need to e ith e r m easure th e o b tu s e a ngle in th e above dia g ra m and
s u b tra c t it fro m 360°, o r d ra w th e s o u th (180°) line in th e d ia g ra m , m easure th e acute angle
and add 180°.

000 ° C heck w ith th e d ia g ra m above th a t y ou can get th e

c o rre c t b e a rin g by m easuring. It sh o u ld be a b o u t 254°,
a llo w in g fo r s lig h t errors in th e p rin tin g process.

The next th in g to be aw are o f is th a t th e b e aring o f Beta

fro m A lpha is n o t th e sam e as th e b e a rin g o f A lpha fro m
Beta. For th is you need to d ra w in a n o th e r n o rth line at
A lpha, m a k in g sure th a t it is p arallel to th e n o rth line a t
F ig u re 9 .1 4 B earing o f Beta Beta (Figure 9.14).
fro m Alpha ^ o w im a g in e you are s ta n d in g a t A lpha lo o k in g n o rth ,
and th e n tu rn to y o u r rig h t (clockw ise) u n til you are fa cin g Beta. The a ngle you have tu rn e d
000° th ro u g h w ill give you th e b e a rin g o f Beta fro m A lpha. It is
074° as s h o w n in Figure 9.14.

You s h o u ld be aw are th a t angles in p a ra lle l lines

F ig u re 9 .1 5 R elationship
b e tw e e n bearings
The ne xt e xa m p le uses a lte rn a te angles to c a lc u la te a bearing.
fre q u e n tly c o m e in to bearings q u e s tio n s because n o rth
lines are alw ays parallel. D raw ing in th e s o u th lines w ill
o fte n h e lp w ith c a lc u la tio n s . Figure 9.15 show s h o w th e
s o u th lines help to s h o w th e re la tio n s h ip betw een th e
bearings o f A lpha fro m Beta (254°) w ith th e b e a rin g o f
Beta fro m A lpha (74°) above. In Figure 9.15,254° is s p lit
in to 180° and 74°.
Ify o u are n o t sure a b o u t these angles, revise
corresponding, a lte rn a te and ve rtic a lly opp o site angles.

Example 10
The diagram shows the relative locations of a hospital helipad (H) and a casualty (C).
y

4 \
C
-
£ 3
■
!2
1 f
H

1 *
3 4 5 6 10 *
km East
 Using trigonometry and Pythagoras’ theorem, calculate:
a the bearing on which the helicopter must fly in order to reach the casualty
b the distance from the hospital to the casualty
c the bearing on which the helicopter must fly in order to return to the hospital.
Answer 1 0

i ‘N

r
H p

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 *

Using the right-angled triangle HCP shown on the diagram:

a The bearing o fth e casualty from the hospital is the same as angle HCP (alternate angles)..
tanangleH C P = ^ =f = |5 j
tan ZH C P = | = 2.33333...
tan-12.33333... = 66.801...
Z H C P = 6 6 .8 °
The bearing o fth e casualty from the hospital is 066.8°.
b Using Pythagoras’ theorem:
HC is the hypotenuse.
HC2= 32 + 72= 58
HC = %/58
HC = 7.615 77...
The distance o fth e casualty from the hospital is 7.62 km.
c The bearing of the hospital from the casualty is 180° + ZH C P = 180° + 66.8° = 246.8°
V _ __________________
Example 1 1
The diagram shows three ships, A, 6 and C.
000 °

The bearing of C from A is 083°.

 ^ 9 Trigonometry I

a Using the bearings given show that triangle ABC has a right angle at B.
The distance between A and C is 10 kilometres,
b Calculate the distance between A and B.
Answer 11
a BS is the south (180°) line from 8.
/ABS = 67° (alternate angles)
ZCBS= 180 - 1 5 7 = 23° (angles on a straight line)
So /ABC = 67° + 23° = 90°
b /BAC = 83 - 67 = 16°
cos =. ADJ
HYP
.AB
cos 16°
■ 10

AB = 10 x cos 16° (xlO )

AB = 9.6126...
The distance between A and 6 is 9.61 km.

Exercise 9 .9
1 Find th e a ng le m a rke d w ith a le tte r in each o f th e d ia g ra m s below .

The bearing o f A from B ib 060". Make a sketch show ing/! and B and their north lines and
find the bearing of B from A.

R epeat q u e s tio n 2 fo r C and D w h e re th e b e a rin g o f C fro m D is 195°.

A, B and C are th re e villages.

The b e a rin g o f B fro m A is 050°, and th e b e a rin g o f C fro m B is 135°.
The d ista n ce o f B fro m A is 10 kilo m e tre s, a nd th e d is ta n c e o f C fro m B is 15 kilom e tres.
Make an accura te scale d ra w in g u sing a scale o f lc m represents 1 km , and fin d :
a th e d ista n ce o f C fro m A, and
b th e b e a rin g o f A fro m C.

A sh ip sails 6 n a u tic a l m iles d u e w e st fro m p o rt, and th e n 15 n a u tic a l m iles due n orth.
(A n a u tic a l m ile is a u n it o f d ista n ce used a t sea.)
Draw a d ia g ra m to s h o w th is jo u rn e y and c a lc u la te th e d ista n ce o f th e ship fro m p o rt,
and th e b e a rin g on w h ic h it w ill have to sail to return to p o rt.

A s h ip ’s c a p ta in sees a m a rk e r b u o y on a b e a rin g o f 073°, and a p o rt on a b e a rin g o f 090°.

The c a p ta in kn ow s th a t th e m a rke r b u o y is 5 k ilo m e tre s d u e n o rth o f th e p o rt. Draw a
sketch to sho w th is in fo rm a tio n and c a lc u la te th e distance, in k ilo m e tre s, th a t th e ship
has to sail to reach p o rt.
9 Trigonometry I J

7 a C hange th e th re e -fig u re be a rin g s (i) 135° (ii) 315° using the m a rin e r’s com pass,
b Express (i) E and (ii) SW as th re e -fig u re bearings.

9 .7 Trigonom etry W ithout a Calculator

tn y o u r n o n -c a lc u la to r p a p e r yo u m a y be asked fo r s o m e s im p le trig o n o m e try w ith s u ffic ie n t
in fo rm a tio n given to so lve th e p ro b le m w ith o u t th e use o f a c a lc u la to r. You m ay have to m ake
a s u ita b le c h o ic e fro m th is in fo rm a tio n as th e e x a m p le b e lo w show s.

Example 12
Triangle/ABC is shown below.

B C

tan 30° 0.577

sin 30° 0.5
cos 30° 0.866

Using the information in the table, and w ithout using your calculator, calculate
a AB b BC
Answer 1 2
a sin ACB = ^
sin 30° = ^
AB = 8 x sin 30° = 8 x 0.5 = 4
AB = 4cm
b cos ACB = ^
cos 30° = ^
BC = 8 x cos 30° = 8 x 0.866 = 6.928
BC = 6.93 cm
V________________________________
Exercise 9 .1 0 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e
1 In tria n g le PQR, PQR = 90°, PR = 5 cm a n d QR = 3 cm .
C a lcu la te th e le n g th o f PQ.

2 ln tria n g le X V Z ,X Z K = 9 0 ° ,X Z = 9 c m a n d X V Z = 4 8 o.
U sing th e in fo rm a tio n given in th e ta b le , c a lc u la te th e length o f YZ.

tan 42° 0.9004

tan 48° 1.1106
 [ 9 Trigonometry I

3 ABCD is a rectangle. The s ide/16 = 7 cm , and the d ia g o n a M C = 10cm .

a U sing th e in fo rm a tio n given in th e ta b le ca lc u la te th e le ngth o f AD, g iv in g y o u r answ er
c o rre c t to 3 s ig n ific a n t figures.

VU9 12.2065

Vsi 7.1414

b C a lc u la te
i sin CAD ii cos CAD i i i tan ACD

9 .8 Angles of Elevation and Depression

If yo u are s ittin g on th e g ro u n d and lo o k in g a t th e base o f a ta ll v e rtic a l p o le you w ill need to
Key terms lift y o u r eyes to see th e to p o fth e p ole. The angle th ro u g h w h ic h you raise y o u r eyes is ca lle d
An angle o f elevation th e a n g le o f e le v a tio n , a nd is illu s tra te d in Figure 9.16. For s im p lic ity th e d ia g ra m ignores th e
measures the angle fa ct th a t y o u r eyes w ill n o t be a t g ro u n d level.
between th e line of
sight o f an object above
an observer and the
horizontal.
An angle o f
depression: measures
the angle between the
line o f sight of an object
below the observer and
the horizontal.

F ig u re 9 .1 6 A ngle o f elevatio n

The a n g le o f e le v a tio n is la b e lle d e.

If th e g ro u n d is h o riz o n ta l and th e p o le is v e rtic a l, th e angle th a t th e p o le m akes w ith the
g ro u n d is a rig h t angle, so w e are a b le to d o c a lc u la tio n s using rig h t-a n g le d tria n g le s .

S im ila rly, if y o u are on th e to p o f a c liff lo o k in g o u t to sea, th e an g le th ro u g h w h ic h y o u have

to lo w e r y o u r eyes fro m th e h o riz o n ta l to lo o k a t a ship is ca lle d th e a n g le o f d e p re s s io n , and
is illu s tra te d in Figure 9.17.

F ig u re 9 .1 7 Angle o f depression

The a ngle o f d ep re ssio n is la b e lle d d.

In Figure 9.16 yo u can see th a t, because th e tw o h o riz o n ta l lines m u s t be pa ra lle l, th e an g le of

e le v a tio n fro m th e ship to th e to p o fth e c liff is also d (a lte rn a te angles).
9 Trigonometry I J

Example 1 3
The angle of elevation of the top of a building seen by an observer from a distance of 10
metres away on horizontal ground is 60°. How tall is the building? (Ignore the height of the
observer.)
Answer 1 3
The diagram shows a sketch of the building and the angle of elevation.

Let h be the height of the building.

Tan60° = A
10 x tan 60° = h
h = 17.320...
The height of the building is 17.3 metres, to 3 significant figures.

Exercise 9 .1 1
1 R a m iro is s u rv e y in g a b u ild in g . He is usin g a th e o d o lite , w h ic h is an in s tru m e n t fo r
m e a s u rin g angles. T he th e o d o lite is on a p o le 170 c e n tim e tre s abo ve g ro u n d level. T h e
b u ild in g is 25 m etres aw ay on h o riz o n ta l g ro u n d . R am iro m easures th e a n g le o f e le v a tio n
o f th e to p o f th e b u ild in g . It is 50°.
H ow ta ll is th e b u ild in g ?

2 T he given d ia g ra m s h o w s th e p o s itio n o f a th e o d o lite on th e to p o f a hill. It is b e in g u s e d

to m ea su re th e h e ig h t o f a to w e r 70 m etres aw ay in a h o riz o n ta l d ire c tio n . T he angle o f
d e p re s s io n o f th e b o tto m o f th e to w e r is 25°, and th e angle o f e le v a tio n o f th e to p o f th e
to w e r is 30°.
C a lcu la te
a th e h e ig h t o f th e h ill b th e h e ig h t o f th e tow er.

\
2561
 [ 9 Trigonometry I

Exercise 9 .1 2
M ix e d e x e rc is e

1 C a lcu la te the angles o r le ngths o f sides m arked w ith letters in these diagram s. In each
case state th e u n its in y o u r answ ers.
3 .7 2 cm
7.2 5 cm

5.01 cm

7 cm

2 cm

The d ia g ra m sh ow s a la d d e r le a n in g a g ainst a house. The safe

angle betw een a la d d e r and th e g ro u n d (to m in im is e th e risk o f
s lid in g o r to p p lin g ) is 75°. T he la d d e r is 3 m etres long. H ow high
up th e w a ll w ill it reach w h e n it is le a n in g a t th e safe angle?

C a lcu la te th e h e ig h t o fth e isosceles tria n g le show n below .

Tw o ships are c a rry in g divers w h o are g o in g to

investig a te an a n c ie n t w reck. The s h ip E xplorer (£)
is on a b ea rin g o f 030° fro m th e w re ck (W), and th e NOT TO
ship Discovery [D) is on a b e a rin g o f 300° fro m SCALE

th e w reck.
The b e arin g o f E xplorer fro m Discovery is 070°, and
th e d ista n ce be tw e e n th e ships is
10 kilom etres.

a C opy th e d ia g ra m , and show th a t ZD W E is 90°.

b Find th e values o f th e le tte rs m arked on th e diagram ,
c C a lcu la te th e d is ta n c e o f D iscovery fro m th e w reck,
d C alcu la te th e d is ta n c e o f E xplorer h o m th e w reck.

The g ra d ie n t o f a hill is C a lcu la te th e angle

(a°) it m akes w ith th e h o riz o n ta l.

257
9 Trigonometry! J

Exam-style questions Part 1 j

6 a

T he d ia g ra m s h o w s a s o lid tria n g u la r p rism . T he d im e n s io n s are in m etres.

i C a lc u la te th e v o lu m e o fth e prism .
ii C a lc u la te th e to ta l surface area o fth e p rism (U n it fo r answ er: m 3).

T he d ia g ra m s s h o w th e c ro ss-se ctio n s o f a ra m p A and a tria n g u la r p ris m B.

T h e tria n g u la r p ris m B can m o v e u p an d d o w n th e ra m p A.
T h e ra m p is in c lin e d a t 25° to th e h o riz o n ta l.
i W hen th e p ris m has m o ve d 2 m up th e ra m p , it has risen h m e tre s v e rtic a lly .
C a lc u la te h.
ii As it m oves, th e u p p e rm o s t face o fth e p rism B re m a in s h o riz o n ta l.
T he le n g th o f th e h o riz o n ta l edge o f th e face is 0.6 m.
T he le n g th o fth e v e rtic a l edge o fth e p rism is ^ m etres.
C a lc u la te y . (4024 p a p e r 22 Q4 N o v e m b e r 2014)
North T he b e a rin g o f a lig h th o u s e , L, fro m a p o rt, P, is 145°.
Find th e b e a rin g o f P fro m L.
(0580 p a p e r 01 0 7 June 2007)

A h o t a ir b a llo o n , M, is 900 m etres

v e rtic a lly abo ve a p o in t N on th e
g ro u n d .

NOTTO A b o y stands a t a p o in t, 0 , 1200

SCALE m etres h o riz o n ta lly fro m N.
a C a lc u la te th e d is ta n c e , OM, o f th e
b o y fro m th e b a llo o n ,
b C a lc u la te angle MON.
(0580 p a p e r 01 Q 1 8 J u n e 2007)

\
258
 9 Trigonometry I

9 W rite as a 3 -figure b e a rin g th e d ire c tio n :

a W est
N orth-E ast. (0580 p a p e r 01 Q6 N ove m b er 2004)

10

NOT TO
SCALE

ABCED is th e cro ss-se ctio n o f a tu n n e l.

ABCD is a re cta n g le and DEC is a se m icircle . 0 is th e m id p o in t o f AB.
OD = OC = 6 m and angle D O C = 56°.

a i S h ow th a t a n gle COB = 62°.

ii C a lcu la te th e le n g th o f 0 6 .
iii W rite d o w n th e w id th o f th e tu n n e l, AB.
iv C a lc u la te th e le n g th o f BC.

b C a lc u la te th e area of:
i th e recta n gle ^S C D
ii th e s e m icirc le DEC
iii th e cross-sectio n o f th e tu n n e l.
c T he tu n n e l is 500 m etres long.
i C a lcu la te th e v o lu m e o f th e tu n n e l.
ii A car tra vels th ro u g h th e tu n n e l a t a c o n s ta n t speed
o f 60 k ilo m e tre s p e r hour.
H ow m a n y seconds does it ta k e to go th ro u g h
th e tu n n e l? (0580 p a p e r 03 Q6 Ju n e 2007)

/
259
9 Trigonometry I J

11 The d ia g ra m abo ve show s a c u b o id and

its net.
NOT TO
SCALE a C a lc u la te th e to ta l surface area o fth e
cu b o id .
b C a lcu la te th e v o lu m e o fth e c u b o id .
c An a n t w a lks d ire c tly fro m A to C on th e
surface o f th e c u b o id .
i D raw a s tra ig h t lin e on th e n e t to show
th is route.
ii C a lc u la te th e le n g th o fth e a n t’s
jo u rn e y .
iii C a lc u la te th e size o f angle CAB on th e
net. (0580 p a p e r 03 Q8 J u n e 2005)

8 cm

Exam-style questions Part 2 j

DO N O T USE A CALCULATOR IN TH E REST O F T H IS EXERCISE

5
sin 6 13
12
cos Q 13
5
tan 6 12

ABCD is a re c ta n g le w ith B C = 10 cm .
U sing as m u c h in fo rm a tio n fro m th e ta b le as is necessary,
c a lc u la te BD. (4024 p a p e r 01 Q6 J u n e 2008)

13 A is d u e n o rth o f O.
a A s hip sa ile d fro m O to B, w h e re A 0 B = 12°.
W rite d o w n th e b e a rin g o f B fro m O.
b A t B, th e s h ip tu rn e d and saile d to C, w h e re OBC = 50°.
C a lc u la te th e b e a rin g o f C fro m 6.
R A (4024 p a p e r 01 Q4 J u n e 2005)
 I 9 Trigonometry I

14 North The b e a rin g o f a lig h th o u s e fro m a ship, S, is 220°.

The p o s itio n o f S is m arked on th e diagram ,
a W hich o f th e four p o in ts A, B, C o r D is a possib le p o s itio n o f
th e lighthouse?
b W rite d o w n th e b earing o f S fro m th e lig hthouse.
(4024 p aper 11 Q5 June 2010)

15 A m an w h o is 1.8 m ta ll stands on h o riz o n ta l g ro u n d 50 m fro m a v e rtic a l tree.

The angle o f e le v a tio n o f th e to p o f th e tree fro m his eyes is 30°.
Use as m u ch o f th e in fo rm a tio n b e lo w as is necessary to c a lc u la te an e s tim a te o f th e
h e ig h t o f th e tree.
Give th e a n sw e r to a re asonable degree o f accuracy.
[sin 30° = 0.5, cos 30° = 0.866, tan 30° = 0.577] (4024 p a p e r 01 Q24 Ju n e 2004)

16 c In th e d ia g ra m , th e circle, ce n tre 0, passes th ro u g h A B

and C.
AC is a d ia m e te r o f th e circle and th e line TAS is th e
ta n g e n t a t A
ZACB = 34°, 7/1 = 3 cm and TC = 5 c m .
a Find ABAC.
b C alculate th e radius o f th e circle.
(4024 p a p e r 01 Q4 N o ve m b e r 2007)
10 Transformaflons and
vectors

In this c h a p te r you w ill study:

• reflectio n , tra n s la tio n , ro ta tio n and
e n la rg e m e n t

1 0 .1 Introduction
T ra n s fo rm a tio n s are m o v e m e n ts and changes o f a sha p e on a p la n e (fla t surface)
a c c o rd in g to v a rio u s rules.

For th is c h a p te r yo u re q u ire s q u a re d p a p e r,a ruler, p e n cil, eraser a nd tra c in g p a p e r.A s m a ll

m irro r w o u ld be h e lp fu l. It is a d v is a b le to d ra w y o u r tra n s fo rm a tio n s in p e ncil so th a t any
m ista ke s can be co rre c te d . N eatness and re a s o n a b le a ccuracy in y o u r d ra w in g s w ill help
yo u a vo id m istakes.

1 0 .2 Essential Skills
1 M atch th e e q u a tio n o f each line to a graph
a y=x b x= l c y=-3 d x = -3
cr

/
\

/ 0

e y

262
 ( 10 Transformations and Weclors

2 W rite d o w n th e e q u a tio n o f th e ve rtica l line w h ic h passes th ro u g h 2 on th e x-axis.

NOTE:
3 W rite d o w n th e e q u a tio n o f th e y -a x is .
In question 3 w hat
num ber does it pass
through on the*-axis?

1 0 .3 Transformations
NOTE:
Learn the four proper For th is course w e need to s tu d y each o f a set o f fo u r tra n s fo rm a tio n s:
names, and their
re fle c tio n , tra n s la tio n , ro ta tio n and e n la rg e m e n t.
spellings.
Try n o t to confuse th e w o rd s tra n s fo rm a tio n and tra n s la tio n .

W e w ill stu d y these tra n s fo rm a tio n s fu rth e r in C h a p te r 22.

Key term
T ra n s fo rm a tio n is the
collective name for a
group o f movem ents or
changes o f shape or size 1 0 .4 Reflection
o f a two-dim ensional
object on a plane A re fle c tio n is th e im ag e you see w h e n you lo o k in a m irror.
according to certain
Look a t th e tw o d ia g ra m s in Figure 10.1.
rules.
R e fle ctio n is th e image
o fa n o b je c tin a mirror.

t t
Mirror line Mirror line

Figure 10.1 Reflection

Ify o u h o ld a sm a ll m irro r u p rig h t so th a t its lo w e r edge is on th e m irro r line in th e firs t

d ia g ra m , w ith its m irro r surface p o in tin g to w a rd s th e tria n g le , you s h o u ld see an im age th a t
lo oks like th e second d iagram .

The tria n g le s are th e sam e, b u t th e y face in o p p o s ite d ire c tio n s . In fact, th e y are m irro r
im ages o f each o th e r. Ify o u p u t th e m irro r on th e m irro r line in th e second d iagram , fa c in g
e ith e r w ay, you w ill see th e sam e p icture.

A reflectio n is th e firs t o f th e tra n s fo rm a tio n s w e w ill study.

In Figure 10.2 yo u w ill see tw o d iffe re n t re fle c tio n s o f tria n g le A dra w n . In each case tria n g le /1
is calle d th e o b je c t a nd th e re su lt o f th e tra n s fo rm a tio n (6 o rC ) is ca lle d th e im age.
10 Transformations and ¥ectots J

A m ap s to 6 u n d e r re fle c tio n A m a p s to C u n d e r re fle c tio n in th e lin e j c = —1.

in th e x-axis.
Figu re 1 0 .2 R eflection in a line

U n d e rn e a th each d ia g ra m in Figure 10.2 is th e c o rre c t d e s c rip tio n o fth e tra n s fo rm a tio n . As

y o u w ill have seen, w e say ‘A m a p s to S ’ ra th e r th a n ‘A is tra n s fo rm e d to S ’.

N ote th a t ify o u are asked fo r th e d e s c rip tio n o f a s in g le tra n s fo rm a tio n , y o u have n o t

a n sw ered th e q u e s tio n ify o u d e s c rib e o n e tra n s fo rm a tio n a fte r a n o th e r. W e w ill d iscuss th is
again later.

L o o k in g a t Figure 10.2 you s h o u ld see th a t th e shape and size o fth e o b je c t a n d im a g e are

e xactly th e sam e, b u t th e o b je c t has been tu rn e d o v e r to cre a te th e im age.

C heck th is by tra c in g th e tria n g le s on tra c in g p a p e r and th e n fo ld in g y o u r d ra w in g a lo n g th e

m irro r line . In each case th e y s h o u ld fit e xactly on to p o f each o th e r.

This also m e a n s th a t th e o b je c t a n d im a g e are th e sam e d is ta n c e fro m th e m irro r lin e , b u t on

o p p o s ite sides.

264
 I 10 Transformations and Vectors

To m ake th is clear, Figure 10.3 show s th e steps in th e re fle c tio n o f a d iffe re n t shape in the
line LM,

L M L M L M

}r

C o u n t 2 squares to th e m irro r line and 2 squares beyond

Repeat fo r all corners
Draw th e im age
Figure 10.3 D raw ing a reflection

F o ra d ia g o n a l m irro r lin e you need to c o u n t th e d ia g o n a ls instead o f th e squares, as s h o w n in

Figure 10.4.

✓ *
M / M **
// ✓*
*
✓
* *
✓
✓ ✓✓
// *
* ✓/
✓ *
✓/ *✓
✓
✓/ ✓
* L
t----- ✓* L
t-----

Figure 1 0 .4 Reflection in a diag o n al line

If th e m irro r line goes th ro u g h th e o b je c t th e re fle c tio n pro d u ce s w h a t a t firs t seem s like a

c o m p le te ly d iffe re n t p ictu re , as in Figure 10.5.

■ ------1------
L ; l ; L
1 ■
1 ■
1 ■
1 ■
1 i
1 ■
1 ■
(
• ■
■
1 ■
1 ■
M ! m : M

Figure 10.5 Line o f reflection through th e object

10 Transformations and Vectors J

\
266
 [ 10 Transformations and Wectors

Exercise 1 0 .1
NOTE:
1 C opy th e fo llo w in g d iagram s and d ra w th e im ages o fth e shapes in th e d o tte d m irro r lines.
Remember to count the
squares or diagonals so
that you get the images
in the right places as well
as pointing in the right
direction.
<

-*
—
*✓
-pfV*✓ 4
.—
.*
.
✓t
\

.
/
-/-
* i
/t
/■
✓
2 Draw x - and y - axes fro m - 5 to + 5, w ith 1 cm re p re se n tin g each u n it on each axis,
a P lo t th e fo llo w in g points:
(1,1), (3,1), (3,2)
J o in up th e p o in ts to fo rm a tria n g le and label th e tria n g le A
b R e fle c ts in:
i th e y -a x is , la b e llin g th e im a g e s
ii th e l i n e y = - l , la b e llin g th e im age C
iii th e lin e y - x , la b e llin g th e im age D
iv th e Iin e 7 = - x , la b e llin g th e im age E.

F ig u re 10.6 R e fle c tio n in th e y -a x is

10 Transformations and Vectors J

Exam ple 2
Describe the following transformations,
a

c d
y

1 / \

1 0 X

/ 1I
\
A nsw er 2
a Reflection in the line x = l .
b Reflection in the line_y = x - 2 .
c Reflection in the line>' = jc.
d Reflection in the lin e / = -x.

Exercise 1 0 .2
D escribe th e fo llo w in g tra n s fo rm a tio n s .

y■
— 3“
V / \ /

- i
/
r\ — 2-
. 1
>A
( I
->-4 - /
V
1 _j i _
o 1 n ^Q A
v

-4
 [ 10 Transformations and Vectors

5 6
yo y*
J ^ c.o

J V 1
( V
\ )
\ f ) 1 6 <
IX
-1
-3 2 -1 0 1 2 3x
O

Key term 1 0 .5 Translations and Vectors

A translation is the A tra n s la tio n is a m o v e m e n t in w h ic h o n ly th e p o s itio n o f th e o b je c t changes.
-novement o f a tw o -
dim ensional object in a The im ag e re m a in s fa c in g th e sa m e w a y as th e o b je c t, and stays th e sa m e size a n d shape.
olane w ith o u t turning
For e xa m p le , in Figure 10.7 th e o b je c ts has been m o v e d tw o squares to th e rig h t (+ x
it or changing its shape
x size. direction) and 4 squares dow n (—^’ direction) to give the imago B.

/S \
Figure 1 0 .7 T ranslation

This tra n s la tio n is d e s c rib e d by b re a k in g it d o w n in to th e tw o m o v e m e n ts , each p a ra lle l to

on e o f th e tw o axes.
<ey term
These m o v e m e n ts are w ritte n in th e fo rm o f a v ecto r, also c a lle d a co lu m n v e cto r, so in th is
\ vector specifies the
;xact translation o f an d ia g ra m th e v e c to r w o u ld be w ritte n in ta ll bra cke ts w ith th e x -d ire c tio n a t th e to p : ^ j .
object or p o in t on a You can th in k o f a v e c to r as a m e th o d o f c le a rly s h o w in g d ire c tio n o f m o v e m e n t.
y a p h from one place to
another. W hen w ritte n , th e co lu m n vector is alw ays in tall brackets, and alw ays w ith th e x -d ire c tio n
on top.
10 Transformations and Vectors J

'A

S;
D;

F ig u re 1 0 .8 Translation s and vectors

The tw o e x a m p le s in Figure 10.8 s h o u ld h e lp you u n d e rs ta n d th e c o n c e p t.

In th e firs t d ia g ra m , to g e t fro m A t o B yo u m o ve tw o squares in th e + x d ire c tio n and fiv e

squares in th e + y d ire c tio n . T his v e c to r w o u ld be w ritte n as Q .

In th e se co nd d ia g ra m , to g e t fro m C to D yo u w o u ld m o ve five squares b a c k in th e x -d ire c tio n ,

and six squ ares d o w n in th e y -d ire c tio n . T h is c o lu m n v e c to r is |_ g j.

How to Label a Vector

Th e re are tw o w ays to la b e l a vector.

In Figure 10.9, th e v e c to r to g e t fro m A to B can be l a b e l l e d ^ o r w ith a lo w e rc a s e le tte r

p rin te d in b o ld , fo r e x a m p le a. N o tic e also th e a rro w in th e d ia g ra m .

The a rro w o v e r th e AB show s th a t th e d ire c tio n is fro m A to B.

In h a n d w ritin g th e b o ld a is w ritte n w ith an u n d e rlin e , 3, because it is n o t easy to w rite a

re co g n isa b le b o ld le tte r by hand.

F ig u re 1 0 .9 V ector AB

Im portant Points to Notice W hen

W orking with Vectors
• T h e v e c to ra d oes n o t have to have ju s t o n e p o s itio n , b u t can be a p p lie d anyw here in th e
d ia g ra m , a lw ays in th e sam e d ire c tio n .
• The v e c to r w ritte n as AB show s th a t th is p a rtic u la r v e c to r is th e on e jo in in g /! to 6 in th e
d ire c tio n A to 8.
• The v e c to r is n o t a fra c tio n , and s h o u ld n o t be w ritte n w ith a fra c tio n line.
• The v e c to r s h o u ld alw ays be w ritte n w ith th e x -d ire c tio n abo ve th e y -d ire c tio n

\
270
 ^ 10 Transformations and Vectors

• W hen you d ra w a v e c to r in a dia g ra m re m e m b e r to add th e a rro w to show its d ire c tio n .

S om etim es, in som e textbooks, you m ay see row vectors, for exam ple (2 -A ), b u t it w ill be
m uch safer and clearer if you use co lum n vectors in this course. Row vectors w ill n o t be used,
and could be confused w ith co o rd in a te points. You are strongly advised n o t to use them .

Figure 10.10 show s th re e exam ples o fth e sam e vector: v = ( , j , and also an exam ple of the
(~ 4 \ ' ’
o p p o s ite v e c to r:- v w h ic h is 3 .

As you m ig h t expect, o p p o s ite vectors are negatives o f each other. (That is, th e y have o p p o s ite
signs.) The first ve c to r can also be w ritte n as P(J because it goes fro m th e p o in t P to the p o in t Q.

So v = P 0 and - v = QP.

Figure 1 0 .1 0 V ector v

ion on top o f the y-

How to draw a translation

• Mark one corner of the image with a dot
• Count along (or back ifthe number is negative) the number of units shown on top inthe column vector.
• Then count up (or down if negative) the number of units shown at the bottom of thecolumn vector.
Mark a dot.
• Repeat for all the corners.
• Join the dots to show the image.
10 Transformations and Vectors j

Figure 10.11 s h o u ld h elp you see h o w to d ra w a tra n s la tio n , in th is case .

Figure 1 0 .1 1 D raw ing a tran slatio n

Example 3
Draw a grid on 5 mm squared paper with both the x- and _y-axes from - 5 to 5, using one
centimetre (2 squares) per unit.
a i A: {(-4 ,3 ), (-4 ,5 ), (-3 ,3 )} 8: {(3,1), (4,1), (3,3)}
Mark these tw o sets of points and join them to form tw o triangles, A and 6.
ii Describe fully the single transformation which maps.4 onto B.
iii Describe fully the single transformation which maps B onto A.

b i Draw the image of A under the translation |_3j.

Label the image C.
ii Draw the image of 8 under the translation ^
Label the image D.

c Plot and label the points E (-4 , -1 ) and F (-2, -4 ).

i Write E?" as a column vector.
ii Write 7 ? as a column vector.

d Describe fully the single transformation which maps A onto D.

Answer 3
a i
y
5
\
\
A
4

\ 3

2 \
B
\
\C 1 \
\
5 -4 -3 2
\1 0 1 3 4 X

D
-1
E \ -
-2

O
F A

cr
I I

272
 [ 10 Transformations and Vectors

ii Translation in Translation
-2
c i ET = ( j ) ii FE =
3
6
d Translation -4 .5

Exercise 1 0 .3
1 C opy th e d ia g ra m s and in each case d ra w th e im age o f each shape u n d e r th e tra n s la tio n
given.

y y
p \ 3
\ >
1 2
1
2 1 0 2 X

1
2 -1 0 1 2 X

p 1
10 Transformations anil Vectors J

2 Copy the diagram and draw two examples of the vector z = ~A§, and one example of - c .

3 Drawx- and)/-axesfrom -5cm to + 5 cm.

Plot the following points and join to form a triangle. Label the triangle A
( - 1, 0) ( - 1, - 2) ( - 2, - 2)

a Draw 6, the image of A under the translation ^4'j.

b Draw C, the image of A under the translation

c Describe f u lly the s in g le transformation which maps B onto C.

4 Describe fully the following single transformations.

a i A maps to B ii A maps to C iii fim ap sto C

yq y
J J ^ 0m . 3 -----
y \ N
A \
c.
o / B \
• 2 ----- .—
( \ f■ \ t —
11 •
_ 1
1
A 1 ----- /
3 ' 4
-3 2 - 1 0
i 4
i X Q O 1 r> p ^ X

1I
/ ^ 1■'v
s —
/ o
c
/ C \
\ -3
c
3
/ —

b i A maps to B ii C maps to B iii B maps to C

Key term
R o ta tio n is the turning
of an object about a
given point through a
given angle.
1 0 .6 Rotation
A ro ta tio n is a tu rn in g a b o u t so m e ce n tra l p o in t. T h in k o f a b icycle w heel. Each sp o k e tu rn s o r
rota tes a b o u t o n e o f its ends: th e o n e w h ic h is a tta c h e d to th e ce n tre o f th e w heel. The v a lv e on
th e rim also ro ta te s a b o u t th e ce n tre o fth e w h e e l even th o u g h it is n o t d ire c tly a tta c h e d to it.
A ro ta tio n o f an o b je c t can be a b o u t a p o in t on th e o b je c t (as th e spoke o fth e w h e e l ro ta te s
a b o u t o n e end) o r a b o u t so m e o th e r p o in t (as th e valve ro ta te s a b o u t a p o in t fu rth e r aw ay).
In a ro ta tio n th e o b je c t and im a g e are e xactly th e sam e size and shape, b u t th e y face d iffe re n t
ways.

A ro ta tio n needs fo u r pieces o f in fo rm a tio n to d e s c rib e it fully.

As w e ll as th e c o rre c t w o rd (ro ta tio n ) it needs th e ce n tre o f ro ta tio n , th e angle o f ro ta tio n and

th e sense o r d ire c tio n o f ro ta tio n . It is be st to use ‘c lo c k w is e ’ o r ‘a n tic lo c k w is e ’ to d e s c rib e th e
sense o fth e ro ta tio n .
\
274
 [ 10 Transformations and Vectors

The e xcep tion to th is is a ro ta tio n o f 180° because it does n o t m a tte r w h e th e r th e o b je c t is

tu rn e d clo ckw ise o r a n tic lo c kw is e , it s till arrives in th e sam e place.

<e 10.12 show s tw o exam ples o f ro ta tio n s and th e ir c o rre c t d e scrip tio n s.

The ro ta tio n s are in th e p la n e o fth e paper.

A m a ps to 6 u n d e r a ro ta tio n o f 90° C m aps to D u n d e r a ro ta tio n o f 90°

c lo c kw ise a b o u t th e o rig in . a n tic lo c k w is e a b o u t (1,2).
Figure 1 0 .1 2 R otations

You can fin d th e ce n tre o f ro ta tio n by tria l and e rro r using a piece o f tra c in g paper. There is a
g e o m e tric a l m e th o d w h ic h w e w ill lo o k a t in C h a p te r 22.

Trace th e o b je c t and th e axes, a nd m a rk th e axes x and y (see Figure 10.13).

K e ep in g th e tw o pieces o f p a p e r to g e th e r p u t y o u r p e n c il p o in t d o w n firm ly a t d iffe re n t p o in ts

on th e tra c in g p a p e r and c a re fu lly ro ta te th e tra c in g p a p e r u n til you fin d th e p o in t w here th e
tracing of the object fits exactly over the image.

It can ta ke a b it o f tim e to fin d

th e centre, b u t try th e o b v io u s
places first. The centre w ill
u su a lly be at a g rid p o in t.

N ow co m p a re th e p o s itio n s o f
th e x-axis before and after th e
ro ta tio n to see th e angle and
sense th ro u g h w h ic h d ire c tio n
th e o b je c t has been rotated.

/rotatioriofSO*
tockwisefe equivalent
t> a notatierf o f 2f0*
2iticlockv*ise
Figure 1 0 .1 3 Finding th e centre o f rotation
10 Transformations and Vectors J

Example 5
Copy the diagrams.

a Rotate A 180° about the origin (0,0), draw the image and label it P.
b Rotate B 90° anticlockwise about the point marked with a cross. Draw the image and label it Q.

c Describe fully the single transformation that will map C onto D.

y
p
A
1

—2 - 1 0 2 x
1I

p
 ^ 10 Transformations and Vectors

c
y

oQ

D p

3 -2 - 1 0 X

1I
C

Answ er 5

y y
o ~ 4
A
1

\
— 3

A
— 2
—2 -1 0 21 X
Q
I — 1
P
o
tL rI
0 1 3 ^

c R o t a tio n o f 0 0 ° c lo c k w is c a b o u t t h e p o in t ( 1 ,1 ).

V________ __ __________

Exercise 1 0 .4
1 C opy th e diagram s.
R otate th e tria n g le s a b o u t th e c entres m a rk e d w ith a cross and th ro u g h th e angles sta te d .

/
Sf
4 1 /

90° Clockwise 180° 180°

10 Transformations and Vectors J

90° Anti-clockwise 90° Clockwise

2 D escribe fu lly th e fo llo w in g s in g le tra n s fo rm a tio n s .

y
i
A

0 1 t X
- 1

-1
B

-2

A—-B C —*~D

y
2

\
p
\
N \
t
- 1 0 \ x

278

Key term
An e n la rg e m e n t makes
an object larger or
smaller according to a
given scale factor.
A scale fa c to r is
the ratio of a length
of the image to the
corresponding length of
the object.
^ 10 Transformations and Vectors
1 0 .7 Enlargem ent
An e n la rg e m e n t can, as its nam e suggests, m ake the im age larger than th e o b je c t.
C o n fu s in g ly it is also called an e n la rg e m e n t if it m akes th e im age s m a lle r th a n th e o b je c t!
The d iffe re n c e is in th e s c a le fa c to r o f th e e n la rg e m e n t. A scale fa c to r g reate r th a n 1 w ill
m ake th e im a g e larger than th e o b je c t, b u t a scale fa c to r less th a n 1 w ill m ake it sm alle r.
You can d e m o n s tra te an e n la rg e m e n t by s h in in g a to rc h o n to a shape, such as y o u r hand,
and lo o k in g at th e sh a d o w o f y o u r hand on a w all. Your hand sho u ld be p a rallel to th e w all.
The size o fth e s h a d o w changes a c c o rd in g to h o w close y o u r to rch is to y o u r hand, a n d th e
p o s itio n o fth e s h a d o w changes a c c o rd in g to th e p o s itio n o fth e torch.
The to rc h is ca lle d th e c e n tre o fth e e n la rg e m e n t, and you can see th a t it is im p o rta n t th a t
th e c e n tre is d e fin e d w hen you are d e s c rib in g an e n la rg e m e n t.
H ow to recognise an enlargem ent
An enlargement is a transformation in which:
• the image is larger or smaller than the object
As usual, a se t o f d ia g ra m s w ill m ake th is clearer.
Figure 10.14 sho w s th e centre o fth e e n la rg e m e n t m arked w ith a cross. The scale fa c to r is 2.
10 Transformations and Vectors J

From x go
to get to •
U)

Go back to x and Join the dots to

show the enlargement.
9° 2 ( - 3 ) = ( - ! )
for the enlargement.
Repeat for all the
corners of the shape

Figure 1 0 .1 4 E n larg em en t

F igure 10.15 s h o w s h o w im p o rta n t th e c e n tre o f e n la rg e m e n t is, and h o w m o v in g th e c e n tre

o f e n la rg e m e n t c o m p le te ly changes th e p o s itio n o fth e im age. In each case th e s m a ll s q u a re
is e n la rg ed to th e b ig s q u a re w ith a scale fa c to r 3.

Figu re 1 0 .1 5 D ifferen t centres o f en la rg e m e n t

Example 6
Copy the diagrams.

a Draw an enlargement o f A, centre the origin and scale factor 2. Label the image 6.

b Draw an enlargement of C, centre the point (1 ,-1 ) and scale factor^. Label the image D.

c Describe the single transformation which maps E onto F.

a b
y
O

O
/
_ 11 / A

0 1 2 3 4 x
I

\
280
 [ 10 Transformations and Wectors

Answ er 6

E maps to F under enlargem ent, centre (0,2), scale fa c to r 3.

V ___________________ __________________________
10 Transformations and Vectors J

Exercise 1 0 .5
1 C opy th e diagram s.
Draw th e e n la rg e m e n ts w ith th e given scale fa c to rs an d th e ce n tre s m a rk e d w ith a cross.

V" y
6
b s
■■ - 5 ------- s

o
4 -------
A

3 -------
3
2 —^
o

1 -------
1I

j" -- 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
0
i I t\ X
Scale factor 2 — -1

-2

Scale factor 3

2 For each o fth e diagram s b e lo w describe fu lly th e single tra n s fo rm a tio n s w h ic h m a p A

a b
V
•> y
— A
-N 7 6 5 4 -3 -2 1 0 X
; Z - V -
-1
v

3 -2
3-------- A
-- nJ ------------------------------

8
-3
3 / \ ____
A
—*+
4
---------
l\) ------------

cn----------
---------------- co-

-5
A
— () ---------
X

i 6
—0

-7

1 0 .8 More About Vectors

Negative Vectors
As w e have seen, if th e v e c to r a = ^ ^ j , th e n th e sam e vector, p o in tin g in th e o p p o s ite

d ire c tio n is - a o r f 2 ] (see Figure 10.16). N o tic e th a t b o th c o m p o n e n ts o fth e v e c to r have had

.3
th e ir signs ch a nged.

282
 j 10 Transformations and Wectors

Figure 10.16 Vectors a and negative a

Adding Vectors
Vectors m ay be ad d e d to p ro d u c e a new v e c to r w h ic h has th e sam e e ffe ct as th e o rig in a l tw o
a p p lie d one a fte r a n o th e r. T he x c o m p o n e n ts are a d ded, and th e y c o m p o n e n ts are a d ded,
p ro d u c in g th e new vector, ta k in g a c c o u n t o f th e signs o f th e c o m p o n e n ts .

/»
/ 1
3 f 1
b 1/ 1
*
< 7 /
I
I
1\ 1
1
2/ 1

Figure 1 0 .17 A dding vectors

You w ill see in th e second d ia g ra m th a t if w e m ove th e tw o v e cto rs w h ic h are to be ad d e d

u n til th e y are jo in e d 'h ea d to ta il’ (you can fo llo w th e a rro w s ro u n d ) th e re s u lt o f th e a d d itio n
jo in s th e ‘ta il’ o f th e firs t to th e ‘head o f th e s e c o n d ’.

Vectors m ay also be s u b tra c te d by s u b tra c tin g th e x c o m p o n e n ts and th e y c o m p o n e n ts . For

e xa m p le ,

(1) - G) - ( - ) - tD
Multiplying a Vector by a Num ber
A v e c to r m ay be m u ltip lie d by a n u m b e r to change its le n g th . B o th c o m p o n e n ts are
m u ltip lie d by th e sam e num ber.

Figure 10.18 show s th e v e c t o r s ^ j, 2 ^ j and The last tw o ve ctors m ay be s im p lifie d to ^

and 0 5 1- You w ill see th a t th e v ectors are all parallel to each other, b u t are o f d iffe re n t lengths.

/
283
10 T r m ltn n itH B S M H lW e c ttr s j

Figu re 1 0 .1 8 M u ltip lyin g a v e c to r by a n u m b e r

Example 8

a From this list of vectors pick tw o th at are parallel to a.

- ( 3 »-(-3 « - G ) - G )

b Comment on the vectors you have chosen.

Answer 8

a First take out any common factors in the vectors.

M 3 - = < 3
Soc = -2 a a n d d = 3a.
c and d are parallel to a.

b c is twice as long as a and points in the opposite direction,

d is three times as long as a and points in the same direction.

Vectors can fo rm e q u a tio n s w h ic h can be so lve d a lg e b ra ic a lly to fin d u n k n o w n values.

R em em be r th a t if tw o v e c to rs are e q u a l th e n th e x -d ire c tio n s m u st be e q ual and th e
^ -d ire c tio n s m u s t be e q u a l. T he n e x t e x a m p le s h o w s this.
 ^ 10 Transformations and Vectors

Example 9

■ k k j -c:
Using the above vector equation write down an equation in a and an equation in b and
solve them to find a and b.

(2
:)=C)
Form tw o equations in k and m and solve simultaneously to find k and m.
Answer 9
a 2a + 3o = 10 2 x 5 + 3 x b - -8
5a = 10 10 + 3b = -8
a - 2 3b = -1 8
b= - 6
b k + 2m = 4 ———> 2k + 4m = 8
2k + m = 5 -> 2k + m = 5 subtract
3m = 3
m= 1
Substituting in the first equation: fc+ 2 x l = 4, k= 2

Exercise 1 0 .6
1 S im p lify th e fo llo w in g :

Find a: a n d y.

4 Draw th e s e v e cto rs on sq u a re d p a p e r a nd list th o s e th a t are p a rallel to each o th e r:

5 H ow can yo u te ll th a t th e v e c to rs 14 \ a n d L J are p a ra lle l and th a t o n e is th re e tim e s

lo n g e r th a n th e o th er?

6 W ha t can y o u say a b o u t th e v e c to rs f J j a n d j ^1?

10 Transformations anil Vectors J

1 0 .9 Recognising Transform ations

Example 10
a Describe fu lly the single transformations shown in each o fth e diagrams. A maps onto B
in each case,
i ii

y ‘

o A
C-

* <I t
0 3 X

11

—
p
B
O
J

b Name each ofth e following transformations ofth e outline of a left hand.

ii i IV

286
 I 10 Transformations and Vectors

Answer 10
a i Reflection in the lin e j^ O (or the x-axis).
ii Translation ^_3'5j
iii Rotation 180° about (1.5,0).
iv Enlargement, centre (0.5,3), scale factor 3.
b i Translation ii Rotation iii Reflection iv Enlargement

V _______________________

Exercise 1 0 .7
M ixed exercise

Mirror line

i Rotate A ISO0 about X

ii R e fle c ts in th e d o tte d m irro r line.

i Enlarge B, ce n tre X , scale fa c to r 3.

ii T ra n s la te s u sing th e v e c to r! J .
10 Transformations and Vectors J

2 C opy th e d ia g ra m .
a D escribe fu lly th e sin g le tra n s fo rm a tio n w h ic h m aps
i A o n to B ii B o n to C.
b i En large D, scale fa c to r 2, c e n tre th e o rig in . Label th e im age E.
ii R o tate B , 90° a n tic lo c k w is e , c e n tre th e o rig in . Label th e im a g e F.

3----------- 7f
2------------ -V *

1------------ p 0 B

.. A —oQ co 1I r\
J
1 o
<L Q
O A Y

1 ----------

2 ----------

3-----------
c

4 ----------

Exam-style questions J

3 T he d ia g ra m sh o w s tw o tria n g le s , >4 a n d B.

y
r
c
/I
o
>
n V
1 \

-7 6 _
5 4 _
3 _
P _
1 0 > L j
■11
o
F
o

-6* 1

\
288
 [ IB Transformations ana Vectors

a W rite d o w n th e v e c to r th a t repre sen ts th e tra n s la tio n th a t m aps tria n g le o n to

tria n g le B.
b T riangle C is an e n la rg e m e n t o f tria n g le /1 w ith centre (5, 3) a nd scale fa c to r 3.
On a co p y o f th e d ia g ra m , d ra w and label tria n g le C.
(4024 p a p e r 12 Q13 J une 2012)

The grid sh o w s tria n g le /1 and lin e /.. C opy th e grid.

T ria n g le /l is m a p p e d o n to tria n g le 6 by a re fle c tio n in lin e L.
D raw and la b e l tria n g le B.
i T rian g le A is m a p p e d o n to tria n g le C by a c lo c kw ise ro ta tio n o f 90°, ce n tre (0,3).
D raw and la b e l tria n g le C.
ii T ria ng le C is m a p p e d o n to tria n g le D by a re fle c tio n in th e lin e L.
D escribe th e sin g le tra n s fo rm a tio n th a t m aps tria n g le B o n to tria n g le D.
(4024 p a p e r 21 Q l l b N o ve m b e r 2012)

5 AB = ^ a n d CD = 3 A B .

a W rite CD as a c o lu m n vector.
b M ake tw o s ta te m e n ts a b o u t th e re la tio n s h ip betw e e n th e lines AB and CD.
(0580 p a p e r 0 1 Q15 J u n e 2006)

6 The p oin ts/1 a n d B are m arked on th e d ia g ra m .

y
-4 - W rite AB as a c o lu m n vector.

O'
2 W rite d o w n th e c o o rd in a te s o f C.
(0580 p a p e r 01 Q8 J u n e 2007)
1

4 -3 -2 - 1 0 1 2 ci 4
-1 "
A

-o '
-_ 4 -
10 Transformations anil Vectors J

7 ________________________ 1/

— -C-
/
------B------------

A q u a d rila te ra l ABCD, a lin e I and a p o in t 0 are s h o w n on th e g rid given on th e pre vio u s

page.
a W rite d o w n th e m a th e m a tic a l n a m e fo r th e q u a d rila te ra M B C D .
b C opy th e grid above, a n d d ra w th e im ages o fth e q u a d rila te ra l ABCD u n d e r the
fo llo w in g tra n s fo rm a tio n s .
T ra n s la tio n by th e v e c to r _3 . Label th is im a g e P.
i R e fle ction in th e lin e /. Label th is im a g e Q.
ii R o ta tio n , c e n tre d , th ro u g h 90° a n tic lo c k w is e . Label th is im a g e R.
v E n la rg e m e n t, c e n tre 0 a n d scale fa c to r 3. Label th is im a g e 5.
(0580 p a p e r 03 Q7 Ju n e 20i07)

•4-
\A 3
\ /\
>f v
1
/ B \
5 4 _3 _2 _1 0 A c &6 X
1

d.

J
D
4-

a A tra n s la tio n is given by ^ j + ^ j.

i W rite th is tra n s la tio n as a sin g le c o lu m n vector.
ii On a c o p y o f th e g rid , d ra w th e tra n s la tio n o f tria n g le A u s in g th is vector.

290
 ^ 10 Transformations and Vectors

b A n o th e r tra n s la tio n is given by

i W rite th is tra n s la tio n as a single c o lu m n vector.
ii On y o u r co p y o f th e grid, d ra w th e tra n s la tio n o f tria n g le B using th is vector,
c D escribe fu lly th e single tra n s fo rm a tio n th a t m aps shape C o n to shape D.
The tria n g le in th e d ia g ra m left is isosceles.
i H ow m any lines o f s y m m e try does this
tria n g le have?
ii W rite d o w n th e o rd e r o f ro ta tio n a l
s y m m e try o f th is tria n g le .
iii On a co p y o f th e grid above, d ra w
th e ro ta tio n o f th is tria n g le a b o u t
0 th ro u g h 180°.
iv D escribe fu lly a n o th e r single
tra n s fo rm a tio n th a t m aps th is tria n g le
o n to y o u r a n sw e r fo r p a rt (d) (iii).

(0580 p a p e r 03 Q7 Ju n e 2007)

p = (j)a n d q = p ).
a W rite p + q as a c o lu m n vector,
b The p o in t 0 is m a rke d on th e grid b e low .
D raw th e v e c to r ~6P w h e re = p.
(0580 p a p e r 01 Q l l N o ve m b e r 2005)

T ria n g le /IB C is d ra w n on th e grid.

a i W rite d o w n th e c o o rd in a te s
o f A.
ii W r ite o ff and 6 ? as c o lu m n
vectors.
b Translate tria n g le /lB C by th e
v e c t o r ^ j . Label th e im age T.

c A ? = 7 A & and 7\@ = 2AC.

i P lo t th e p o in ts P and Q on th e
grid.
ii D escribe fu lly th e single
tra n s fo rm a tio n w h ic h m aps
triangle-A BC o n to triangle/APQ .
d R otate tria n g le /\S C th ro u g h 180°
a b o u tth e m id p o in t o fth e side/16.
Label th e im age R.
(0580 p a p e r 03 Q8 N ove m b er 2008)

291
10 Transformations and Vectors j

11 AB = B? =

a Express ~AC as a c o lu m n vector.

b It is given th a t CZT = ^ 1j.
Find th e tw o p o s s ib le values o f h w h ic h w ill m a ke ABCD a tra p e z iu m .
You m a y use s quared p a p e r to he lp y o u w ith y o u r in v e s tig a tio n .
(4024 p a p e r 01 Q13 N o ve m b e r 2004)

12 On th e g rid b e lo w , OP = p and 0 $ = q.
a G iven th a t 0 ^ = p - q , m a rk th e p o in t/?
s 0
cle a rly on th e grid,
q b The p o in t S is sh o w n on th e grid.
ii
~mw Given th a t O ? = q + hp, fin d h.
0 p p
(4024 p a p e r 0 1 Q8 Ju n e 2007)

y T he d ia g ra m sh o w s tria n g le s A and B.

a The translation ^ 2j m aps AA o n to AC.

O n a c o p y o f th e d ia g ra m , d ra w and
la b e l AC.
b T he ro ta tio n 90° c lo c kw ise , c e n tre
(2,0), m a p s M o n to AD.
On y o u r c o p y o f th e d ia g ra m , d ra w
a n d la b e l AD.
c Describe fu lly the sin g le transform ation
w hich m aps M onto AB.
(4024 p a p e r 01 Q20 J u n e 2009)

—“
° y) / 4A
Q
VJ
o Ps/ /\
1
CO

C\]
T
o

9 -8 -7 -6 -5 ^ 2 C A1 5 6 '
1

The g rid a b o v e sh o w s th e p o in ts P( 1,2) and Q (-7 ,4 ).

i P can be m a p p e d o n to Q by a tra n s la tio n . W rite d o w n its c o lu m n vector.
ii P can also be m a p p e d o n to Q by an e n la rg e m e n t, c e n tre (5,1). W rite d o w n its scale
factor.

\
292
 I 10 Transformations and Vectors

y
i— a-
sS
n

3 - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 ;1 ‘■ !
-i

\ -2
-3

T he d ia g ra m sho w s tria n g le s A and B.

i D escribe fu lly th e single tra n s fo rm a tio n th a t m aps tria n g le /A o n to tria n g le 6.
ii T rian g le A can also be m a p p e d o n to tria n g le B by a re fle c tio n in th e lin e x = - l
fo llo w e d by a ro ta tio n .
W rite d o w n th e ce n tre o f th is ro ta tio n .
(4024 p a p e r 01 Q20 Ju n e 2009)
 Statistics I

Learning objectives (Syllabus sections 41 and 42)

In this c h a p te r w e w ill lo o k at: freq u en cy polygons

• h o w statis tica l d a ta is co llec ted and pie charts
organised m ean , m ed ian , m o d e and range
• b a r charts and sim p le histogram s freq u en cy d istributio ns
• s c atter d iag ram s a n d c o rre la tio n statistics in th e m e d ia

1 1 .1 Introduction
S ta tistics are a ll a ro u n d us in th e m o d e rn w o rld , so it is necessary to have s o m e k n o w le d g e
o f h o w s ta tis tic s are used a n d th e s tre n g th s a n d fa ilin g s o f sta tistics. This c h a p te r
in tro d u c e s q u ite a lo t o f n e w w o rd s w h ic h you need to b e c o m e fa m ilia r w ith . You w ill need
a ruler, p ro tra c to r and co m p a sse s fo r th is c hapter.

1 1 .2 Essential Skills
S pend a little tim e (w ith y o u r c a lc u la to r w h e re necessary) w o rk in g on th e se q u e stio n s. It
w ill h e lp yo u a n sw e r s o m e o f th e q u e s tio n s in th is ch a p te r. C heck each a n sw e r w ith y o u r
c a lc u la to r as y o u go alo ng .

m =20
i r ° - 05
U sing th e a b o v e in fo rm a tio n c o p y and fill in th e blanks:
a 2 0 x 1 8 = ....... b 3 6 0 x 0 .0 5 = ........ C 3 6 0 + . . .... = 18
d 1 8-J-... ... = 360 e 2 0 x .... .. = 1

C opy an d fill in th e blanks:

a 360 x . .... = 30 b 3 6 0 - . . .... = 30 C 360 x .. .... = 12
d 3 6 0 - . .... = 12 e lO x ... .. = 360 f 360 x .. ... = 10
g 3 6 0 - . . .... = 10 h 360 x .. .... = 720 i 3 6 0 - . . ... = 540
j 1 4 4 0 x ........= 360

C opy an d fill in th e blanks:

NJ

a 1 0 0 x .. .... = 360 b .. = 54 c 6 9 0 - . . .... = 23

-'j
X

d 690 x . .... = 23 e 7 2 -.... .. = 24 f 4 2 - . . . . .. = 28

g 5 5 x . . . .. = 99 h 8 1 -.... .. = 36 i 8 1 x .... .. = 36
j 9 0 x . . . .. = 72 k 9 0 -.... .. = 72

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 [ 11 Statistics!

1 1 .3 W hy do we need Statistics?
S ta tistics are used by g o v e rn m e n ts to d e te rm in e such diverse th in g s as h o w m any sch o o ls
and h o sp ita ls need to be b u ilt in th e next decade, h o w th e p ro p o rtio n o f e ld e rly peo p le
in th e p o p u la tio n w ill change, and c o n s e q u e n tly h o w m uch s u p p o rt fo r th e e ld e rly w ill be
needed. D octors need to find o u t w h e th e r th e u n d e s ira b le side effects o f a p a rtic u la r d ru g
o u tw e ig h its bene fits. Businesses m ay need to p re d ic t th e ir stock re q u ire m e n ts fo r th e c o m in g
years, based on p o p u la tio n sta tis tic s and c u rre n t trends. U niversities w ill need to p re d ic t
th e p ro p o rtio n o f s tu d e n ts w h o w ill w a n t to s tu d y m a th e m a tic s next year. You m ay need to
k n o w th e lik e lih o o d o f rain to m o rro w . Insurance c o m p a n ie s need to k n o w th in g s such as life
e xp e cta n cy o f in d iv id u a ls o f d iffe re n t ages.

All these th in g s w ill use sta tistics. P ro p e r use o f sta tis tic s involves m a n y steps such as:

• d e fin in g th e p ro b le m th a t needs to be answ ered

• c o lle c tin g d a ta and o rg a n is in g it in a w a y th a t can be used
• illu s tra tin g th e re sults w ith p ic tu re s , g ra p h s o r c h a rts in a w a y th a t can be easily
u n d e rs to o d
• in te rp re tin g th e d a ta so th a t useful c o n c lu s io n s can be draw n
• and fin a lly, te s tin g th e c o n c lu s io n s to see how v a lid th e y m ay be.

S ta tistics is d iffe re n t fro m th e rest o f th e m a th e m a tic s you are s tu d y in g because it can o n ly

assess th e p ro b a b ility o f ce rta in c o n c lu s io n s fro m given data. H ow ever, it is an e n o rm o u s ly
im p o rta n t bran ch o f m a th e m a tic s fo r to d a y ’s w o rld .

It is ve ry im p o rta n t th a t you s h o u ld u n d e rs ta n d th a t in te rp re tin g th e sta tis tic s can s o m e tim e s

lead to w ro n g co n c lu s io n s. P eople m ay w a n t to prove a fa v o u rite th e o ry and in som e w ay
d is to rt th e s ta tis tic s to s u p p o rt th e ir th e o ry . This does n o t necessarily m ean fraud, b u t it can
m ean th a t o th e r p e o p le are m is in fo rm e d . In p a rtic u la r th e p u b lic can be m is in fo rm e d by th e
d is to rtio n o f s ta tis tic a l diagram s, as you w ill see la te r in th e chapter.

G ood s ta tis tic a l a rg u m e n ts d e p e n d on th e c o lle c tio n o f s u ffic ie n t d a ta in an unbiased

m anner.

For exa m ple , you c o u ld n o t p re d ic t th e n u m b e r o f p e o p le in th e general p o p u la tio n w h o

Key terms w o u ld be in te re ste d in g o in g to th e O ly m p ic G am es by o n ly asking th e m e m b e rs o f a s p o rts
D ata is the set o f pieces clu b . Also, yo u c o u ld n o t m ake a sensible p re d ic tio n based on askin g o n ly a s m all n u m b e r o f
o f inform ation, usually
people.
numbers, which w ill be
examined statistically.
A su rv e y is a collection
of inform ation.
A sa m ple is taken 1 1 .4 Collecting and Organising Data
when the entire set of
data is too large to be A d a ta set con sists o f in d iv id u a l pieces o f in fo rm a tio n th a t you m ay c o lle c t in o rd e r to solve a
conveniently used. p ro b le m .
The p o p u la tio n is the
A ty p ic a l c o lle c tio n o f d a ta w o u ld be m a d e by a s u rv e y .
entire set of data from
which the sample is A su rve y is an o rg a nise d c o lle c tio n o f s u ffic ie n t and re le v a n t data th a t can be used to help
taken. solve a p ro b le m . It is c o lle cte d fro m a s a m p le o f th e w h o le possib le set o f d ata (w hich is th e
p o p u la tio n ). It can th e n be used to m ake p re d ic tio n s fo r th e w h o le p o p u la tio n .
11 Statistics I j

1 1 .5 Examples of Surveys
SURVEY 1 Traffic Congestion
T he v o lu m e o f tra ffic passing th ro u g h a v e ry s m a ll v illa g e is e n d a n g e rin g th e lives o f
p e d e stria n s, p a rtic u la rly y o u n g c h ild re n a tte n d in g th e v illa g e sch o o l, so th e a u th o ritie s are
c o n s id e rin g b u ild in g a n ew road to bypass th e v illa g e .

The firs t ste p to w a rd s d e c id in g w h e th e r to s p e n d th e m o n e y necessary to b u ild th e bypass is

to fin d th e n u m b e r o f cars passing a p a rtic u la r p o in t (p o in t A) in th e v illa g e a t d iffe re n t tim e s
o f th e day.

T he a u th o ritie s c o m m is s io n a survey. T he cars are c o u n te d th ro u g h o u t th e day, o v e r m a n y

days to c o lle c t e n o u g h data. The m e th o d used is to c o u n t e ve ry c a r th a t passes p o in t A d u rin g
each h o u r d u rin g th e day. T he te rm ‘c a r’ in th is s u rv e y in c lu d e s a ll m o to ris e d vehicles, even
lorries, m o to rb ik e s and tra cto rs.
Key term
A ta lly c h a rt is a An easy w a y to c o u n t cars in th is s itu a tio n is to use a ta lly c h a rt. U sing a ta lly c h a rt c o u ld be
convenient m ethod of as s im p le as m a k in g a m a rk o n p a p e r e ve ry tim e a ca r passes. In o rd e r to m a ke it easier to
recording data before it a dd u p th e m a rks it is usual to p u t a s trik e th ro u g h th e p re v io u s fo u r m a rks to re p re se n t th e
is organised further. fifth m a rk fo r each set o f five m arks. Table 11.1 s h o w s h o w such a c h a rt m ig h t lo o k.

You w ill n o tic e th a t th e T im e o f d a y ’ c o lu m n s h o w s e n trie s such as ‘0700 to b e fo re 0800’.

T h is m e an s th a t a c a r passing a t e x a c tly 0800 goes in to th e next ro w la b e lle d ‘0800 to
b e fo re 0900’.

A m o re te c h n ic a l m e th o d w o u ld be to have s o m e s o rt o f h a n d -h e ld d ata lo g g in g d e vice w h ic h

c o u ld be c lic k e d every tim e a car passes an d w o u ld re co rd a ll th e d a ta and th e tim e o f day
a u to m a tic a lly .

A surve y w o u ld n o rm a lly have m u c h m o re d a ta th a n th is , b u t th is w ill be s u ffic ie n t fo r o u r

purposes.

DATE

PLACE
T im e o f d a y T a lly T o ta l

0700 to be fo re 0800 JHf JHf M M JHf 25

Key terms 0800 to be fo re 0900 MMM M M M M M M l 46
I
distributio n or 0900 to be fo re 1000 M M M JH fM M M M M JfM M II 63
frequency ta b le shows 1000 to be fo re 1100 41
how often each item in
the data set occurs. a nd so on
In a grouped frequency T a b le 11.1 Cars passing p o in t A a t d iffe re n t tim e s o f th e day
ta b le the data set is
collected into groups or Table 11.1 is an e x a m p le o f a fre q u e n c y d is trib u tio n . T h e fre q u e n c y o f an e v e n t is a n o th e r
classes. w a y o f expressing h o w often it occurs. The c o lu m n la b e lle d ‘T o ta l’ is th e sam e as the
freq ue n cy, so a fre q u e n c y ta b le o f th e d a ta a b o v e m ig h t lo o k like Table 11.2.

296
 [ 11 Statistics I

T im e o f d a y F req u e n c y
0700 to before 0800 25
0800 to before 0900 46
0900 to before 1000 63
1000 to before 1100 41
and so on

T ab le 1 1 .2 Cars passing po in t A at d iffe ren t tim es o fth e day

This is a c tu a lly a gro u p ed fre q u e n c y ta b le because th e in d iv id u a l tim e s a t w h ic h th e cars

passed are n o t given, b u t th e y have been g ro u p e d in to h o u rly in te rva ls o r classes.

SURVEY 2 Wild Flower Meadow

A b o ta n is t w a n ts to e s tim a te th e n u m b e r o f w ild flo w e rs in a p a rtic u la r m e a d o w . To save
h a v in g to surve y th e w h o le m eadow , sa m p le squares are taken a t d iffe re n t places across th e
m e a d o w . Each se ctio n is 1 m etre square. For th is survey a ta lly c h a rt is n o t necessary as th e
flo w e rs can ju s t be c o u n te d . In th e survey th e s e ctio n s w ere la b e lle d A, B, C, D and E a nd th e
re sults w e re as sh ow n in Table 11.3.

S e c tio n o f m e a d o w F re q u e n c y
A 15
B 14
C 21
D 8
E 20

T a b le 1 1 .3 W ild flo w ers per square m etre

Agdii i, a piupei survey w uuld need m uch more data, but this will be sufficient for our work.
F urth er sta tis tic a l w o rk c o u ld m ake a p re d ic tio n o fth e n u m b e r o f flow e rs in th e w h o le m eadow .

SURVEY 3 Reduction of Pollution

O ur th ird su rve y has been c o m m is s io n e d by a c ity c o u n c il because th e y are try in g to fin d
w ays o f c u ttin g d o w n on p o llu tio n in a city. They w o u ld like p e o p le ta k in g c h ild re n to s c h o o l
in th e m o rn in g s to try to share tra n s p o rt.

T he y c o m m is s io n a su rvey to fin d h o w m a n y passengers th e re are in each car, in th e m o rn in g

rush hour, e n te rin g th e c ity past a ce rta in p o in t on o ne o fth e m a in roads in to th e city.

The resu lts are sh o w n in Table 11.4.

N u m b e r o f passengers 0 1 2 3 4 5

N u m b e r o f cars 64 38 41 27 10 2

T a b le 1 1 .4 N um bers o f passengers p er car

The firs t th in g you m ay n o tic e a b o u t th is fre q u e n cy ta b le is th a t, u n lik e th e p re v io u s tw o

surveys, it is p resented h o riz o n ta lly instead o f ve rtica lly. You m u s t be able to recognise w h ic h
11 StadsUcsl J
Key terms
C o n tin u o u s d a ta is
measured data such
as length. It has to be
divided into suitable
groups by rounding,
such as ‘to the nearest
metre'
C a te g o ric a l d a ta is
usually non-num erical
data such as people’s
names.
D iscre te d a ta is data
th a t takes individual
values such as shoe
sizes.
A p ic to g ra m is a sim ple
m ethod o f illustrating
the frequency o f usually
categorical data.
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298
ro w is th e fre q u e n cy , and w h ic h is th e d a ta you are c o u n tin g . In this case th e n u m b e r o f cars is
th e fre q u e n cy ; th e data you are c o u n tin g is th e n u m b e r o f passengers p e r car.
1 1 .6 Types of D ata
In th e firs t s u rv e y w e a re c o u n tin g th e n u m b e rs o f cars w h ic h pass a p a rtic u la r p o in t a t
d iffe re n t tim e s o fth e day. You h a v e seen th a t w e have had to m ake a d e c is io n a b o u t w h e re
a c a r p a s s in g a t 0800 b e lo n g s . T h e tim e o f d a y is c o n tin u o u s d a ta . C o n tin u o u s d a ta is
m e a s u re d d a ta . E xa m p le s w o u ld in c lu d e h e ig h ts o f b u ild in g s , v o lu m e s o f liq u id s a n d so on.
In th e se c o n d su rv e y w e are c o u n tin g th e n u m b e rs o f flo w e rs in d iffe re n t s e c tio n s o f a
m e a d o w . T h e re is n o d o u b t a b o u t to w h ic h s e c tio n any p a rtic u la r flo w e r belongs. T he
s e c tio n s are separate, o r c a te g o ric a l. C a te g o ric a l d a ta c o u ld in c lu d e c o lo u rs o f sw eets,
c o u n trie s o f th e w o rld a n d s o o n .
In th e th ird su rv e y w e are c o u n tin g th e n u m b e rs o f cars w h ic h ca rry passengers. A g ain th e re
is n o d o u b t as to w h e re each c a r b e lo n g s . It m u s t c a rry e ith e r 0 ,1 ,2 ,3 , 4 o r 5 passengers. This
is d is c re te d a ta . D iscrete d a ta can b e c o u n te d . E xam ples c o u ld be scores a t a gam e s m a tch ,
e x a m in a tio n m a rk s and so on.
1 1 .7 Illustrating the Data
O ne p o s s ib le m e th o d to illu s tra te th e d a ta w o u ld be a p icto gram .
A p ic to g ra m uses a s m a ll p ic tu re o r s y m b o l to re p re se n t a given n u m b e r o f th e pieces o f data.
For e xa m p le , u s in g th e fre q u e n c y d is trib u tio n fro m S urvey 1 (Traffic co n g e s tio n ), w e m ig h t
use a s m a ll c a r to re p re se n t a fre q u e n c y of, say, te n cars (see Figure 11.1). Less th a n te n cars
w o u ld have to be re p re se n te d by a p a rt o f a car, so th is is n o t a very a ccu ra te m e th o d , b u t it
d o e s p re s e n t th e d a ta in a p ic to ria l w a y, w h ic h gives e veryone an im m e d ia te idea o f th e scale
o ft h e p ro b le m .
0700 to before 0800
0800 to before 0900
0900 to before 1000
1000 to before 1100
represents 10 cars
F ig u re 1 1 .1 C ars p a s s in g p o in M a t d iffe r e n t tim e s o f t h e d a y
ii-
ite -
m i
• The pictogram needs a key to show how many objects are rc,---------------- ----- ----- ------ ,..
• Parts of a symbol are used to represent smaller numbers, but these are not very accurate.
• The pictogram needs a title.
 I 11 Statistics I

Example 1
Draw a pictogram to illustrate the data in Survey 2, the wild flower survey.
Answer 1
Num bers o f w ild flow ers p er square m etre o f m eadow

* * *

* * * * *
represents 5 flowers

Key terms P icto g ra m s are n o t ve ry a c c u ra te re p re s e n ta tio n s o f th e d a ta . Precise illu s tra tio n s are
A bar chart is a graph in p ro v id e d b y b a r g rap h s (o r b a r c h arts) o r s im p le histo gram s.
which separated bars are
drawn to illustrate the Bar c h a rts illu s tra te d a ta w h ic h can be d iv id e d in to c o m p le te ly s e p a ra te categories.
frequency of categorical
The w ild flo w e r su rv e y can be illu s tra te d by a b a r c h a rt because th e d a ta is d iv id e d in to
or discrete data.
se pa ra te se ctio ns/1, B, C, D and E o f th e m e a d o w (see Figure 11.2).
A simple histogram is
similar to a bar chart, In a b ar c h a rt th e v ertica l axis represents frequency, and th e h o rizo n ta l axis d istinguish es each bar
but is used to represent w ith a label. The bars can be separated because th e re is no a ctual c o n n e c tio n betw een them .
continuous date! that
has been grouped into
classes of equal size. The
on
C\J
bars are not separate but
must be of equal width. 18

16
1I A

12
d)
ST 10
LL
8

2
n
A B C D E

Figu re 1 1 .2 N u m b ers o f w ild flo w e rs p er square m e tre o f m e a d o w

You w ill a lso see b a r gra p h s w ith th e bars d ra w n h o riz o n ta lly a n d th e fre q u e n c y on th e
h o riz o n ta l axis.
11 Statistics I J

T h e tr a ffic c o n g e s t io n s u r v e y (S u r v e y 1) c o u ld b e illu s tr a t e d b y a s i m p le h is t o g r a m
(F ig u re 1 1 .3 ). T h is is v e r y s im ila r t o a b a r c h a r t , b u t is u s e d t o r e p r e s e n t d a t a t h a t is
c o n tin u o u s. A s w e h a v e s e e n , c o n t in u o u s d a t a is n o t d iv id e d in t o s e p a r a t e p a r ts b u t c a n t a k e
a n y v a lu e .

T h e d a ta is s till r e p r e s e n t e d b y b a rs , b u t t h e b a rs c a n n o t b e s e p a r a t e d b y b la n k s p a c e s
b e c a u s e t h e r e is n o g a p in t h e p o s s ib le m e a s u r e m e n t s .

Fig u re 1 1 .3 C a rs p a ssin g p o in t s at different tim e s o fth e day

It is im p o r t a n t to n o t e t h a t a sim ple h is to g r a m c a n o n ly b e u s e d if t h e d a t a is d iv id e d in to g r o u p s
of equal w idth (a s in t h e a b o v e e x a m p le w h e r e t h e g r o u p s a r e e a c h o f o n e h o u r ). H is to g r a m s fo r
g r o u p s o f v a r y in g w id t h s a r e s lig h tly m o r e c o m p lic a t e d . W e w ill s tu d y t h e s e in C h a p t e r 2 3 .

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3001
 Exam ple 2
Draw a bar chart to illustrate the data in Survey 3, the reduction of pollution survey.

Answer 2
N um ber o f passengers per car

70

2 60
co
<j
o 50
v_
<D
-Q
| 40
c
o 30
a)
3
CT
£ 20
LL

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Number of passengers
V__________________ _______________________
S o m e d a ta h a s s o m a n y v a lu e s t h a t it is b e tt e r t o g r o u p it in to classes b e fo r e d r a w in g a n y
c o n c lu s io n , a s t h e n e x t s u r v e y s h o w s .

SURVEY 4 W aiting Tim es in a Surgery

T h e d a ta s e t in T a b le 1 1 .5 r e c o r d s t h e t i m e p a tie n t s h a d t o w a it in a s u r g e r y b e fo r e t h e y w e r e
a b le t o s e e a d o c to r . T h e t im e s a r e g iv e n t o t h e n e a r e s t m in u t e . T h e d a t a is a n e x a m p le o f raw
d a ta w hich hoc not yot been sorted in any way.

10 3 15 7 8 4 21 33 11 31 27 25

7 5 9 11 27 17 28 16 14 8 23 35

19 10 28 21 16 15 19 19 19 27 6 9

26 7 2 18 23 14 10 10 9 32 29 3

Table 11.5 Waiting times for patients in a doctor’s surgery

T h is d a ta is s h o w n in t h e f r e q u e n c y t a b l e in T a b le 1 1 .6 w it h t h e w a it in g t im e s g r o u p e d in to
c la s s e s .

NOTE:
Take your time when working with statistics. It is easy to leave out or repeat values when you are
Counting d a t a ^ p p N w T :a ruler urrair the lirf^ouarewdffting on, or run a finger along the data.
11 Statistics I j

T im e (to th e n earest m in u te ) Tally Frequency

1 -5 M 5

6 -1 0 M M III 13

1 1 -1 5 Ml 6

1 6 -2 0 M ill 8

2 1 -2 5 M 5

2 6 -3 0 M il 7

3 1 -3 5 llll 4

T o ta l fre q u e n c y 48

T a b le 11 .6 Fre q u e n cie s o f su rg e ry w a itin g tim e s

T a b le 1 1 .6 h a s p r e s e n te d u s w it h a p r o b le m . T o illu s t r a t e t h e d a t a , d o w e u s e a b a r c h a r t o r
h is to g r a m ?

Key term
Class boundaries are
used to d e c id e in to
w h ic h class ro u n d e d
c o n tin u o u s d a ta s h o u ld
b e e n te re d .
T im e is c o n t in u o u s , b u t t h e s e c la s s e s a p p e a r t o b e fo r d is c r e te d a t a b e c a u s e t h e t im e s h a v e
b e e n r o u n d e d t o t h e n e a r e s t m in u t e . H o w e v e r , th is m e a n s t h a t a t i m e o f 5 .4 m in u t e s w o u ld
b e r o u n d e d t o 5 m in u t e s , a n d a t i m e o f 5 .5 m in u t e s w o u ld b e r o u n d e d to 6 m in u te s . J u s t a s
m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e r o u n d e d a c c o r d in g t o o u r k n o w n r u le s , s o t h e c la s s e s in to w h ic h
c o n t in u o u s it e m s o f d a t a w ill b e e n te r e d h a v e u p p e r a n d lo w e r class b o u n d aries , a n d t h e
d a t a is e f fe c tiv e ly r o u n d e d in t o t h e s e b o u n d a r ie s . T h e c la s s b o u n d a r ie s in t h e h is to g r a m a r e
calculated a s ^ y ^ , 10 * 11 , ■- ■- a n d 5 0 o n .
If t h e d a ta h a d n o t p r e v io u s ly b e e n r o u n d e d it c o u ld h a v e b e e n e n te r e d in t o a t a b l e lik e
T a b le 1 1 .7 , w it h t h e c la s s e s s h o w n . T h e r e s u lt is s till t h e s a m e , b u t t h e t a b l e n o w m a k e s it
c le a r t h a t w e s h o u ld d r a w a h is to g r a m .

T im e (t m inutes) Frequency
0 .5 ^ f < 5 . 5 5

5 .5 ^ t< 1 0 .5 13

1 0 .5 ^ f < 1 5 .5 6

1 5 .5 ^ t< 2 0 .5 8

2 0 .5 ^ f < 2 5 .5 5

2 5 .5 ^ f < 3 0 .5 7

3 0 .5 ^ £ < 3 5 .5 4

T o ta l fr e q u e n c y 48

T a b le 11.7 S u r g e r y w a i t i n g t im e s

\
3021
 [ 11 Statistics I

The w a itin g tim es are illustrated in th e h istogram in Figure 11.4, and as you can see the c/os;
boundaries m u s t be show n on the horizontal axis.
^ _
1 ----------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1 2 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

S
c
' 1 0 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
____________________________________________________________________________________

4 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2 ---------------------------------------------------------

0.5 5.5 10.5 15.5 20.5 25.5 30.5 35.5

T im e (m in u te s )

F igu re 1 1 .4 W aiting tim e for p atien ts in a d o c to r’s su rge ry

Exercise 11.1
1 a C o n s t r u c t a f r e q u e n c y t a b l e fo r t h e f o llo w in g s c o r e s o n t h e s p in n in g o f a s p in n e r
n u m b e r e d f r o m 1 to 6.

2 5 6 3 3 3 4 1 5 1 5

5 5 6 3 4 4 2 2 3 4 5

1 6 1 3 2 3 3 2 5 2 5

2 6 4 1 3 5 5 2 1 4 3

b D r a w a b a r c h a r t t o illu s t r a t e t h e f r e q u e n c y o f e a c h s c o re .

2 a D r a w u p a g r o u p e d f r e q u e n c y t a b l e fo r t h e f o llo w in g discrete d a ta .
U s e t h e c la s s e s 1 - 1 0 , 1 1 - 2 0 , 2 1 - 3 0 , 3 1 - 4 0 , 4 1 - 5 0 .

1 45 50 37 3 3 36 5 48 38 17

19 21 12 36 46 49 29 29 29 20 40

34 31 42 45 40 50 32 5 11 28 35

2 8 41 9 10 17 18 49 37 33 30

21 41 5 8 10 11 13 5 8 23 9

b Use y o u r fre q u e n cy ta b le to d ra w a bar chart.

/
303
11 Statistics I J

3 a D r a w u p a g r o u p e d f r e q u e n c y t a b l e f o r t h e f o llo w in g d a ta . U s e t h e c la s s e s 0 t o le s s
t h a n 1 0 ,1 0 t o le s s t h a n 2 0 , 2 0 to le s s t h a n 3 0 a n d s o o n .

1 .6 6 3 .1 5 7 .3 3 .1 6 .7 5 4 .6 5 5 .5 5 2 .7 1 3 .6 4 1 .7 8 .1

5 6 .9 4 2 .8 4 6 .9 9 .5 5 3 .2 1 2 .7 56 3 .9 8 5 .7 1.1

4 4 .1 17.6 9 1 7 .8 2 7 .4 5 7 .3 52 3 3 .8 34 5 2 .9 7 .5

4 9 .3 5 9 .9 0 0 .5 17 .8 27 5 3 .1 3 7 .3 0 .7 5 1 .1 1 .1

b D r a w a s im p le h is t o g r a m t o s h o w th is d a ta .

4 T h e h e ig h ts o f 2 5 s t u d e n t s w e r e m e a s u r e d , a n d t h e r e s u lts a r e s h o w n b e lo w .

SURVEY 5 Heights of Students

160 1 5 5 .5 1 2 8 .5 161 152 1 5 2 .5 153 1 5 4 .7 141 1 6 3 .4 1 2 9 .2

1 6 4 .2 1 5 1 .9 150 1 5 0 .3 145 138 1 3 6 .6 129 149 1 4 8 .2 1 3 5 .1

1 3 2 .8 143 1 4 1 .5

a D r a w u p a f r e q u e n c y t a b l e w it h t h e d a t a g r o u p e d in to t h e f o llo w i n g c la s s e s :
1 2 0 to < 1 3 0 ,1 3 0 to < 1 4 0 ,1 4 0 to < 1 5 0 ,1 5 0 to < 1 6 0 a n d 1 6 0 to < 1 7 0 .
b D r a w a s im p le h is to g r a m w it h t h e h o r iz o n t a l a x is la b e lle d fr o m 1 2 0 t o 1 7 0 .

5 T h e b a r c h a r t s h o w n b e lo w s h o w s t h e n u m b e r s o f a g r o u p o f s t u d e n t s t a k in g
e x a m in a t io n s in m a t h s , p h y s ic s , c h e m is tr y , E n g lis h a n d e c o n o m ic s in o n e w e e k in a n
e x a m in a t io n p e r io d . 2 6 s t u d e n t s a r e t a k in g t h e c h e m is t r y e x a m in a t io n , a n d 1 5 a r e ta k ir n g
t h e e c o n o m ic s e x a m in a t io n .
a C o p y t h e b a r c h a r t a n d c o m p le t e t h e f r e q u e n c y s c a le o n t h e v e r t ic a l a x is . (T h e s c a le
r u n s f r o m z e r o .)
b D r a w in t h e m is s in g b a r f o r e c o n o m ic s .

Maths Physics Chemistry English Economics

Examinations

c H o w m a n y e x a m in a t io n s w ill b e t a k e n a ll to g e th e r ?

6 L ia m c o u n t s t h e n u m b e r s o f d if f e r e n t c o lo u r s in a b a g o f s w e e ts .
H e fin d s 1 2 re d s w e e ts , 9 g r e e n s w e e ts , 4 y e llo w s w e e ts a n d 7 p u r p le s w e e t s .
D r a w a b a r c h a r t t o illu s tr a te t h e n u m b e r s o f s w e e ts o f e a c h c o lo u r .
 [ 11 Statistics I

7 A h o te l m a n a g e r le a v e s a q u e s t io n n a ir e in e a c h r o o m fo r v is ito rs to r a te t h e ir sta y .
F e e d b a c k fr o m th e q u e s t io n n a ir e s h o u ld g iv e th e h o te l m a n a g e r s v a lu a b le in s ig h t in to
h o w t h e y c a n im p r o v e th e ir c u s t o m e r s a tis fa c tio n .
T h e q u e s t io n n a ir e a s k s t h e v is ito rs to tic k b o x e s w h ic h b e s t d e s c r ib e t h e ir s a tis fa c tio n w it h
d if f e r e n t a s p e c ts o f t h e h o te l.

T h e b o x e s a r e n u m b e r e d 0: v e r y d is s a tis fie d
1: fa irly d is s a tis fie d
2: n e it h e r s a tis fie d n o r d is s a tis fie d
3: fa irly s a tis fie d
4: v e r y s a tis fie d
5: d o n 't k n o w .

A fte r a w e e k t h e q u e s tio n n a ir e s w e r e s tu d ie d .
T h e a n s w e r s to th e q u e s tio n : ‘H o w s a tis fie d w e r e y o u w it h t h e h o te l b r e a k fa s t? ’ a r e s h o w n
b e lo w .

5 4 1 0 1 1 0 4 4 3 2

5 2 5 2 3 4 1 0 0 1 2

2 3 3 4 3 2 5 1 0 3 3

4 0 1 3 3 4 2 2 3 3 4

a U s e t h e d a ta a b o v e to d r a w u p a f r e q u e n c y ta b le ,
b Illu s tr a t e t h e d a ta b y m e a n s o f a b a r c h a r t.

Key term
A scatter diagram 1 1 .8 Scatter Diagram s
o r scatter graph is a
m e th o d fo r sh o w in g th e A s c a tte r d ia g ra m s h o w s t h e r e la t io n s h ip , if a n y , b e tw e e n tw o v a r ia b le s . It is d r a w n o n a g rid ,
c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n w it h e a c h a x is r e p r e s e n tin g o n e o f t h e v a r ia b le s .
tw o sets o f d a ta . For
F o r e x a m p le , y o u c o u ld in v e s tig a te t h e p o s s ib le r e la t io n s h ip b e t w e e n m i n im u m t e m p e r a t u r e s
e x a m p le , s h o e sizes a n d
ag es o f ch ild ren . p e r m o n t h o v e r 1 2 m o n t h s in b y d n e y a n d in D e lh i, fo r o n e p a r tic u la r y e a r.

T h e d a ta , in d e g r e e s C e ls iu s , is s h o w n in T a b le 1 1 .8 .

M onth Jan Feb M ar Apr M ay Jun July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

S ydney 19 19 18 15 12 9 8 9 11 14 16 18

D e lh i 7 10 15 21 26 28 27 26 24 19 13 8

T a b le 1 1 .8 M inim u m te m p e ra tu re s

W e k n o w t h a t S y d n e y is in t h e s o u th e r n h e m is p h e r e a n d D e lh i is in t h e n o r th e r n h e m is p h e r e ,
so w e w o u ld e x p e c t t h a t w h e n t h e t e m p e r a t u r e is high in o n e c ity it w o u ld b e low in t h e o th e r .
T h is is c a lle d n e g a tiv e c o r r e la tio n . T o s e e if th is is t h e c a s e , a n d to in v e s tig a te h o w s tr o n g ly
11 Statistics I J

th e d a t a c o n f o r m s t o th is e x p e c t a t io n w e d r a w a s c a t t e r d ia g r a m in F ig u re 1 1 .5 . E a c h d o t o n
t h e d ia g r a m r e p r e s e n ts o n e m o n t h .

20

18
(O 16
D
W
<D
o 14

g 12
10
! .
2
8. 6
E
A

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Temperature in Delhi (°Celsius)

F ig u re 1 1 .5 M in im u m te m p e ra tu re s in D elhi and Sydney

Key term
■ -J H
F ig u re 1 1 .5 s h o w s t h a t th e r e is in d e e d a negative correlation, a n d it is a s tr o n g c o rr e la tio n b e c a u s e
s e e n if as o n e s e t o f d a ta t h e re s u lts c lu s te r c lo s e t o a lin e . F o r o u r p u r p o s e s w e c o u ld s a y t h a t t h e y a r e c lo s e t o a s tr a ig h t
in c reas es th e o th e r s e t lin e , a lth o u g h in th is c a s e it lo o k s a s t h o u g h it c o u ld p o s s ib ly b e a c u r v e a n d w o u ld n e e d f u r t h e r
d e c re a s e s . F o r e x a m p le ,
in v e s tig a tio n to e s ta b lis h w h e t h e r th is is so . W e a r e n o t c o n c e rn e d w ith t h a t a m o u n t o f d e ta il h e re .
th e m o re b u ild e rs you
e m p lo y to b u ild a h o u s e T h e d ia g r a m s in F ig u re 1 1 .6 s h o w t h e t y p e s o f s c a t t e r d ia g r a m s y o u m ig h t s e e , a n d h o w t h e
th e less tim e it s h o u ld c o r r e la t io n w o u ld b e d e s c r ib e d in e a c h c a s e .
ta k e .

• •

Strong positive correlation Weak positive correlation

• • • •
• •
Key■ terms
Correlation is a
Strong negative correlation Weak negative correlation
m e a s u re o f h o w s tro n g ly
tw o se ts o f d a ta a p p e a r
to b e c o n n e c te d .
Zero correlation • • •
m e a n s th a t th e re is no
c o rre la tio n b e tw e e n th e
• •
tw o sets o f d a ta .

No correlation

Figu re 1 1.6 C o r r e la t io n a n d lin e o f b e s t f i t

306
 I 11 Statistics!

S o m e tim e s you m ig h t be asked to d ra w a lin e o f best fit th ro u g h th e p o in ts. This is a s tra ig h t

line th ro u g h , o r close to, as m a n y o f th e p o in ts as possible, and w ith a p p ro x im a te ly th e sam e
n u m b e r on each side. This is alw ays an a p p ro x im a tio n so no tw o p e o p le w ill necessarily have
e xactly th e sam e answ ers. S o m e tim e s th e m ean, o r average, o f th e p o in ts w ill be fo u n d and
th e lin e d ra w n th ro u g h th a t p o in t.

Example 3

Two judges arejudging a diving competition independently. Their marks should be close
together, but because marking this sort of competition is not exact but depends to a certain
extent on each judge’s personal opinion, the marks will not necessarily be identical. The
marks are out of 10. The organisers of the competition want to make sure that the judges are
reasonably consistent.

The table shows the results.

Competitor number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Judge A 5 4 3 7 9 9 10 3 1 4

Judge B 6 4 5 6 8 9 9 2 2 4

a Draw a scatter diagram to show these results,

b Comment on the diagram.
c In your opinion should the organisers of the competition appoint these two judges next
time they hold a diving competition?

Answer 3
a

10

CQ 6
<D
O)
“O c
u 5
“D

eL

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Judge A

b The diagram shows a reasonably strong consistency between the two judges,
c The organisers could safely ask the judges back next time.
V__________________ ______________________
11 Statistics I J

Exercise 11.2
1 T h e t a b l e s h o w s t h e a v e r a g e m a x im u m a n d m i n im u m t e m p e r a t u r e s in d e g r e e s C e ls iu s fo r
Key term e a c h m o n t h in a c ity in t h e n o r t h e r n h e m is p h e r e .
Positive correlation A n ita a s s u m e s t h a t t h e r e w ill b e a p o s itiv e c o rre la tio n b e t w e e n t h e m a x im u m a n d
is seen if as one set of m in im u m t e m p e r a t u r e s .
data increases in value
the o t h ^ | i i l M ^ ^
Jan Feb M ar Apr M ay Jun July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
For example, as the
population of a city
Av M ax 21 22 29 37 39 37 34 33 34 33 28 23
increases more schools
are needed.
A v M in 7 9 15 22 26 28 27 26 25 19 13 8

D r a w a s c a t t e r d ia g r a m a n d c o m m e n t o n t h e r e s u lt.

2 A s p a r t o f h e r c h e m is t r y p r o je c t Z a id a is in v e s t ig a t in g t h e p r o p e r tie s o f t h e n o b le g a s e s .
S h e s u s p e c ts t h a t t h e r e is a n a s s o c ia t io n b e t w e e n t h e m e lt in g p o in t in K a n d t h e a to m ic
n u m b e r . (K is t e m p e r a t u r e m e a s u r e m e n t w it h r e s p e c t to a b s o lu t e z e r o , s o it is t h e n o r m a l
d e g r e e s C e ls iu s + 2 7 3 ° . It s a v e s h a v in g t o u s e la r g e n e g a tiv e n u m b e r s .)
S h e fin d s t h e f o llo w in g v a lu e s in a t a b l e o f t h e c h e m ic a l e le m e n t s , a n d u s e s t h e m t o p lo t a
s c a tte r g r a p h .

E lem en t A b b re v ia tio n Atom ic n u m b e r M e ltin g p o in t (K)

A rg o n Ar 18 8 3 .8

H e liu m He 2 0 .9 5

K r y p to n Kr 36 1 1 6 .6

Neon Ne 10 2 4 .5

R adon Rn 86 202

Xenon Xe 54 1 6 1 .3

a D r a w a s c a t t e r d ia g r a m s h o w in g th is d a ta ,
b C o m m e n t o n t h e r e s u lt.

3 J o e l is in te r e s te d in c o d e - b r e a k in g .
a H e d e c id e s t o s e e w h a t t h e r e la t io n s h ip is b e t w e e n t h e n u m b e r s o f v o w e ls a n d t h e
n u m b e r s o f c o n s o n a n t s in w o r d s o f d if f e r e n t le n g th s . H e w r it e s d o w n t h e n u m b e r o f
e a c h in t h e fir s t o n e - le t t e r w o r d , t h e n t h e fir s t t w o - le t t e r w o r d a n d t h e fir s t t h r e e - le t t e r
w o r d h e c o m e s to in a b o o k h e is r e a d in g . H e m a n a g e s to fin d w o r d s o f le n g th u p t o 14
le tte r s , a n d o n e o f 1 8 le tte r s .
H is r e s u lts a r e s h o w n in t h e t a b le .

W ord len g th 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

V ow els 1 1 1 1 2 2 4 3 3 5 4 4 7 6 8

C onsonants 0 1 2 3 3 4 3 5 6 5 7 8 6 8 10

i D r a w a s c a tt e r d ia g r a m t o s h o w t h e s e r e s u lts .
ii C o m m e n t o n t h e d ia g r a m .
b J o e l d e c id e s t h a t th is is n o t g o in g to h e lp v e r y m u c h .
H e th in k s th a t th e m o s t c o m m o n ly u s e d le tte rs in th e E nglish la n g u a g e c o u ld be a, e,d,r,s, t.
 I It Statistics!

J o e l m a k e s a ta lly c h a r t b y lo o k in g a t t h e n u m b e r o f t im e s th e s e le tte r s o c c u r in t h e
fir s t p a r a g r a p h o f h is b o o k .

F r o m t h e ta lly c h a r t h e d r a w s u p th e f o llo w in g f r e q u e n c y ta b le .

L e tte r a e d r s t
F re q u e n c y 35 59 10 30 36 36

D r a w a b a r c h a r t to s h o w th is d a ta ,
c H o w d o y o u t h in k h e c o u ld im p r o v e h is in v e s tig a tio n ?

4 P ie r r e a n d M ig n o n h a v e to b e in s c h o o l b y 0 9 0 0 .

T h e ir f a t h e r d r iv e s t h e m to s c h o o l b u t t h e ru s h h o u r tr a ffic c a u s e s d e la y s .

T h e y k e e p a n o t e o f t h e t im e t h e y le a v e t h e h o u s e e a c h d a y a n d t h e le n g th o f t im e it ta k e s
to g e t t o s c h o o l (to t h e n e a r e s t m in u t e ) fo r 1 2 d a y s .

T h e r e s u lts a r e s h o w n in t h e t a b le .

T im e o f day 0800 0712 0805 0815 0825 0845 0724 0746 0738 0700 0835 0750

T im e ta k e n 18 10 22 25 23 27 13 25 20 9 22 22

a D r a w a s c a t t e r d ia g r a m t o s h o w th e s e tim e s ,
b D r a w t h e lin e o f b e s t fit.
c U s e y o u r lin e o f b e s t fit t o e s t im a t e h o w lo n g t h e jo u r n e y w ill t a k e if t h e y le a v e h o m e a t
0730.
d E s t im a t e h o w m a n y m i n u t e s la t e w ill t h e y m ig h t b e if t h e y le a v e h o m e a t 0 8 4 0 .

Practical investigations
1 In v e s t ig a t e t h e p o s s ib le r e la t io n s h ip b e t w e e n p e o p le ’s h a n d s p a n a n d t h e le n g t h o f t h e ir
fe e t . T h e h a n d s p a n is t h e f u r t h e s t d is t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e o u t s t r e t c h e d t h u m b a n d lit t le
f in g e r t h a t a p e r s o n c a n s p r e a d t h e i r fin g e r s .
2 In v e s t ig a t e w h e t h e r p e o p le fin d it e a s ie r t o e s t im a t e le n g th s th a n a r e a s .
3 Investigate a po ssible relationship betw een the length of a p erso n ’s m iddle finger and
t h e i r m u s ic a l a b ility .
4 In v e s t ig a t e a p o s s ib le r e la t io n s h ip b e t w e e n a p e r s o n ’s a b ilit y in m a t h e m a t ic s a n d t h e ir
a b ilit y in m u s ic .

Key term
A frequency polygon
is formed when the
midpoints of the tops
of the bars of a simple
histogram are joined by
straight lines.
1 1 .9 Frequency Polygons
J o in in g t h e m id p o in t s o f t h e t o p s o f t h e b a rs o f a s im p le h is to g r a m p r o d u c e s a fre q u e n c y
polyg on.
T h e s te p s n e e d e d t o p r o d u c e a f r e q u e n c y p o ly g o n a r e s h o w n in t h e t w o d ia g r a m s in F ig u re 1 1 .7 .
S t e p 1: J o in t h e m id p o in t s o f t h e t o p s o f t h e b a rs w it h s tr a ig h t lin e s .
S te p 2: C o m p l e t e t h e p o ly g o n b y jo i n in g t h e m i d p o in t o f t h e fir s t b a r t o t h e h o r iz o n ta l a x is
a t t h e p o in t c o r r e s p o n d in g to t h e p o s itio n o f a p r e v io u s b a r w it h a f r e q u e n c y o f z e ro .
In t h e s a m e w a y , jo in t h e m i d p o in t o f t h e la s t b a r to t h e h o r iz o n ta l ax is a f ti~ 'o i n t
c o r r e s p o n d in g w it h t h e m i d p o in t o f t h e n e x t z e r o fr e q u e n c y b a r.

T h e s e c o n d d ia g r a m in F ig u re 1 1 .7 s h o w s t h e c o m p le t e d f r e q u e n c y p o ly g o n .
11 Statistics I J

Example 3
a A teacher gave his class a surprise spelling test one Friday. The results are shown in the
table below. The marks are percentages.
mark (m) 20 =£ m < 40 40 ^ m < 6 0 60 m < 80 80 =s m < 100
frequency 7 12 6 5
Draw a frequency polygon to illustrate these marks,
b The teacher warned his class that they would have to repeat the spelling test next Friday.
The results ofthe second test are shown in the next table.
mark (m) 20 =S m < 4 0 40 m < 60 60 m < 80 80 =s m < 100
frequency 0 10 14 6
On the same axes as you used in part (a) draw a frequency polygon to represent these
new results.
c Compare the results ofthe two spelling tests.
 I 11 Statistics I

Answer 3
a

mark (m ) 20 =£ m < 40 40 =s m < 60 60 m < 80 80 =S m < 100

frequency 7 12 6 5
class midpoint 30 50 70 90

mark (m) 20 =S m < 40 40 ss m < 60 60 =£ m < 80 80 =s w < 100

frequency 0 10 14 6
class midpoint 30 50 70 90

14
13
12
11
10
9 Y Key
-------- First test
8
7
6 ------- Second
5 test
4
3
Sc
2
1
0 20 40 60 80 100
Marks

c The students have improved. For the first test results, the class with the most students
is 40 « m < 60, while for the second test it is 60 m < 80. We can see immediately that
more students gained high marks when they were prepared for the test.
The spread of the second set of results is less than that of the first set.

Exercise 11.3
1 T h e t a b l e s h o w s t h e t im e s b e tw e e n b u s e s o n o n e p a r t ic u la r d a y o n a c e r ta in b u s ro u te .
T h e t im e s a r e in m in u te s , r o u n d e d t o t h e n e a r e s t m in u te .

C la s s 10 f < 15 1 5 =s f < 2 0 20 « f < 2 5 2 5 « f< 3 0 30 s f< 3 5

F re q u e n c y 5 7 8 10 2

a D r a w a s im p le h is to g r a m .
b O n y o u r s im p le h is to g r a m d r a w a fr e q u e n c y p o ly g o n ,
c Id e n tify t h e m o d a l c la s s (th e c la s s w it h t h e h ig h e s t fr e q u e n c y ).

2 T h e f o llo w in g s e t o f r a w d a ta s h o w s t h e h e ig h ts o f s e e d lin g s m e a s u r e d to t h e n e a r e s t
c e n t im e t r e o n a c e r ta in d a y .

4 3 7 5 4 8 6 5 5 3 4

2 3 8 7 5 9 10 6 11 6 7

3 4 5 9 8 2 3 10 5 7 6

a D r a w a g r o u p e d fr e q u e n c y t a b le w ith t h e d a ta g r o u p e d in to cla s s e s :
2 « / i < 4 , 4 s ft < 6, 6 /i < 8, 8 =s ft < 10,10 ft < 12
b D r a w a fr e q u e n c y p o ly g o n ,
c Id e n tify t h e m o d a l class .
11 Statistics l J

Key term 1 1 .1 0 Pie Charts

A pie chart is a circle
d iv id e d in to se cto rs to
re p re s e n t ca teg o rie s
w ith a n g le s a t th e
c e n tre p ro p o rtio n a l to
th e fre q u e n c y o f ea ch
c a te g o ry .
A p ie c h a r t is s o c a lle d b e c a u s e it lo o k s lik e a p ie d iv id e d in to s lic e s . W h o g e ts t h e b ig g e s t
s lic e ? It is u s e d to r e p r e s e n t h o w t h e w h o le o f a g r o u p is d iv id e d u p in to c a te g o r ie s . T h e size s
o f t h e ‘s lic e s ’ a r e p r o p o r t io n a l t o t h e n u m b e r s in e a c h c a te g o r y . T h e s iz e s a r e d e p e n d e n t o n
t h e a n g le a t t h e c e n tr e o f e a c h , so , fo r e x a m p le , if t h e t o t a l n u m b e r in t h e g r o u p is 3 6 a n d t h e
n u m b e r in o n e o f t h e c a te g o r ie s is 5 , t h e n t h e a n g le a t t h e c e n t r e o f t h e s lic e is a fr a c t io n
o f t h e c o m p le t e tu r n .

F o r e x a m p le , s u p p o s e y o u w a n t t o illu s tr a te t h e c o m p o s itio n o f a lo c a l o r c h e s tr a w h ic h h a s
t h e f o llo w in g m e m b e r s :

32 s tr in g p la y e rs

8 w o o d w in d p la y e rs

5 b ra s s p la y e rs

3 o th e r s (p e r c u s s io n is t, c o n d u c t o r a n d p ia n is t).

T h e firs t s te p is to m a k e a t a b le , lik e T a b le 1 1 .9 .

Players N u m ber C alculation Angle

S tr in g s 32

W o o d w in d 8

B ra s s 5

P e r c u s s io n is t, c o n d u c t o r a n d 3
p ia n is t

T o ta l 48 360°
^48
n r = 7 -5

T a b le 1 1 .9 O rchestra com position

The total num ber of players Is 48, which Is represented by the w hole u ic le (360").

T h is is a q u e s tio n o n p r o p o r t io n , s o fin d t h e m u l t ip lie r to g e t f r o m 4 8 t o 3 6 0 .

T h is is ^ = 7 .5 , s o 4 8 x 7 . 5 = 3 6 0 °. N o w w e c a n c a lc u la t e t h e a n g le s : 3 2 x 7 . 5 = 2 4 0 ° ,
and soon.

T h e t a b le b e c o m e s T a b le 1 1 .1 0 .

Players N u m ber C alculation Angle

S tr in g s 32 3 2 x 7 .5 = 240°

W o o d w in d 8 8 x 7 .5 = 60°

B ra s s 5 5 x 7 .5 = 3 7 .5 °

P e rc u s s io n is t, c o n d u c t o r 3 3 x 7 .5 = 2 2 .5 °
a n d p ia n is t

T o ta l 48 4 8 x 7 .5 = 360°

T a b le 1 1 .1 0 O r c h e s t r a l c o m p o s it io n

\
312
 ^ 11 Staiisticsl

The pie c h a rt can now be draw n (Figure 11.8).

F ig u re 1 1 .8 P ie c h a r t s h o w i n g c o m p o s it io n o f a n o r c h e s t r a

Points to remember when drawing a pie chart:

• B e as accurate as possible.
• M ark th e ce n tre as soon as yo u h a v e d raw n th e circle (it is easy to lose th e ce n tre w h e n yo g
r e m p y e y ^ u r- c o m p a ss p c r ir itl). • '
. It does not matter where you start, but the first thing to do is to draw in one radius and start
measuring angles from there. •
. Draw each slice as soon as you have measured it. (Do not try to measure all the angles at once

Example 4
The pie chart shows the proportion of pencils of various colours in Ethan’s pencil case.
Ethan has five red pencils.
Colours o f pencils in pencil case

Black
Green \
Yellow'
^\45°
1
75° W
Red " i2 0 ° /

Blue

The angles are shown in the diagram,

a Draw up a table to show the information given.
b Calculate the numbers of pencils of each colour and complete the table.
 Answer 4
a
Colour Angle Numbers of pencils

to
Green

o
O
Blue 120°
Red 75° 5
Yellow 30°
Black 45°
Total 360°
b
First we must find the multiplier or divisor to get from 75 to 5.

^ = 1 5 , so || = 5, and dividing by 15 will convert each angle to the number of pencils it

represents.
Colour Angle Calculation Numbers of pencils
Green 90° 90 + 15 6
Blue 120° 120 + 15 8
Red 75° 75 + 15 5
Yellow 30° 30 + 15 2
Black 45° 45 + 15 3
TOTAL 360° 360+15 24

V .

Exercise 11.4
1 T h e o w n e r s o f a v illa g e s t o r e n e e d t o d e c id e h o w m u c h f lo o r s p a c e t o d e v o t e to d if f e r e n t
c la s s e s o f g o o d s .

T h e s e a r e fre s h p r o d u c e , g r o c e r ie s , h o u s e h o ld p r o d u c t s , m a g a z in e s a n d s ta tio n e r y , a n d
fr o z e n g o o d s .

A s a n in itia l s t u d y t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e s h o p p in g b a s k e ts o f c u s t o m e r s a r e a n a ly s e d o v e r a
w e e k a n d t h e r e s u lts e n t e r e d in to a c o m p u t e r s p r e a d s h e e t .

T h e to t a l n u m b e r s o f ite m s in e a c h c a te g o r y a r e p r in te d o u t a n d t h e re s u lts a re s h o w n b e lo w .

Fresh G roceries Household M agazines Frozen goods Total

produce products and
s ta tio n e ry
351 183 66 315 165

a C o p y a n d c o m p le t e t h e t a b le ,
b D r a w a p ie c h a r t t o s h o w th is in f o r m a t io n .
c If t h e s to r e h a s 1 0 0 s q u a r e m e t r e s o f f lo o r s p a c e a v a ila b le , c a lc u la t e t h e a r e a w h ic h
s h o u ld b e d e d ic a t e d t o e a c h c a te g o r y , s h o w in g y o u r re s u lts in a t a b le . G iv e y o u r
a n s w e r s to 1 d e c im a l p la c e .

2 T h e e le c t r ic it y c o n s u m p t io n o n a fa r m is r e c o r d e d in u n its o f e n e r g y /d a y fo r fo u r
c o n s e c u tiv e q u a r te r s o f a y e a r .

T h e re s u lts , in t h e o r d e r t h e y w e r e r e c o r d e d , a r e : 23 11 21 65
 It Statistics!

a D r a w u p a t a b le t o s h o w t h e s e re s u lts a n d c a lc u la t e t h e a n g le s r e q u ir e d to s h o w t h e m
o n a p ie c h a r t. T h e p ie c h a r t w ill s h o w h o w t h e e le c t r ic it y c o n s u m p t io n fo r o n e y e a r is
u s e d in t h e d if f e r e n t s e a s o n s ,
b D r a w a n d la b e l t h e p ie c h a r t .

3 A n e w s a g e n t s to c k s t h e f o llo w in g g r o u p s o f ite m s :

N e w s p a p e rs 3 5 % o f t o t a l s to c k
M a g a z in e s 5 0 % o f t o t a l s to c k
Snacks 1 5 % o f t o t a l s to c k

a C o p y a n d c o m p le t e t h e t a b le .

P ercentage o f to ta l stock Angle on pie c h a rt

N e w s p a p e rs

M a g a z in e s

Snacks

T o ta l

b D r a w a n d la b e l a p ie c h a r t t o s h o w th is in f o r m a t io n .

4 a C o p y a n d c o m p le t e th is t a b l e s h o w in g t h e a n g le s o n a p ie c h a r t w h ic h is b e in g d r a w n
u p t o r e p r e s e n t t h e n u m b e r s o f s t u d e n t s t a k in g p s y c h o lo g y , s o c io lo g y , e c o n o m ic s a n d
h is to r y o u t o f a g r o u p o f s tu d e n ts .

N u m b e r o f s tu d e n ts A ngle on pie c h a rt
P s y c h o lo g y 14

S o c io lo g y 20

E c o n o m ic s "\ 110

H is t o r y 80

T o ta l 72

b Draw the pie chart

1 1 .1 1 M ean, M edian, M ode and Range

T h e m e a n , m e d ia n a n d m o d e a r e u s e d t o fin d t h e a v e r a g e o f a s e t o f d a t a . T h e y r e p r e s e n t t h e
c e n tra l te n d e n c y o f t h e d a ta . F o r e x a m p le , y o u m ig h t w a n t t o fin d t h e a v e r a g e o f y o u r s e t o f
Key terms e x a m in a t io n r e s u lts t o c o m p a r e w it h t h o s e o f y o u r f r i e n d ( o r riv a l!).
Central tendency is a
S u p p o s e th is is y o u r s e t o f r e s u lts (a ll in p e r c e n ta g e s ):
measure of the middle
or most representative 35 56 81 19 73 4 9 5 76 5 6 8 2 9 0 50
value of a set of data.
The middle is assessed T h e t h r e e a v e r a g e s w ill u s u a lly g iv e d if f e r e n t r e s u lts , a n d a r e u s e d in d if f e r e n t c ir c u m s ta n c e s .
by finding the mean, the
W e w ill s t a r t w it h t h e m ean.
median or the mode.
The mean is calculated T h e m e a n is c a lc u la t e d b y a d d in g u p e a c h v a lu e in t h e s e t o f d a t a ( e x a m in a t io n r e s u lts ), a n d
by adding all the values d iv id in g b y t h e n u m b e r o f v a lu e s .
together and dividing
S o to c a lc u la t e t h e m e a n o f y o u r r e s u lts c a lc u la t e
by the number of values
used. 3 5 + 5 6 + 81 + 1 9 + 7 3 + 4 9 + 5 + 7 6 + 5 6 + 8 2 + 9 0 + 5 0 = 6 7 2
= 56
12 12
T h e m e a n o f y o u r e x a m in a t io n r e s u lts is 5 6 % .
11 Statistics I J

N o w th e m ed ia n .
Key term
T h e m e d ia n is f o u n d b y p u t t in g t h e v a lu e s in o r d e r o f s ize , a n d t h e n f in d in g t h e m i d d le v a lu e .
The median is the
T h e m e d ia n s h o u ld d iv id e t h e o r d e r e d s e t o f d a t a in to t w o e q u a l g r o u p s .
middle value when all
the values are arranged If t h e r e is a n e v e n n u m b e r o f v a lu e s in t h e s e t, s a y 1 0 , th e n t h e m e a n o f t h e m id d le t w o v a lu e s
irt order of size. (5 th a n d 6 th v a lu e s ) is t h e m e d ia n . If t h e r e is a n o d d n u m b e r , s a y 5 9 , t a k e o n e o u t t o r e p r e s e n t
t h e m id d le v a lu e a n d d iv id e t h e r e m a in d e r (5 8 ) in t o t w o e q u a l g r o u p s (2 9 in e a c h ), th e n t h e
m e d ia n is t h e 3 0 th v a lu e .

R e a r r a n g in g t h e re s u lts :

5 19 3 5 4 9 50 5 6 5 6 73 76 81 8 2 90

T h e r e a r e 1 2 v a lu e s , s o t h e r e is n o p a r t ic u la r m i d d le v a lu e . T h e v a lu e s d iv id e e q u a ll y in to t w o
s e ts o f six. T h e m e d ia n in th is c a s e is f o u n d b y t a k i n g t h e s ix th a n d s e v e n th v a lu e s a n d f in d in g
t h e i r m e a n (o r t h e v a lu e h a l f w a y b e tw e e n t h e m ) .

Key term 5 19 3 5 4 9 5 0 5 6 ... 5 6 7 3 7 6 81 8 2 9 0

The mode is the most In th is c a s e t h e r e q u ir e d n u m b e r s a r e t h e s a m e (5 6 a n d 5 6 ), s o t h e i r m e a n is 5 6 .

frequent value.
T h e m e d ia n v a lu e is 5 6 % .

L a s tly t h e m od e.

T h e m o d e is t h e v a lu e w h ic h a p p e a r s t h e m o s t fr e q u e n tly . It is e a s ie s t t o s e e in t h e o r d e r e d
v a lu e s u s e d fo r t h e m e d ia n . O n c e a g a in it is 5 6 .

T h e m o d e is 5 6 % .

It w a s o n ly b y c h a n c e t h a t t h e s e e x a m in a t io n r e s u lts h a d t h e s a m e m e a n , m e d ia n a n d
m ode.

W e w ill n o w lo o k a t y o u r f r ie n d ’s re s u lts :

37 45 32 76 65 48 79 24 79 35 76 85

It w o u ld b e d if fic u lt t o c o m p a r e t h e m w it h v o u r s w it h o u t f in d in g a n a v e r a g e .

Ti 37 + 45 + 32 + 76 + 65 + 48 + 79 + 24 + 79 + 35 + 76 + 85
T h e m e a n = ---------------------------------------------------^ ---------------------------------------------------

= ^ = 5 6 .7 5 %

T h e m e d ia n :

24 32 35 37 4 5 4 8 65 76 76 79 79 85

A g a in th e r e a r e 1 2 v a lu e s s o w e n e e d t o fin d t h e m e a n o f th e s ix th a n d s e v e n th v a lu e s .

24 32 35 37 45 48 ... 6 5 76 76 79 79 85

4 8 ± 6 5 = 1 I 3 = 5 6 .5 o/o

Key term This tim e th e re are tw o m od e s (76 and 79)! This is n o t unusual.
The range is the There is o ne m o re useful s ta tis tic w h ic h can be q u o te d , and th a t is th e range.
difference between The range gives an idea o f th e s p re a d o fth e values, and is s im p ly th e d iffe re n ce b e tw e e n the
the highest and lowest largest and th e s m a lle st values.
values. It is a measure of
The range o f y o u r m arks is 9 0 - 5 = 85.
the spread of the data.
The range o f y o u r frie n d ’s m arks is 85 - 37 = 48.
Let us lo o k again at y o u r m arks. There is o ne very lo w m ark o f o n ly 5% . Perhaps you w e re
fe e lin g ra th e r ill w hen you to o k th a t e x a m in a tio n , o r perhap s you really d o n o t like th a t
p a rtic u la r s u b je c t. H ow w o u ld it change y o u r averages if w e le ft it out?

R
 ^ 11 Statistics!

F ir s t t h e m e a n = 35 + 5 6 1 .3 1± I ? t .? i + 4 9 + 76 + 56 + 82 + 90 + 50

= ^pp = 6 0 .6 %

T h is is lo o k in g m u c h b e tte r !

T h e m e d ia n :

19 3 5 4 9 5 0 5 6 5 6 7 3 7 6 8 1 8 2 9 0

N o w t h a t th e r e a r e 1 1 v a lu e s w e c a n p ic k o u t a m id d le v a lu e a n d d iv id e t h e r e m a in in g 1 0 in to
t w o g r o u p s o f 5 , m a k in g t h e m e d ia n t h e 6 th v a lu e :

19 35 4 9 5 0 5 6 ... 5 6 ... 73 76 81 8 2 90

T h e m e d ia n is a g a in 5 6 % , so t h a t h a s m a d e n o d iffe re n c e .

A ls o t h e m o d e is s till 5 6 % , s o n o d iffe r e n c e t h e r e e ith e r .

Y o u r n e w a v e ra g e s :

M ean 6 0 .6 %
M e d ia n 56%
M ode 56%

Y o u r n e w r a n g e is 9 0 - 1 9 = 7 1 .

T h is s h o w s t h a t tjjie m e a n c a n b e s o a ffe c te d b y u n u s u a l o r e x t r e m e v a lu e s (a t e it h e r e n d o f
t h e s e t o f v a lu e s ) t h a t it is n o t a lw a y s t h e b e s t a v e r a g e to u s e . T h e m e d ia n a n d t h e m o d e a r e
n o t so a f fe c te d , s o m e t im e s n o t a t a ll a s y o u c a n s e e .

A n o t h e r s t u d e n t h a s t h e f o llo w in g s e t o f re s u lts :

23 45 78 56 23 79 34 98 80 8 2 57 89

T h e m e a n is 6 2 % .

T h e m e d ia n :

23 23 34 4 5 5 6 57 ... 78 79 80 82 8 9 98

^ - ± ^ = 6 7 .5 %

B u t t h e m o d e is 2 3 % ! P e r h a p s th is s t u d e n t h a d t w o b a d d a y s !

T h e m o d e is c le a r ly n o t a s u it a b le a v e r a g e in th is c a s e , a s it s a y s n o t h in g a b o u t t h e o v e r a ll
a b ilit y o f t h e s t u d e n t.

N o w c o n s id e r t h e fo llo w in g .

A s h o p k e e p e r k e e p s a re c o r d o f t h e s iz e s o f s h o e s s o ld in o n e d a y . T h e y w e r e :

5 6 3 8 5 4 5 5 5 8 4 5 5 6 5 4 5 7 8 5 5

W h ic h is t h e m o s t p o p u la r size?

T h e m o d e is c le a r ly 5 , a n d th is w o u ld b e t h e s iz e t h a t th is s h o p k e e p e r w o u ld n e e d to k e e p
in s to c k in la r g e r n u m b e r s t h a n t h e o t h e r size s. In th is c a s e t h e m o d e is t h e m o s t s u ita b le
a v e r a g e to c o n s id e r .

To summarise:
• The mean is found by adding up atl the values and dividing by the number of values.
• The m edian is fou|| by arranging the v a ip s in size order and finding th e p id ife value if
t t e r e a r e it ilp l numbem l l l j es.Mfthe mean I W P lMKmiddle values if there are an even
numberBf values.
Y o u s h o u ld a p p r e c ia t e b y n o w t h a t t h e p o p u la r p h r a s e ‘o n a v e r a g e ’ is im p r e c is e , a n d m a y b e
m is le a d in g .

Find:
a the mean b the median
c the mode d the range

of the following data:

00

7 1 9 6 2 1 4 5 1 6

9 4 6 2 7 6

Answer 1 1 .5
a The m ean = = 4.94

1 1 1 2 2 4 4 5 6 6 e

6 7 7 8 9 9

There are 17 values so the values divide into 2 groups of 8 values with one value in the
middle, like this:
first group of 8 1 last group of 8
The median is the 9th value, which is 6.
Median = 6
c Mode = 6
d Range = 9 - 1 = 8
V ____________________________________________________________________

S o m e tim e s it is necessary to c o m b in e m ean values. To d o this w e have to c a lc u la te th e

o riginal totals and then recalculate th e new mean, as in the fo llo w in g exam ple.
 I 11 Statistics I

Example 6
The mean of a list of four numbers is 20. Six more numbers, with a mean of 32, are added to
the list. What is the new mean?

Answer 6
Sum of numbers in the list of 4 = 4 x 20 = 80. Sum of extra 6 numbers = 6 x 32 = 192
8 0 + 192 27 2
Mean of new list = = 2 7 .2
4+6 10

Exercise 11.5
1 F in d :
i th e m e a n ii t h e m e d ia n iii th e m o d e iv th e r a n g e fo r e a c h o f t h e s e s e ts
o f d a ta .

a 5 6 9 4 10 3 1 9

b 1 1 1 2 3 3 5

7 7 7 7 8 8 9

C 2 .5 2 .6 2 .6 3 .1 4 .2 4 .8 5 .1 5 .3 5 .6

T h e m e a n h e ig h t o f a g r o u p o f fiv e s t u d e n ts is 1 6 0 c m .
a W h a t is t h e ir t o ta l h e ig h t?
T w o n e w s tu d e n t s jo in t h e m . T h e ir m e a n h e ig h t is 1 5 6 c m .
b W h a t is t h e n e w m e a n h e ig h t o f t h e g ro u p ?

T h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f s tu d e n t s in a s c h o o l is 8 5 6 .
a T h e r e a r e 3 0 c la s s r o o m s a v a ila b le . C a lc u la te t h e m e a n n u m b e r o f s tu d e n t s p e r
c la s s r o o m , g iv in g y o u r a n s w e r to 3 s ig n ific a n t fig u re s .
b It h a s b e e n d e c id e d t h a t 2 5 s h o u ld b e t h e m a x im u m n u m b e r o f s tu d e n ts p e r
c la s s r o o m . C a lc u la te h o w m a n y n e w c la s s r o o m s s h o u ld b e b u ilt.
c W h a t is t h e n e w m e a n n u m b e r o f s tu d e n t s p e r c la s s r o o m ?

Thp mpan ruim hpr of potatoes in each of 25 bags of potatoes is GO.

a F lo w m a n y p o ta t o e s a r e t h e r e a lto g e th e r ?
b T h e p o t a to e s a r e g o in g t o b e p u t in to s m a lle r b a g s , a n d t h e n e w m e a n is 1 5 . C a lc u la te
th e n u m b e r o f bags used.

1 1 .1 2 The M ean, M edian and Mode

from a Frequency Table
Flow can the se averages be c a lc u la te d fro m data w h ic h is a lready draw n up in to a fre q u e n cy
table?
We w ill s ta rt by e x a m in in g th e fo llo w in g set o f data.
2 7 5 3 9 1 7 2 5 5 3 4
7 1 9 1 5 8 2 6 3 8 6 1
2 4 6 8 2 0 1 7 8 7 7 0

To c a lc u la te th e mean w e need to add up all th e num b e rs and d iv id e by 36:

2 + 7 + 5 + 3 + 9 + 1 + 7 + 2 + 5 + 5 + ...
36

This is g o in g to take som e tim e and p ro b a b ly be prone to errors.

11 Statistics I J

It w o u ld b e q u ic k e r t o lo o k a lo n g t h e r o w s o f d a t a a n d fin d t h e n u m b e r s o f e a c h ite m ; fo r
e x a m p le , t h e r e a r e 5 o n e s , 5 t w o s , 3 t h r e e s a n d s o o n .

5x1+5x2+3x3+2x4+4x5+3x6+6x7+4x8+2x9
36
5 + 10 + 9 + 8 + 20 + 18 + 42 + 32 + 18
36
162
36
= 4.5

B u t t h e fr e q u e n c y t a b l e s e ts it u p f o r us, a n d a ll w e h a v e to d o is a d d a n o t h e r c o lu m n w h e r e t h e
n u m b e r c a n b e m u lt ip lie d b y t h e n u m b e r o f t im e s it a p p e a r s (th e fr e q u e n c y ); s e e T a b le 1 1 .1 1 .

N um ber Frequency N u m b e r x Frequency

0 2 0

1 5 5

2 5 10

3 3 9

4 2 8

5 4 20

6 3 18

7 6 42

8 4 32

9 2 18

T o t a ls 36 162

T a b le 1 1 .1 1 E xtended fre q u e n c y ta b le

N o w a ll t h a t h a s t o b e d o n e is t o d iv id e t h e s u m o f a ll t h e v a lu e s b y t h e t o t a l fr e q u e n c y :

m ean = ^ p = 4.5
.3 0

The m e d ia n is a ls o e a s y f r o m t h e f r e q u e n c y t a b l e , b e c a u s e t h e t a b le h a s a u t o m a t i c a l ly
o r d e r e d t h e d a t a f o r us.

T h e r e a r e 3 6 it e m s o f d a t a , w h ic h w ill d iv id e in to t w o g r o u p s w it h o u t a m i d d le v a lu e :

fir s t g r o u p h a s 1 8 i t e m s ..........s e c o n d g r o u p h a s 1 8 ite m s

T h e m e d ia n is t h e m e a n o f t h e 1 8 th a n d 1 9 t h ite m s .

U s in g t h e f r e q u e n c y c o lu m n w e c a n c o u n t d o w n t o t h e 1 8 th a n d i 9 t h e n tr ie s , b y m a k in g a

Remember that the r u n n in g t o t a l.

mode is the item from
T h e r e a r e tw o z e r o e s , 5 o n e s , 5 t w o s , 3 t h r e e s , a n d 2 fo u r s , w h ic h a c c o u n t s fo r t h e fir s t 1 7
the data set which has
ite m s ( 2 + 5 + 5 + 3 + 2 = 1 7 ), s o t h e fir s t 1 7 d a t a it e m s a r e m a d e u p o f t h e n u m b e r s 0 t o 4.
the highest frequency,
and it is not the T h e 1 8 th a n d 1 9 th ite m s a r e b o t h 5 , s o t h e m e d ia n is 5.
frequency itself. The
highest frequency is 6, The m o d e is s im p ly t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t , t h a t is t h e n u m b e r w it h t h e h ig h e s t fr e q u e n c y .
but this corresponds
L o o k in g d o w n t h e f r e q u e n c y c o lu m n w e s e e t h a t t h e h ig h e s t fr e q u e n c y is 6, a n d it
with the data item which
c o r r e s p o n d s to t h e d a t a it e m 7 ( t h e r e a r e 6 s e v e n s ).
is 7, so the mode is 7.
T h e m o d e is 7.

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 ^ tl Statistics I

M ean, M edian and M ode from a Grouped

Frequency Distribution
So far w e have lo o k e d at th e m ean, m e d ia n and m o d e in an u n g ro u p e d fre q u e n cy table. O nce
th e da ta has been g ro u p e d in to classes w e lose th e in d iv id u a l da ta ite m s and c a n n o t fin d th e
averages so easily. We w ill lo o k a t w ays in w h ic h w e can e s tim a te th e m ean and th e m e d ia n
from g ro u p e d fre q u e n cy d is trib u tio n s in C h a p te r 23.
Key term
The m odal class is the As w e have seen in E xam ple 3 e a rlie r in th is c h a p te r w e can id e n tify th e m o d a l class as be in g
class with the highest th e class w ith th e h ig h e st fre q u e n cy, a lth o u g h w e c a n n o t fin d th e a c tu a l m ode. In a gro u p e d
frequency in a grouped fre q u e n c y ta b le , a s im p le h is to g ra m o r a fre q u e n c y p o ly g o n it is s im p le to id e n tify the m o d a l
frequency distribution. class. We w ill use a d iffe re n t te c h n iq u e in C h a p te r 23 w h e n the d a ta ite m s are gro u p e d in to
classes o f u n e q u a l w id th s .

Exercise 11.6
C opy each o f th e se fre q u e n c y ta b le s, and use th e m to:

a c a lc u la te th e m ean
b w o rk o u t th e m e d ia n
c fin d th e m o d e

fo r each d a ta set.

D a ta v a lu e F re q u e n c y
100 7

110 10

120 15

130 2

140 6

150 3
160 7

2 D a ta v a lu e 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

F req u e n c y 51 70 69 32 15 43 15

3 D a ta v a lu e F re q u e n c y
1 2 .4 3

1 2 .5 5

1 2 .6 2

1 2 .7 1

1 2 .8 0

1 2 .9 5

1 3 .0 0

1 3 .1 2

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1 1 .1 3 Statistics in the M edia

S ta tis tic s s h o u ld b e t r e a t e d w it h c a u t io n , a n d y o u s h o u ld tr y t o t h in k b e h in d t h o s e s ta tis tic s
t h a t a r e p u b lis h e d in t h e n e w s p a p e r s a n d o t h e r m e d ia , a n d w h ic h c a n c a u s e a la r m o r p a n ic
in t h e g e n e r a l p o p u la t io n . T h e f o llo w in g h e a d lin e s a r e im a g in a r y , b u t y o u m a y h a v e re a d
s im ila r e x a m p le s .

People with a BMI of greater than 3 0 are

officially obese!
W h a t d o e s t h is m e a n ?

B M I s ta n d s f o r B o d y M a s s In d e x a n d is c a lc u la t e d b y d iv id in g y o u r m a s s in k ilo g r a m s b y t h e
s q u a r e o f y o u r h e ig h t in m e tr e s .

T h is a c t u a lly m a k e s s o m e r u g b y p la y e r s o r o t h e r a t h le t e s o b e s e !

Exam inations are getting easier! The num ber

of students getting A grades is the highest for
3 years!
W h a t c o u ld b e t h e p o s s ib le re a s o n s f o r th is re s u lt?

1 E x a m in a tio n s a r e g e tt in g e a s ie r.
2 T e a c h in g is im p r o v in g .
3 S tu d e n t s a r e w o r k in g h a rd e r .
4 D is c ip lin e in s c h o o ls is im p r o v in g .
5 H o m e w o r k is b e in g c h e c k e d m o r e rig o ro u s ly .
6 T h e r e s u lts a r e w it h in t h e n o r m a l s ta tis t ic a l v a r ia t io n .

C a n y o u t h in k o f a n y o t h e r p o s s ib le re a s o n s ?

Num bers of unemployed have fallen under the

Hot Air Party!
(T h is w o u ld b e ju s t b e fo r e t h e n e x t e le c t io n is d u e .)

1 H o w d o t h e s e fig u r e s g e t c o u n te d ?
2 H a s t h e s c h o o l le a v in g a g e b e e n r a is e d s o t h a t f e w e r y o u n g p e o p le a r e lo o k in g fo r jo b s ?
3 H a s t h e g o v e r n m e n t m a d e m o r e u n iv e r s ity p la c e s a v a ila b le ?
4 H a v e s o m e o th e r g r o u p o f p e o p le b e e n e x c lu d e d fr o m th e s e fig u re s , fo r e x a m p le , th e o v e r 60s?

C a n y o u t h in k o f a n y o t h e r re a s o n s ?

L o o k a t t h e t w o p ie c h a r ts in F ig u re 1 1 .9 , b o t h s h o w in g t h e s a m e in f o r m a t io n . W h a t d o y o u
t h in k a b o u t t h e w a y t h e s e c o n d o n e is p r e s e n te d ?

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322
 ^ 11 Statistics!

Figure 11.9 Pie graph presentation

W h a t a b o u t t h e t w o lin e g r a p h s in F ig u re 1 1 .1 0 ?

Figure 11.10 Line graph presentation

And th e tw o ba r ch arts in Figure 11.11.

12
9.0 11
10
9
(D
w 8
<0
<B 7
6
<OD 5
•c
Cl 4
<V0)
3 3
0
1 2
8.0 1
A B A B
Towns Towns

Figure 11.11 Bar chart presentation

A ll th is s h o w s t h a t o n e n e e d s to b e a b it s c e p tic a l, p a r tic u la r ly w h e n t h e s ta tis tic s s e e m to

p r o v e s o m e t h in g s e n s a t io n a l. H o w e v e r , w e s till n e e d to u s e s ta tis tic s in e v e r y w a lk o f life , s o it
is a n e s s e n tia l s u b je c t a n d a p o w e r fu l to o l if u s e d c o rre c tly .
11 Statistics I J

Exercise 11.7
M ixed exercise
1 T h e n u m b e r s o f d a y s e a c h o f a g r o u p o f p e o p le w e r e a b s e n t fr o m w o r k d u e to s ic k n e s s in
o n e y e a r a r e s h o w n b e lo w .

6 8 21 3 24 4 10 11 8 3 15

12 18 0 2 25 3 10 14 8 9 4

7 0 1 11 5 8 9 15 2 13 5

a F in d t h e m o d e a n d r a n g e o f th e s e v a lu e s ,
b C o p y a n d c o m p le t e t h e g r o u p e d f r e q u e n c y t a b l e s h o w n b e lo w .

Days absent Frequency

0 to 4 10

5 to 9

10 to 14

15 to 19

2 0 to 2 4

2 5 to 3 0

T o ta l f r e q u e n c y

c D r a w a b a r c h a r t f o r t h e d a t a u s in g t h e c la s s e s a b o v e .

2 A s u r v e y w a s m a d e o f 1 0 0 s tu d e n ts fr o m a s c h o o l, a n d a m o n g t h e to p ic s o n th e s u r v e y
w e r e s o m e q u e s tio n s a b o u t p e ts . T h e s tu d e n ts w e r e a s k e d h o w m a n y p e ts th e y e a c h
ow ned.
T h e m e a n n u m b e r o f p e ts p e r s t u d e n t w a s 0 .8 .
In t h e w h o le s c h o o l t h e r e w e r e a t o t a l o f 1 0 5 0 s tu d e n ts ,
a W h a t is t h e lik e ly n u m b e r o f p e ts o w n e d b y a ll t h e s t u d e n t s in t h e s c h o o l?
T h e m e d ia n n u m b e r o f p e ts in t h e s u r v e y w a s 2 , a n d t h e m o d e w a s 1.
b Do these averages give any inform ation about the pets in the w hole school?
3 Y o u a r e g iv e n t h e f o llo w in g in f o r m a t io n a b o u t a s e t o f d a ta .
T h e r e a r e 5 ite m s in t h e s e t. T h e y a re : 2 a b c c,
a r r a n g e d in o r d e r o f in c r e a s in g s ize .
The m ean = 5
The m ode = 7
T h e m e d ia n = 6
T h e ra n g e = 5
U s e t h e in f o r m a t io n g iv e n t o w o r k o u t t h e v a lu e s o f a, b a n d c.

4 T h e t im e (to t h e n e a r e s t m in u t e ) s o m e s tu d e n ts t o o k to c o m p le t e a te s t w a s r e c o r d e d , a n d
t h e r e s u lts a r e s h o w n in t h e t a b l e b e lo w .

Tim e to th e nearest N u m b e r o f students

m in u te
1 -1 0 2
1 1 -2 0 10

2 1 -3 0 6

3 1 -4 0 2

T o ta l

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 ^ 11 Statistics!

U sing class b o u n d a rie s (0.5 to less than 10.5, and so on), d ra w a s im p le h is to g ra m to show
these results.

' c a lc u la te th e m ean and m e d ia n from the fre q u e n cy ta b le you d re w up in Exercise 11.1,

q u e s tio n 1. W hat can you say a b o u t the m ode?

6 5 4 7 8 3 1 7 4 4 6

C a lcula te th e m ean and fin d th e m e dian and m o d e o f th e d a ta given above.

7 C alculate th e m ean n u m b e r o f passengers per car in S urvey 3 in S e ction 11.5.

8 The ta b le show s th e d istance tra v e lle d per litre o f fuel fo r th e G ofaster car a t d iffe re n t
speeds. We w ill call th is th e ‘fuel e c o n o m y ’.

S p ee d (k ilo m e tre s p e r h o u r) F u el e c o n o m y (k ilo m e tre s p e r litr e )

80 12

96 11

112 10

128 9

135 8

144 7

160 6

a D r a w a s c a tt e r d ia g r a m to s h o w th is in fo r m a t io n ,
b C a lc u la te
i th e m e a n s p eed ii t h e m e a n fu e l e c o n o m y ,
c P lo t t h e p o in t s h o w in g t h e m e a n s p e e d a n d m e a n fu e l e c o n o m y o n y o u r s c a t t e r
d ia g r a m , a n d d r a w a tin e o f b e s t fit th r o u g h th is p o in t,
d C o m m e n t o n t h e c o r r e la tio n s h o w n b e tw e e n fu e l e c o n o m y a n d s p e e d ,
e U s e y o u r lin e o f b e s t fit t o e s t im a t e t h e fu e l e c o n o m y w h e n t h e c a r is t r a v e llin g a t
1 1 5 k ilo m e t r e s p e r h o u r.
f Estimate the possible speed whon tho fuel econom y is 7.5 kilom etres per litre.

Exam-style questions I NO CALCULATOR IN T H IS EXERCISE

9 A h m e d s e le c te d a s a m p le o f 1 0 s tu d e n ts fr o m h is s c h o o l a n d m e a s u r e d t h e i r h a n d s p a n s
a n d h e ig h ts . T h e re s u lts a r e s h o w n in t h e t a b le b e lo w .

H and span (cm ) 15 1 8 .5 2 2 .5 26 19 23 1 7 .5 25 2 0 .5 22

H e ig h t (cm ) 154 156 164 178 162 170 154 168 168 160

H e c a lc u la t e d t h e m e a n h a n d s p a n to b e 2 0 .9 c m a n d t h e r a n g e o f h a n d s p a n s t o b e 1 1 c m .
a C a lc u la te :
i t h e m e a n h e ig h t
ii t h e r a n g e o f h e ig h ts .
11 Statistics I J

b In o r d e r to c o m p a r e t h e t w o m e a s u r e s , h e u s e d a s c a t t e r d ia g r a m .
T h e firs t th r e e p o in ts a r e p lo t t e d o n t h e g rid .
180
178
176
174
172
_ 170
I 168
r 166
■§,164
162
1 160
158
156
154
152
150
14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Hand span (cm)

i C o p y a n d c o m p le t e t h e s c a t t e r d ia g r a m b y p lo t t i n g t h e r e m a in in g s e v e n p o in ts .
ii D r a w t h e lin e o f b e s t f it o n t h e g rid .
iii U s e t h e lin e o f b e s t f it t o e s t im a t e t h e h e ig h t o f a s t u d e n t w it h h a n d s p a n 2 1 c m .
iv W h ic h o f t h e f o llo w in g w o r d s d e s c r ib e s t h e c o r r e la tio n ?
P o s itiv e N e g a tiv e Z e ro
v W h a t d o e s t h is in d ic a t e a b o u t t h e r e la t io n s h ip b e tw e e n h a n d s p a n a n d h e ig h t?
(0 5 8 0 p a p e r 0 3 Q 6 J u n e 2 0 0 6 )

1 0 W h ic h w o r d d e s c r ib e s t h e c o r r e la tio n in t h e s c a t t e r g r a p h b e lo w ?
D o s itiv e n e g a t iv e none

.......................................................................................................... (0 5 8 0 p a p e r 0 1 Q 3 N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 6 )
11 D a n ie l p lo ts a s c a t t e r d ia g r a m o f s p e e d a g a in s t t im e t a k e n .
A s t h e t im e in c r e a s e s , s p e e d d e c r e a s e s .
W h ic h o n e o f t h e f o llo w in g ty p e s o f c o r r e la t io n w ill h is s c a tte r g r a p h s h o w ?
P o s itiv e N e g a tiv e Z e ro (0 5 8 0 p a p e r 0 1 Q 5 J u n e 2 0 0 7 )

12 A c o u n tr y h a s t h r e e p o litic a l p a rtie s , t h e R e d s , t h e B lu e s a n d t h e G r e e n s .
T h e p ie c h a r t s h o w s t h e p r o p o r t io n o f t h e t o t a l v o te t h a t e a c h p a r t y r e c e iv e d in a n
e le c tio n .

a F in d th e v a lu e o f x
NOTTO b W h a t p e r c e n ta g e o f t h e v o te s d id th e R e d p a rty
SCALE re c e iv e ? (0580 p a p e r 01 Q4 N o ve m b e r 2003)

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13 In a s c h o o l, th e n u m b e r o f s tu d e n ts ta k in g p a rt in v a rio u s s p o rts is s h o w n in th e t a b le b e lo w .

S p o rt N u m b e r o f s tu d e n ts
B a s k e tb a ll 40

Soccer 55

T e n n is 35

V o lle y b a ll 70

D r a w a b a r c h a r t b e lo w to s h o w th is d a ta .
S h o w y o u r s c a le o n th e v e rtic a l axis a n d la b e l th e bars. (0 5 8 0 p a p e r 0 1 Q 1 7 J u n e 2 0 0 4 )

14 G r a d e s w e r e a w a r d e d fo r a n e x a m in a t io n .
T h e t a b le b e lo w s h o w s t h e n u m b e r o f s tu d e n t s in t h e w h o le s c h o o l g e ttin g e a c h g r a d e .

G rad e N u m b e r o f s tu d e n ts A n g le on a p ie c h a rt
A 5

B 15

C 40

D 20

E 10

T o ta ls 90

a C o m p le t e t h e t a b le a b o v e b y c a lc u la t in g t h e a n g le s r e q u ir e d to d r a w a p ie c h a r t,
b D r a w a n a c c u r a te p ie c h a r t t o s h o w t h e d a ta in t h e ta b le .
L a b e l t h e s e c to rs A , B, C , D a n d E. (0 5 8 0 p a p e r 0 3 Q l b J u n e 2 0 0 4 )

15 T h e t a b l e g iv e s t h e a v e r a g e s u rfa c e t e m p e r a t u r e (°C) o n t h e f o llo w in g p la n e ts .

P la n e t E a rth M e rc u ry N e p tu n e P lu to S a tu rn U ra n u s
A v e ra g e 15 350 -2 2 0 -2 4 0 -1 8 0 -2 0 0
te m p e ra tu re

a C a lc u la te t h e r a n g e o f th e s e t e m p e r a t u r e s .
b W hirh planet has a tem perature 20 °C low er than that of Uranus?
(0 5 8 0 p a p e r 0 2 Q 3 J u n e 2 0 0 6 )

16 1 5 s t u d e n ts e s t im a t e d t h e a r e a o f t h e r e c ta n g le s h o w n b e lo w :

T h e ir e s t im a t e s , in s q u a r e c e n t im e t r e s , w e re :

45 44 50 50 48

24 50 46 43 50

48 20 45 49 47

a W o rk o u t:
i th e m o d e ii th e m e a n iii t h e m e d ia n ,
b E x p la in w h y t h e m e a n is n o t a s u ita b le a v e r a g e to r e p r e s e n t th is d a ta .
(0 5 8 0 p a p e r 0 1 Q 2 0 J u n e 2 0 0 7 )

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17 Y o u s e f a s k e d 2 4 s t u d e n ts t o c h o o s e t h e i r f a v o u r it e s p o r t.
H e r e c o r d e d t h e in f o r m a t io n in t h e t a b l e b e lo w s o t h a t h e c o u ld d r a w a p ie c h a r t,
a C o m p l e t e t h e t a b le .

S port V o lley b a ll Fo o tb all Hockey C ricket

N u m b e r o f s t u d e n ts 6 9 7 2

A n g le o n p ie c h a r t 90° 135°

b C o m p l e t e t h e p ie c h a r t a c c u r a t e ly t o s h o w th is d a ta .

c W h ic h is t h e m o d a l s p o rt? (0 5 8 0 p a p e r 0 1 Q 1 6 J u n e 2 0 0 6 )

18 T h e t a b l e s u m m a r is e s t h e t im e s , in m in u te s , t a k e n b y a g r o u p o f p e o p le t o c o m p le t e a
Duzzle.
Tim e (t m inutes)
CO

8 < f « 12
«4«a
V/

1 6 < ( =s 2 0
V

0 < (= s 4 1 2 < f =s 1 6

Frequency 4 8 7 4 2

a O n a c o p y o f t h e g r id , d r a w a f r e q u e n c y p o ly g o n t o r e p r e s e n t th is in f o r m a t io n .

Frequency

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (t minutes)
b W r ite d o w n t h e m o d a l c la s s .
c H o w m a n y p e o p le t o o k m o r e t h a n 8 m in u te s to c o m p le t e t h e p u z z le ?

\
328
 [ it Statistics!

d Im ran says:
T h e lo ng est tim e to c o m p le te th e puzzle w as 20 m in u te s .’
Explain w h y he m ay n o t be correct. (4024 paper 12 Q23 J u n e 2012)

19 A d e n tis t recorded the n u m b e r o f fillin g s th a t each o f a g ro u p o f 30 ch ild re n had in th e ir

teeth. The results were:

2 4 0 5 1 1 3 2 6 0
2 2 3 2 1 4 3 0 1 6
1 4 1 6 5 1 0 3 4 2

a C opy and c o m p le te th is fre q u e n cy table.

N u m ber o f fillings Frequency

0

b W h a t is t h e m o d a l n u m b e r o f fillin g s ?
c F in d t h e m e d ia n n u m b e r o f fillin g s ,
d W o r k o u t t h e m e a n n u m b e r o f fillin g s .
e T h e s e 3 0 c h ild re n h a d b e e n c h o s e n fro m a la rg e r g ro u p o f 3 0 0 c h ild re n . E s tim a te h o w m a n y
in t h e la rg e r g r o u p h a v e n o fillin g s in th e ir te e th . (0 5 8 0 p a p e r 0 3 Q 4 (p a r t ) N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 3 )

20 M a r ie c o u n ts t h e n u m b e r o f p e o p le in e a c h o f 6 0 c a rs o n e m o r n in g ,
a S h e re c o rd s t h e fir s t 4 0 r e s u lts a s s h o w n b e lo w .

N u m b er o f people in a car Tally N u m b er o f cars

1 JHT
2 ME
3 M l
4 M l
5 M il
6 M l
T h e r e m a in in g 2 0 re s u lts a re :
2, 2, 5 , 2 , 2, 4 , 2 , 6, 5, 3 , 4 , 5 , 4 , 6, 2 , 5 , 3, 2 , 1 , 6.

i U s e t h e s e re s u lts to c o m p le t e t h e fr e q u e n c y t a b l e a b o v e .
ii O n t h e g rid b e lo w , d r a w a b a r c h a r t to s h o w t h e in f o r m a t io n fo r t h e 6 0 ca rs.
11 Statistics l J

20
18

16

14

v. 10
ID U
-Q
i 8

1 2 3 4 5 6
Number of people in a car

iii W r ite d o w n t h e m o d e . iv F in d t h e m e d ia n , v W o rk o u t th e m e a n .
b M a n u e l u s e s M a r ie ’s r e s u lts t o d r a w a p ie c h a r t.
W o r k o u t t h e s e c t o r a n g le fo r t h e n u m b e r o f c a rs w it h 5 p e o p le .
(0 5 8 0 p a p e r 03 Q 3 J u n e 2 0 0 8 )

21 T h e c o lo u r s o f t h e c a rs w h ic h p a s s e d a h o u s e w e r e n o te d .
T h e r e s u lts a r e s h o w n in t h e p ie c h a r t b e lo w .

T h e r e w e r e 1 2 b lu e c a rs .
H o w m a n y c a rs

a passed th e house?
b w e r e re d ? (4 0 2 4 p a p e r 0 1 Q 8 N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 9 )

22 T h e t a b l e b e lo w s h o w s t h e n u m b e r o f p e ts o w n e d b y 2 0 fa m ilie s .

N u m b e r o f pets 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
N u m b e r o f fa m ilie s 2 5 3 2 A 1 1 2

F in d
a t h e m o d a l n u m b e r o f p e ts
b t h e m e a n n u m b e r o f p e ts . (4 0 2 4 p a p e r 0 1 Q l l N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 9 )

23 T h e t im e s t a k e n f o r a b u s t o tr a v e l b e tw e e n fiv e s to p s /4 , B, C, D a n d E a r e s h o w n b e lo w .

A ___________ B ______________ C ______________ D _______________ E ___________

4 m in u t e s 1 ^ m in u t e s 75 seconds 2 m in u te s 35 seconds

E x p re s s in g e a c h a n s w e r in m in u te s a n d s e c o n d s , fin d

a t h e t o t a l t im e f o r t h e jo u r n e y f o r / I to E
b t h e m e a n t im e ta k e n b e t w e e n t h e s to p s
c t h e r a n g e o f t im e s ta k e n b e tw e e n t h e s to p s . (4 0 2 4 p a p e r 0 1 Q 1 5 J u n e 2 0 0 9 )

24 S o m e c h ild r e n w e r e a s k e d h o w m a n y te le v is io n p r o g r a m m e s t h e y h a d w a t c h e d o n t h e
p r e v io u s d a y . T h e t a b l e s h o w s t h e re s u lts .

N u m b e r o f p ro g ra m m e s w a tc h e d 0 1 2 3
N u m b e r o f child ren 7 3 1 7
a If t h e m e d ia n is 2 , fin d t h e v a lu e o f y.
b If th e m e d ia n is 1, fin d th e g r e a te s t p o s s ib le v a lu e o f y. (4024 p a p e r 01 Q9 Ju n e 2004)
 11 Statistics!

25 a A TV p ro g ra m m e list show s th a t a film begins at 2155. The film lasts fo r 100 m inutes.
At w h a t tim e w ill it end?
Express y o u r answ er using th e 24 h o u r clock,
bThe tim e s taken by an a th le te to run th re e races w ere 3 m in u te s 59.1 seconds,
4 m in u te s 3.8 seconds and 4 m in u te s 1.6 seconds.
C alcu late th e m ean tim e . (4024 paper 01 Q12 J u n e 2005)

26 The d ia g ra m show s a gauge fo r m e asuring th e w a te r level in a reservoir.

metres
3-

2-

0-
___ _ — —
- -1
~ _r - - _2"
-2 -
—
_r -3 -

R e a d in g s , in m e tr e s , ta k e n o v e r a c e r ta in p e r io d w e r e a s fo llo w s :

-2 .3 , -1 .6 , -0 .4 ,0 .1 , -0 .5 ,0 .3 , -1 .2 .

F o r t h e s e r e a d in g s ,

a fin d t h e d iffe r e n c e , in m e tr e s , b e tw e e n t h e h ig h e s t a n d lo w e s t le v e ls
b fin d t h e m e d ia n
c c a lc u la t e t h e m e a n . (4 0 2 4 p a p e r 0 1 Q 2 0 J u n e 2 0 0 6 )

27 F ifty s t u d e n t s w e r e a s k e d h o w lo n g t h e y e a c h to o k to tr a v e l t o s c h o o l. T h e re s u lts a r e
s u m m a r is e d in t h e t a b le b e lo w .

T im e o f tr a v e l 6 sc t^ 8 8 c t< 10 10 < t< 12

(f m in u te s )

F re q u e n c y 21 11 13 5

D r a w a fr e q u e n c y p o ly g o n o n a c o p y o f th e g rid b e lo w t o illu s tr a te th is d a ta .

25 1111111I I 1111111111 IT l'H T 'FTI 1 111111111111111'l [ ] '!"! 11111111111

20 i i : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : ; : : ; : ; ; : : ; ; : : ; ; ; ; ; : : ; ; : : : : : : : : : ; : ; ; : : : : :
>s
1 15 : = = = = = E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E
3 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CT -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(D ____________________________________________________________
£ 1° I : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : ; : : : : : : : : ; : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :

5 E E E E : E E E E E : : E E E E : : E : : E : : E : E E E E : E E : : : : E

Time (f minutes)

(4024 paper 01 Q24b Ju n e 2008)

 An Introduction to

Learning Objectives Syllabus section 40

This c h a p te r provides an in tro d u c tio n to: th e use o f re la tiv e freq u en cy as a m easure

• th e c a lc u la tio n o f p ro b a b ility o f p ro b ab ility.

1 2 .1 Introduction
A t t h e e n d o f th is c h a p t e r y o u w ill k n o w t h e w o r d s c o m m o n ly u s e d in t h e s tu d y o f p r o b a b ilit y a n d
w ill b e a b le t o w o r k o u t s i m p le p r o b a b ilit ie s , b o t h c a lc u la t e d a n d b y e x p e r im e n t .

H ow likely is it to rain tom orrow ?

Which side m ig h t b a t first in the next Test Match?

W hat are the chances o f m y reaching m y 60 th birthday?

W hat is the m ost likely score i f I throw tw o dice?

How sure is the airline th a t their plane w ill arrive on tim e ?
W e o fte n h e a r q u e s t io n s lik e t h e s e in e v e r y d a y life .

M a t h e m a t ic ia n s a t t e m p t t o f in d n u m e r ic a l a n s w e r s t o t h e s e a n d m a n y o t h e r q u e s tio n s b y s tu d y in g
p r o b a b ilit y . It is a c o m p le x b u t v e r y u s e fu l s u b je c t.

W e w ill lo o k a t t h e b a s ic s s o t h a t y o u c a n g e t a n id e a o f w h a t it is a b o u t .

1 2 .2 Essential Skills NO CALCULATOR IN TH IS EXERCISE

T a k e a lit t le t i m e t o c h e c k t h a t y o u c a n d o t h e f o llo w i n g q u e s t io n s c o r r e c t ly b e fo r e y o u s ta r t to
s tu d y C h a p t e r 12 .

1 W o rk o u t:

a 2+ 1
10 5 20
d 1- e 1- J_7
3 6 40
2 S im p lify :
„ 4 44
27 110

\
332
 ^ 12 An Introduction to Probability

3 C hange to d e cim a ls:

* 3 . 3 _1_7_ A 5 a _6_
5 4 C 100 8 25
4 C hange to percentages:

a I b | c 0.39 d 0.165
5 8
5 W o rk o u t:
a 1 2 b ^v ^ c ^ ^ d ^v 3
3 2 3 “ 52 C T 6 ® 7X 5 * 3*5*7

1 2 .3 S om e Term s used in the Study

of Probability
Events and Outcom es
Key terms An o u tc o m e is t h e r e s u lt o f a n e x p e r im e n t o r o t h e r s it u a t io n in v o lv in g u n c e r ta in ty . A n e v e n t
An outcome is th e result is a n y c o lle c tio n o f o u t c o m e s o f a n e x p e r im e n t .
o f an e x p e rim e n t o r
T o u n d e r s ta n d t h e s e te r m s c o n s id e r t h e f o llo w in g e x p e r im e n t .
o th e r s itu a tio n in v o lv in g
u n c e rta in ty .
An event is a n y
c o lle c tio n o f o u tc o m e s Experim ent 1
o f an e x p e r im e n t
P u t 3 b lu e p e n c ils , 2 re d p e n c ils a n d 5 g r e e n p e n c ils in a p e n c il c a s e . N o w t a k e o u t o n e p e n c il
w it h o u t lo o k in g in t h e c a s e . Y o u m a y fin d t h a t y o u h a v e c h o s e n a b lu e p e n c il. T a k in g o u t a
b lu e p e n c il is a n e x a m p le o f a n e v e n t .

B e c a u s e t h e r e a r e 3 b lu e p e n c ils t h e r e a r e t h r e e p o s s ib le c h o ic e s o f p e n c il w h ic h w ill r e s u lt
in th is e v e n t ( ta k in g o u t a b lu e p e n c il) o c c u r r in g . E a c h o f t h e s e c h o ic e s is a n o u t c o m e . S o t h e
e v e n t ‘ta k in g o u t a b lu e p e n c il’ is th p r n lle r t in n o f th e s e o u tc o m p s .

A n o t h e r e v e n t w o u ld b e 'g e t t in g a p e n c il w h ic h is n o t r e d ’. In th is c a s e t h e r e a r e 8 p o s s ib le
o u t c o m e s , w h ic h a r e t h e 3 c h o ic e s o f a b lu e p e n c il a n d t h e 5 c h o ic e s o f a g r e e n p e n c il.

Key terms
Probability Scale
W e m e a s u re p ro b a b ility o n a s c a le o f z e r o t o o n e . A p r o b a b ilit y o f z e r o is f o r a n im p o s s ib le
The probability scale is
a fra c tio n lying b e tw e e n o u t c o m e , w h ile a p r o b a b ilit y o f o n e is f o r a c e r ta in o u t c o m e . T h e p r o b a b ilit ie s o f o t h e r

0 (im p o s s ib le ) a n d 1 o u tc o m e s lie s o m e w h e r e in b e t w e e n . T h e n u m b e r s in b e t w e e n c a n b e f r a c t io n s o r d e c im a ls ,
(ce rtain to h a p p e n ). b u t a re n e v e r g iv e n a s a ra tio .

Probability m e a s u re s P r o b a b ility is s o m e t im e s m e a s u r e d a s a p e r c e n ta g e . T h e n t h e s c a le is z e r o t o o n e h u n d r e d .
h o w lik ely it is th a t
s o m e th in g w ill h a p p e n . W e c o u ld s a fe ly s a y t h a t:

a T h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t y o u w ill fly t o t h e m o o n t o m o r r o w is z e r o (n o c h a n c e ),

b T h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t t h e w o r ld w ill s till b e t u r n in g t o m o r r o w is o n e (c e r t a in ),
c T h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t t h e n e x t b a b y b o r n in t h e w o r ld w ill b e a b o y is ju s t o v e r 0 .5 (th e r e a re
s lig h tly m o r e b o y s b o r n t h a n g irls ).
12 to imraflucBon to Probability J

Example 1
Place the above events (a, b and c) on the probability scale shown below.
0 0 .5 1
1________________________ i_________________________ i
Answer 1
0 0.5 1
1_________________________ l________________________ l
(a) (c) (b)
Try to think of some more examples, and show them on the probability scale.

Bias
Bias d e s c r ib e s h o w fa ir a n e v e n t is. F o r e x a m p le if y o u to s s a c o in , a n u n b iased c o in is e q u a lly
Key terms lik e ly t o la n d h e a d s u p o r t a i l s u p . B u t if t h e r e is s o m e t h in g in t h e c o in w h ic h m a k e s it m o r e o r

Bias describes how fair le ss lik e ly t o la n d h e a d s u p it is a biased c o in .

a supposedly random
If w e to s s a n u n b ia s e d c o in w e e x p e c t e i t h e r h e a d s o r ta ils t o b e e q u a lly lik e ly . T h e p r o b a b ilit y
event is.
o f it la n d in g h e a d s u p is | (o r 0 .5 o r 5 0 % ).
Unbiased means that
each result is equally Y o u m ig h t h e a r s o m e o n e s a y T h e r e is a f if t y - f ift y c h a n c e o f t h e c o in la n d in g h e a d s u p ’. B y t h a t
likely. t h e y m e a n t h a t t h e r e is a fifty p e r c e n t c h a n c e o f t h e c o in la n d in g h e a d s u p . Y o u s h o u ld n o t e
Biased 'means that one h o w e v e r , t h a t fifty -fifty , a lt h o u g h c o m m o n ly u s e d , is n o t a c o r r e c t m a t h e m a t ic a l e x p r e s s io n .
result is more likely than
T h e to s s o f a c o in is o fte n u s e d t o c h o o s e b e tw e e n t w o o p tio n s . F o r e x a m p le , t h e s id e t o b a t
another.
firs t in a c r ic k e t m a t c h is d e c id e d b y to s s in g a c o in .
Rartddm'means
completely without
order. Random
R andom m e a n s c o m p le t e ly w it h o u t o r d e r. If y o u m a k e a lis t o f r a n d o m n u m b e r s t h e n
e v e r y n u m b e r is e q u a lly lik e ly t o b e a n y w h e r e in t h e lis t. O n e w a y o f g e tt in g a lis t o f r a n d o m
n u m b e r s is t o u s e a s p e c ia lly w r it t e n c a lc u la t o r o r c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m . T h e s e p r o g r a m s a r e
c a lle d random n um ber generators. F in d o u t it y o u r c a lc u la t o r c a n p r o d u c e r a n d o m n u m b e r s .

Y o u c a n n o t m a k e a p r o p e r lis t o f r a n d o m n u m b e r s ju s t b y w r it in g d o w n t h e n e x t n u m b e r to
c o m e in to y o u r h e a d . W h y d o y o u t h in k t h is is?

If y o u c h o o s e a c a r d fr o m a p a c k o f c a r d s t h a t h a s b e e n s h u ffle d a n d la id fa c e d o w n o n t h e
t a b le , a n d if t h e r e is a b s o lu t e ly n o t h in g t o m a k e y o u c h o o s e o n e m o r e t h a n a n y o t h e r , y o u w ill
b e m a k in g a r a n d o m c h o ic e .

P r o b a b ility m a y b e c a lc u la te d o r f o u n d b y e x p e r im e n t .

1 2 .4 Theoretical (or Calculated)

Probability
We use th e fo llo w in g d e fin itio n :

W hen you toss a coin, w h a t is th e th e o re tic a l p ro b a b ility o f g e ttin g a head? Flow m a n y heads
m ig h t you e xp ect to get in 20 tosses?
 [ 12 fln Introduction to Probability

W hen w e ca lc u la te a th e o re tic a l p ro b a b ility it is im p o rta n t th a t w e kn o w th a t each o u tc o m e is

e q u a lly likely. Look at Exam ple 2, n o tin g th a t p ro b a b ility can be referred to usin g a ' P'.

Example 2
Tariq has a pencil case like the one in Experiment 1, with 3 blue pencils, 2 red pencils and
5 green pencils. Tariq chooses one pencil without looking in the case.

The pencils are identical apart from colour so he is making a random choice, and each
choice is equally likely.

Work out the probability that he chooses a blue pencil.

Answer 2
There are 3 blue pencils and 10 pencils altogether, so P(blue pencil) =

As you can see fro m th is a nsw er it is useful to refer to th e p ro b a b ility o f c h o o s in g a b lu e pencil

as P (blue pencil) o r even ju s t P(blue).

Try to w o rk th ro u g h th e next e xa m p le before you lo o k at th e answ ers given below .

Example 3
a In Example 2 above how many green pencils are there in Tariq’s pencil case?
b What is the probability of Tariq choosing a green pencil?
c What is the probability of Tariq choosing a yellow pencil?
d Find P(red pencil).
e Calculate P(blue pencil) + P(green pencil) + P(red pencil),
f Find P(not a red pencil).
g Tariq needs either a blue pencil or a green pencil, it does
not matter which.
Find P(blue orgrppn).

Answer 3
There are 5 green pencils in the pencil case
P(green pencil) = ^
P(yellow pencil) = 0 (there are no yellow pencils in the pencil case)
P(red pencil) = ^
P(blue) + P(green) + P(red) = + ^ + ^ = 1
There are 8 pencils which are not red, so
P(notred) = ^
There are 3 blue and 5 green pencils so P(blue or green) = (3 + 5) -m o = ^

You can see fro m p a rt (e) in th e e xa m p le above th a t if all th e po ssib le o u tc o m e s have been
a c c o u n te d fo rth e n th e p ro b a b ilitie s m u st add up to 1. This is an im p o rta n t result.

Also, in p a rt (f) w e ca lc u la te d th e p ro b a b ility o f n o t red to be 8/10.

So because th e p encils can e ith e r be red o r n o t red and th e re is no o th e r p o s s ib ility , th e n :

P (nof red) + P(red)

12 An Introduction to Probability J

O f c o u r s e , if w e a r e w o r k in g in p e r c e n ta g e s ,

P ( n o t r e d ) + P (r e d )
= 8 0 % + 20%
= 100%
Y o u c a n s e e th a t:

W e c a n a ls o s e e in p a r t (g) t h a t w e c a n f in d t h e p r o b a b ilit y o f b lu e o r g r e e n e it h e r b y c o u n t in g
t h e p e n c ils , o r u s e t h e f a c t t h a t P (b lu e o r g re e n ) = P (b lu e ) + P (g r e e n ).

T h is is b e c a u s e p ic k in g a g r e e n p e n c il a n d p ic k in g a b lu e p e n c il a r e m u tu a lly exclusive e v e n ts .
T h e y c a n n o t h a p p e n t o g e t h e r b e c a u s e t h e p e n c ils a r e either b lu e o r g r e e n b u t n o t b o th .

Key term
Two results are
m utually exclusive if
they cannot possibly
happen at the same
Example 4
time.
A game consists of a circular board divided into six equal sectors, with each sector
numbered 1,2 or 3, as shown on the diagram. A dart is thrown and lands on the board in one
ofthe sectors. The score is the number written in that sector.

Write down the probabilities of scoring 1,2 or 3, assuming that the dart always lands in a
random position.

Answer 4
The probability ofthe dart landing on any particular number depends on the total area for
that number, in this case, how many sectors there are for that number.
P (D = I P(2) = ! P(3) = |

Exercise 12.1 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e
1 0 0.5 1
l________ i_________________i________ l________ i________ i
a b c d e

From th is lis t o f w o rd s choose th o se th a t c o u ld be used on th e a b o v e n u m b e r line in th e

p o s itio n s a, b, c, d and e.
i u n lik e ly ii ce rta in iii im p o s s ib le
iv q u ite lik e ly v very likely

2 C hoose s u ita b le w o rd s fro m th e list b e lo w to c o m p le te th e sentences,

m u tu a lly exclusive o u tc o m e ra n d o m biased bias
a W hen Iravan th re w a 6 ten tim e s in tw e n ty th ro w s o f a d ie he d e cid e d th a t th e die was
p r o b a b ly ........................
b S co rin g 6 and s co rin g 3 w ith a single ro ll o f a die a r e .......................events.

\
336
 ^ 12 fln Introduction to Probability

c C h oo sing a ta ll girl and c h o o s in g a girl w ith glasses to p a rtn e r you in a gam e o f te n n is

d o u b le s are n o t .......................events.
d A .......................choice is one in w hich e v e ry ........................ is e q u a lly likely.

3 W hich o f th e fo llo w in g pairs o f events are alw ays m u tu a lly exclusive?

a T h ro w in g a five and th ro w in g a six w ith a six-sided die.
b There are som e clo u d s in th e sky and the sun is shining.
c Paula w on th e high ju m p c o m p e titio n and Paul broke the record fo r th e high ju m p in
th e sam e c o m p e titio n ,
d T o m o rro w is W ednesday and to m o rro w is Thursday,
e T o m o rro w is W ednesday and yesterday w as M onday.
4 The w e a th e r forecasters have said th a t th e re is a 40% c hance o f rain to m o rro w .
W hat is th e p ro b a b ility th a t it w ill n o t rain to m o rro w ?

5 A b a g c o n t a in s 12 c o lo u r e d d is c s . T h e r e a r e 3 y e llo w , 5 re d a n d t h e re s t a r e b lu e . P a ris
ta k e s o n e d is c o u t w it h o u t lo o k in g .
a W r it e d o w n t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t it is a re d d is c ,
b F in d P (b lu e d is c ).
c W h a t is t h e p r o b a b ilit y o f a g r e e n disc?
d F in d P (n o t b lu e ).

6 A 'lu c k y d ip ’ h a s t w o s o rts o f p riz e s h id d e n in a tu b . O n e s o r t is a m o d e l c a r a n d t h e o t h e r

a m o d e l a e r o p la n e . T h e y a r e in id e n tic a l b o x e s s o it is n o t p o s s ib le to fe e l w h ic h is w h ic h .
T h e p r o b a b ilit y o f p ic k in g a n a e r o p la n e is 3 /5 .
W h a t is t h e p r o b a b ilit y o f p ic k in g a car?

7 ‘ D r a w in g t h e s h o r t s tr a w ’ is a w a y o f p ic k in g a p e rs o n t o d o a n u n p o p u la r jo b .
T o d e c id e w h o d o e s t h e w a s h in g u p T h e r e s a h o ld s 5 s tr a w s c o n c e a le d in h e r h a n d w it h
o n ly t h e e n d s s h o w in g . O n e o f t h e s tr a w s is s h o r te r t h a n t h e o th e rs . I p ic k a s tr a w .
W h a t is t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t I w ill b e d o in g t h e w a s h in g u p ?

8 T h e le tte r s o f t h e w o r d S T A T IS T IC S a r e w r itte n o n c a r d s w h ic h a r e th e n s h u ffle d a n d la id

fa c e d o w n o n a t a b le . O n e c a rd is c h o s e n .
a W r it e d o w n t h e p r o b a b ilit y o f c h o o s in g a n S.
b F in d P (S o r T ) .
c F in d P (a v o w e l).
d W h a t is t h e p r o b a b ilit y o f c h o o s in g a B?

9 A s ix -s id e d s p in n e r is s p u n o n c e .

W rite d o w n th e p ro b a b ility o f th is
s p in n e rla n d in g o n 3.

10 A w o rd gam e consists o f sm a ll tiles, each w ith a le tte r o fth e a lp h a b e t on it. The tile s are
p u t in a bag. The bag c o n ta in s th re e le tte r A ’, five le tte r ‘ B’ and ten le tte r ‘C. There are no
o th e r tile s in the bag.
Erin chooses one le tte r at ra n d o m w ith o u t lo o k in g in th e bag.
W ha t is th e p ro b a b ility th a t Erin chooses a ‘B’?
12 fln Introduction to Probability J

11 A n o t h e r g a m e c o n s is ts o f th r o w in g a c o u n t e r to la n d o n t h e r e c ta n g le s h o w n b e lo w .

T h e s c o r e is t h e n u m b e r s h o w n o n t h e a r e a o n w h ic h t h e c o u n t e r la n d s .
G iv e a r e a s o n w h y t h e p r o b a b ilit y o f s c o r in g 3 is n o t

12 T h e p ie c h a r t s h o w s t h e d is t r ib u t io n o f t h e c o lo u r s o f t h e c a rs a lr e a d y s o ld a n d a w a it in g
c o lle c tio n in a m a n u f a c t u r e r ’s c a r p a r k . T h e c a rs a r e e it h e r r e d , b lu e o r b la c k . T h e r e a r e n o
o t h e r c o lo u r s .

a W h y is t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t t h e n e x t c a r c o lle c te d w ill b e b lu e n o t | ?

b W h a t is t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t t h e n e x t c a r c o lle c te d w ill b e re d ?
c W h a t is t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t t h e n e x t c a r c o lle c te d w ilt b e w h ite ?
d W h a t is t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t t h e n e x t c a r c o lle c t e d w ill n o t b e b la c k ?

1 2 .5 Experim ental Probability or

Relative Frequency
I h a v e ju s t d o n e a n e x p e r im e n t . I h a d 1 0 c o u n t e r s in a b a g , c o lo u r e d r e d , b l u e o r g r e e n . I
d id n o t k n o w h o w m a n y o f e a c h . I p ic k e d o u t a c o u n t e r a t r a n d o m , n o t e d its c o l o u r o n a
t a lly c h a r t , a n d r e p la c e d it. I r e p e a le d t h e e x p e r i m e n t m a n y t im e s , w it h t h e r e b u lib s h o w n
in T a b le 1 2 .1 .

N u m b e r o f tria ls Red Blue Green

30 13 15 2

100 48 43 9

200 83 97 20

T ab le 1 2.1 Results of experiment

Key term The re la tiv e fre q u e n c y o f a n e v e n t is t h e n u m b e r o f t im e s it h a p p e n s d iv id e d b y t h e t o t a l

Relative frequency n u m b e r o f tr ia ls .
is a measure of how
often a particular result
number of times that event occurs
occurs in a repeated Relative frequency of an event=
the number of trials
experiment.
Pi
n u m b e r o f tim e s red w a s ch o se n
So th e re la tiv e fr e q u e n c y o f red =
th e n u m b e r o f trials

\
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 [ 12 An Introduction lo Probability

Table 12.2 show s th e results o f c a lc u la tin g the relative freque ncies (to 2 d e c im a l places) in the
e x p e rim e n t above.

For e xa m ple, th e re lative fre q u e n cy o f red after 30 tria ls = 44 = 0.43.

N u m b e r o f tria ls Red Blue Green

30 0.43 0.50 0.07

100 0.48 0.43 0.09

200 0.42 0.49 0.10

Table 12.2 Relative frequencies

If t h e n u m b e r o f tr ia ls w e r e in c r e a s e d t h e r e la tiv e fr e q u e n c ie s w o u ld s ta r t t o s e ttle d o w n .
If w e w e r e a b le to d o t h e e x p e r im e n t e n o u g h t im e s a n d if w e w e r e s u re t h a t w e w e r e
p ic k in g t h e c o u n te r s a t r a n d o m (s o t h a t e a c h e v e n t is e q u a lly lik e ly ) w e w o u ld fin d t h a t t h e
r e la tiv e fr e q u e n c ie s w o u ld e v e n t u a lly c o m e o u t v e r y c lo s e to t h e c a lc u la t e d o r t h e o r e tic a l
p r o b a b ilitie s .

S o fin d in g t h e r e la tiv e fr e q u e n c ie s o f e v e n ts is a w a y o f a pproxim ating t o t h e p r o b a b ilitie s o f

t h o s e e v e n ts .

A fte r 2 0 0 tr ia ls I lo o k e d in t h e b a g a n d d is c o v e r e d t h a t I h a d 4 re d c o u n t e r s , 5 b lu e c o u n te r s
a n d 1 g r e e n c o u n te r . I c a lc u la t e d t h e t h e o r e t ic a l p r o b a b ilitie s a n d c o m p a r e d t h e m w it h t h e
r e la tiv e fr e q u e n c ie s fr o m t h e e x p e r im e n t (T a b le 1 2 .3 ).

T h eo retical p ro b a b ility R elative fre q u e n c y a fte r 200 tria ls

Red A = 0 .4 0 0 .4 2

B lu e 0 .4 9
f H 50

G re e n 0 .1 0
® = 010

Table 1 2.3 Comparing relative frequency and theoretical probability

C a lc u la tin g t h e p r o b a b ilitie s a s d e c im a ls m a k e s it e a s ie r to c o m p a r e t h e v a lu e s .

Experiment 2
T a k e a c o in a n d d e c id e w h ic h s id e is 'h e a d s ’ a n d w h ic h is 't a ils ’. N o w to s s t h e c o in 2 0 tim e s ,
a n d e a c h t im e r e c o rd w h e t h e r it la n d s ‘h e a d s ’ o r ‘t a ils ’ o n to p . C a lc u la t e t h e r e la t iv e fr e q u e n c y
o f, s a y , ‘ h e a d s ’.

R e p e a t y o u r e x p e r im e n t , n o t in g y o u r re s u lts a fte r 5 0 , 1 0 0 a n d 2 0 0 tr ia ls . H o w c lo s e d o y o u r
r e la tiv e fr e q u e n c ie s g e t to t h e t h e o r e t ic a l p r o b a b ilit y o f ‘h e a d s ’?

Experiment 3
U s e a b a g w ith 2 0 c o lo u r e d c o u n t e r s in it to r e p e a t m y e x p e r im e n t . A s k s o m e o n e e ls e t o p u t
in t h e c o u n te r s s o t h a t y o u d o n o t k n o w w h a t t h e c o lo u r s a r e , o r h o w m a n y t h e r e a r e o f e a c h
c o lo u r .

T a k e o u t o n e c o u n t e r a t a t im e , n o t e its c o lo u r a n d th e n r e p la c e it. R e p e a t 1 0 0 tim e s , a n d s e e

if y o u c a n w o r k o u t h o w m a n y c o u n te r s o f e a c h c o lo u r t h e r e a r e in t h e b a g .
12 Ihi Introduction to Prolialiilitv J
Key term
Two results are
independent if one
does not affect the other.
Key term
A possibility or
probability space
diagram illustrates all
the possible outcomes
of combined events.
Y o u s h o u ld s e e t h a t:
th e expected n u m b e r o f any coloured c o u n ter = re la tiv e freq u en cy o f th a t colour x
th e to ta l n u m b e r o f counters in th e bag.
Example 5
Akash and Namita are tossing an unbiased coin. They have repeated the experiment 30
times and the results are 11 heads and 19 tails. Akash says that the next coin will be more
likely to land heads up. Namita says she is wrong. Who is correct and why?
Answer 5
Namita is correct because each toss ofthe coin is i n de pe nde nt of the one before and so each
time the coin is tossed it has exactly the same probability of landing heads up.
T h is is a n o t h e r im p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f p r o b a b ilit y . If t h e tr ia ls a r e in d e p e n d e n t o f e a c h o th e r
t h e p r o b a b ilit y o f a c e r ta in e v e n t r e m a in s t h e s a m e f o r e a c h tr ia l. T h e trend is fo r t h e r e la tiv e
f r e q u e n c y t o c o m e c lo s e t o t h e e x p e c te d p r o b a b ilit y if e n o u g h t r ia ls a r e c a r r ie d o u t .
In d e p e n d e n t e v e n ts a r e n o t a ff e c te d b y o t h e r e v e n ts .
1 2 .6 Com bined Events
A m a r u s to s s e s a n u n b ia s e d c o in a n d ro lls a fa ir fiv e -s id e d s p in n e r . T h e s p in n e r is e q u a lly lik e ly
t o s to p o n a n y o f t h e n u m b e r s f r o m 1 t o 5 .
T o fin d P ( h e a d s a n d 4) h e c a n lis t a ll t h e p o s s ib le o u tc o m e s :
H,1 H,2 H,3 H,4 H,5 T ,1 T ,2 T ,3 T ,4 T,5
T h e r e a r e t e n p o s s ib le o u t c o m e s a n d o n ly o n e w h ic h is h e a d s a n d 4 , so P ( h e a d s and 4 ) = y^.
T h is w a s a r e la tiv e ly e a s y lis t t o w r it e d o w n , b u t s o m e c a n b e m u c h lo n g e r .
A p o s s ib ility d ia g ra m , a ls o k n o w n a s a p ro b a b ility space d ia g ra m , is a n a id to d r a w in g u p
t h e lis t s o t h a t n o o u t c o m e s a r e fo r g o t te n .
F o r th is e x a m p le , w h e r e t h e e v e n ts a r e in d e p e n d e n t o f e a c h o t h e r , a s u it a b le d ia g r a m w o u ld
b e a s s h o w n in T a b le 1 2 .4 .
s p in n e r
1 2 3 4 5
c o in H H ,1 H ,2 H ,3 H ,5
T T,1 T,2 T,3 T,4 T ,5
Tab le 1 2 .4 O utco m es for sp in n e r and coin
It is easy to see th a t th e re are ten p o s s ib le o u tc o m e s in th e ta b le . This is th e n u m b e r o f
o u tc o m e s fro m th e coin tim e s th e n u m b e r o f o u tc o m e s fro m th e spinner.
We are in te re ste d in o ne p a rtic u la r event, th a t is heads a n d A, w h ic h occurs fo r o ne o u tc o m e
o nly, soP (H ,4 ) = ^ .
W hat is P(H) x P(4)?
 ( 12 An Introduction to Proftamiity

Can you see th a t th is is = ^?

W ork o u t P(T) x P(odd num ber). Does th is agree w ith P(T, o d d nu m b e r) fro m the table?

We w ill fin d o u t m o re a b o u t th is la te r in the chapter.

An a lte rn a tiv e m e th o d is to m ark th e o u tc o m e s on a grid like a graph. Each o u tc o m e is

repre sen ted by a grid p o in t o r co o rd in a te s , as in Figure 12.1.

c
o
O

1 2 3 4 5
Spinner

Figu re 12.1 Graphical representation of po ssibility diagram

If th e s p in n e r had e ig h t sides, w ith th e num b e rs 1 to 8 on it, and th e coin w as tossed again,

h ow m a n y d o ts w o u ld th e re be on th e grid?

Example 6
Suppose two spinners are used instead of a spinner and a coin.
One spinner (A) goes from 1 to 4, and the other (B) from 1 to 5.
a How many dots would be on the grid now?
b How many possible outcomes would there be?
c What would be the probability of scoring a double two (2 a n d 2) with these spinners?
d Check that P(2 on spinner A) x P(2 on spinner B) = P(2,2).

Answer 6
a 20 dots (4x5). Draw the grid if you are not sure,
b 20

c ±o

d M = To

Example 7
In an experiment, two six-sided dice are thrown, one red and the other blue.
The scores on the two dice are then added together, and the resulting totals are noted.
The possible outcomes are shown below:
Red die
+ 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Blue die 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
12 fln Introduction to Probability J

a How many possible outcomes are there?

b Find P(atotalof6).
c Find P(a double).
d Find P(a total of less than 5).
e Find P(both dice showing even numbers).
f What is the most likely total?
g Find P (to talo fl).
h Find P(total less than 12).

Answer 7

a 36 possible outcomes.
b There are 5 totals of six, and 36 possible outcomes, so p(six) =
c There are six doubles (for example 1,1 and so on), so P(a double) = ^ .
d There are six ways of getting a total of less than 5 (they are 2 ,3 ,3 ,4 ,4 ,4 ). So P(total less
than 5 ) = ^ .
e There are 9 ways in which both dice could show even numbers (for example, 2,4). So
Q
P(both showing even numbers) = jg .
f P(a total of seven) = ^ . All the others are less than this, so the most likely total is seven,
g P(totalof 1) = 0.
h P(total less than 12) = 1 - P(total of 12) = 1 - ^ = I f .

Example 8
R akari tosses a coin tw ic e and notes b o th o u tc o m e s .
He gets tails both times.
He says the probability of this happening is because there are three possible outcomes:
two heads, a head and a tail, and two tails.
Seema says he is wrong, and that the probability should be i .
Who is right?

Answer 8
Seema is right.
There are 4 possible outcomes: H,H T,T H,T T,H
(If this does not seem right, think of tossing two different coins, say a pound and a dollar.
Then the outcomes would be: $H,£H $T,£T $H,£T $T,£H.)

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 ^ 12 fln Introduction lo Probability

Exercise 12.2
1 The po ssib le o u tc o m e s o f an e x p e rim e n t in w h ich the scores o f tw o five-sid ed spinners
are a d d e d to g e th e r are show n on th e grid below . Each o u tc o m e is represented by a p o in t
on th e grid.

4-

05 3
c
c
Q.
(/)

11- 2 -

1 --

1 2 3 4 5
Second spinner
H o w m a n y p o s s ib le o u t c o m e s a r e th e r e ?
F in d P (to t a l s c o r e o f 4 ).
F in d P (to t a l s c o re g r e a te r t h a n 6).
F in d P (a d o u b le ).
H o w m a n y o u tc o m e s a r e t h e r e w h e r e t h e s c o r e o n t h e fir s t s p in n e r is g r e a te r t h a n t h e
s c o re o n th e s e co n d ?
f W h a t is t h e m o s t lik e ly t o ta l s c o re ?

2 P a to n y is d o in g a n e x p e r im e n t w it h t w o b a g s c o n ta in in g c o lo u r e d c o u n te r s .
In o n e b a g t h e r e a r e fo u r c o u n te r s , o n e e a c h o f re d , b lu e , g r e e n a n d y e llo w .
In t h e o t h e r b a g t h e r e a r e fiv e c o u n te r s , o n e e a c h o f re d , b lu e , g r e e n , p u r p le a n d w h it e .
H e p ic k s o n e c o u n t e r fr o m e a c h b a g w it h o u t lo o k in g in t h e b a g s ,
a D r a w a p o s s ib ility s p a c e d ia g r a m t o s h o w a ll t h e p o s s ib le o u tc o m e s o f p ic k in g a
c o u n t e r fr o m e a c h b a g .
b W h a t is t h e p r o b a b ilit y o f d r a w in g t w o c o u n te r s o f t h e s a m e c o lo u r?

3 T h e r e a r e t w o b o x e s o f c o u n te r s , b o x A a n d b o x B.

Box A c o n ta in s 1 red, 1 y e llo w and 1 green counter.

Box B c o n ta in s 1 green, 1 w h ite , 1 y e llo w and 1 red counter.
M eer chooses o n e c o u n te r a t ra n d o m from each box.
C opy a nd c o m p le te the fo llo w in g p o s s ib ility space diagram .

1343
12 fln Introduction to Probability j

B ox A

R Y G

R R ,R

W h a t is t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t h e c h o o s e s
a t w o c o u n te r s o f t h e s a m e c o lo u r ?
b o n e g r e e n c o u n t e r a n d o n e re d c o u n te r ?
c o n e y e llo w a n d o n e w h it e c o u n te r ?
d t w o w h it e c o u n te r s ?

Exercise 12.3
M ixed exercise NO CALCULATOR IN TH IS EXERCISE

1 T h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s o f a c e r t a in t y p e o f c o m p u t e r p a r t k n o w fr o m e x p e r ie n c e t h a t th e
r e la t iv e f r e q u e n c y o f fa u lts in t h e c o m p o n e n t is 0 .0 5 .
a W h a t is t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t t h e n e x t c o m p o n e n t p ic k e d w ill n o t b e fa u lty ?
b i H o w m a n y o f t h e s e c o m p o n e n t s w o u ld y o u e x p e c t t o b e f a u lt y in a c o n s ig n m e n t o f
1000?
ii W o u ld y o u e x p e c t t h e r e t o b e e x a c f /y th is n u m b e r fa u lty ?

2 O n a v e r a g e 5 1 % o f b a b ie s b o r n a r e b o y s . W h a t is t h e p r o b a b ilit y o f t h e n e x t b a b y to b e
b o r n b e in g a girl?

3 A n e x a m in a t io n p a p e r is m a d e u p o f 2 5 m u lt ip le - c h o ic e q u e s tio n s .
E a c h q u e s tio n h a s fiv e d if f e r e n t p o s s ib le a n s w e r s g iv e n f o r it, o n ly o n e o f w h ic h is c o r r e c t.
R y a n g u e s s e s t h e a n s w e r t o e a c h q u e s t io n a t r a n d o m ,
a W h a t is t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t h e g e ts q u e s t io n 1 c o rre c t?
b H o w m a n y q u e s tio n s c o u ld y o u e x p e c t h im t o g e t c o r r e c t o n t h e w h o l e p a p e r ?
c W h a t w o u ld h is m a r k b e a s a p e r c e n ta g e ?

4 A m a n u f a c t u r in g c o m p a n y r u n s a c h e c k o n o n e o f its c o m p o n e n t s b y t a k in g 1 0 0 o f t h e m
fr o m t h e a s s e m b ly lin e a t r a n d o m , a n d th e n c h e c k in g e a c h o f t h e s e t o s e e h o w m a n y a r e
fa u lty .
T h e c o m p a n y fin d s t h a t t h e r e la t iv e f r e q u e n c y o f f a u lty c o m p o n e n t s is ^ qq o r 3 % .
H o w m a n y p e r fe c t c o m p o n e n t s w o u ld t h e c o m p a n y e x p e c t to g e t in a p r o d u c t io n ru n o f
4 0 0 0 c o m p o n e n ts ?

5 N e s ip p ic k s a s w e e t a t r a n d o m fr o m a j a r c o n t a in in g 1 5 re d s w e e ts , 2 0 o r a n g e s w e e ts a n d
1 2 y e llo w s w e e ts .
a W h a t is t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t h e p ic k s h is f a v o u r ite o r a n g e s w e e ts ?
b W h a t is t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t h e p ic k s a re d o r a n o r a n g e s w e e t?

6 A n a y a ro lls a s e v e n -s id e d s p in n e r , w it h e a c h o f t h e n u m b e r s 1 t o 7 o n it.
a W h a t is t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t s h e g e ts a n e v e n n u m b e r ?
b W h a t is t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t s h e d o e s n o t g e t a s e v e n ?

7 T h e a v e r a g e n u m b e r o f w e t d a y s in M u m b a i in J u n e is 14.
W h a t is t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t J u n e 1 3 t h n e x t y e a r w ill b e w e t?

344
 ^ 12 fln Introduction to ProDability

Exam-style questions
________________________________________y

8 A m in a t a h a s a b a g c o n t a in in g 35 b e a d s . T h e b e a d s a r e e it h e r b lu e , y e llo w o r re d . O n e
b e a d is c h o s e n a t r a n d o m .
T h e p r o b a b ilit y o f c h o o s in g a b lu e b e a d is | a n d t h e p r o b a b ilit y o f c h o o s in g a y e llo w
bead is |.

C a lc u la te :
a t h e n u m b e r o f b lu e b e a d s in t h e b a g
b t h e p r o b a b ilit y o f c h o o s in g a re d b e a d . (0580 p a p e r 01 Q20 N o v e m b e r 2004)

9 G r a d e s w e r e a w a r d e d fo r a n e x a m in a t io n .
T h e t a b l e b e lo w s h o w s t h e n u m b e r o f s tu d e n ts in t h e w h o le s c h o o l g e ttin g e a c h g r a d e .

G rad e N u m b e r o f s tu d e n ts A n g le on p ie c h a rt

A 5

B 15

C 40

D 20

E 10

T o ta l 90

a C o p y a n d c o m p le t e t h e t a b l e a b o v e b y c a lc u la t in g t h e a n g le s r e q u ir e d to d r a w a
p ie c h a r t.
b D r a w a n a c c u r a te p ie c h a r t t o s h o w t h e d a ta in t h e ta b le .
L a b e l t h e s e c to r s A , B, C , D a n d E.
c W h a t is t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t a s t u d e n t c h o s e n a t r a n d o m f r o m t h e g r o u p t a k in g t h e
e x a m in a t io n w a s a w a r d e d
I grade C? II grade D or E? (0580 paper 03 Qib June 20U4)
10 A d e n t is t r e c o r d e d t h e n u m b e r o f fillin g s t h a t e a c h o f a g r o u p o f 3 0 c h ild r e n h a d in t h e ir
t e e t h . T h e re s u lts w e r e :

2 4 0 5 1 1 3 2 6 0

2 2 3 2 1 4 3 0 1 6

1 4 1 6 5 1 0 3 4 2

a O n e o f th e s e c h ild r e n is c h o s e n a t r a n d o m .
F in d t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t th is c h ild has:
i e x a c tly o n e f illin g ii m o r e t h a n t h r e e fillin g s ,
b T h e s e 3 0 c h ild r e n h a d b e e n c h o s e n fr o m a la rg e r g r o u p o f 3 0 0 c h ild r e n . E s tim a te h o w
m a n y in t h e la rg e r g r o u p h a v e n o fillin g s in t h e ir t e e th .
(0 5 8 0 p a p e r 0 3 Q 4 e a n d f N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 3 )
11 a 8 5 % o f t h e s e e d s in a p a c k e t w ill p r o d u c e re d flo w e r s .
O n e s e e d is c h o s e n a t r a n d o m . W h a t is t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t it w ill no t p r o d u c e
a re d flo w e r?
b A b o x o f 1 5 p e n c ils c o n ta in s 5 re d , 4 y e llo w a n d 6 b lu e p e n c ils . O n e p e n c il is c h o s e n a t
r a n d o m fr o m t h e b o x . F in d t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t it is
i y e llo w ii y e llo w o r b lu e iii g re e n .
(0580 paper 01 Q20 N o ve m b e r 2008)
12 An Introduction to ProftaMim J

12 A b a g c o n ta in s 2 4 d is c s .
1 0 d is c s a r e re d , 9 d is c s a r e g r e e n a n d 5 d is c s a r e y e llo w ,
a A d is c is c h o s e n a t r a n d o m .
F in d , as a fra c tio n , t h e p r o b a b ilit y o f e a c h o f t h e f o llo w in g e v e n ts .
i E v e n t A: t h e d is c is re d .
ii E v e n t B: t h e d is c is re d o r y e llo w .
iii E v e n t C: t h e d is c is n o t y e llo w .

k Probability Scale
Impossible Certain

T h e d ia g r a m s h o w s a h o r iz o n ta l p r o b a b ilit y s c a le . C o p y t h e d ia g r a m a n d s h o w o n t h e
d ia g r a m t h e p r o b a b ilit y o f
i a n im p o s s ib le e v e n t ii a c e r ta in e v e n t ,
c M a r k t h e p o s itio n s o f A , B a n d C , y o u r a n s w e r s to p a r t (a ), o n y o u r p r o b a b ilit y s c a le .
(0 5 8 0 p a p e r 0 3 Q 5 b , c a n d d J u n e 2 0 0 7 )

13 a T h e r e a r e 1 1 b o y s a n d 1 2 g irls in a c h o ir.
T h e t e a c h e r c h o o s e s o n e c h o ir m e m b e r a t r a n d o m .
W h a t is t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t it is a g irl? W r it e y o u r a n s w e r a s a fr a c t io n ,
b T h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t C a r la a r r iv e s a t s c h o o l b e fo r e 0 8 0 0 is
W h a t is t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t C a r la d o e s n o t a r r iv e b e fo r e 0 8 0 0 ?
W r ite y o u r a n s w e r a s a fr a c t io n . (0 5 8 0 p a p e r 0 1 Q 1 2 J u n e 2 0 0 8 )

14 T h e d ia g r a m s h o w s a s ix -s id e d s p in n e r .

a A m y s p in s a b ia s e d s p in n e r a n d t h e p r o b a b ilit y s h e g e ts a t w o is
F in d t h e p r o b a b ilit y s h e
i d o e s n o t g e t a tw o ii g e ts a s e v e n
iii g e ts a n u m b e r o n t h e s p in n e r le ss t h a n 7.
b J o e l s p in s h is b lu e s p in n e r 9 9 t im e s a n d g e ts a t w o 1 7 t im e s .
W r ite d o w n t h e r e la tiv e f r e q u e n c y o f g e tt in g a t w o w it h J o e l’s s p in n e r ,

c T h e r e la tiv e f r e q u e n c y o f g e tt in g a t w o w it h P ie r o ’s s p in n e r is
W h ic h o f t h e t h r e e s p in n e r s , A m y ’s, J o e l’s o r P ie r o ’s, is m o s t lik e ly t o g iv e a tw o ?

(0 5 8 0 p a p e r 01 Q 2 3 N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 6 )
 ^ 12 fln introduction to Probability

15 A fa ir fiv e s id e d s p in n e r is n u m b e r e d u s in g t h e p r im e n u m b e r s 2 , 3 , 5 , 7 a n d 11.
a In a g a m e , p la y e rs s p in it t w ic e a n d a d d th e t w o n u m b e r s o b t a in e d .

+ 2 3 5 7 11

2 4 5

5 10 12

7 12

11

i C o m p le t e t h e p o s s ib ility d ia g r a m .
ii F in d t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t t h e t o t a l o f t h e t w o n u m b e r s is
a a p r im e n u m b e r b a p e r fe c t s q u a r e . (4 0 2 4 p a p e r 0 1 Q 2 1 a J u n e 2 0 0 6 )

347
 Real Numbers
Learning Objectives Syllabus sections 2 ,5

In th is c h a p te r you w ill learn som e m o re a b o u t square roots, irra tio n a l

• m ore a b o u t sets, including th e no tatio n used num bers, fractions, decim als and
w ith sets percentages.
• a b o u t Venn d ia fe im s and h o w to use th e m

1 3 .1 Introduction
T h e s e t o f re a l n u m b e r s in c lu d e s a ll t h e n u m b e r s w e n e e d in e v e r y d a y life . Y o u r c o u r s e
fo r C a m b r id g e 0 L e v e l M a t h e m a t ic s is b a s e d e n tir e ly o n t h e s e t o f r e a l n u m b e r s . Y o u m a y
w o n d e r w h a t o t h e r n u m b e r s t h e r e c o u ld p o s s ib ly b e . If y o u s t u d y m a t h e m a t ic s f u r t h e r y o u
w ill e v e n t u a lly m e e t t h e s e t o f im a g in a r y n u m b e r s , w h ic h a r e t h e s q u a r e r o o ts o f n e g a tiv e
n u m b e r s . A s y o u k n o w , it is n o t p o s s ib le t o m u lt ip ly a n u m b e r b y its e lf t o m a k e a n e g a t iv e
n u m b e r , s o t h e s q u a r e r o o t o f a n e g a t iv e n u m b e r d o e s n o t e x is t. H o w e v e r , m a t h e m a t ic ia n s
n e e d t o w o r k w it h t h e s q u a r e r o o ts o f n e g a tiv e n u m b e r s , s o t h e y a r e c a lle d im a g in a r y
n u m b e r s . Im a g in a r y n u m b e r s fo r m t h e b a s is o f a v e r y in t e r e s tin g b r a n c h o f m a t h e m a t ic s
a n d y o u m ig h t lik e t o fin d o u t m o r e a b o u t t h e m .

1 3 .2 Essential Skills NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

100 n 2 2 .5 1 9 1 8 5 2 4 6 0 V 2 %/25 2 49
F ro m t h e lis t a b o v e s e le c t
a t h e n a tu r a l n u m b e r s b t h e in te g e r s
c th e r a t io n a l n u m b e r s d t h e ir r a t io n a l n u m b e r s
e th e p r im e n u m b e r s f th e fa c to r s o f 45
g t h e m u lt ip le s o f 6 h th e c u b e r o o t o f 8
i th e s q u a re o f 7 j th e s q u a re ro o t o f 81

a L is t t h e s e t o f fa c to r s o f 144.
b L is t t h e s e t o f p r im e fa c to r s o f 144.
c W r it e 144 a s a p r o d u c t o f its p r im e fa c to rs .

3 Insert a c o rre c t s y m b o l be tw e e n each o f th e fo llo w in g pairs o f num bers:

s/64, 2s n/6 4 , 32 1 9 ,1 8

List th e set o f p rim e n u m b e rs betw een 20 and 40.

W ith o u t using a ca lc u la to r, c a lc u la te th e fo llo w in g :

a 2- - — b C 2 ‘.
7 7
 Iv 13 Beal Numbers

6 F in d 1 6 % o f 5 4 .

7 F in d 2 8 as a p e r c e n ta g e o f 6 3 .

8 F in d a fr a c tio n t h a t lie s b e tw e e n y a n d | .

1 3 .3 More about Sets

W e h a v e a lr e a d y s tu d ie d s o m e s e ts o f n u m b e r s . T h e s e w e r e t h e s e ts o f n a tu r a l n u m b e r s ,
in te g e r s , r a t io n a l n u m b e r s , r e a l n u m b e r s a n d p r im e n u m b e r s .

A set is a co llec tio n o f ob jects, ideas o r n um bers th a t can be c le a rly d e fin ed .

C le a rly d e fin e d m e a n s t h a t w e c a n te ll w ith c e r ta in ty w h e t h e r o r n o t s o m e th in g b e lo n g s

to t h e se t.

F o r e x a m p le :

a T h e s e t o f c o lo u r s o f t h e r a in b o w is {r e d , o r a n g e , y e llo w , g r e e n , b lu e , in d ig o , v io le t} . B ro w n
is a c o lo u r , b u t it d o e s n o t b e lo n g to th is s e t.
b T h e s e t o f d o m e s t ic p e ts m a y b e q u it e la rg e , b u t it w o u ld n o t in c lu d e a b r o n to s a u r u s !
H o w e v e r , a b r o n to s a u r u s w o u ld b e in c lu d e d in t h e s e t o f d in o s a u rs ,
c T h e s e t o f fa c to r s o f 1 0 w o u ld in c lu d e 1 , 2 , 5 a n d 1 0 , b u t n o t 4.

In e a c h o f th e s e c a s e s , t h e s e ts a r e w e ll d e fin e d b e c a u s e it is p o s s ib le to te ll w h e t h e r o r n o t
s o m e t h in g b e lo n g s t o t h e s e t.

1 3 .4 Defining a Set
T h e r e a r e v a r io u s w a y s o f d e fin in g a set.
Key term
• W e can list t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e s e t in c u rly b r a c k e ts . T h e s e t o f fa c to r s o f 1 0 = { 1 , 2 , 5 , 1 0 } .
Aset is a collection
• If t h e r e is n o e n d t o t h e s e t, w e u s e d o ts to r e p r e s e n t ‘a n d s o o n '. T h e s e t o f n a tu r a l
of objects, ideas or
n u m b e rs = { 1 ,2 ,3 , 4 ,5 ,6 , 7 ,.. .} .
numbers that can be
clearly defined. • If t h e r e is a n e n d to t h e s e t, b u t it is t o o lo n g to lis t a ll t h e n u m b e r s , w e c a n s till u s e d o ts ,
b u t in c lu d e o n e o r m o r e o f t h e la s t n u m b e r s in t h e s e t.

T h e s e t o f e v e n n u m b e r s b e t w e e n 1 a n d 9 9 = { 2 , 4 , 6 , 8 , 1 0 , . . . , 9 6 ,9 8 } .

• S e ts c a n a ls o b e d e fin e d b y a d e s c r ip tio n .

F o r e x a m p le , (p la n e t s in o u r s o la r s y s te m } o r { c a p ita l c itie s o f t h e w o r ld } .

• S e ts a r e o fte n la b e lle d b y u s in g c a p it a l le tte r s . T h e le tte r s N , Z , Q a n d R a r e r e s e r v e d fo r

t h e s e ts w e h a v e a lr e a d y m e t , n a m e l y n a tu r a l n u m b e r s , in te g e r s , r a t io n a l n u m b e r s a n d
real n u m b e rs .

• If w e u s e a c a p ita l le t te r t o r e p r e s e n t a n o t h e r s e t w e m u s t d e fin e it c le a rly .

F o r e x a m p le ,
P = { th e p r im e n u m b e r s b e tw e e n 1 a n d 2 0 }
or
B - { boys in y o u r cla s s }

349
13 Beal Numbers J

Example 1
a Write down a description of each of the following sets (there could be more than one
suitable description).
i {1 ,3 ,5 ,7 } ii {5 ,1 0 ,1 5 ,2 0 ,2 5 ,...} iii {1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,6 ,1 2 }

b List the following sets:

i The set of square numbers less than 30.
ii The set of vowels in the English alphabet.
iii The set of natural numbers less than 80.
iv The set of cube numbers.

Answer 1
a i The set of odd numbers between 0 and 8, or simply {odd numbers between 0 and 8}.
ii The set of multiples of 5.
iii The set of factors of 12.
b i {1 ,4,9,16,25}
ii {a, e, i, o, u}
iii {1,2, 3 ,4 ,5 , 6 ,7 ,...,7 6 ,7 7 , 78,79}
iv {1 ,8 ,2 7 ,6 4 ,1 2 5 ,...}
V _______________________________________________________________________

1 3 .5 Notation and Symbols

Key term
T h e m e m b e rs o f a se t
are also c a lle d th e
elem ents o f th e set.
Used with Sets
T h e m e m b e r s o f a s e t a r e a ls o c a lle d e le m e n ts o f t h e s e t.
If w e d e fin e a s e t C = { p r im a r y c o lo u rs }, t h e n t h e e le m e n t s o f t h e s e t C a r e re d , b lu e a n d g re e n .
T h e n u m b e r o f e le m e n t s o r m e m b e r s in t h e s e t is re fe rr e d to a s « (C ).
In th is c a s e , n(C) = 3. O f c o u r s e , « (Z ) ( th e n u m b e r o f e le m e n t s in t h e s e t o f in te g e rs ) is u n d e fin e d ,
o r in fin ite ly la rg e , b e c a u s e t h e in te g e r s g o o n fo r e v e r .

T h e s y m b o l € , d e r iv e d f r o m t h e G r e e k le t t e r £ £ is u s e d to m e a n 'is a m e m b e r o f ’ o r 'i s a n
e l e m e n t o f ’.

S o M o n d a y e { d a y s o f t h e w e e k } , s h o u ld b e r e a d a s ‘M o n d a y is a n e l e m e n t o f t h e s e t o f d a y s
o f t h e w e e k ’. If th is le t te r h a s a c ro s s t h r o u g h it, g , it r e a d s ‘is n o t a n e l e m e n t o f ’. H e n c e , A p ril g
{d a y s o f th e w e e k }.

W e a ls o n e e d t h e ‘e m p t y ’ s e t: t h e e m p ty set h a s n o m e m b e r s .
Key term
F o r e x a m p le , { e v e n p r im e n u m b e r s greater t h a n 2} is a n e m p t y s e t b e c a u s e 2 is t h e o n /y e v e n
T h e em pty set has no
p r im e n u m b e r . T h e s y m b o l u s e d fo r t h e e m p t y s e t is 0 .
m e m b e rs .
In s o m e t e x t b o o k s , y o u m a y s e e t h e e m p t y s e t w r it t e n as {}, w h ic h is a n a lt e r n a t iv e fo r 0 .

N o t ic e t h a t w e c a n n o t u s e {0 } a s t h e e m p t y s e t, b e c a u s e it h a s a m e m b e r , w h ic h is z e r o . S o fa r
t h e s y m b o ls w e h a v e m e t a re :

350

Key terms
The universal set in
a p a rtic u la r co n te x t
c o n ta in s a ll th e e le m e n ts
fro m w h ic h th e o th e r
sets a re d ra w n .
The intersection o f tw o
o r m o re sots co n ta in s
all th e e le m e n ts th a t are
p re s e n t in b o th o r all of
th e sets.
[ 13 Beal Numbers
Exercise 13.1
1 List th e e le m e n ts o f these sets:
a {squ a re n u m b e rs b e tw e e n 10 and 40} b {m o n th s o f th e year b e g in n in g w ith M}
c (n a tu ra l n u m b e rs =£ 10}
2 D escribe these sets:
a {1 ,3 , 5, 7 ,9 }
b {M on d a y, Tuesday, W ednesday, T hursday, Friday, S a turday, S u nday}
c {a, b, c, d, e , .... x, y, z}
3 W hich o f th e fo llo w in g are e m p ty sets?
a {p e o p le o v e r 5 m e tre s ta ll} b {b ird s th a t sw im }
c {0} d {in te g e rs b e tw e e n 1.1 and 1.9}
4 In sert th e c o rre c t s y m b o l in th e fo llo w in g s ta te m e n ts .
a 1 ...{ p r im e n u m b e rs } b 1000 ... {even n um bers}
5 A = {le tte rs used in th e w o rd ‘m a th e m a tic s ’}.
a L ist set A b Find n(A).
1 3 .6 M ore Notation and Sym bols
Y o u w ill fin d t h a t w h e n w e t a l k a b o u t s e ts w e n e e d t o lim it t h e p o s s ib ilit ie s in s o m e w a y .
F o r e x a m p le , if y o u w e r e t o m a k e u p a s c h o o l t e a m t o p la y f o o t b a ll, it w o u ld b e n o g o o d
in c lu d in g s t u d e n t s fr o m a n o t h e r s c h o o l. T h e t e a m w o u ld b e c h o s e n fr o m t h e s e t o f a ll t h e
s t u d e n t s in y o u r s c h o o l, T h is is c a lle d t h e u n iv e rs a l set. T h e s y m b o l u s e d t o d e n o t e t h e
u n iv e r s a l s e t i s ' / .
S o w e c o u ld h a v e : = { s tu d e n ts in y o u r s c h o o l}
F = { s tu d e n ts in y o u r s c h o o l’s f o o t b a ll t e a m }
M= { s tu d e n t s in y o u r m a t h s c la s s }
B o th F a n d M b e lo n g to t h e u n iv e r s a l s e t ‘S .
A n o th e r s itu a tio n w e n e e d to b e a b le to d e s c r ib e is t h a t s o m e s tu d e n ts m a y b e in y o u r m a th s
c la s s a nd in t h e s c h o o l fo o tb a ll t e a m . T h is is c a lle d a n in tersectio n o f se ts , a n d h a s t h e s y m b o l n .
W e w r it e { s tu d e n t s both in t h e s c h o o l f o o t b a ll t e a m and in y o u r m a t h s c la s s } = F n M.
If t h e r e is n o o n e in y o u r m a t h s c la s s w h o is a ls o in t h e f o o t b a ll t e a m , t h e n F n M = 0 . In th is
c a s e , t h e in t e r s e c t io n o f F a n d M h a s n o m e m b e r s , s o it is t h e e m p t y s e t. It is p e r h a p s e a s ie r to
s e e th is u s in g s e ts w it h n u m b e r s .
W e w ill u s e t h e f o llo w in g s e ts :
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
B = {1 0 , 11, 12, 13, 14, 15}
C = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12}
D = {1, 3,5, 7}
From th e s e s e ts it w ill b e s e e n t h a t :
A n C = {2 ,4 , 6 , 8} b e c a u s e 2 ,4 , 6 a n d 8 a r e in b o t h A a n d C
and AnB = 0
13 Beal Numbers J
Key term
A proper subset does
not Contain o//of the
elements of the larger set,
A subset is a smaller set
entirely contained within
another Set. It may also
be all the elements of
the larger set.
Key term s
The union of two or
m ore sots is all the
elements of both or
all of the sets.
\
352
W h a ta b o u M n D ?
A n D = {1 , 3 , 5 , 7 } = D
T h e w h o le o f s e t D is in s e t A
W e sa y th a t D is a p ro p e r s u b s et o f A a n d w e u s e t h e s y m b o l c , s o DczA. Y o u w ill u s u a lly h e a r
subset is d if f e r e n t fr o m a
a p r o p e r s u b s e t b e in g r e fe r r e d t o a s ju s t a s u b s e t. S tr ic tly s p e a k in g a
p r o p e r s u b s e t, w h ic h c a n b e s h o w n u s in g t h e f o llo w i n g e x a m p le .
V = { v o w e ls in t h e E n g lis h la n g u a g e )
E = { le tt e r s o f t h e E n g lis h la n g u a g e }
L = { a , e , i, o , u }
F = { a, b, c}
l/is a p r o p e r s u b s e t o f E b e c a u s e th e re a re e le m e n ts in Eth a t a re n o t in V. H o w e v e r , V c o u ld be
th o u g h t o f e ither a s e q u a l to L, o r a s a s u b s e t o f L, s o l/is n o t a p r o p e r s u b s e t o f L.
T h e r e fo r e , V is a p r o p e r su b s e t o f E: Va E
l/is a s u b s e t o f / , ( a n d l / i s e q u a l t o L): l/c /.
T h e s a m e s y m b o l w it h a lin e t h r o u g h it, <z, m e a n s 'is n o t a p r o p e r s u b s e t o f ’.
l/i s n o t a p r o p e r s u b s e t o f /.: VczL
W e c a n a ls o s a y : f c f
F qLL
and F ^ -L
S u p p o s e w e w a n t e d t o u s e t h e w h o le o f A a n d B. T h is w o u ld b e c a lle d t h e u n io n o f A a n d B,
a n d w e w o u ld u s e t h e s y m b o l u .
Au B= { 1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,6 ,7 ,8 ,9 ,1 0 ,1 1 ,1 2 ,1 3 ,1 4 ,1 5 }
Au C= { 1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,6 , 7 ,8 ,9 ,1 0 ,1 2 }
N o tic e t h a t t h e e l e m e n t s t h a t a p p e a r in b o t h s e ts a r e n o t lis te d t w ic e . W e c a n n o w a d d t o o u r
lis t o f s y m b o ls .
.:.r. ■■■■■■■■ -4M
. : V;.-, ■* Subset 7
Intersection n Not a subset
Proper subset c Union
Example 2
F = {10,20, 30,40} 6 = {11,13,17,19}
H = {10,11,12,13} J = {11,13}
Use these sets to answer the questions,
a List:
i GnH ii FuH
b J is a subset of two of the sets. Which are those two sets?
c Suggest a suitable universal set for F, G, Fl and J.
d What can you say about F n J 7
 lv 13 Beal Numbers

Answer 2
a i G n H = {11,13} (notice that this is also equal to J)
ii F u H = {10,11,12,13,20, 30,40}
b J c G and J c H
c A universal set could be N (the set of natural numbers), or we could restrict it more, say
/ = {10,11,12, 13,14,15, ..., 38, 39,40}
or l = {natural numbers between 10 and 40 inclusive}
d FnJ=0

V________________________________________________
T h e r e is o n e m o r e s y m b o l le ft to a d d to t h e lis t.L o o k a t th e s e sets:

? = { 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5}
/I = { 1 ,4 }
e = { 2 ,4 , 5}

T h e n e w s y m b o l is t h e le t te r f o r t h e s e t fo llo w e d b y a d a s h , fo r e x a m p le , /! '.

T h is m e a n s e v e r y t h in g in t h e u n iv e r s a l s e t b u t n o t in s e t A. It is c a lle d t h e c o m p le m e n t o f A.
Key term
So A = { 2 ,3 ,5 } an d B' = { 1 ,3 } .
The com plem ent o f a
se t is all th e e le m e n ts S in c e A r \ B = {4 }
t h a t are n o t in th e set,
b u t th a t are in th e th e n ( A n B )' = { 1 , 2 , 3 , 5 }
universal set.
In t h e s a m e w a y , c a n y o u s h o w t h a t (A u B)' = {3}?

Exercise 13.2
V = { 3 , 4 ,5 , 6 ,7 ,8 ,9 }
A = {4 , 5 , 6 }
B = {o d d n u m b e rs b e tw e e n 2 a n d 8}
r = {square num bers 10}
Using the above sets,
1 List:
a B b AnB c A kjB d A'
e t h e c o m p le m e n t o f 8 f AnB g [AuB)'

2 L is t t h e in te r s e c t io n o f B a n d C. 3 List th e u n io n o f A and C.

4 W r it e d o w n n (C ). 5 F in d n ( ^ u C ) .

6 F in d n (B ').

1 3 .7 Venn D iagram s
Key term A Venn d ia g ra m is a v e ry useful m e th o d o f v is u a lis in g th e re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n sets. A
A Venn diagram sh o w s re c ta n g u la r box is d ra w n to s h o w th e u n iversal set, and w ith in this, o th e r shapes, u s u a lly
th e re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n ovals o r circles, re p re se n t sets w ith in th e un ive rsa l set. If th e re is an in te rs e c tio n b e tw e e n sets,
the sets in th e universal set. it w ill be s h o w n by an o v e rla p o fth e ovals o r circles.

The fo llo w in g e x a m p le s h o u ld he lp you to u n d e rs ta n d th e c o n c e p t o f a Venn d ia g ra m .

 Example 3
« = { 1 , 2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,6 , 7,8,9,10}
A = {even numbers}
B = {1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 }
C = {6,7,8}
a Draw a Venn diagram to represent the above sets. Show the elements in each set.
b List the following sets:
i AnB ii AuB iii / > u C iv (/4uC)'
v AuBuC vi ( d u B u C ) ' vii B n C

Answer 3
a

i A r i B = {2,4] ii A u B — { 1, 2 ,3 ,4 ,5 , 6 ,8 , 10}
iii /4 u C = {2 ,4 ,6 ,7 ,8 ,1 0 } iv {A u C)’ = {1 ,3 ,5 ,9 }
v ^ u 6 u C = { l , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5,6, 7,8,10} vi ( Z lu S u C ) ' = {9)
v ii B n C = 0

If y o u lo o k a t t h e t h r e e V e n n d ia g r a m s in F ig u re 1 3 .1 , y o u w ill s e e t h a t in t h e fir s t, o n e s e t h a s
b e e n h a tc h e d in a d iffe r e n t d ir e c tio n fr o m t h e o th e r .

In t h e s e c o n d V e n n d ia g r a m , t h e t w o s e ts s h o w a n in te r s e c tio n , w h e r e t h e h a tc h in g a p p e a r s
in b o t h d ir e c tio n s (c ro s s h a tc h in g ).

In t h e th ir d V e n n d ia g r a m , t h e u n io n is s h o w n b y a ll t h e s h a d e d a r e a s , in e i t h e r d ir e c tio n ,
taken together.

x n y =0 P n Q (shaded)

P u O (shaded)

F ig u re 1 3 .1 Union and intersectio n in Venn d ia gra m s

Example 4
a Draw three identical Venn diagrams to illustrate the following sets.
'! = {students in your school}
C = {students in your class}
B = {students who come to school by bus}
 ^ 13 BealNumliers

In the first diagram shade and clearly label B n C .

ii In the next diagram shade and clearly label B n C .
iii In the last diagram shade and clearly label C n S',
c How would you describe B n C and C n S' in words?

Answer 4
a and b

Bn C HuC CnB

c S n C = {students in the class who come to school by bus}

C n S' = {students in the class who do not come to school by bus}

Y o u s h o u ld b e a b le to s e e w h a t a p o w e r f u l t o o l V e n n d ia g r a m s c a n b e in t h e s tu d y o f s e ts . W e
w ill u s e t h e m a g a in la te r in t h e c o u rs e .

S tu d y t h e fo u r d ia g r a m s in F ig u re 1 3 .2 c a r e fu lly to s e e h o w h a tc h in g a n d s h a d in g c a n c la r ify
t h e r e q u ir e d a r e a s o f V e n n d ia g r a m s .

C 'n D

(C u D )’ (CnD)'

F ig u re 1 3 .2 S h ad in g different areas o f Venn d iagram s

is to help you understand which area of the Venn diagram is required.

area specified in the question.

V e n n d ia g r a m s c a n a ls o s h o w t h e n u m b e r o f e le m e n t s in e a c h s e t, a s t h e n e x t e x a m p le
show s.
13 Beal Numbers J

Example 5

You are given the following information.

n{ g ) = 30, n(A) = 11, n(B) = 12, n(C) = 10,
n(/l n B n C ) = 3, n(A n 6) = 5, n C) = 4, n(fi n C) = 6
a Copy and complete the Venn diagram.
b Find i n ( / lu 8 u C ) ii n{AvB).

Answer 5
a Using the information given, it is possible to fill in the Venn diagram in steps.
STEP 1: n ( A n B r < C) = 3 , so 3 goes right in the centre ofthe diagram.
STEP 2: n ( A n B ) = 5, so take away the 3 that is already there, which leaves 2 to go in the
rest ofthe intersection.
n(A n C) = 4 and n(B n C ) = 6 means we can fill in the other two intersections in
the same way. (See the diagram below for steps 1 and 2.)

STEP 3: n(A) = 11 so take away the 1,2 and 3 which are already in A, leaving 5 to be
written in the remaining part of A.
Use n(B) =12 and n(C) = 10 in the same way.
STEP 4: Find n ( / I u S u C) by adding all the numbers in your diagram.
n(A u B u C ) = 5 + l + 3 + 2 + 4 + 3 + 3 = 21
It was given th a t«(/) = 30, so n(A u B u C)' = 30 - 21 = 9
Write in the 9 to complete the Venn diagram. (See the following diagram for step 4.)

b i n(A<jBuC)' = 9
ii n(A u 6) = 5 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 3 = 18
The answers to these and many other similar questions can now be easily obtained
from the diagram.

V__________________________________________

356
 ^ 13 Beal Numbers

Exercise 13.3
1 D r a w V e n n d ia g r a m s to illu s tr a t e t h e fo llo w in g :
a t = N , P = ( p r im e n u m b e r s less t h a n 1 0 }, E = { 2 , 4 ,6 } .
(M a r k a n d la b e l e a c h e l e m e n t in its c o r r e c t p la c e .)
b ' = Z ,S = (s q u a r e n u m b e r s } , E = (e v e n n u m b e r s } .
(T h e in d iv id u a l e le m e n t s c a n n o t b e la b e lle d b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e a n in fin ite n u m b e r o f
e le m e n ts .)

2 C o p y th e s e V e n n d ia g r a m s a n d in e a c h c a s e , s h a d e t h e r e q u ir e d a re a s .

3 D r a w V e n n d ia g r a m s to illu s tr a te e a c h o f t h e fo llo w in g :
a AnB = 0 b <4c8

4 D r a w a V e n n d ia g r a m to illu s t r a te t h e fo llo w in g :
'<£ = ( n a t u r a l n u m b e r s f r o m l t o 10 }
P = {1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6, 7, 8}
R = { 2 ,4 ,6 ,8 }
S = { 1 ,2 ,3 ,4 }
M a r k a n d la b e l t h e c o r r e c t p o s itio n fo r e a c h e l e m e n t in t h e d ia g r a m .

5 a D r a w a V e n n d ia g r a m to s h o w t w o s e t s ,/I a n d 8 , w h e r e Bc A
b G iv e n t h a t n('<r ) = 4 8 , n(A) = 2 5 a n d n (8 ) = 1 0 , fin d
i n(AnB') ii n{A')
c C o m p le t e t h e V e n n d ia g r a m s h o w in g t h e n u m b e r s in e a c h a r e a . C h e c k t h a t a ll y o u r
n u m b e r s a d d u p to 4 8 .

6 a D r a w a V e n n d ia g r a m s h o w in g t w o s e ts , P a n d S, w it h a n in te r s e c tio n ,
b G iv e n t h a t n{<') = 20, n{P) = l , n[S) = 1 6 a n d n ( P u S ) ' = 0, fin d n (P n S ).
c C o m p le t e t h e d ia g r a m .

Since n(P u S ) ' = 0 , all 2 0 o f th e e le m e n ts m u s t lie in P a n d S , b u t a d d in g 7 a n d 16 m akes to o m any,

r
357
13 Beal Numbers J

1 3 .8 More about Square Roots

and Irrational Num bers
In th is s e c tio n o f th is c h a p t e r w e w ill s e e h o w w e c a n f in d t h e s q u a r e r o o t o f a n y p e r f e c t
s q u a r e , o r e x p r e s s ir r a t io n a l s q u a r e r o o ts in t h e ir s im p le s t f o r m , w it h o u t u s in g a c a lc u la to r .
T h e r e a r e t w o p o s s ib le m e th o d s .

a In t h e firs t, w e e x p re s s t h e n u m b e r , a s a p r o d u c t o f its p r im e fa c to r s (b y u s in g a f a c t o r t r e e
if n e c e s s a ry ).
F o r e x a m p le , 900 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 5 x 5
so 7900 = 7 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 5 x 5

T h is is t h e s a m e a s 72 x 72 x 73 x 73 x 75 x 75
W e know x 7 2 = 7 4 = 2, 7 3 x 7 3 = 3 a n d 7 5 x 7 5 = 5

T h is m e a n s 7 9 0 0 = 7 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 5 x 5 = 2 x 3 x 5 = 30

so 7 9 0 0 = 30

T h is is a ls o t h e b e s t m e t h o d fo r f in d in g c u b e ro o ts .

71^6 = 7 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 3 = 7 2 x 2 x 2 x 7 3 x 3 x 3 = 2 x 3 = 6

b In t h e s e c o n d m e t h o d , w e lo o k f o r fa c to r s o f t h e n u m b e r t h a t a r e p e r fe c t s q u a r e s
th e m s e lv e s , s u c h a s 4 , 9 , 1 6 , 2 5 a n d s o o n .
So 7 9 0 0 = 7 4 x 9 x 2 5 = 2 x 3 x 5 = 30

E ith e r m e t h o d w ill a ls o w o r k f o r n u m b e r s w h o s e s q u a r e r o o ts a r e ir r a tio n a l. F o r e x a m p le , b y

t h e firs t m e t h o d ,

7450 = 7 2 x 3 x 3 x 5 x 5 = 7 2 x 7 3 x 3 x 7 5 x 5 = 7 2 x 3 x 5 = 15x72

a n d 1 5 x 7 2 is u s u a lly w r it t e n 1 5 7 2 .

By th e s e c o n d m e th o d ,

7 4 5 0 = > / 9 x 2 5 x 2 = 3 x 5 7 2 = 1572.

T h is is a s f a r a s y o u c a n g o e a s ily w it h o u t u s in g a c a lc u la t o r .
Key term S q u a r e r o o ts t h a t a r e ir r a t io n a l a r e a ls o c a lle d surds. T h e n u m b e r 1 5 7 2 is a s u rd b e c a u s e 7 2
If the square root of is ir r a tio n a l.
a natural number is
irrational it is called
a surd. Example 6
a Find n/255 without using a calculator.
b Simplify V432 by writing it as a surd, in terms of 72 or 73 or %/5.

Answer 6
a V225 = x / 3 x 3 x 5 x 5 = s/9x 25 = 3 x 5 = 15
b 7432 = 7 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 3 = 7 1 6 x 9 x 3
4 x 3 x s / 3 = 12V3

Exercise 13.4 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h i s e x e r c is e
1W ith o u t using a c a lc u la to r (and s h o w in g all y o u r w o rk in g ) fin d th e fo llo w in g :
a V784 b V1600 c n/6 2 5

2 Express th e fo llo w in g square ro o ts as surds in te rm s o f \/2 , n/3 or V5:

a VT80 b 798 c 7192

3 In each case, show th a t th e fo llo w in g square ro o ts are e ith e r ra tio n a l or irra tio n a l:
a 750 b 7144 c 745
3581
 [ 13 Beal Numbers

1 3 . 9 F r a c t io n s , D e c i m a l s
a n d P e rc e n ta g e s
The basic w o rk on fra ctions, d e c im a ls and percentages w as covered in C hapter 2. We w ill now
loo k at s lig h tly m o re d iffic u lt q u e stions.

E x e r c is e 1 3 . 5 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e
1 W r ite 2 .2 3 as
a a m ix e d n u m b e r b a n im p r o p e r fr a c tio n .

2 A r ra n g e in o rd e r o f s ize , s t a r t in g w it h t h e s m a lle s t:

0 .2 1 % 500 2 x 1 0 3 ~25q

3 a C a lc u la te 6 5 a s a p e r c e n ta g e o f 5 0 .
b C a lc u la te 3 8 .2 a s a p e r c e n ta g e o f 4 0 .
c C a lc u la te 6 a s a p e r c e n ta g e o f 1 2 0 0 .

4 A r ra n g e t h e fo llo w in g in o r d e r o f s ize , s t a r tin g w ith t h e s m a lle s t.

1 A _L 19 a n d H-
6 ' 16' 20' 40 160

5 F in d a fr a c tio n h a lfw a y b e tw e e n

a g a n d ^ b | and |

E x e r c is e 1 3 . 6
Mixedexercise
1 % = {a, b, c, d, e , f g, h] L = {a,c,e} M-{b,c,d,e,fi
a D r a w a V e n n d ia g r a m s h o w in g th e s e s e ts . S h a d e /, in o n e d ir e c t io n a n d M i n a n o t h e r .
b List;
i LnM ii tuM iii L‘
iv M ’ v ( L n M ) ‘

c D r a w a n o t h e r V e n n d ia g r a m , S h a d e L in o n e d ir e c t io n a n d M' in a n o th e r ,
d L is t i LnM' ii Lu M 1
2 L ist t h e in te g e r s fr o m - 2 t o 2 in c lu s iv e . (In c lu s iv e m e a n s in c lu d in g - 2 a n d 2.)
3 D e s c r ib e t h e fo llo w in g :
a { 1 ,8 ,2 7 ,6 4 } b { 1 ,4 ,9 ,1 6 ,2 5 }

4 W it h o u t u s in g a c a lc u la to r , s im p lify a s fa r a s p o s s ib le :
a V4096 b V2450

5 W h ic h o f t h e fo llo w in g a r e ir r a t io n a l n u m b e r s ?
a V500 b VTTi

6 Y ou a r e g iv e n t h e fo llo w in g in f o r m a t io n .
V = { in te g e r s fr o m - 1 0 a n d 1 0 in c lu s iv e }
F = { 2 ,4 , 6}
G= {-2 , - 1 ,0 ,1 ,2 }
H = { 1 , 2 , 3, 4, 5, 6 , 7 , 8 }
By firs t d ra w in g a Venn d ia g ra m , fin d
a n(Fn6) b n(FuG) c « ( F n G n H)
d « ( F u G u H) e«(FuG uH )'

359
13 Beal Numliers J

Exam-style questions
7 F r o m t h e lis t o f n u m b e r s ^ , n, 7 l4 , -f\6, 2 7 .4 , ||, w r it e d o w n

a o n e in te g e r b o n e ir r a tio n a l n u m b e r .
(0 5 8 0 p a p e r 0 2 Q 3 N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 4 )

8 a ^ { x ix is a in te g e r , 14 }
A = {x :x is a p r im e n u m b e r }
B ={x:x is a m u l t ip le o f 3 }
i L is t t h e m e m b e r s o f (4 u B ) 1.
ii F in d n ( / 4 n B ) .
iii G iv e n t h a t C c A n ( C ) = 3 a n d B n C = 0 , lis t t h e m e m b e r s o f a p o s s ib le s e t C.
b O n a c o p y o f t h e V e n n d ia g r a m b e lo w , s h a d e t h e s e t ( P u f f ) n O '.

c A g r o u p o f 8 0 p e o p le a t t e n d e d a r e c r e a tio n c e n tr e o n o n e d a y .
O f th e s e p e o p le , 4 8 used th e gym
3 1 u s e d t h e s w im m in g p o o l
1 7 u s e d n e it h e r t h e g y m n o r t h e s w im m in g p o o l.
B y d r a w in g a V e n n d ia g r a m , o r o th e r w is e , fin d t h e n u m b e r o f p e o p le w h o u s e d b o t h
t h e g y m a n d t h e s w im m in g p o o l. (4 0 2 4 p a p e r 2 2 0 6 J u n e 2 0 1 2 )

9 '« = j - 2 ± , - 1 , 7 2 , 3 .5 , V 3 0 , n/ 3 6 j

X= {in te g e rs }
Y= { ir r a tio n a l n u m b e r s }
L is t t h e m e m b e r s o f
a X b Y. (0 5 8 0 p a p e r 0 2 Q 5 N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 3 )

10 a U s e s e t n o t a t io n t o d e s c r ib e t h e s h a d e d s u b s e t in t h e V e n n d ia g r a m .

%
 [ 13 Beal Numbers

b In a g ro u p o f stu d e n ts
30 p la y c ricke t, 38 p lay fo o tb a ll and 9 play n e ith e r c ric k e t n o r fo o tb a ll.
Find th e low est possible n u m b e r o f students in the group.
(4024 paper 11 Q10 N o v e m b e r 2014)

11 In a g ro u p o f language stu d e n ts, 24 s tu d ie d Spanish, 23 s tu d ie d French and 15 s tu d ie d

G erm an. 12 s tu d ie d Spanish and French, 10 s tu d ie d G erm an and French, 6 s tu d ie d
Spanish an d G erm an and 4 s tu d ie d all th re e languages. By d ra w in g a Venn d ia g ra m or
o th e rw is e , c a lc u la te th e n u m b e r o f s tu d e n ts w h o s tu d ie d
a b o th S panish and French, b u t n o t G erm an
b o n ly o n e language. (4024 p a p e r 01 Q18a J u n e 2003)

12 Rearrange th e q u a n titie s in o rd e r w ith th e sm a lle st first.

1%, 0.00126 (0580 p a p e r 02 Q4 N o ve m b e r 2003)
o zbUU
13 0.0008 8 X lO ’5 0.8% 125^00
W rite th e a b o ve n u m b e rs in order, sm a lle st first. (0580 p a p e r 02 Q6 N o ve m b e r 2006)

1 4 W rite d o w n th e next p rim e n u m b e r a fter 89. (0580 p a p e r 02 Q2 J u n e 2006)

15 V = { x : x is a n in te g e r and x > 5}
P = { x : x is a p rim e n u m b e r}
F = { x : x is a m u ltip le o f4 }
S = { x : x i s a m u ltip le o f 6}
The Venn d ia g ra m show s th e universal set and th e set F.
a C opy th e Venn d ia g ra m and d ra w and label th e tw o sets P
a nd S to c o m p le te it.
b W rite d o w n a p ossible e le m e n ty such th a ty is an even
n u m b e r a n d y e ( F u S )'.
(4024 p a p e r 11 Q15 N o ve m b e r 2011)

1 6 On th e V enn d ia g ra m s shade th e regions

a A 'n C '

(0580 p a p e r 02 Q8 J u n e 2007)
17 a 'f = [ x : x is an in te g e r and 5 =£ x 15}
A = { x : x is a m u ltip le o f 3}
B = { x : x is a fa c to r o f 60}
C = [ x : x is a p rim e n u m b e r}

/
361
13 Real Numbers J

1 Find n ( / 4 n 8 n C). ii F in d (/4 u B )'.

iii A n u m b e r, r, is chosen a t ra n d o m fro m V .
Find th e p ro b a b ility th a t r e A n 8.
iv Given th a t D c 8 a nd D c C , fin d D.
b An a c tiv ity c a m p offers 3 sports: te n n is , c ric k e t and v o lle yb a ll.
O ne day, 50 c h ild re n to o k p a rt in these sports.
19 c h ild re n played te nnis, 34 c h ild re n played c ric ke t and 23 c h ild re n p la y e d v o lle y b a ll.
2 c h ild re n played all 3 sports.
5 c h ild re n played te n n is and cricket.
10 c h ild re n p layed te n n is and v o lle yb a ll.
By d ra w in g a Venn d ia g ra m , o r o th e rw is e , fin d th e n u m b e r o f c h ild re n w h o p layed
i te n n is and c ric k e t b u t n o t v o lle y b a ll,
11 c ric k e t and v o lle y b a ll b u t n o t te nnis,
iii c ric ke t only. (4024 p a p e r 21 Q2 Ju n e 2014)

1 8 A and 6 are sets.

W rite th e fo llo w in g sets in th e ir s im p le s t fo rm ,
a A n A' b A<jA' c (AnB)u(AnB').
(0580 p a p e r 02 Q12 N o v e m b e r 2007)

19 W ork o u t th e value o f 1 + — i —
3 + 57? (0580 p a p e r 21 Q3 N o v e m b e r 2008)

2 0 In a g ro u p o f 100 s tu d e n ts , 80 s tu d y Spanish a nd 35 s tu d y French,

x s tu d e n ts s tu d y S panish a nd French,
y s tu d e n ts s tu d y n e ith e r S panish n o r French.
The Venn d iagram illustrates th is in fo rm a tio n ,
a Expressed in set n o ta tio n , th e va lu e o f x
is n(S n F). Express th e v a lu e o f y in set
n o ta tio n .
b Find, in its s im p le s t fo rm , an expression
f o r y in te rm s o fx .
c Find
i th e least p o s s ib le va lu e o f x
ii th e g re a te st possib le value o fy . (4024 p a p e r 02 Q 5 J u n e 2004)

2 1 The results o f a survey o f 31 stu d e n ts

are s h o w n in th e Venn d iagram .
'( = {s tu d e n ts q u e s tio n e d in th e survey}
M = {s tu d e n ts w h o s tu d y M ath e m a tics}
P = {s tu d e n ts w h o s tu d y Physics}
S = {s tu d e n ts w h o s tu d y Spanish}

W rite d o w n th e value o f
a x b n (M n P )
c n (M u S ) d n(P‘).
ii W rite d o w n a d e s c rip tio n , in w ords, o fth e set th a t has 16 m em bers.
(4024 p a p e r 02 Q 6a J u n e 2006)

\
362
 lv 13 Beal Numbers

22 a The se ts /I and 8 are show n on th e Venn diagram

The e le m e n t y is such th a t y e / I and y <£ B.
On a cop y o f th e diagram , w r ite y in the
co rre c t region,
b < = { x : x is an in teger and 1 =£ x =£ 8}
P = { x : x > 5}
Q = {x :x = £ 3 }
i Find th e value o f n (P u Q ).
ii List th e e le m e n ts o f P ' n Q 1. (4024 paper 01 Q9 June 2007)

23 a E xp re ss, in s e t n o ta tio n , as s im p ly as
p o s s ib le , th e s u b s e t s h a d e d in th e V e n n
d ia g ra m .
b It is given th a t n (<‘ ) = 40, n[P) = 18, n(Q) = 20 and
n[P n Q) = 7. Find
i « (P u Q ),
ii n ( P 'n Q ') . (4024/01 O c t/N o v 2007 q9)

24 a On a copy o fth e Venn d ia g ra m , shade th e

s e t P u Q ’.
b There are 27 ch ild re n in a class.
O f these ch ild re n , 19 o w n a bicycle, 15 o w n a
s co o te r and 3 o w n n e ith e r a bicycle n o r a scooter.
U sing a Venn d iagram , o r o th e rw is e , fin d the
n u m b e r o f c h ild re n w h o o w n a b icycle b u t n o t a
scooter. (4024 p a per 0 1 Q9 N o ve m b e r 2008)

25 a 'f = { 1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 }
>4 = {1 ,2 ,3 }
8 = {5}
C = {3 ,4 }
List th e e le m e n ts o f
i AuC
ii B ' n C .
b A g ro u p o f 60 c h ild re n a tte n d an after school club.
O f these, 35 c h ild re n p lay fo o tb a ll and 29 p lay hockey.
3 c h ild re n d o n o t pla y e ith e r fo o tb a ll o r hockey.
By d ra w in g a Venn d iagram , o r o th e rw ise , fin d th e n u m b e r
o f c h ild re n w h o play o n ly hockey. (4024 pa p e r 01 Q18 J u n e 2009)
 Algebra I
Syllabus sections 17,18 and 19

In this chapter you will: • learn m ore ab o u t indices

• work with algebraic fractions

1 4 .1 Introduction
Algebra is a v ita l to o l in m a th e m a tic s . It is e ssential th a t you u n d e rs ta n d th e la nguage o f
algebra, b o th th e s ig n ific a n t w o rd s such as ‘e q u a tio n ’ and ‘e v a lu a te ’, and th e s h o rth a n d
n o ta tio n th a t m a th e m a tic ia n s use to c o m m u n ic a te th e ir ideas.

1 4 .2 Essential Skills NO CALCULATOR IN THIS EXERCISE

1 y = 2x + 3 2x + 5 y - x - l a2 = b2 + c2
From th e se le c tio n above, choose
a a fo rm u la b an e q u a tio n c an expression.

2 From th e expression 2 x - x 1 + 3x y - 6 - 4xy, ch oose

a a te rm in x b a c o n s ta n t te rm
c th e c o e ffic ie n t o fth e te rm in x 2 d tw o like term s.

3 S im p lify
b x3x x5x x
e (ab2)3

4 S im p lify w h e re p ossible
b - 6x -r- - 2 y c x y + x 2f
-2a x - 3 b + 6a

5 S im p lify
a x4x y 5x y 2x x 3 b 2X3 -T- 3x2 x 9 x 5 C x 11 + x 7 x x 8 d (x y )6

6 S im p lify th e fo llo w in g expressions:

a 2x - 3y - 5x + y b a + b + c — a + -b — c
C pq r-q p r d ab + 3a - 4b - 2ab + 4 b + a

364
 I 14 Algebra I

7 Calculate the following:

a 3 -' b 2 •x / c d (2 |);

8 In each o f t h e follow ing, find a re p la c e m e n t for n w h ic h makes the s ta te m e n t true.

a 1 = 100 " b ! = (!)" c (![= f d 10 = 10"

9 M ultiply o u t the brackets and simplify:
a 2(x - y) - 2(x + y) b p q r - p q { r + 1)
C a2[a + b2) + b2(a2 + b) d x 2 y 2 —( x2y 2 - 1) + x ~ ( y 2 - 1) - y 2(x2 + 1)

10 Factorise com pletely:

a 5 x y z + 1 0 x 2y b 14x2y - 2 1 x y 2 c 3a 2 - 6a 1 d 2x l - x

1 4 .3 Expanding Products of Algebraic

Factors
You have m e t exam ples o f m u ltip ly in g a bracketed expression by a n u m b e r and letters. An
e xa m p le o f a b racketed expression is (2 x + 5y).

We n o w have to lo o k a t m u ltip ly in g tw o bracketed expressions togethe r, and fo r s im p lic ity w e

s h a ll fro m n o w on say ‘ brackets’ ra th e r th a n ‘bracketed e x p re ssio n ’. Take a s im p le exam ple:

(2 + x) x (3 + y)

T his co u ld be se parated into:

2 x (3 + y) + x x (3 + y)

= 6 + 2y + 3 x + x y

N o te h o w every te rm in th e firs t p a ir o f b rackets m u ltip lie s every te rm in th e second p a ir o f

h ra rk p t< ;

It is n o rm a l to w rite th e brackets w ith o u t th e m u ltip lic a tio n sign using a lgebraic s h o rth a n d :

(2 + x) (3 + y) = 6 + 2 y + 3 x + x y

You w ill g et used to d o in g th is m u ltip lic a tio n q u ic k ly if you are system atic.

S ta rt w ith th e 2 fro m th e firs t p a ir o f brackets and m u ltip ly it firs t by th e 3 and th e n b y th e

+ y fro m th e second p a ir o f brackets, w ritin g d o w n b o th results. N ow m ove on to th e + x and
m u ltip ly it by firs t th e 3 and th e n th e +y, again w ritin g d o w n b o th results.

O nce again w e have to take careful n o tic e o f any m in u s signs, as be in g careless w ith th e se is
o n e o fth e c o m m o n e s t w ays to get a w ro n g answ er and lose m arks.

U sua lly yo u w ill fin d th a t th e re is a second line o f w o rk in g a fte ry o u have m u ltip lie d o u t the
brackets w h e re you can s im p lify by c o lle c tin g like term s, as you w ill see in th e next e xam ple.
M u ltip ly in g o u t th e brackets is so m e tim e s called e xp a n d in g th e brackets.

365
II AlgebraI J

Example 1
Multiply out the brackets and simplify where possible,
a (x + 2)2

b (x + 2 ) ( x - 3 )
c ( 3 f l- 4 ) ( 2 o + 5)
d ( x + l) (x -l)
e (a + b ) ( a - b )
f (2 -s)(5 + s)
g (x 2 + l ) ( x + 2 )
h [a + b)(a + b + 1)
Answer 1

a (x + 2 )2 = ( x + 2 ) ( x + 2) b (x + 2 ) ( x - 3 ) = x 2- 3 x + 2 x - 6
= x 2+ 2 x + 2 x + 4 = x 2+ 4 x + 4 = x 2- x- 6

C (3 a - 4 )(2 a + 5) = 6 a 2 + 1 5 a - 8 a - 20 d (x + l) ( x - 1)= x 2 - x +x — 1
= 6 a 2 + 7a - 20 = x 2- l

e (a + b ) ( a - b ) = a 2 - a b + a b - b 2 f (2 - s)(5 + s) = 1 0 + 25 - 5 s — s 2
b2 = 10 - 3 s - s2

g (x2+ l) ( x + 2 )= x 3+ 2x2 + x + 2 h ( a + b)(a + b + 1) = a 2 + a b + a + b a + b2 + b

= a 2 + 2 a b + a + b2 + b

Exercise 14.1
Multiply out the brackets and simplify where possible.
1 (fl + l)(a + l) 2 (x + 4)(x+5) 3 (x + 4)(x-5) 4 (x-4)(x + 5)
5 (x -4 )(x -5 ) 6 {2b+l){b+l) 7 (5c —2)(c —2) 8 (6x+5)(2x + 3)
9 {x+y){x+y) 10 [ x - y ) ( x - y ) 11 [ x - y ) ( x + y) 12 ( 2 d + 3 e ) { 2 d - 3 e )
13 (7 z + l)(2 z - l) 14 (2 + x)(4 + x) 15 (2 + x)(2-x) 16 (a2+ b){a + b)
17 (x2- l ) ( x + l ) 18 (b + c)(2b + 2 c + l ) 19 (x - l) ( x J + x + l ) 20 (x2+l)(x2- l )
21 (2x+3)2 2 2 (2x + 3)(2x- 3) 23 (2 x -3 )2 24 (3x-4)(3x + 4)
25 ( 2 b - l ) { 2 b + l ) 26 (2a + 3b)(c + d)

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366
 I 14 Algebra I

Key term
A quadratic expression
1 4 .4 Factorising Quadratic Expressions
is a sum o f terms usually A q u a d ra tic expression in x c o n ta in s a term in r , and can c o n ta in a te rm in x and a c o n s ta n t
involving a single te rm , b u t no o th e r term s. For exam ple, r + 2 x + 1 is a q u a d ra tic expression.
variable in which the
highest power of that N ow th a t w e k n o w h o w to m u ltip ly o u t tw o pairs o f brackets and s im p lify th e re s u lt w e need
variable is 2. There may to a n sw e r th e q u e s tio n 'h o w do w e get back to o u r o rig in a l tw o pairs o f brackets?’ T his needs
also be a term w ith the to be tre a te d like a puzzle w h ic h can be solved by tria l and error. Try a p o s s ib le s o lu tio n , and
variable to the power 1, th e n m u ltip ly o u t again to see if you get back th e o rig in a l expression.
and a constant term.
You w ill o fte n fin d th a t you w ill not get the correct answ er stra ig h t away, b u t th is does n o t m ean
th a t you are d o in g a n y th in g p a rtic u la rly w rong, so ju s t try again, w ith a d iffe re n t c o m b in a tio n of
letters a n d num bers. After a w h ile you w ill begin to see th e pattern s and w ill find th a t you get the
c o rre ct answ e r w ith few er a tte m p ts. It is w o rth practising these u n til it becom es easier.

We w ill s ta rt w ith easy exam ples, and w o rk on to w a rd s th e m ore d iffic u lt. First w e w ill lo o k at
an e x a m p le w h ic h has been m u ltip lie d o u t, so w e can see w here th e te rm s co m e fro m .

(x + 2 )(x + 5)

x 1 + 5 x + 2 x + 10

= x 2 + I x + 10

If you are asked to factorise this expression you can start by draw ing tw o e m p ty pairs o f brackets:

x 2 + 7 x + 10

= ( )( )
The te rm a t th e b e g in n in g o f each p a ir o f brackets com es fro m fa c to ris in g * 2, so th is is easy:

x 2 + I x + 10

The term at the end of each pair of brackets com es from factorising the constant term, +10.
B eside y o u r w o rk in g it is a good idea to w rite d o w n all th e fa c to rs o f +10, as usual b e in g
s y s te m a tic a b o u t it.

The fa c to rs o f 10 are {1 ,2 ,5 ,1 0 }.

S ta rt w ith th e s m a lle st and w rite it d o w n m u ltip lie d by th e o th e r fa c to r w h ic h gives th e p ro d u c t

10. (In th is case 1 x 10.) Then m ove on to the next factor. (In th is case 2 x 5.) T his is as far as you
can go w ith 10 because you w ill s ta rt repeating pairs o f factors. By w o rk in g in th is w ay you w ill
n o t be in d a n g e r o f leaving o u t any factors w hen th e exam ples b ecom e m o re d iffic u lt.

x 2 + 7 x + 10 1 X 10

= [x )(x 2x5

The firs t p a rt o f th e puzzle is to d e c id e w h ic h o f these tw o pairs o f fa c to rs yo u need to choose.

NOTE: ; If yo u lo o k back to th e m u ltip ly in g o u t you w ill see th a t th e tw o fa c to rs have to add up to +7,
It is worth repeating so in th is e x a m p le th e re is n o t a lo t o f choice, and w e pick 2 and 5, b o th b e in g positive .
that you should always
check your answer by = x 2 + 7 x + 10 2 + 5
multiplying out the
= (x + 2 )(x + 5) = 7
brackets again.
T h ing s s ta rt to get m o re c o m p lic a te d w hen the c o n s ta n t te rm has m o re pairs o f factors, o r
w h e n th e re are neg ative signs as w ell. We w ill com e to these later.

As usual, yo u s h o u ld w o rk th ro u g h the exam ples, and th e n w o rk th ro u g h th e w h o le exercise.

367
14 Algebra l J

Example 2
Factorise the following quadratic expressions:
a x 2+ l l x + 1 0 b x 2+ lOx + 24 c x 2 + l l x + 24

Answer 2
a x 2 + l l x + 10 1x10 1 + 10 = 11
= (x )(x ) 2x5
= {x+l)(x+10)

b x 2+ 10x + 24 1x24
= (x )(x ) 2x12
= (x + 4)(x + 6) 3x8
4x6 4 + 6 = 10
c Using the factors we have already set out in part (b) you should see that 3 + 8 = 11, so:
x 2+ l l x + 24
= (x + 3)(x + 8)

Exercise 14.2
Factorise:

1 x 2+ 4 x + 3 2 x 2+ 6 x + 5 3 x 2 + 1 3 x + 12 4 x 2 + 8x + 12 5 x 2 + 7 x + 12

6 x ^ x + ie 7 x*+ 1 7 x+ 1 6 8 j^ + l O x + lS 9 x 2 + 18x + 1 7 10 x 2 + 2x + 1

We w ill n o w lo o k a t q u a d ra tic expressions c o n ta in in g m in u s signs.

Exam ple 3
Factorise
a x 2- 5 x - 6 b x 2+ 5 x - 6 C x 2- 5 x + 6 d x 2- 7 x + 6

Answer 3
In each one of these we have to factorise 6:1 x 6
2x3
a x 2- 5x - 6 + l - 6 = -5 , b x 2+ 5x - 6 -1 + 6 = +5,
a n d + lx -6 = -6 a n d - l x + 6 = -6
= ( x + l) ( x - 6 ) = (x -l)(x + 6 )
C x 2- 5x + 6 - 2 - 3 = -5 , d x 2- 7x + 6 - 1 - 6 = -7,
a n d - 2 x - 3 = +6 a n d - l x - 6 = +6
: (x -2 )(x -3 ) = ( x — 1) (x —6)

Exercise 14.3
Factorise:

1 x 2 + 6x + 5 2 x : + 4x - 5 3 x - Ax - 5 4 r !-6 x -5

5 x 2 - 7x - 8 6 x 2 - 6x + 8 7 x y+ 2 x - 8 8 x 2+ 3 5 x - 3 6

9 x 2 - 1 6 x - 36 10 X2 - 13x + 36

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 I 14 ftlgebral

Exam ple 4
F a c to ris e :

a 2x2 + 3x + 1 b 2x2+ x - 3 C 2x2- 5x + 3 d 6 x 2 + 17x + 5

e 6x2+ 13x + 6 f 6x2+ 5x - 6 g 6 x 2 + 5 x y - 6y 2

Answer 4

a 2x2 + 3x + 1
= (2 jc + 1)(jc + 1)

b 2x2+ 5x + 3
= ( 2 x + 3 ) [ x + 1)

C 2 x 2- 5 x + 3
= (2 x -3 )(x -l)

d 6 x 2 + 17x + 5
= ( 2 x + 5 )(3 x + 1)

e 6 x 2+ 13x + 6
= (2 x + 3 )( 3 x + 2)

369
14 Algebra I J
Key term
A d iffe re n c e o f
s q u a re s is an
expression w ith tw o
te rm s, b o th p e rfe c t
squares, in w h ic h o ne
te rm is s u b tra c te d
fro m th e other.
\
370
f 6 x2+ 5x - 6
(2 x + 3 ) ( 3 x - 2 )
g 6X2 + 5 x y - 6y 2
= (2 x + 3 y ) (3 x - 2 y )
in y at the end of each p a iro f
As you can see, you m u s t be p repared fo r som e tria l and e rro r w h e n fa c to ris in g th e m o re
d iffic u lt q u a d ra tic s . Practise as m uch as y ou can and you w ill begin to see th e s o lu tio n s
w ith o u t h a vin g to w rite d o w n every possib le c o m b in a tio n . It does g e t easier. A lw ays
re m e m b e r to m u ltip ly o u t again to c h e ck th a t you d o have th e c o rre c t s o lu tio n .
Exercise 14.4
Factorise:
1 3x2 + 4 x + l 2 6X2 + 5 x + 1 3 3 x 2+ 5 x + 2 4 3X2 + 7 x + 2
ro
5 6 3 x 2+ 2 x - l 7 3x2 - 4 x + l 8 6x 2 + 7 x + l
I
9 4X 2 - Ix - 2 10 4 x i + 8 x + 3 11 4 x 2 + 13x + 3 12 4 x 2- 4 x ~ 3
13 Ax2+ 4 x - 3 1 4 4 x 2- 8 x + 3 15 8 x 2 + 1 4 x + 3 16 8 x 2 + lO x - 3
17 8x2 + 10x + 3 1 8 8x2 + 2 x - 3 19 8x2 + 26x + 15 2 0 9x2 + 3 0 x + 2 5
2 1 6X2 — 25x + 25 2 2 8x 2 + 2 6 x 7 + 1 5 / 2 3 9x2 + 30x7 + 2 5 / 2 4 6x2y - 2 5 x y + 25
1 4 .5 Factorising a Difference of Squares
Do you re m e m b e r w h a t h a p p e n e d in som e o f th e q u e s tio n s on m u ltip ly in g o u t th e b ra cke ts
in Exercise 14.1, fo r e xa m p le ( x + y ) ( x - y ) ?
To take a n o th e r exam ple:
(c + 4 d )[c - 4 d)
- c1 - 4 c d + 4 cd - 16d 2
= c2 — 1 6 d 2
This resu lt is ca lle d a d iffe re n c e o f s q u a re s . The m in u s sign m eans to find th e difference
be tw ee n c2 and 16d 2, and c2 and 16d 2 are b o th te rm s th a t are p e rfe ct squares.
There is no easy w ay o f w o rk in g o u t h o w to fa cto rise a diffe re n ce o f squares, so it is very
im p o rta n t th a t you learn th e fo llo w in g result:
x 2 - y 2 = (x + y ) ( x - y )
 I 14 Algebra I

This only works for a difference o f squares, so d o n o t try to fin d s o m e th in g s im ila r fo r a sum of
squares, w h ic h w ill n o t factorise in th is way.

One exam ple to lo o k o u t fo r is:

x — 1 = ( x - l ) ( x + 1)

This is n o t ob vio u s u n til you re m e m b e r th a t 1 is th e sam e as l 2.

Exam ple 5
Factorise where possible:
a 1 - 25x2 b 9y 2 - 16a:2 C y1+ x 2

Answ er 1

a 1 - 25x2 b 9_y2 - 16x 2 C y 2+ x 2

= (1 - 5x )(l + 5x) = (3y - 4x)(3y + 4x) Nothing can be done with
this because it is a sum of
squares, not a difference.
V

Exercise 14.5
Factorise:

1 x2- ) ? 2 a2- 1 3 ^ - 9 4 4-y2 - 9

00
i—1
5 25 - a 2 6 36a2 - 4 9 b2 7 a2b2 - x^y2

1
1 4 .6 Factorising by Pairing
L oo king back at Exercise 14.1 q u e s tio n 26:

(2a + 3 b)(c + d )
— 2 ac 4 2ad L 3 be I 3 bd

We see th a t it is n o t alw ays p o s s ib le to finish o ff by s im p lify in g tw o o f th e term s.

These expressions can often be fa cto rise d by firs t p u ttin g th e m in to tw o pairs.

For exam ple,

ab + x y + ay + b x

This can be g ro up e d in to tw o pairs in w h ic h each o f th e pairs has a c o m m o n factor. We re w rite

ab + x y + ay + bx
= ab + a y + x y + bx
= a (b + y) + x ( y + b)

R e m e m b e rin g th a t b + y is th e sam e as y + b, w e can take ( b + y ) o u t as a c o m m o n factor.

= a (b + y) + x ( b + y)
= (b + y ) ( a + x)

Check th a t th is is co rre c t by m u ltip ly in g o u t again.

The sam e re su lt w o u ld have been o b ta in e d if th e te rm s had been g roupe d th e o th e r po ssib le

ab + b x + x y + ay
= b(a + x) + y ( x + a)

and so on.

371
14 Algebra I j

1 4 .7 Factorising System atically

W hen you are asked to factorise an expression it is w o rth lo oking a t the q uestion system atically.

Alw ays lo o k fo r any c o m m o n fa cto rs first, and take th e m o u ts id e a p a ir o f brackets. Then th in k

a b o u t d iffe re n ce o f squares, th e n a q u a d ra tic and th e n pairing.

F a c to rizin g s y s te m a tic a lly

1 Are there a n y c o m m o n factors ?

If so, fa cto rise th e m o u t first.

2 Is there a difference o f squares?

If so, factorise.

3 Is the expression quadra tic?

If so, fa ctorise.

4 Lastly, think a b o u t pairing.

Exam ple 6
Factorise com pletely:
a 2x2- 8 b x 2y 2 - 4 z 2
c 8ab + 4ay + 4bx + 2xy d 2 a 2+ 6 a b + 4 b 2

Answ er 6
a 2x2- 8

= 2(x2- 4 )
= 2 ( x - 2 ) ( x + 2)
b x 2y 2 - 4 z 2
= ( x y - 2 z ) ( x y + 2z)
c 8 a b + 4 a y + 4 b x + 2 x y = 2(4a£> + 2 a y + 2 b x + xy)
= 2 [ 2 a ( 2 b + y) + x ( 2 b + y ) ]
= 2 ( 2 b + y ) ( 2 a + x)
d 2 a 2 + 6ai> + 4 b 2
= 2 ( a 2 + 3 a b + 2 b 2)
= 2( a + 2b) ( a + b)

NOTE:
Ifybu h i p p ^ ^ ^ t l ^ S y j t h o u t first lookingfbf'OoPnrrj'bn factors yoy might have ended
up With (2a + 4b)[a+b),or{a+2b)[2a+ 2b), \ \ | { c h : | f | | | ® u t not completely factorised, and
as it stands is only worth part of the marks inan-examination. In each case, if ySti f o on to
factorise out the common factor of 2 you would have completed the factorisation. A similar
problem would have arisen if the common factor in (c) had not been taken out first.

V___________________________________
N
372
 I 14 Algebra I

Exercise 14.6
r -y fo rise c o m p le te ly

* 9 a + 15b 2 1 -r 3 18 - 2 x 2
4 2x2 - x - 1 5 6x2 - 18jc 6 2 x 2 - 1 2 x + 18
7 20x< - 5x 8 3x2 + 3x - 6 9 2y'J - 4 / + 2y
10 16xy2- 4 x 2y 11 16xyJ- 4 x :iy 12 1 2 a b + 6 a y + 3 x y + 6bx

1 4 .8 More about Indices

In C h a p te r 3 w e lo oke d at indices th a t w ere taken fro m th e set o f integers (p o s itiv e and
n e ga tive w h o le n u m be rs and zero). N ow w e m u st lo o k at fra c tio n a l indices. You s h o u ld
re m e m b e r th a t fin d in g a square ro o t is th e inverse o f s q uaring, and so s q u a rin g a n u m b e r’s
squ a re ro o t gives back th e n u m b e r itself. Look at th e fo llo w in g sta te m e n ts :

•J2 X 7 2 = 2
1 1 1 1
22 X 22 = 22 2 = 2 ' = 2

It m akes sense to say th a t J 2 is th e sam e as 2 i

In th e sam e way,

7 2 x ^ 2 x 7 2 = 25 X 23 X 2 5 = 23*5*1 = 2' = 2

You can see th a t th e ro o t is d e n o te d by th e d e n o m in a to r in a fra c tio n a l index. Thus a c u b e

ro o t is w ritte n as a p o w e r o f p a fo u rth ro o t is w ritte n as a p o w e r o f ^ and so on.

Exam ple 7
C alcu la te :

a 25^
b 325

A nsw er 7
i
a 252 means the square root of 25, which is 5

25^ = 5

b 32^ trying 2 first, 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 32

32^ = 2

The n o rm a l rules fo r w o rk in g w ith in d ice s a p p ly to fra c tio n a l indices as w e ll. In p a rtic u la r it is

useful to u n d e rsta n d th e fo llo w in g :

325 = (323)5 = (3 2 ^ )3 = 23 = 8

325 = ( 3 2 3)^ = 3 2 7 6 8 3 = 8

H ence, yo u can m u ltip ly th e in d ice s in any o rd e r b u t it is m uch s im p le r to ta ke th e ro o t firs t so

th a t you are d e a lin g w ith s m a lle r num bers.
14 Algebra I J

NOTE: Example 8
In answer b Ii a Without using a calculator work out
i (100)^ ii (2 7 )T
b Simplify
1 3 1 5 3
i (iix ^ )2 ii x * x x i iii (x~2) '4
c Find replacements for x which will make the following statements true:
i 25x=5 ii 2 7 x = 3 iii 2 56 x = 4
- 1 x - 4 = + 6 ^ -;' ' Answer 8
a i (100)2 = (1002 )3 = io 3 = 1000

ii (27)3 = j_ _ 2
■ 32 _ 9

er
H
, — (2x — 1 (2x—) ,,
( x * X y 2 )2 = x 2^ 2 xx ;y 2 = x x y 3= xy3
5 squared equals'25, so
the square root o f 25 = 5 I X 2 X X 2 = x( - H ) = x2

ii ( x 2 )-* =x( 2X ^ = x 6

25' = 5

52 = 25, SO 2 5 2 = 5

x=

ii 2 7 '= 3

3 3 = 27, SO 273 = 3
1
x= ■

iii 2 5 6 ' = 4

44 = 256, SO 2 5 6 4 = 4
1
x= -
4

Exercise 14.7
W ith o u t u sing a c a lc u la to r, w o rk o ut:

1 81* 2 8 1 '* 3 81"*

S im p lify, g ivin g y o u r a n sw e r in a fo rm w ith p o s itive pow ers.
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 _l
4 2x5 +5x5 5 2x5 x 5x5 6 2X 5 -1- 5X 5 7 2X5 x 5 x '’-

8 2x"^x5x"5 9 2x § -=-5x~^ 10 2y * X y i 11 2 y * + y

12 ( x 5 + 1)(*2 - 1 ) 13 ( x y 2)’2 1 4 2.y -’i.v- + x ) 15 (2x)5 x(16x);"

16 (x^ -1 )2 17 ( x i —x ^)2
18 Find re p la c e m e n ts fo r x w h ic h w o u ld m ake each o fth e fo llo w in g s ta te m e n ts true.
a 3 2 '= 2 b 81' = 3 C 125-'= 5

\
374]
 I 14 nigebral

1 4 .9 Algebraic Fractions
In this s e ction w e are g o in g to see h o w w e can s im p lify a lgebraic fractions, and also h o w to
add, su b tra c t, m u ltip ly and d ivid e a lgebraic fractions. The sam e rules a p p ly as fo r a rith m e tic ,
w ith a few changes to a llo w fo r the variables (letters).

Simplifying Algebraic Fractions

Look at th e expressions below .

x y1 3 M
2' y + T a' “
' b
These are all exam ples o f a lgebraic fractions.

N ow w e m u s t see h o w to s im p lify so m e ty p ic a l exam ples fo llo w in g the fa m ilia r rules o f

a rith m e tic .

The fra c tio n can be s im p lifie d by d iv id in g th e d e n o m in a to r and n u m e ra to r by th e highest

c o m m o n factor. In th is case it is 5.
10 _ 5 X 2_ 2
15 5 X 3 3

In a s im ila r w ay, can be s im p lifie d by d iv id in g th e n u m e ra to r and d e n o m in a to r by th e

HCF o f abc2 and a2c, w h ic h is ac.
abc2 _ ac X be _ be
a 2c ac x a a
Rem em ber

• You m u s t check th a t w h a te v e r you are d iv id in g by can in fa c t d iv id e th e whole o f th e

n u m e ra to r a nd th e w hole o f th e d e n o m in a to r.
• It r e a lly is best to fa cto rise firs t to avoid o n e o f th e m o s t c o m m o n m istakes in algebra.
I wo further examples should demonstrate this:
x y + zy _ y ( x + z) _ x + z
y2 y x y y

x y + y z _ y ( x + z)
2y + z 2y + z

T h e y c a n n o t d iv id e th e w h o le o f th e d e n o m in a to r, so no fu rth e r s im p lify in g can be done.

C o m p lic a te d fra c tio n s can often be s im p lifie d by m u ltip lyin g th e d e n o m in a to r and n u m e ra to r

by th e sam e n u m b e r o r letter, as in th is exam ple:

2
3

The lo w e st c o m m o n m u ltip le o f th e d e n o m in a to rs 2 and 3 is 6, so if th e to p and b o tto m o f

this fra c tio n are m u ltip lie d by 6 these d e n o m in a to rs can be cancelle d out.

It is a good idea to m u ltip ly by | to avoid m istakes.

R em em ber that ^ x ^ = 3 and | x | = 4.

r f _ ( r _ (3 + 4 ) 7 .,3
2 2, 6 4 4 4
W o rk th ro u g h th is c a re fu lly to m ake sure you u n d e rs ta n d w h a t is h a p p e n in g .

To avoid som e o fth e c o m m o n errors in w o rk in g w ith c o m p le x alg e b ra ic fra c tio n s it is best, if

th e n u m e ra to r o r d e n o m in a to r (or b o th ) c o n ta in sum s o r d ifferences o f te rm s , to d ra w pairs o f
bra ckets ro u n d th e m before y ou s ta rt any w ork.

For exam ple,

(x + y)
s h o u ld be w ritte n as (x _ y j before a ny w o rk is done.

Remember:
• Before s ta rtin g w o rk w ith a lg e b ra ic fra c tio n s d ra w pairs o f b rackets ro u n d th e n u m e ra to r
and d e n o m in a to r if necessary.

E x a m p le 9
1+ ?
a Calculate
12 + 4

b S im plify

ab
.. x+y
11 3x + 3y

x-1
lv
x-2 y
V x 2 - x y - 2y 2
y j a2 + 3 a + 2
a2 + a - 2

A nsw er 9

'+L (1+3 _ H * " _ 1 2 +8 _= ^2 0 _= 2

5-3 fe-3X 12 1+ 9 10

b S im plify

: q b _ U b) 1 _ b+ a _ x + y (x + y ) ( * - »- y ) 1
. +a _ _
1 ab 1 3x + 3y (3x + 3y) 3(x + y) 3
ab 1

... x 2 - y 2 ( x + y ) ( x - y ) x-1 (x -1 ) 1
in -------- — = -— = x - y iv
x + y (x + y) X2 + x - 2 ( x + 2 ) ( x - -1) x +2

x -2 y _ ( x - 2 y) _1 a2 + 3a + 2 (a + 2 ) ( a + 1) a+ 1
VI
x2- x y - 2 y 2 (x - 2 y ) ( x + y ) [x + y) a2 + a - - 2 (a + 2 ) ( a - 1 ) a - 1
 I 14 Algebra I

Exercise 14.8
W ith o u t u s in g a c a lc u la to r, s im p lify :
1_ 1
2__ 3 J __ 5_
1
2 + 4
6 25 5 6 2

4x - 8 _ 3__ x y + xz
2 6x+9 X

x y + xz 3x 6 x 2+ 4 x
2y + 2z 9x y +1 5xz 10 x 2 - 8x
3xyz x + y
10 11 12 4 x 2- 9
x y - 4 xz 2 x -3

y + 2 X 1— 1 -1
13 14 15
y 2+ 3y + 2 x 2- 2 x + i x ' + 2x + 1

J- a b
x + *y
1 x 1

16 x y 17 18 b__ a
3 x-3 JL
x y 7 x ab

Multiplying and Dividing Algebraic Fractions

Let us revise h o w to m u ltip ly and d iv id e fra c tio n s in v o lvin g n u m b e rs only:
2 x 3_ 2X 3_ 6 ! + 4 = ! x Z : 14
and
5 7 5 X 7 35 15

You can save w o rk by c a n c e llin g b efore m u ltip ly in g w here possible. For exam ple,
5 ■ 1 5 _ 5 ><4 _ 1 X 4 _ 1 X 1 _ 1
12 ' 4 12 15 1 2 X 3 3 X 3 9

The n u m e ra to r and d e n o m in a to r w ere firs t d iv id e d by 5 and then by 4, b u t these tw o d ivisio n s

can be d o n e a t th e sam e tim e .

The a lte rn a tiv e is:

_5_. 15 _ 5 x 4 _ 20
1? d 13 m is n

w h ic h th e n has to be s im p lifie d .

T he sam e a p p lie s to m u ltip ly in g and d iv id in g a lgebraic fractions.

Example 10

a Calculate
3 4
i - x-
8 9
3 . 1
ii
8 ' 6
b Simplify
x 2 + 2x - 3 x + 3
i —
y + ^x x + 1 y + 1 [ y + 1)
III
-1
Answer 10
3 4 _ 3 x 4 _ 1x1 3^ 1 = 3 6 3 x 6 3x3
a i
8 X 9 8 x 9 ~ 2x3 ' 8 ' 6 “ 8 1 _ 8x1 4
x x ^ y—
------
y + 1 x + 1

N O TE x y
— _____________ V _____ I .___
( y + 1) ( x + 1)
In this case nofurther
simplificatJOn is possible. xy
( y + l ) ( x + 1)
14 Algebra I J

X . x2 _ X X2
" y+ M y+ 1)2 ~ 0 ' + 1) ’ ( y + i f
_ * J r+ 1 )2
(y+ ) 1 *2
_ y+i
X

Exercise 14.9
W ith o u t usin g a c a lc u la to r, w o rk o u t:
1 i x 2 2
1 9 X 3 ^ 9 • 3

S im p lify
3 1 w x2y 2 4_ * _ x ^ 5 -X -+ X ± l
xy x 2+ y 2 x -1 x y X ~1 x y

6 4 ^ x 4 ^ 7 8 ^ ± M ! x ’
x 2+ y 2 x 2- y 2 x 2+ y 2 x 2- y 2 x (x+ 1)

Adding and Subtracting Algebraic Fractions

As w ith n u m e ric a l fra c tio n s , th e c o m m o n d e n o m in a to r has to be fo u n d first. Also, fin d in g the
lo w e s t c o m m o n d e n o m in a to r saves tim e , as it a v o id s extra c a n c e llin g a t th e end.

2 . 3 _ 2 X 4 3 X 3 _ 8 , 9 _ 17
3 4 3 X 4 4 X 3 12 12 12

R e m e m b e r:

• You c a n n o t cancel across th e a d d itio n sign.

If, as in th e la st case, th e lo w e s t c o m m o n d e n o m in a to r is m erely th e p ro d u c t o fth e tw o
d e n o m in a to rs , you m ig h t fin d th a t a m e n ta l p ic tu re helps you to w o rk m o re quickly, as in
Figure 14.1.

F ig u re 1 4 .1 A d d in g a n d s u b tra c tin g fra c tio n s

378
 [ 14 Algebra I

Exam ple 11
a C a lcu la te ? + 1
5 8

NOTE:
The com m on denom inator is 40, so m ultiply the first fraction top and bottom by 8 and
the second one by 5.

b W rite as a single fra c tio n in its sim plest form

i 2 -*
* y

NOTE:
The com m on denom inator is xy.

ii x3—1 2x + 1

NOTE: g j j | I S I B I 1 1 | | g j| g j j| |
The com m on denom inator is { x - l ) ( 2 x + 1). Start by putting brackets round both
denominators, then m ultiply the first fraction top and bottom by ( 2 x + 1) and the
second by ( x - 1). Beware of the minus sign.

iii x —1 * ++ 11
2x

IV
3 x
xy y

1 1
x (x -1 ) (x - 1)(x - 2)

NOTE:
The common denom inator is x[x - l)(x - 2), so m ultiply the first fraction top and
bottom by [ x - 2) and the second by x.

vi 1 _ 1
x -1 x 2—1

Factorise the second denom inator first to find the lowest common denominator.

r
13 7 9
14 Algebra I J

Answer 11
a 2 ■ 3 _ 2 X 8 | 3 X 5 _ 1 6 . 15 31
5 8 5X8 8X5 40 40 40

b i 1 - * = 3 Z -*L
x y xy xy
_ 3y - x 1
xy

x - 1 2x + 1 (x -1 ) (2x + 1)
_ 3(2x +1) 4(x —1)
(x - 1)(2x +1) (2x + 1)(x -1)
_ 3(2x +1) - 4(x -1)
(x - 1)(2x +1)
_ 6 x + 3 -4 x + 4
(x - 1)(2x +1)
_ 2x + 7
(x - 1)(2x +1)

ill 2 x -1 . x + 1 _ (2x-1) (x + 1)
x -1 2x + 1 x - 1 (2x + 1)
(2x-p (2x + 1) , (x - 1)(x +1) (4x2- 1 ) + ( x 2-1)
(x-1)(2x + 1) (x —1)(2x+1) (x - 1)(2x +1)
5x2- 2
(x - 1)(2x +1)

I 3 x_ 3 x 2 _ 3 —x 2
xy y xy xy xy

J _________ 1 _ (x —2)
x(x-1 ) (x -1 )(x -2 ) x (x -1 )(x -2 ) x (x -1 )(x -2 )
_ x - 2 - x _ ______ 2
x(x - 1Xx - 2) x (x -1 )(x -2 )

VI 1 1 _ 1 1
x -1 (x^T) (x —1>(x+1)
_ (x + 1)___________ 1
( x - 1)(x + 1) (x - 1)(x + 1)
_ x + 1 -1
(x - 1)(x + 1)
_ X
(X - 1)(x + 1)

Exercise 14.10
W r ite in th e s im p le s t fo r m

1 3^ +5^ 2 1+ J-
X 3 4
3 f +£

4 x__L 5 __]___ i— ]_ 6 — _______ —

y x a-b a+b a-b a+b
,^ _ +l o _ 3 __ 1 Q 2 x ^ 3 ,^ x
' x -1 x 8 x -1 x 3 3 4
10 2x 3 _2 3x j* 4 ■ 3 12 x __ y
3 4 x + _ y x + 2_y x -y x+ y
x L y a+ b , a-b a+ b a-b
1 3 x -y + x + y 14 a - b a + b 15 a - b a+ b
1G * 1 7 lx = l+ x = 2 1 8 ____ 1___ + ^ _
2x - y x + y xy y ° x (x -1 )x 2

Exercise 14.11
M ixed exercise

1 W ith o u t using a c a lc u la to r, sim p lify :

b j+ I_ c (27) I
3_ 5
4 12

380
 ^ 14 Algebra I

d (3 6 -2)^ e 82 + 8°
64 3
g i ^
7-'
2 S im plify:
1 5
(2 x 2)2
a (x y ) b yz + ys
(xh2
s
d 3 a ' x 4i>3 x (4fc)2 x (ab)2 f X2

3 Expand th e brackets and sim p lify :

a (3x + 7 ) ( 2 x - 7 ) b (x-1)2 c (x2- y 2)2
d (xy+ l)(xy-l) e (x + a)(y + b) f ( 3 a - 5 b ) ( 2 c + 3d)

4 Factorise co m p le te ly:
a 3X2 + x - 2 b x2-5x-50 C 2x2- 2 1 x + 49
d 50^-18 e y?y - x y f 6x2- 1 5 x - 3 6
g l a c + a d + 2 be + bd h l a c - 2 be + b d - a d i 8a3b - 18ab3
5 S im p lify:
ax K X2~1 2 Ox
x 2 + 5x - 6 10x2
i+ *
^ 4 x y + 2 x 2y 2x 2y 15xy2 x y
4 x y - 2 x 2y 5x 4/ Hf
6 S im plify:
a a , a x + 1 x —1 x + 1 . x —1 j x + 1v x - 1
a+b a-b x —1 x + 1 x-rx+i a

7 W rite as a single fra c tio n in its lo w e s t term s:

c-d c —d

Exam-style questions Part 1 j

8 W ork o u t th e value o f - 1 3'
(0580 pa p e r 02 Q7 J u n e 2004)
- +—
1 2 8
9 a 3X= y W rite d o w n th e va lu e o fx .
b 5y = k. Find in te rm s o f k. (0580 pa p e r 02 Q8 N o ve m b e r 2003)

10 a Factorise fu lly l O x ^ y + ^ x y 2.
b Factorise 25a2- b 2.
c S im p lify : 3 2
(x + 1)2 x +1'
(4024 pa p e r 11 Q25 J u n e 2013)
d S im p ^ i w r w c -
i i W ork o u t as a single fra c tio n
2 1 (0580 pa p e r 02 Q10 June 2003)
x -3 x + 4'
12 a Factorise (a-2b)-3c(a-2b)
b S im p lify 5 f(f + 3) — 3 (5 f — 2) (4024 p a per 01 Q22a and b N ove m b er 2004)
14 Mnehral J

13 Express as a single fra c tio n in its s im p le s t fo rm : . (4024 p a p e r 01 Q8 J u n e 2004)

1 4 Find a, b and c w hen

a 3‘ t 3 5= 27 b 125fc= 5 c 10c = 0.001.
(4024 p a p e r 01 Q12 N o v e m b e r 2003)

15 a It is given th a t 5‘ 2 x 5 ‘ = 1 . b It is given th a t W = 7 m.
W rite d o w n th e v a lu e o f k. W rite d o w n th e va lu e o f m.
(4024 p a p e r 0 1 Q 7 J u n e 2003)

16 a Expand and s im p lify ( x - l ) ( x 2 + x + 1).

b Factorise a x - b x - 3 a y + 3by. (4024 p a p e r 01 Q 20 J u n e 2003)

17 S im p lify
x+2 x
x x+2'
W rite y o u r a nsw er as a fra c tio n in its s im p le s t fo rm . (0580 p a p e r 02 Q 16 J u n e 2005)

18 S im p lify
z?\| , / v - 2\-s (0580 p a p e r 02 Q18 N o v e m b e r 2005)
a ( i7 ) ■ b m
1 9 Factorise
a 4 x2- 9 b 4 x 2- 9 x c 4 x 2- 9 x + 2.(0580 p a p e r 02 Q 19 J u n e 2006)

2 0 Factorise
a 2x2- 7 x - 1 5 b 2 y t - 8 y s - zt + 4zs. (4024 p a p e r01 Q 21 J u n e 2007)

21 a S im p lify
i x (3 x + 2) - (2x + 4) ii a xa ‘x-_ xx‘
b Factorise c o m p le te ly 7X2- 63. (4024 p a p e r 01 Q 23 J u n e 2006)

2 2 W rite as a fra c tio n in its s im p le s t fo rm + ^- 3 3 . (0580 p a p e r 02 Q 10 J u n e 2007)

23 a 732 = 2P. Find th e v a lu e o f p.

b ^ | = 2‘i. Find th e va lu e o f q. (0580 p a p e r 02 Q 17 J u n e 2007)

2 4 S im p lify (0580 p a p e r 21 Q 2 J u n e 2008)

25 S im p lify (27x3)i. (0580 p a p e r 21 Q 8 J u n e 2008)

2 6 W rite as a single fra c tio n in its s im p le s t fo rm

4 2 (0580 p a p e r 21 Q l l N o v e m b e r 2008)
2x + 3 X —3
2 7 Find th e valu e o f n in each o f th e fo llo w in g s ta te m e n ts:
a 32" = 1 b 32" = 2c32" = 8
28 a S im p lify (27x6)5. b (5 1 2 ri = 2P. Find p . (0580 paper 02 Q21 No vem ber 2007)

2 9 W rite as a single fra c tio n in its s im p le s t fo rm .

1+ 1 __c - d
c d cd (0580 p a p e r 21 Q 10 J u n e 2009)
30 a Rem ove th e brackets and s im p lify
i 4(3 - 2p) - 3(1 - p )
ii { 3 q - r ) ( q + 2r).
b Factorise c o m p le te ly 18f2 - 2.

382|
 ^ 14 Algebra I

c Given th a t y = 18 + 3x2,
fin d th e valu e o f / w h e n x = - 2
ii fin d t h e v a lu e s o fx w h e n y = 93
iii express x in term s o fy . (4024 paper 02 Q1 J u n e 2005)

31 a Factorise c o m p le te ly 5x2 - 20.

. S x 2 —20
i S im p lify 10x 2-f i o x - 2 0 '
b Express as a single fra c tio n in its s im p le st form

(4024 p a p e r 02 Q la and b N o v e m b e r 2006)

y -3 y + S'

3 2 Factorise c o m p le te ly
a 15a2+ 12a3 b 1 - 16£>2 c 6cx - 3 cy - 2 d x + dy.
(4024 p a per 01 Q20 N o v e m b e r 2007)
3 3 Express as a single fra c tio n in its s im p le st form
_3_____ 2_
(4024 p a p e r 01 Q15 J u n e 2008)
2 f-1 t + 2
34 a Factorise c o m p le te ly
i 15x2 + lO x ii t2 - 2 t - 15.

b S olve 4 ( x - 0.3) = 3 ( x - 0.2). (4024 p a per 01 Q19 J u n e 2008)

Exam-style questions Part 2 j

DO N O T USE A CALCULATOR IN T H E REST O F T H IS EXERCISE

35 Evaluate
. 5
a 17° b 42 c (0.2)~2. (4024 p a p e r 01 Q12 J u n e 2007)

3 6 Evaluate
a 9° b 9_: c 92 . (4024 p a p e r 01 and Q8 J u n e 2008)

37 a Evaluate 52 + 5°.
b S im p lify

1(*r
ii ( x 6)3
(4024 p a p e r 01 Q13 J u n e 2006)
 Working with Numbers II
Learning Objectives
In this chapter y<pu will:
• use upper and lower bounds in calculations
• use reverse percentages.

1 5 .1 Introduction
T h is is a s h o rt c h a p te r, b u t to g e th e r w ith C h a p te r 4 it covers m u ch o fth e m a th e m a tic s you
need in e v e ry d a y life. The m ixed exercise a t th e end o fth e c h a p te r w ill give you a good idea
o f th e v a rie ty o f q u e s tio n s y o u m ig h t m e e t in y o u r e x a m in a tio n .

1 5 .2 Essential Skills P a rt 1

C a lc u la te (a) th e area, and (b) th e p e rim e te r o f a re ctangle m e a s u rin g 15 m etres by

7 c e n tim e tre s , s ta tin g th e u n its in y o u r answ er.

R ound th e fo llo w in g to th e degree o f accuracy stated.

a 4.6749 to 2 d e c im a l places
c 0.0093 to 2 d e c im a l places
e 516.2 c e n tim e tre s to th e nearest
c e n tim e tre
g 9197 to th e nearest 10
b 500.612 to 3 s ig n ific a n t figures
d 0.01056 to 3 s ig n ific a n t figures
f 99.8 k ilo g ra m s to th e nearest
kilo g ra m
h 999 to th e nearest hundred.

C opy a nd c o m p le te th e fo llo w in g to s h o w th e lim its o f accuracy in each case,

a ... «£ 439 < . . . given th a t 439 is c o rre c t to th e nearest w h o le num ber,
b ... =£ 5670 < ... given th a t 5670 is c o rre c t to th re e s ig n ific a n t figures.

C a lc u la te th e v o lu m e o f a c u b o id m e a s u rin g 100 ce n tim e tre s by 2 m etres by 10 m etres,

g iv in g y o u r answ ers in s ta n d a rd form
a in m m 3 b in c m 3 c in m 3

C hange
a 5 0 m m 2t o c m 2 500 m l to litres 12 kilog ram s to gram s.

By w ritin g each n u m b e r co rre ct to 1 s ig n ific a n t figure e s tim a te th e answ ers to each o f

th e se c a lc u la tio n s , g iv in g y o u r answ ers to 1 s ig n ific a n t figure. Do n o t use a c a lculator,
a 6 5 9 x 0 .7 1 2 b + 2M c 1112.5 359
o1 3 8 9 501.9 31.6'

C a lcu la te , g ivin g y o u r answ ers in s ta n d a rd form :

a (7.5 x 10~5) x (1.9 x 102) b (9.35 x 103)-h (3.76 x 1 0 "’'
c (1.23 x l O 3) - ( 1 .2 3 x l O 2) d (5.49 x 10“5) + (5.12 x 10“ 6'

384
 I 15 Working with Numbers II

8 C alculate, g iv in g y o u r answ ers co rre c t to 3 s ig n ific a n t figures:

„ 5 .7 6 + 7 .9 3 . 5 .7 6 ,7 .9 3 . 5 .7 6 + 7 .9 3 , n n o
3 4.1 + 2 .9 8 b ~4T 2~98 C ' 2 98
/ 5 .7 6 / 7 .93
e 1'15 .7 6 i 7 93
V 4.1 V 2 .98 e VV 4.1 2.9 8

P art 2 DO NOT USE A CALCULATOR IN THE REST OF THIS EXERCISE

9 S im p lify the fo llo w in g ratios.
a 5 0 :6 2 5 b 7 c e n tim e tre s : 28 m etres c
d 1 |:2 | e 7 0 :3 5 :3 5 0 f 1 .8 5 :2 5 .

1 0 W rite th e ra tio 900 litres : 180 m illilitre s in th e form

a 1: n b n : 1.

1 5 .3 Upper and Lower Bounds in

Calculations
You have seen h o w to fin d th e u p p e r and lo w e r lim its o r b o u n d s o f m e a s u re m e n ts th a t have
been a p p ro x im a te d to a given s ig n ific a n t figure, d e c im a l place o r o th e r u n it. You also need
to be a ble to use th e se values in c a lc u la tio n s , and fin d th e u p p e r and lo w e r b o u n d s o fth e
results o f th e ca lc u la tio n s.

Let us assum e th a tx a n d y are tw o m easurem ents th a t have been given to a stated app ro xim a tio n .
T he largest p o ssib le va lu e o f x + y w o u ld o b v io u s ly be o b ta in e d by a d d in g th e u p p e r b o u n d s
o f th e tw o m ea su re m ents to g e th e r. C onversely, th e s m a lle s t value w o u ld c o m e fro m th e tw o
lo w e r b ou nd s.
T h e largest p o ssib le va lu e o f x - y w o u ld co m e fro m s u b tra c tin g th e lo w e r b o u n d o f y fro m
th e u p p e r b o u n d o f x to give th e g re a te st possib le difference.
B u t h o w w o u ld you get th e largest p o s s ib le value o f x x y l
A lso h o w w o u ld you get th e largest p ossible va lu e o f j ?
In th e fo llo w in g e xa m p le w e are usin g ju s t n um bers, w ith o u t p u ttin g th e m in any c o n te x t in
o rd e r to m ake th e idea clear.

Example 1
Given that x = 35 correct to the nearest whole number and that y = 25 correct to the nearest
whole number, copy and complete the following table.

Value Lower bound U pper bound

a X 35 34.5 35.5
b y 25
c x+y 60

d x-y 10

e xxy 875
f x + y 1.4

g 2 x + 3y

h x2
15 Working with Numbers II J

Answer 1
Value Low er bound Upper bound

a X 35 34.5 35.5

b y 25 24.5 25.5

c x+y 60 34.5 + 24.5 = 59 35.5 + 25.5 = 61

d x -y 10 3 4 .5 -2 5 .5 = 9.0 3 5 .5 -2 4 .5 = 11

e xxy 875 34.5 x 24.5 = 845.2 3 5 .5 x2 5 .5 = 905.25

f x+y 1.4 34.5 + 25.5 = 1.35 (3 s.f.) 35.5 + 24.5 = 1.45 (3 s.f.)

g 2x + 3y 120 2 x 34.5 + 3 x 24.5 = 142.5 2 x 3 5 .5 + 3 x 2 5 .5 = 147.5

h x2 1225 1190.25 1260.25

V:
Exercise 15.1
1 Given th a t x = 14 and y = 12, b o th to th e nearest w h o le nu m b e r, w o rk o u t (i) th e lo w e r
b o u n d , and (ii) th e u p p e r b o u n d o f th e fo llo w in g :
a x-y b xty2 c xy d y.

2 Given th a t a = 16.9 cm , b = 7.3 cm and c = 5.8 cm , all to 1 d e c im a l place, w o rk o u t (i) th e

lo w e r b o u n d , and (ii) th e u p p e r b o u n d o f th e fo llo w in g :

a abc b & c ^ x c .
c z
Give y o u r a nsw ers c o rre c t to 4 s ig n ific a n t figures if n o t exact.

1 5 .4 Reverse Percentages
C a lc u la tin g a reverse p ercentag e is a m e th o d fo r fin d in g an o rig in a l value if yo u have o n ly
b een given th e v alue a fter a p ercentag e c hange has been m ade.
To understand how reverse percentages w o rk w e w ill first look at som e sim ple percentage examples.
A sh o p offers a 20% re d u c tio n in a sale.

An item c o s tin g Rs 60 w ill be reduced by 20% o f 60.

R e du ctio n = R s (^ x 6 0 ) = R s12

Sale price = Rs (60 — 12) =R s48

T here is a n o th e r, q u ic k e r m e th o d fo r c a lc u la tin g th e sale price.
The original price is 100%, so ta kin g o ff 20% leaves 80% to pay in th e sale.

Sale price = 80% o f Rs 60

= R s (~ x 6 0 ) = Rs 48

So if you w a n t to c a lc u la te th e reduction you use 20% , b u t if you w a n t to c a lc u la te th e n e w

price you c a lc u la te 80% . E ither w ay, th e o rig in a l price is 100%.
S e ttin g th is o u t a n o th e rw a y :
o rig in a l price - re d u c tio n = new price
100% - 20% = 80%
J x 0.6 j x 0.6 j x 0.6 (6 0 + 100 = 0.6)
Rs 60 - Rs 12 = Rs 48

386
 [ 15 Working with Numbers II

The sam e m e th o d is used fo r an increase in price. If a price is increased by 20% then th e new
a m o u n t is (100 + 2 0 )% = 120%.
Rs 60 increased by 20% = R s (y |jjx 6 0 ) = Rs 72

As before, if you w a n t to ca lc u la te th e increase use 20%, b u t if you w a n t to ca lc u la te th e new

price use 120%.
S e ttin g th is o u t th e o th e r way:
o rig in a l price + increase = new price
100% + 20% = 120%
J x 0 .6 J x 0.6 J x 0.6
Rs 60 + Rs 12 = Rs 72
This leads us easily in to c a lc u la tin g reverse percentages.
An e xa m p le sh o u ld sh o w you h ow th is is done.

Example 2
a An item in a sale costs $36, after a 10% reduction. Calculate the original price,
b A shop buys its goods at wholesale prices, it then adds a 40% mark-up (this is the extra they
charge in order to make a profit). The retail price is the price the shop charges its customers.
An item in the shop is marked at $70. (This is the retail price.)
Calculate the price the shop paid for the item. (This is the wholesale price.)

Answer 2
a Original price - reduction = sale price
100% ^ - 10% = 90%
x 0.4 ) x 0.4 ) x0 .4 (3 6 -9 0 = 0.4)
?“ - $4 u $36
Original price = 100 x 0.4 = $40
b Wholesale price + m arkup = retail price
100% + 40% = 14 0 % .
) xO.5 J x0 .5 )x 0 . 5 (TO -s-140 = 0.5)
? + $20 = $70
The wholesale price was 100 x 0.5 = $50.

Exercise 15.2
1 A to y w as reduced by 20% in a sale. The sale price w as $72. C alculate th e price before th e
re d u c tio n .
2 N iko is given an increase o f 6% o n his h o u rly rate. He n o w earns $13.25 per hour. C alculate
his p re vio us h o u rly rate.
3 In 2010 a new car costs $10063. This is an increase o f 16% o n its n ew price in 2009.
C a lcu la te th e increase in dollars.
4 An ite m in a sale is reduced by 15%. The a ctual re d u c tio n is Rs 72. C alculate
a th e o rig in a l price b th e sale price.

Exercise 15.3
M ixed exercise
1 A recta ng le m easures 6.5 cm by 3.5 cm , each m e a su re m e n t co rre c t to 1 d e c im a l place.
C a lcula te th e lo w e r b o u n d of
a th e p e rim e te r b th e area o f th e rectangle.
Give y o u r exact answer.
15 Wotting with Numbers II J

Yash is c u ttin g s h o rt pieces o f w o o d fro m a lo n g e r piece. The s h o rte r pieces o f w o o d

are 10 cm long, c o rre c t to th e nearest c e n tim e tre , and th e w h o le piece is 1 m etre, correct
to th e nearest c e n tim e tre .
a S h ow th a t it m ay n o t be p o ssib le fo r him to c u t 10 s h o rte r pieces o f w o o d ,
b W h at is th e m a x im u m a m o u n t th a t m ig h t be left over?

a T he le n g th (I m etres) o f a piece o f w o o d is given as 3.50 m etres c o rre c t to th e nearest

c e n tim e tre .
C opy and c o m p le te th e s ta te m e n t below .
......................*£ I m etres < ................................
b U sing th e above s ta te m e n t w o rk o u t th e m a x im u m p o ssib le e rro r if in ste a d th e length
is given as 3.5 m etres, c o rre c t to th e nearest 10 cm .

In 2015 a car is v alued a t $8607 w h e n it is 1 ye a r o ld. T he rate o f d e p re c ia tio n in th e firs t

ye a r is 58%.
a W h a t d id th e ca r co st in 2014 w h e n it w as new?
b C alculate its value in 2017 if th e d e p re c ia tio n rate is 20% p er a n n u m fo r these tw o years.
Give y o u r answ ers to th e nearest d o lla r.

a A sho p has a m a rk-u p o f 46% on an ite m s e llin g a t €49.64. C alculate th e

w h o le sa le price.
b The sh op has a sale. An ite m is m arked a t €160 a fte r a re d u c tio n o f 20% . C a lcu la te th e
a m o u n t saved if th e item is p urchased a t th e sale price ra th e r th a n th e n o rm a l price.

Exam-style questions J
6 The p o p u la tio n o f N e w to w n is 45000.
T he p o p u la tio n o f V illeneuve is 39000.
a C a lcu la te th e ra tio o f these p o p u la tio n s in its s im p le s t form ,
b In N e w to w n , 28% o f th e p o p u la tio n are b e lo w th e age o f tw e n ty .
Calculate how m any people in Newtnwn are helnw the age of twenty.
c In V illeneuve, 16000 p e o p le are b e lo w th e age o f tw e n ty .
C a lcu la te th e percentage o f p e o p le in V illeneuve b e lo w th e age o f tw e n ty ,
d The p o p u la tio n o f N e w to w n is 125% g re a te r th a n it w as fifty years ago.
C a lcu la te th e p o p u la tio n o f N e w to w n fifty years ago.
e The tw o to w n s are c o m b in e d and m a d e in to one c ity c alle d M o n o city.
In M o n o c ity th e ra tio o f m en : w o m e n : c h ild re n is 1 2 :1 3 : 5.
C a lcula te th e n u m b e r o f c h ild re n in M onocity. (0580 p a p e r 04 Q1 N o ve m b e r 2004)

7 A square has sides o f le n g th d m etres.

This le n g th is 120 m etres, c o rre c t to th e nearest 10 m etres,
a C opy and c o m p le te th is s ta te m e n t.
......................^ d < .................................

b C a lcu la te th e d iffe re n ce be tw e e n th e largest and th e s m a lle st p o s s ib le areas o f the

square. (0580 p a p e r 02 Q13 N o ve m b e r 2004)

\
388
 ^ 15 Working with Numfters II

8 A tra in left Sydney at 2320 on D ecem ber 18th and arrived in B risbane at 0204 on
D ecem ber 19th.
'o w long, in hours and m in u te s, w as the journey? (0580 paper 02 Q1 J u n e 2004)

9 A rectan gle has sides o f length 6.1 cm and 8.1 cm c o rre c t to 1 d e c im a l place.
C alcu late th e u p p e r b o u n d fo r th e area o f th e rectangle as accurately
as possible. (0580 paper 21 Q7 N o v e m b e r 2008)

0 ( 0 CO
Pencils are packed in a box.
Each p e ncil has a d ia m e te r o f 7 m m , c o rre c t to th e nearest m illim e tre ,
a W rite d o w n th e lo w e r b o u n d o f th e d ia m e te r o f a pencil,
b Find th e sm a lle st w id th o f a box th a t can a lw a y s ho ld 8 pencils side by side.
Give y o u r a nsw e r in ce n tim e tre s . (4024 p a p e r 11 Q9 J u n e 2010)

11 The ratios o f te a c h e rs : m a le s tu d e n ts : fe m a le stu d e n ts in a sch o o l are 2 :1 7 :18.

The to ta l n u m b e r o f s tu d e n ts is 665. Find th e n u m b e r
o f te a c h e rs . (0580 p a per 02 Q5 J u n e 2003)

12 A h o lid a y in Europe w as a d ve rtise d a t a c o s t o f €245.

The exchange rate w as $1 = €1.06.
C a lcu la te th e cost o f th e h o lid a y in d o llars, g ivin g y o u r a nsw er co rre ct
to th e nearest cent. (0580 p a per 21 Q5 J u n e 2008)

13 W rite th e n u m b e r 1045.2781 c o rre c t to

a 2 d e c im a l places
b 2 s ig n ific a n t figures. (0580 p a per 2 1 Q7 J u n e 2008)

1 4 M arcus receives $800 fro m his g ra n d m o th e r.

a He d e cid e s to spend $150 a n d to d iv id e th e re m a in in g $650 in th e
ra tio s a vin g s: h o lid a y = 9 :4 .
C a lcula te th e a m o u n t o f his savings,
b i He uses 80% o f th e $150 to b u y som e clothes.
C a lcu la te th e c o s t o f th e clothes,
ii The m o n e y re m a in in g fro m th e $150 is 3712% o f th e cost o f a day trip to C airo.
C alcu late th e cost o f th e trip . (0580 p a per 04 Q la and b J u n e 2009)

15 A s tu d e n t played a c o m p u te r g a m e 500 tim e s and w o n 370 o f these gam es.

H e th e n w o n th e n e x tx g a m e s and lo st none.
He has n o w w o n 75% o f th e gam es he has played.
Find th e va lue o f x. (0580 pa p e r 21 Q17 J u n e 2008)

16 In J a n u a ry S unanda changed £25000 in to d o lla rs w h e n th e exchange rate w as $1.96 = £1.

In Ju n e she changed th e d o lla rs back in to p o u n d s w h e n th e exchange rate w as $1.75 = £1.
C a lcu la te th e p ro fit she m ade, g iv in g y o u r
answ er in p o u n d s (£). (0580 pa p e r 21 Q l l J u n e 2009)

17 In 2005, th e re w ere 9 m illio n b icycles in B eijing, co rre c t to th e nearest m illio n .

The average dista n ce tra ve lle d b y each bicycle in one d a y w as 6.5 km co rre c t to 1 d e c im a l
place.
W ork o u t th e u p p e r b o u n d fo r th e to ta l distance tra v e lle d by
all th e bicycles in one day. (0580 paper 21 Q6 J u n e 2009)

389
15 Working with Numbers il J

18 A recta ng le has sides o f le n g th 6.1 cm and 8.1 cm c o rre c t to 1 d e c im a l place.

C a lcu la te th e u p p e r b o u n d fo r th e area o fth e recta n g le as
a ccu ra te ly as possible. (0580 p a p e r 21 Q7 N o v e m b e r 2008)

19 B eatrice has an in c o m e o f $40000 in o n e year,

a She pays
no tax on th e firs t $10000 o f h er incom e;
10% tax on th e next $10000 o f h er incom e;
25% tax on th e rest o f h er incom e.
C a lcu la te
i th e to ta l a m o u n t o f ta x B eatrice pays,
ii th e to ta l a m o u n t o f tax as a percentage o fth e $40000.
b B eatrice pays a yearly re n t o f $10800.
A fter she has paid h er tax, re n t and bills, she has $12000.
C a lcu la te h o w m uch B eatrice spends on bills,
c B eatrice d iv id e s th e $12 000 b etw een s h o p p in g and saving in th e ra tio s h o p p in g :
saving = 5 :3.
i C a lcu la te h o w m u ch B eatrice spends on s h o p p in g in o n e year.
ii W h a t fra c tio n o fth e o rig in a l $40 000 d oes B eatrice save?
Give y o u r answ er in its lo w e s t term s.
d T he re n t o f $10800 is an increase o f 25% on her pre vio u s rent.
C a lcu la te h er pre vio u s rent. (0580 p a p e r 04 Q1 N o v e m b e r 2008)

2 0 At 0506 M r Ho b o u g h t 850 fish a t a fish m a rk e t fo r $2.62 each.

95 m in u te s la te r he sold th e m all to a s u p e rm a rk e t fo r $2.86 each,
a W h at w as th e tim e w h e n he sold th e fish?
b C a lcu la te his to ta l p ro fit. (0580 p a p e r2 1 Q3 J u n e 2009)

2 1 Vreni to o k p a rt in a c h a rity w a lk .
She w a lke d a d ista n c e o f 20 k ilom e tres,
a She raised m o n e y a t a rate o f $12.50 fo r each k ilo m e tre .
i H ow m u ch m o n e y d id she raise by w a lk in g th e 20 k ilo m e tre ?
ii T he m o n e y she raised in p a rt (a) (i) w as ^ o t th e to ta l m o n e y raised. W o r k o u t th e
to ta l m o n e y raised.
iii In th e p re vio u s y ear th e to ta l m o n e y raised w as $2450.
C a lcu la te th e percentag e increase on th e pre vio u s y e a r’s to ta l.
b Part o f th e 20 k ilo m e tre s w as on a road and th e rest w as on a fo o tp a th .
T he ra tio road d is ta n c e : fo o tp a th dista n ce w as 3 :2 .
i W ork o u t th e road distance.
ii Vreni w a lke d a lo n g th e road a t 3 k m /h and a lo n g th e fo o tp a th a t 2.5 k m /h . H o w
long, in hours and m in u te s, did Vreni take to w a lk th e 20 kilom e tres?
iii W ork o u t V reni’s average speed.
iv Vreni started a t 0855. A t w h a t tim e did she finish?
c On a m ap, th e d ista n ce o f 20 k ilo m e tre s w as repre sen ted by a le n g th o f 80 c e n tim e tre s .
The scale o fth e m a p was 1 : n.
C a lcu la te th e value o f n. (0580 p a p e r 04 Q1 J u n e 2008)

2 2 A n gharad sleeps fo r8 hours each nig h t, c o rre c t to th e nearest 10 m inutes.

The to ta l tim e she sleeps in th e m o n th o f N o ve m b e r (30 nights) is T hours.
B etw een w h a t lim its does T lie? ( 0 5 8 0 p a p e r 0 2 Q4 N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 6 )

390
 [ 15 Working with Numbers II

0.002751x3400
23 P ( 9 . 8 9 2 3 + 2 4 . 7 7 7 7 ) 2'

a W rite each n u m b e r in this c a lc u la tio n co rre ct to 1 s ig n ific a n t figure,

b Use yo u r answ er to p a rt (a) to e s tim a te th e value o f p.
(0580 paper 02 Q6 N ove m b er 2007)

24 a In O c to b e r th e cost o f a car in euros w as €20000.

The cost o f th is car in p o u n d s w as £14020.
C a lcula te the e x a c t value o fth e exchange rate in O ctober, w ritin g y o u r answ er in the
fo rm €1 = £....
b In N o ve m b e r th e car s till c o s t €20 000 and the exchange rate was €1 = £0.6915.
C a lcu late the difference, in po u n d s, betw een th e cost in
O c to b e r and N ovem ber. (0580 paper 02 Q8 N o ve m b e r 2007)

2 5 C arm en spends 5 m in u te s, c o rre c t to th e nearest m in u te , p re p a rin g o ne m eal.

She spe n ds a to ta l tim e o f T m in u te s p re p a rin g 30 m eals. Betw een w h a t
lim its does 7"lie? (0580 p a p e r0 2 Q6 June 2007)

2 6 The cost o f a c h a ir $x, is $70 c o rre c t to th e nearest $10.

The co st o f a desk, $y, is $900 c o rre c t to th e nearest $50.
a C o m p le te th e table.
b Find th e lo w e r b o u n d o f th e to ta l cost o f a desk and 4 chairs.

Low er bound U p p er bound

X

y
(4024 p a p e r 01 Q14 N o ve m b e r 2004)

27 a The p o p u la tio n o f a c ity is given as 280 000, c o rre c t to th e nearest ten th o u s a n d .

S ta te th e g re ate st po ssib le e rro r in th e given value,
b Th e d im e n s io n s o f a re c ta n g u la r card are 7 cm by 4 cm , c o rre c t to th e nearest
ce n tim e tre .
C alculate the s m a lle s t possible p e rim e te r o f the Laid. (4 0 2 4 papei 01 Q 6 Ju n e 2 0 0 5 )

28 a T w o v a rie tie s o f tea, 'H igh B le n d ’ and 'N o rm a l B le n d ’, are m a d e by m ixin g G rade A
leaves and G rade B leaves.
i In H igh B lend, th e ra tio o fth e m asses o f G rade A leaves to G rade B leaves is 3 :2 .
Find th e m ass o f G rade A leaves used in m a k in g 250 g o f H igh Blend.
ii 1 k g o f N orm al B lend is m a d e by using 450 g o f G rade A leaves.
Find, in its s im p le s t fo rm , th e ratio o f th e m asses o f G rade A to G rade B leaves in
N orm al Blend.
Give y o u r answ er in th e fo rm m : n, w here m and n are integers.
iii 2 5 0 g o f H igh B lend is m ixed w ith 1 kg o f N orm al B lend.
C a lcu la te th e percentag e o fth e mass o f th is m ix tu re th a t consists o f G rade A leaves.

b D u rin g a sale, a s h o p sold packets o f tea fo r 20% less th a n th e price show n on th e ir

labels. Elizabeth and Peter each b o u g h t a packet o f tea in th e sale.
i E lizab eth ’s p acket had a label price o f $4.50.
H ow m u ch d id she pay?
ii Peter paid $6.20 fo r his packet.
C a lcu la te th e price sh o w n on its label. (4024 p a per 02 Q2 J u n e 2005)
15 Wortting with MumHere II J

29 a A re c ta n g u la r ta b le to p is 100 cm lo n g and 75 cm w id e .
B o th le n g th s are c o rre c t to th e nearest 5 cm .
Find th e least p o s s ib le p e rim e te r o f th e ta b le ,
b The area o f a re c ta n g u la r ro o m is 22 m 2, c o rre c t to th e n earest square m etre.
The w id th is 3 m , c o rre c t to th e nearest m etre.
Find th e gre a te st p o s s ib le le n g th o fth e ro o m . (4024 p a p e r 01 Q17 N o ve m b e r 2005)

3 0 Ja m e s and Dan are pa rtn e rs in a s m a ll c o m p a n y.

From each y e a r’s p ro fit, Jam es is paid a b o n u s o f $15 000 and th e re m a in d e r is shared
b e tw ee n Jam es and Dan in th e ra tio 2 :3 .
a In 1996 th e p ro fit w as $20000.
S h o w th a t D an’s share w as $3000.
b I n 1997 th e p ro fit w as $21800.
C a lcu la te
i th e p ercentag e increase in th e p ro fit in 1997 c o m p a re d to 1996,
ii th e to ta l a m o u n t, in c lu d in g his bon u s, th a t Jam es received in 1997.
c In 1998 Dan received $7500.
C a lc u la te th e p ro fit in 1998.
d In 1999, th e p ro fit w as $%, w h e re x > 15 000.
i W rite d o w n an expression, in te rm s o fx , fo r th e a m o u n t Dan received.
ii Given th a t Dan received h a lf th e p ro fit, w rite d o w n an e q u a tio n in x and hence fin d
th e a m o u n t th a t Dan received. (4024 p a p e r 02 Q7 June 2006)

3 1 Do n o t use a c a lc u la to r in th is q u e s tio n .
a W rite th e fo llo w in g n u m b e rs in o rd e r o f size, s ta rtin g w ith th e s m a lle s t.
0KJ.7I , oU .72
I ,
_Z_
-J < j,
Zg

b In a sch o o l e le c tio n , Jo h n received 220 votes.

T his w as 55% o f th e to ta l n u m b e r o f votes.
Find th e to ta l n u m b e r o f votes. (4024 p a p e rO l Q5 N o ve m b e r 2006)

32 a O ne d ay th e rate o f exchange b e tw e e n p o u n d s (£) and U n ite d States d o lla rs ($) w as

£1 = $1.65.
On th e sam e day, th e rate o f exchange b e tw e e n p o u n d s (£) a nd e uros w as £1 = 1.44
euros.
1 A lan changed £500 in to d ollars.
C a lcu la te h o w m a n y d o lla rs he received.
ii Brenda c h anged 900 euros in to pou n d s.
C a lcu la te h o w m any p o u n d s she received.
iii C lare c h anged $792 in to euros.
C a lcu la te h o w m a n y e uros she received.
b The c o st o f m a n u fa c tu rin g a te le v is io n w as $15000.
i It w as sold to a w h o le s a le r a t a p ro fit o f 8% o fth e cost.
C a lcu la te th e price th e w h o le s a le r paid fo r th e te le visio n .
ii The w h o le s a le r sold th e te le v isio n to a s h o p a t a p ro fit o f 8% o f th e price he p a id fo r
it. The sh o p th e n sold th e te le v is io n to J o h n a t a p ro fit o f 8% o f th e price it paid.
C a lcu la te h o w m uch th e te le v isio n cost John.
iii C a lcu la te th e percentag e increase in th e cost o f th e te le v is io n fro m its m a n u fa c tu re
till J o h n ow ns it.
c The sh o p sold a h o m e e n te rta in m e n t system to Leslie fo r $46480. The s h o p m ade a
p ro fit o f 12% on th e price it paid fo r th e system .
C a lcu la te h o w m uch th e sh o p paid fo r th e system . (4024 paper 02 Q5 N o v e m b e r 2006)

\
392
 lv 15 Working with Numbers II

33 Do n o t use a c a lc u la to r in th is qu e stio n .
The m ass o f a m a rb le is given as 5.4 gram s, co rre ct to th e nearest te n th o f a gram .
The m ass o f a box is given as 85 gram s, co rre ct to th e nearest 5 gram s,
a C o m p le te the table.
b Find the lo w e r b o u n d fo r th e to ta l m ass o f th e box and 20 id e n tic a l m arbles.

L o w e r bou n d U pper bound

Mass o f 1 m a rb le -..............- g .......... g

Mass o f th e box g g
U (4024 paper 01 Q l l June 2007)

34 a A n n e ’s d ig ita l cam era stores its im ages on a m e m o ry card.

The m e m o ry card has 128 u n its o f storage space.
W hen 50 im ages w ere sto re d , th e re w ere 40 u n its o f u n u s e d storage space on th e
m e m o ry card.
i C a lcu la te th e percentag e o f unused storage space on th e m e m o ry card.
ii C a lcu la te th e average a m o u n t o f storage space used by each im age,
b S hop A charged 60 cents fo r each p h o to g ra p h .
Sh op B charged 63 cents fo r each p h o to g ra p h and gave a d is c o u n t o f $1 on all
purchases m o re th a n $10.
i A n ne b o u g h t 24 p h o to g ra p h s fro m S hop A and pa id w ith a $20 note.
C a lcu late th e c hange she received.
ii Find h o w m u ch ch e a p e r it w as to buy 24 p h o to g ra p h s fro m S hop B th a n fro m
S hop A.
iii Find th e s m a lle s t n u m b e r o f p h o to g ra p h s fo r w h ic h it w as cheaper
to use S h op B. (4024 pa p e r 02 Q2 J u n e 2008)

35 a D u rin g a 20 w ee k p e rio d in 2007, a bank m ade a p ro fit o f $378 m illio n .

i C a lcu la te th e average p ro fit it m ade each second.
ii D urin g th e sam e 20 w e e k p e rio d in 2008, th e p ro fit w as $945 m illio n .
For th is 20 w eek p e rio d , c a lc u la te th e percentage increase in th e p ro fit fro m 2007 to
2008.
iii Find th e ra tio o f $378 m illio n to $945 m illio n .
Give y o u r a nsw er in th e fo rm m : ti, w here m and n are th e s m a lle st p ossible
integers.
b M ary changed 480 euros in to dollars.
The exchange rate w as $1 = 0.6 euros.
The b an k to o k , as c o m m iss io n , 2% o f th e a m o u n t th a t had been changed.
C a lcula te th e n u m b e r o f d o lla r s th e bank to o k as
c o m m iss io n . (4024 p a per 02 Q2 Ju n e 2009)

36 a 100 g o f sp a g h e tti c o n ta in s 3.6 g o f fibre.

Express m ass o f fib re : m ass o f s p a g h e tti as th e ratio o f tw o integers in its s im p le s t
fo rm .
b A tin c o n ta in s 2 1 0 g o f beans.
i 100 g o f beans c o n ta in s 4.5 g o f protein.
C a lcu late th e m ass o f p ro te in in th e tin.
ii lO O g o fb e a n s c o n ta in s 0 .3 g o ffa t.
a W hat percentage o f th e beans is fat?
b The re c o m m e n d e d d a ily a m o u n t o f fa t is 70g.
C a lcula te w h a t percentag e o f the re co m m e n d e d d a ily a m o u n t is in th e tin.

393
15 Wortingwltli Numbers II j

iii The m ass o f s a lt in 1 0 0 g o f beans is l.O g, c o rre c t to 1 d e c im a l place.

C a lculate an u p p e r b o u n d fo r th e m ass o f s a lt c o n ta in e d in th e tin .
c A tin o f s oup c o n ta in s 166 calories.
This is 8.3% o f th e re c o m m e n d e d d a ily n u m b e r o f calories.
C a lcu la te th e re c o m m e n d e d d a ily n u m b e r o f calories.
(4024 p a p e r 02 Q6 N o ve m b e r 2009)

\
394
Learning Objectives Syllabus sections 20,22 and 23

In this chapter you will: solve more simultaneous equations

• solve quadratic equations by factorising, simplify inequalities
using a formula and completing the square learn about variation
• work with more sequences rearrange more complex formulae.

1 6 .1 Introduction
In th is c h a p te r w e s ta rt to d e v e lo p algebra as a to o l fo r s o lv in g p ro b le m s. We w ill w o rk
m o re w ith te c h n iq u e s yo u have a lre ady learned and in tro d u c e som e n e w ones.

1 6 .2 Essential Skills
1 Rearrange th e fo rm u la e to m ake x th e s u b je ct.

a s = i* b A = lx c V=xy + c

d v2 = u2—l a x 1 a 4- b).\ f
Find th e n th te rm in th e fo llo w in g sequences,

a 2 ,7 ,1 2 ,1 7 ,... b -1 0 ,-5 ,0 ,5 ,... C 2 ,5 ,1 0 ,1 7 ,2 6 ,...

d 1 0 ,8 ,6 ,4 ,2 ,... e 1 ,4 ,9 ,1 6 ,2 5 ,...

Use each o fth e fo llo w in g fo rm u la e to fin d (i) th e firs t te rm , and (ii) th e 100th te rm in the
sequence.

a n th te rm = b n th term = n 2 - lO n c n th te rm = - 8 n - 1

4 Solve these pairs o f s im u lta n e o u s e q u a tio n s :

a x+y=7 b 2 x -y -1 c 3x+y = 2 d 2 x -y = 6

x + 2y = 3 y+x=5 x + 2y = 4 2 y -x = 3

395
 1 6 .3 More Equations
You w ill be expected to solve m o re d iffic u lt e q u a tio n s , p u ttin g in to p ra ctice th e te c h n iq u e s
y o u have alre ady learned in C h a p te r 5 a n d in C h a p te r 14.

Exam ple 1
Solve the following equations.
x +2 x-1 3
3 4 2
b 1.3x + 2.5 = 4x

Answ er 1

a x +2 x-1_ 3
3 4 2

4(x —2) - 3(x -1 ) = 6X3

4x + 8 - 3 x + 3 = 18
x= 18 —11
x= 7

In the first fraction 12 + 3 = 4, and

soon.
Be careful with the minus sign in
front o f the second bracket!!
b 1.3x + 2.5 = 4x
13x + 25 = 40x
1 3 x -4 0 x = -2 5 . . 1
-2 7 x = -2 5
v —z25 : ■■ ■
-2 7
_ 25
27
L

Exercise 16.1
S olve th e fo llo w in g e q u a tio n s

1 2 . 5 x - 1.5 = 6 * + *=5
2 3
- X_X^_L X + 1 X — 1 __ 1
J 2 3 3 5 2 10

5 l U - 1 ) - | ( x + 1) = 2

7 —^ - + 1= 10 8 x ( x + 2) + 2 = x 2 out the brackets then

x+1
subtract x 2from both
sides. '
 [ 16 algebra ll

1 6 .4 Quadratic Equations
Q u a d ra tic e q u a tio n s have an x squared te rm , and also p o ss ib ly an x te rm and a n u m b e r term .
For e x a m p le ,/y = x 2 + 2 x - 3 is a q u a d ra tic e q u a tio n . It has tw o variables, x and y. T h e re are an
in fin ite n u m b e r o f s o lu tio n s to th is e q u a tio n .

Tw o p o s s ib le s o lu tio n s a re x = 0 ,y = - 3 o r x = 2.6 , 7 = 8.96, because b o th these sets o f values

‘s a tis fy ’ th e e q u a tio n . ‘S a tis fy ’ in th is case m eans ‘m ake th e e q u a tio n tru e ’.

L ater in th e co urse y o u w ill p lo t e q u a tio n s like th is on an x - y graph, and by jo in in g up

th e p o in ts yo u p lo t w ill be ab le to see w here all th e s o lu tio n s lie, and th e shape o f curves
p ro d u c e d by q u a d ra tic e q u a tio n s .

For th e m o m e n t w e w ill be fin d in g s o lu tio n s algebraically.

O f p a rtic u la r in te re s t are th o s e q u a d ra tic e q u a tio n s w h e r e y = 0.

For e xa m p le , x 2 + 2 x - 3 = 0.

This is an e q u a tio n in a single variable, x, and w e m ay be able to find values o f x w h ic h satisfy it.

W h a t h a p p e n s w h e n w e replace x b y 1?

x 2 + 2x - 3
= l 2+ 2 x 1 - 3
= 0
so x = 1 is a s o lu tio n to th is e q u a tio n .

Th e re is a n o th e r s o lu tio n ( x = - 3 ) and w e c o u ld try d iffe re n t values fo r x u n til w e fin d it, b u t

th is c o u ld ta k e so m e tim e , and w o u ld be im p o s s ib le in m a n y cases, so w e m u s t learn th e
a lg e b ra ic m e th o d s .

Solving Q uadratic Equations by Factorising

Lo ok a t th e e q u a tio n 2 x 2 + 5 x + 2 = 0.

T he le ft-h a n d side o fth e e q u a tio n can be factorised to give:

(2 x + l ) ( x + 2 )= 0

T he le ft-h a n d s ide o f th e e q u a tio n is n ow w ritte n as tw o brackets m u ltip lie d to g e th e r. If th e x

in th is e q u a tio n is re p la ced b y a n u m b e r, fo r e xam ple 3, th e e q u a tio n w o u ld beco m e :
( 2 x 3 + 1) (3 + 2) = 0
7x5 = 0
35 = 0
T h is is c le a rly no nse n se since 35 is n o t eq u a l to zero!

T he o n ly w a y th a t tw o d iffe re n t n u m b e rs o r te rm s can be m u ltip lie d to give zero is if o n e of

th e m is a lre a d y zero. So e ith e r ( 2 x + 1) = 0 o r (x + 2) = 0, w h ic h gives us tw o possib le answ ers
to th e q u a d ra tic e q u a tio n .

S e ttin g o u t th e a n sw e r to a q u e s tio n asking you to solve a q u a d ra tic e q u a tio n :

2 x 2 + 5x + 2 = 0
(2 x + 1)(x + 2 ) = 0
e ith e r 2x + i = 0 or x+ 2 = 0

x = -~ x = —2

/3 9 7
The tw o s o lu tio n s are x = | or x = -2.

Finally, to te s t th a t th is has w o rk e d c o rre c tly w e can s u b s titu te each s o lu tio n in to th e o rig in a l

e q u a tio n :

when x = ——
2 x 2 + 5x + 2

= H * 2
=0

So x = - j is a s o lu tio n to th e q u a d ra tic e q u a tio n 2x2 + 5 x + 2 = 0.

You s h o u ld ch eck fo r y o u rs e lf th a t th e o th e r s o lu tio n is also correct.

W arn in g! This m e th o d o n l y w o rk s fo r tw o te rm s m u ltip lie d to g e th e r to give zero.

It c a n n o t be used unless o ne side is zero because th e m ethod depends on th e special fa c t th a t th e

o n ly w ay tw o (or m ore) diffe re n t num bers can be m u ltip lie d to g e th e r to give zero is if o n e o f th e m
is zero. This o f course does n o t apply to tw o num bers m u ltip lie d to g e th e r to give, fo r exam ple, 2.

Exam ple 2
Solve the quadratic equations
a x2+ 2 x - 3 = 0 b 3x2- l l x + 8 = 0
Answ er 2
a x2+ 2 x - 3 = 0 b 3 x 2 - 1 1x + 8 = 0
(x + 3)(x - 1) = 0 (3 x -8 )(x -1 ) = 0
e ith e r x + 3 = 0 or x -1 = 0 e it h e r 3 x - 8 = 0 or x - 1 = 0
x = -3 x= 1 3x = 8 X =1
8
x =- or X =1
3

Exercise 16.2
Solve th e fo llo w in g e q u a tio n s

1 x 2 + 5x + 6 = 0 2 x 2+ x - 2 = 0 3 x 2- 6 x + 5 = 0
1—1

4 2x2 - x - 1 = 0 5 6 2x2 - 7 x + 5 = 0
II
l

o
*

CD
1

7 3x2 - x - 4 = 0 8 4x2- 8x + 3 = 0 9
II
o

10 x 2 - 8 x + 1 5 = 0 11 4 x 2 - 16 = 0 12 x 2 + 2 x + 1 = 0

13 3 x 2 - 6 x + 3 = 0 1 4 6x2 - 2 2 x + 16 = 0

Using the Quadratic Formula to Solve

Quadratic Equations
Som e qu ad ra tic equations m ay n ot factorise easily, because th e ir solutions are not w h o le
num bers or sim ple fractions.
 I 16 Algebra II

For these w e m ay use a form ula, often called the q u a d ra tic fo rm u la . We w ill derive a sim plified
form of it in the next section, b ut for the m o m e n t w e w ill get used to using it. The fo rm u la refers to
the general equation:

ax' + bx + c = 0

a nd states th a t: - b ± J b 2- 4 a c
X 2a
To see h o w it w orks w e w ill use it to solve the e q u a tio n x 2 + 2 x - 3 = 0, w h ic h w e have already
solved by fa c to ris in g in Exam ple 2(a).

C o m p a rin g x 2+ 2 x - 3 = 0

w ith a x 1 + b x - c = 0,

w e see th a t a = 1, b = 2 and c = - 3.

U sing th e q u a d ra tic fo rm u la :
__ - b ± \jb2 - 4ac
X ~ 2a
_ —2 ± -J22 —4 X 1X ( —3)
2X1

- 2 + V4 + 12
2
- 2 ± n/I6
2
-2 + 4
x = —
* 2

T h e ± sign m eans ‘plus o r m in u s ’, and gives us th e tw o s o lu tio n s:

e ith e r x = ± k rA or x = ~ 22+ 4
x = -3 or x = 1

T h is is m o re tim e -c o n s u m in g th a n th e m e th o d used in E xam ple 2(a), so you s h o u ld use th e

m e th o d o f fa c to ris in g if it is possible. H ow ever, q u e s tio n s o fte n ask you to solve th e given
q u a d ra tic e q u a tio n g ivin g th e answ ers co rre c t to tw o d e c im a l places, o r c o rre c t to th re e
s ig n ific a n t figures. This is a b ig h in t th a t it is n o t g o in g to fa c to ris e and yo u s h o u ld th e n use
th e fo rm u la w ith o u t s p e n d in g tim e a tte m p tin g a fa c to ris a tio n .

Example 3
Solve the following equations, giving your answers to 3 significant figures if not exact,
a 5x2+ 2 x - l = 0 b 2x2- x - l = 0

Answer 3
a 5 jc2 + 2 x - 1 = 0
Comparing with ax 2 + bx + c = 0
then a = 5, b = 2 and c = - l
n - b ± s l b 2 -Aac
Using x = ---------— ------
—2 ± n/22 —4 x 5 x —1 - 2 1 7 4 + 20
x = ------ ------------------ x = ----------------
2x5 10
- 2 + v/24 -2 -% / 2 4
x = ------------- ----------— o r X = -------------------------- —
10 10
x = 0.290 or x = -0 .6 9 0 to 3 s ig n ific a n t fig u re s
16 Algebra II J

b 2x2- x - 1 =0
In this equation a = 2, b = -1 and c = -1
- b ± \ l b2 - 4a c
x =
2 a
„ _ 1 ± V (-D j -4 x 2 x (-1 )
2x2
x _ i± V r+ 8

,« !+ / or , = 1=1
4 4
X = 1 X = -1

These answ ers are exact, so d o n o t need to be given to 3 s ig n ific a n t figures. In fa c t th e

e q u a tio n c o u ld have easily been solved by fa c to ris in g .

You m u s t ta ke g re a t care w ith the plus a n d m inus signs in this formula.

For exam p le, in th e a n sw e r to p a rt 1(b) you w ill see th a t:

- b = - ( - l ) = + l,
b2 = ( - l ) 2 = + l and

- 4 a c = - 4 x 2 x ( - l ) = +8

Exercise 16.3
Solve th e fo llo w in g , g iv in g y o u r answ ers to 3 s ig n ific a n t figures.

1 x* + 5 x - 7 = 0 2 x2- 5 x - l = 0 3 3x2+ 10x + 2 = 0

A x 2- x — 1 = 0 5 - x 2+ x + 4 = 0 6 2x2—7x + 2 = 0

Com pleting the Square to Solve

Quadratic Equations
Key term You m a y s o m e tim e s be asked to rearrange a q u a d ra tic expression o r solve a q u a d ra tic
Com pleting th e e q u a tio n by c o m p le tin g th e square. This m e th o d s o m e tim e s seem s a b it d a u n tin g a t first,
square is a method b u t is re la tiv e ly easy if you fo llo w a ro u tin e . T he easiest w a y to sl .nw y o u th is ro u tin e is by o n e
used to solve quadratic o r tw o exam ples.
equations. The quadratic
formula is derived using x 2 + 2x - 3 = 0
this method.
To solve th e a b o ve e q u a tio n by c o m p le tin g th e squ a re th e e q u a tio n firs t needs to be w ritte n
in a n o th e r fo rm . We begin by re w ritin g th e firs t tw o te rm s o f th e e q u a tio n :

• Take th e firs t tw o term s:

x 2+ 2x

• O pen a bracket, in se rt x , +, and h a lf th e c o e ffic ie n t o f th e x te rm , close th e b ra cke t and

square it:
(x + l) 2

400
 I 16 Algebra II

• S q u a rin g this bracket gives:

(x + 1) (jc + 1)

= x ?+ 2x + 1

• C o m p a rin g th is w ith the first tw o te rm s o f o u r o rig in a l e q u a tio n w e can see th a t w e have

acq u ire d an extra +1, so th is m u s t n ow be su b tra cte d , and the rest o f the o rig in a l e q u a tio n
p u t in place:
(x + l ) 2 - 1 - 3 = 0

• C o lle c tin g th e last tw o te rm s finishes th e re a rra n g e m e n t and c o m p le te s the square:

(x+ l) 2- 4 = 0

You sh o u ld m u ltip ly o u t th e brackets again to check th a t th is e q u a tio n is s till th e sam e as the

o rig in a l e q u a tio n .

Before g o in g on to use th is n ew fo rm to solve th e e q u a tio n it w o u ld be bene ficia l to practise

som e rearrangem ents.

Example 4
a x 2- 4 x + 3 b x2+ 5 x - 4 C 2x 2+ 4x - 1

Write these expressions in the form [ x + b ) 2 + c or a ( x + b ) 2 + c.

Answer 4
a x 2- 4 x + 3
(.x - 2 ) 2 = x 2- 4 x + 4 so subtract4
= ( x - 2 ) 2- 4 + 3 and replace th e + 3
= (x —2)2—1
b x2+ 5x - 4

x + |5) = x 2+ 5 x + ^ so s u b tr a c t^
4
2
= X+ i a n d r e p la c e th o — 4

-K H
2 x 2+ 4 x - l

= 2 X2+ 2X
- f l

=2 (X + 1)2 - 1 - | J

= 2 ^ (X + 1)2 - | j

= 2(X + 1)2 — 3

Exercise 16.4
Write these expressions in the form (x + b)2 + c or a(x + b)2 + c.
1 x 2- 6x + 1 2 x 2 + 5x + 2 3 x 2- 3 x - 3

4 2x2 + 4 x - 5 5 3 x 2 - 6x - 4 6 2 x 2- 3 x + 2

7 2 x2 + 5x - 5

401
16 Algebra II J

Solving the Equation after

Com pleting the Square
T his is n o w q u ite s tra ig h tfo rw a rd .

L o o k in g again a t o u r o rig in a l q u a d ra tic e q u a tio n :

x2+ 2x — 3 = 0

• R ew rite in th e c o m p le te d square fo rm :
(x + l ) 2- 4 = 0

• A dd 4 to b o th sides:
(x + 1)2 = 4

• S quare ro o t b o th sides:

X + 1= ± V 4
X + 1= ± 2

• S u b tra c t 1 fro m b o th sides:

x = +2 - 1 or x = -2 - 1
x = l x = -3

We have n o w solved o u r o rig in a l e q u a tio n in th re e d iffe re n t ways. T he ch o ic e o f m e th o d

d e p e n d s on th e ty p e o f e q u a tio n , o r on th e q u e s tio n you have been set. T here is a fo u rth
m e th o d , w h ic h you w ill see w h e n you w o rk o n C h a p te r 18.

Example 5
Solve these quadratic equations by completing the square. Leave your answers in surd form
where appropriate. (A surd is the square root of a number which itself is not a perfect square.
So leaving in surd form means leaving in square root form.)
a x2 + 3x - 5 = 0 b 2x2+ x - 3 = 0 c x 2 + bx + c = 0
Answer 5
a x 2+ 3x - 5 = 0

3+ n/2 9
2— 2

b 2x2+ x - 3 = 0 We can now divide the equation all through by 2.

Remember that 0 •=■2 = 0!

either x = - | or x = 1

402
 ( 16 fllgeftra II

c x 2 + bx + c = 0

m h +‘-»
MM-
-+ | = ± J E ^
x = - k + 'lb 2 -4 c
2 ~ 2
__ -b±\lb2- 4c
2
This is th e p ro o f o f the sim plified version of the quadratic form ula, w ith a = 1.
V_____________________ __________________________

Exercise 16.5
Solve the se e q u a tio n s by c o m p le tin g th e square and leaving in surd fo rm (square ro o t fo rm ) if
th e answ ers are n o t exact.
1 x2+ x - l = 02 x 2- j x — 2 = 0 3 x 2- 4 x - 5 = 0

4 4 x 2 + 8x - 1 = 05 x 2 —7 x + 2 = 0 6 2x2- 3 x + l = 0

Exercise 16.6
Solve th e fo llo w in g e q u a tio n s by any a p p ro p ria te m e th o d , g iv in g y o u r answ ers to 3 s ig n ific a n t
figures if th e y are n o t exact.
1 x 2- x - l = 0 2 x2+ 8 x + l = 0 3 x 2- 2 x + l = 0 4 2x2 + x - 6 = 0
5 5x2- 5 x - 2 = 0 6 x^ x+ ^ O 7 x2- 3 x - l = 0 8 3x2+ 4 x + l = 0
9 3x2- 4x - 1 = 0 10 - x 2 + 2 x - 1 = 0 11 8x2+ 342x + 35 = 0 12 6x2- 1 3 x - 15 = 0
Q u a d ra tic e q u a tio n s m ay a p p e a r in disguise, so you m ay need to d o a little alg e b ra ic w o rk
b efore th e y are ready to solve.

The next e xam p le sh o u ld m ake th is clear.

Exam ple 6
Solve for x:
i . 3 x-1 . x + 1 1
a - ^ = 3 x-4 b — —+ : =
x x x -1 x(x - 1)

x * 0 and x * 1 (because we cannot divide by zero)

Answ er 6

a - ^ = 3 x-4

Multiply both sides by x:

-1 = x(3x - 4)
- l = 3 x 2- 4 x
0 = 3x2- 4 x + l
0 = ( 3 x - l ) ( x - 1)
either ( 3 x - 1) = 0 or (x -l)= 0
x=| x= 1
16 Algebra ll J

b 3* - 1 | * +1 _ 1
X X- 1 x{x - 1)

( 3 x - 1 ) ^ / ( x - 1 ) , (x + 1) _ 1 ^ / £ s ^ lT
/ 1 1 1

(Cancel out common factors in numerator and denominator of each fraction)

(3x - l)(xr - 1 ) + x ( x +1) = 1
3 x 2 - Ax + 1 + x 2 + x - 1 = 0
4x 2 —3x = 0
x ( 4 x - 3) = 0
either x = 0 or (4 x -3 ) = 0

Alternative Method for (b):

Multiplying all through by the lowest common denominator can look very cumbersome
when the denominators are algebraic as in the above example.
An alternative method is to multiply each fraction top and bottom by the factor or factors
that are needed to make all the denominators the same.
In the above example, the first fraction needs to be multiplied top and bottom by
( x - 1) and the second needs to be multiplied top and bottom byx. The right-hand side
already has the common denominator.
Thinking of this in the simplest way: you decide what the lowest common denominator is, and
then, taking each fraction in turn, look for what is ‘missing’ in its denominator, and correct it.
Your first line of working would become:

(3 X - 1)(X -1 ) + X (X + 1) _ 1
x ( x - 1) X (X - 1) x ( x - 1)

Now the denominators are all the same we can see that multiplying the whole equation by
x ( x - l ) would cancel the denominators, so the next line of working will be:
(3JC - i)(x - 1 ) + x( x + 1) = 1
Then proceed as before.

V_____________________________________

Example 7
Solve the following equation
1 1 _ 2
x x+2 2x+]

Answer 7
1 1 _ 2
x x+2 2x + 1

The lowest common denominator \sx(x + 2)(2x+ 1), so multiply the first fraction top and
bottom by the ‘missing’ factors (x + 2) and (2x + 1), multiply the second top and bottom by x
and ( 2 x + 1) and so on.

(x + 2)(2x +1) x(2jc + 1)_ 2x(x + 2)

X(X + 2)(2X + 1) x ( x + 2 )(2 x + 1) x ( x + 2 )(2 x + 1)

404
 I 16 Algebra II

Now the whole equation has a common denominator, so multiplying through by that
rommon denominator will cancel it out of every term, leaving:

(x + 2)(2x + 1) - x{2x + 1) = 2x ( x + 2)

This can now be multiplied out and simplified (taking care with the minus sign):
(2x2 + 5x + 2) - (2x2 + x) = (2x2 + Ax)
2 x 2 + 5x + 2 - 2 x 2 - x - 2 x 2 - 4x = 0
-2 x 2+ 2 = 0

Dividing through b y-2:

x 2- 1 = 0
x=l or x=-l

Exercise 16.7
Solve th e fo llo w in g :

1 x + 3 + -= 0 2 2 -^ + 4 = 0 3 —6x + (x —2) = 0
X X' x —1 ’

4 * - x { x 2- x ) = 6 - x 5 6 ^ +^ =-

x2 , 1 _ 1 1 , 1 _ 3 1 1_ 2
' (5 + x ) ( 6 - x ) 5+x 6-x 8 x X + 1 3X-1 ° x -1 x x+2

in x ——= 3 x - 9
10 2x + 5 x 2 x 2 + 5x

(x - 4) cm

(x - 5) cm

The area o f th e re ctangle is 12 sq u a re centim etres,

a Form an e q u a tio n in x.
b S olve y o u r e q u a tio n fo rx .
c W rite d o w n th e d im e n s io n s o f th e rectangle.

12 The sum o fth e squares o f tw o c o n se cu tive n u m b e rs is 145. C a lculate th e num bers.

13 The p ro d u c t o f tw o c o n se cu tive e v e n num b e rs is 168. C a lcu la te th e num bers.

14 The le n g th o f a re ctangle is 3 cm m o re th a n its breadth. The area o f th e rectangle is 40 c m 2.

Let th e b re a d th o fth e re ctangle b e x c m .
a S how th a t th is in fo rm a tio n leads to th e e q u a tio n x 2 + 3 x - 40 = 0.
b Solve th is e q u a tio n .
c W rite d o w n th e d im e n s io n s o fth e rectangle.

1 6 .5 More Sequences
You w ill be expected to be able to a n sw e r s lig h tly m ore d iffic u lt q u e s tio n s on sequences.
16 algebra II J

Exam ple 8
a Find the nth term of the following sequence

1 1 1 1
3 5 7 9 "'

b The nth term of a sequence is given by n2 + n + 1 .

i Calculate the 50th term. ii Find n when the nth term = 111.
c Find the nth term of the following sequences
i 16 25 36 49... ii 2 6 12 20 30...

A nsw er 8
a The numerators and denominators form separate sequences.
The numerators are 1 3 5 7...
The nth term is2n —1
The denominators are 3 5 7 9...
The nth term is 2n + 1
So the nth term for the sequence is =

b i nth term = n2 + n + 1
50th term = 502+ 50 + 1
= 2551
ii nth term = 111
n2 + n + 1 = 111
n2 + n - 1 1 0 = 0
(n + ll) ( n - 1 0 ) = 0
n = - l l o rn = 10
So the 10th term = 111
c i 16 25 36 49...
This sequence is clearly based on the sequence of square numbers, but the first term
is 16 (42), not l 2, and the second term is 25 (52) not 22.
So the nth term is not n2, but (n + 3)2.
nth term = (n + 3)2
ii 2 6 12 20 30...
The first set of differences is
+4 +6 +8 + 1 0 ...
and the second set is
+2 +2 + 2 ...
so the sequence is based on n2.
For the first term l 2+ 1 = 2, for the second term 22+ 2 = 6, and for the third term
32 + 3 = 12.
So the formula for the nth term is n2 + n.
nth term = n2+ n
V_______________________________________________
You m ay have to fin d p a tte rn s across d iffe re n t sequences as th e next e xam ple sho ws.

Example 9
a Find the nth term for the following sequence:
3 .6 .1 1 .1 8 .2 7 ....
b Using your answer to part (a) find the nth term for this sequence
4 .8 .1 4 .2 2 .3 2 ....
 ^ 16 Algebra II

c Using your answer to part (a) find the nth term for
6.1 1 .18 .27.38....

Answ er 9
a 3 ,6 ,1 1 ,1 8 ,2 7 ,...
The first set of differences is
3, 5, 7 ,9 ,...
The second set of differences is
2 .2 .2 ....
So the sequence is based on n 2, with 2 added to each term,
nth term = n2+ 2
b 4 ,8 ,1 4 ,2 2 ,3 2 ,...
The new sequence is
3 + 1,6 + 2,11 + 3,18 + 4,27 + 5 ,...
This is the old sequence with n added to each term,
nth term = n2 + 2 + n
c 6 ,1 1 ,1 8 ,2 7 ,3 8 ,...
Comparing with 3 ,6 ,1 1 ,1 8 ,2 7 ,..., we can see that:
the 1st term of the new sequence is the 2nd term of the old,
the 2nd term ofthe new sequence is the 3rd term ofthe old,
the 3rd term of the new sequence is the 4th term of the old.
So the nth term ofthe new sequence is the (n + l)th term ofthe old.
nth term = (n + 1 )2+ 2

Exam ple 1 0
A sequence of diagrams is shown below.
• • • •
• • • • • •
• • • • • •
• • • •
1 2 3 4

a Complete the following table showing the number of dots in each successive diagram in
the sequence, including the next diagram (diagram numbers).

Diagram number (OJ 1 2 3 4 5

Number of dots (n)

b These numbers are called triangular numbers because ofthe way the dots can be
arranged.
The formula for the nth term is:
nth term = D„ = |n(n +1)
Calculate the 99th triangular number, 0 99.
c What is the difference between
i the 4th and 5th,
ii the 5th and 6th,
iii the 99th and 100th triangular numbers?
d i Complete the following:
0 ^ 0 2 = 1+ 3 = 4
0 2 + 0 3= 3 + 6 =
0 3+ 0 4 =
ii What special numbers are produced by adding successive terms in the sequence of
triangular numbers?

407
16 Algebra II J

Answer 10
Diagram number (D„) 1 2 3 4 5
Number of dots (n) 1 3 6 10 15

b D99 = ^ x 9 9 x (9 9 + 1) = 4950
c i Ds - D 4= 1 5 -1 0 = 5 ii D6- D 5 = 2 1 - 1 5 = 6iii D100- D 99= 100
d I D1+ D2= 1 + 3 = 4
D2 + D3= 3 + 6 = 9
0 3+ D4= 6 + 1 0 = 16
ii Square numbers

Exercise 16.8
1 Find th e firs t fo u r te rm s o f th e fo llo w in g sequences:
a n th te rm = n 2 b n th te rm = n2 - 2 cn th te rm = n 2- 2 n
d n th te rm = n 2- 2 « - 2 e n th te rm = ^ f n th te rm =
g n th te rm = (n - 1)2 h n th te rm = n 3 in th te rm = n 3 + 2
j n th te rm = n3- n k n th te rm = 3«

2 Find th e n th te rm o f th e fo llo w in g sequences:

a 1x2 2x3 3x4 4x5
b 0 2 6 12 20 30
c 4 9 16 25
d 2 8 18 32 50 ...
- 1 4 9 16
2 3 4 5 "
f 3 6 9 12 15
4 5 6 7 8

3 The n th te rm o f a sequ e n ce is given by 2 n 2 + 1 .

a Find th e 3rd, 7th and 10th term s.
b Find n w h e n th e n th te rm is
i 33 ii 243.

4 The n th te rm o f a sequence is given by n 2 + 2 n.

a Find th e 4 th , 7th and 100th term s.
b Find n w h e n th e n th te rm is
i 3 ii 99 iii 120 iv 288

1 6 .6 More S im ultaneous Equations

You w ill be expe cted to solve s im u lta n e o u s e q u a tio n s w h ic h m ig h t re q u ire re a rranging o r
s im p lify in g firs t o r w here b o th e q u a tio n s need to be m u ltip lie d by co n s ta n ts in o rd e r to
e q ua lise co e fficie nts.

The m e th o d is ca lle d e lim in a tio n because o n e o f th e v ariables is e lim in a te d to give an

Key term e q u a tio n in th e other.
E lim in a tio n is a
For exam ple, solve this p a ir o f s im u lta n e o u s e q u a tio n s :
method used to solve
simultaneous equations. -2 x + 3 y = 4
5 x = 8 + 6y

\
408
 I 16 Algebra ll

It is c o n v e n ie n t to n u m b e r th e tw o e q u a tio n s so th a t you can explain yo u r m e th o d .

- 2 x + 3y = 4 ,..(i)
5 x = 8 + 6y ■■•(ii)

R earrange (ii):

5 x — 6y = 8 .. .(iii)

M u ltip ly (i) b y 5 a n d (iii) by 2:

- 1 0 x + 15 y = 20
lO x - 12y - 16

Add th e s e tw o e q u a tio n s to e lim in a te th e x term s.

0 + 3 y = 36
7=12

S u b s titu te fo r y in (ii)

5 x = 8 + 6 x 12
5 x = 8 + 72
5 x = 80

x = 16

S o x = 16 a n d y = 12.

This e x a m p le sho w s th e m e th o d w h e n b o th e q u a tio n s are m u ltip lie d by constants, and t h e *

te rm s h ave been e lim in a te d . B u t in th is p a rtic u la r case it w o u ld have been s im p le rto m u ltip ly
(i) by 2, a n d th e n solve s im u lta n e o u s ly w ith (iii), e lim in a tin g th e y te rm s first. Try th is to check
th e answ er.

S how n b e lo w is a c o n v e n ie n t and c le a r m e th o d fo r s h o w in g y o u r w o rkin g .

Exam ple 1 1
Solve these two equations by the method of elimination
3x-2y = 4
5 x — 3y = 7

Answ er 1 1

...3 x -2 y = A — > 15x - 1 0 ^ = 20 -------------> 1 5 x -1 0 y = 20

(i)
(jj) . . . 5 x - 3 y = 7 — — — > 1 5 x - 9 y =21 — ^= 1 — > - 1 5 x + 9 ^ = -2 1 a dd
-y = - 1

NOTE: y =1
S u b s titu te ^ 1 in Substitute y = 1 in (i) 3x - 2 x 1= 4
equation (ii) to check the 3x = 6
working. x=2

x = 2 and y = 1.

In th e e x a m p le a b o ve w e have e q u a lise d th e x co e ffic ie n ts to e lim in a te th e x term s. Try the

sam e q u e s tio n yo u rse lf, e q u a lis in g t h e y co e fficie n ts by m u ltip ly in g e q u a tio n (i) by 3 and
e q u a tio n (ii) by 2, to e lim in a te th e /te r m s .
16 Ajgcftra ll J

Exercise 16.9
Solve these s im u lta n e o u s e q u a tio n s by th e m e th o d o f e lim in a tio n .

1 3 x + 4y = 5 2 7y = 5 - 3 x 3 3 x + 3>’ = 2 4 6 x-5 y= 2

3y + 2x = 4 4^ = 3 - 2 x 2 x -8 y = 3 5 x + 3 ;> = 1 6

In so m e cases an a lte rn a tiv e m e th o d , c a lle d s o lv in g by s u b s titu tio n , m ay b e sim pler. For

Key term
e xa m p le , lo o k a t th is p a ir o f s im u lta n e o u s e q u a tio n s :
S u b s titu tio n is another
method used to solve 3 x + 5 y = 15
sim ultaneous equations.
y = 2x - 1

In th is case p u ttin g th e rig h t-h a n d s ide o f th e s e c o n d e q u a tio n in brackets gives:

y = ( 2 x - i )

w h ic h can be s u b s titu te d f o r y in th e firs t e q u a tio n :

3 x + 5 ( 2 x - l ) = 15

We n o w have a lin e a r e q u a tio n in x o n ly , so w e can so lv e it in th e n o rm a l w ay.

3x + 1 0 x —5 = 15
13x = 20
x=20
13

N o w s u b s titu te fo r x in o n e o f th e e q u a tio n s (th e s e co n d one is sim ple r).

y =
h i

y =

4 0 -1 3
/ 13
27
> '= 13

Your questions w ill probably have sim pler ca lcu la tio n s than this, but there is no reason w hy
fra c tio n s c a n n o t be in v o lve d .

Exam ple 1 2
Solve the following pair of equations:

y —x = 5

Answ er 12
Number the two equations so that you can explain your method:

^y+ l x= 2 ■•■(')
y —x = 5 ...(ii)
Multiply equation (i) by 10 to simplify.
5^ + 2x = 20 ...(iii)
Rearrange equation (ii):
y = 5 + x ...(iv)
 ( 16 Algebra II

Substitute (5 + x) for_y in (iii)

5(5 + x ) + 2 x = 20
NOTE: 25 + 5x + 2 x = 20
Remember to p ut 5 + x in
7 x = 2 0 -2 5
a bracket!
I x = -5

Substitute for x in (iv):

y = 5+ ( - f )

7 7

H
s o x = - | and^ = y

As you should see, equations (ii) and (iii) can also be solved by elimination, either by
multiplying (ii) by 5 to eliminate/, or by multiplying (ii) by 2 to eliminatex. You could try
these for practice.

Exercise 16.10
Solve th e s e pairs o f e q u a tio n s by th e m e th o d o f s u b s titu tio n .

1 y + 2x = 5 2 y = 5x + 4 3 x - 3 = 4y

3 y -5 x = 4 3 y -2 x + l = 0 ly + 2x=31

4 3x+y = 4 5 x+ 3 y -3 6 j x ~y = ^

2 [y -5 ) = -5 x 5x = 6 - 5 y x + ^y = 1

T he m e th o d y o u c h o o s e to use to so lve y o u r s im u lta n e o u s e q u a tio n s is y o u r c h o ice , b u t by

p ra c tis in g b o th m e th o d s y o u w ill have a c h o ic e and be a b le to c h o o se th e s im p le s t fo r each
p a rtic u la r p a ir o f e q u a tio n s .

Exercise 16.11
Solve th e fo llo w in g pairs o f s im u lta n e o u s e q u a tio n s :

1 3 y + 2 x = 12 2 5y = x - 1 5 3 2x + 3 y = 1 5 4 4y = x - 1 0

y+x=4 x+y = 9 3 x + 2 y = 15 3 y -2 x = 5

5 0 .1 x -0 .2 y = 2 6 1.4x + 3 .9 v = 6.4 7 x = 7 -2 y 8 - x - - y - 5
2 4'
x + y = 17 0.2jc — 1 .3 y = 1.2 y = 5 + 2x x+ y = 5

9 - x + 3 y = 10 1 0 |x + i y = i
2 x + 5y = 2 5x + y = 1

1 6 .7 Inequalities
You have a lre a d y seen th e in e q u a lity signs: > 5= < *£.
16 m e i m i j

It is useful to be ab le to re p re se n t in e q u a litie s on a n u m b e r line, using a c irc le and an arrow .

Key term
An in e q u a lity is like an
eq u a tio n , b u t its s o lu tio n
is a ran g e.o f values ra th e r
th an d iscrete valu es
If th e in e q u a lity is s tric t (< o r >) use an o p e n circle , o th e rw is e (=£ o r 3=) use a fille d c irc le to
sh o w th a t th e in e q u a lity in c lu d e s th e end n u m b e r. If th e in e q u a lity has no en d , use an
a rro w to s h o w it c o n tin u in g in th a t d ire c tio n .
T his is best m a de c le a r by s o m e exam ples, as in Figures 16.1-16.3.

— i----- ■---- * i i
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

F ig u re 1 6 .1 x s = - l

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

F ig u re 1 6 .2 - 2 < x = s 4

i r-
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

F ig u re 1 6 .3 x < - l o r x > 4

In e q u a litie s are s im ila r to e q u a tio n s , b u t th e s o lu tio n s are g e n e ra lly a range o f values rather
th a n in d iv id u a l values. T he m e th o d s used to solve in e q u a litie s are th e sam e as th o s e fo r
e q u a tio n s w ith one v e ry im p o rta n t e x c e p tio n w h ic h you m u st rem em ber.

For exam ple, c o n s id e r th e fo llo w in g :

x - 4 < 3x + 6
x-3x<6 + 4 ( ta k in g 3 x fro m b o th s id e s
-2 x < 1 0 a n d a d d in g 4 to b o th s id e s )

T he next ste p is to d iv id e b o th sid e s b y - 2 , w h ic h w e w ill do, b u t a t the s am e tim e the

in e q u a lity sign m u st be ch a n g e d fro m ‘ less th a n ’ to ‘g reate r th a n ’.

X > -5

T h e rule is: W h e n y o u m u ltip ly o r d iv id e a n in e q u a lity by a n e g a tiv e n u m b e r y o u m u s t

c h a n g e th e d ire c tio n o f t h e in e q u a lity sign.

There are several w ays to e x plain w h y it is necessary to tu rn th e sign around.

Look at the n u m b e r line in Figure 16.4, and re m e m b e r th a t num bers on the rig h t are larger than
nu m be rs on th e left.

-1 0 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 —4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

-10
t 2 > -10
I
2
F ig u re 1 6 .4 Po sitio ns on the n u m b e r line

We can see from the n u m b e r line th a t- 2 < 10; how ever, if w e m u ltip ly both sides o f this inequality
b y - 1 is it still true th a t 2 < -1 0 ? From th e n u m b e r line you can see th a t it is not, and in fact 2 > -1 0 .

412
 I, 16 Algebra II

W hen y o u are w o rk in g w ith in e q u a litie s try to pictu re (or sketch) a n u m b e r line and th in k o f its
s y m m e try a ro u n d zero to he lp y o u re m e m b e r to a lte r th e sign.

A n o th e r a p p ro a ch is to avoid m u ltip ly in g o r d iv id in g by negative num bers.

G oing back to th e in e q u a lity above, w h e n w e reached th e stage w here w e w ere a b o u t to d iv id e

by - 2 , w e co u ld d o th e fo llo w in g instead:

- 2 x < 10

N ow a d d - 2 x t o b o th sides a n d ta ke 10 fro m b o th sides:

-1 0 < 2x
.JNOTE:
iR m e m b e rth a t it is only D ivide b o th sides by 2:
when multiplying or
-5 < x
jiwifiingby aneptive
number that the sign has N ow, since - 5 is less th a n a; it fo llo w s th a t x is g reate r th a n - 5 , and th e a n sw e r m ay be given
to be changed, not when
adding or subtracting.
x > -5

N ote, h ow e ver, th a t w ith o u t th is last s te p y o u r s o lu tio n is in c o m p le te .

E xam ple 1 3
a Solve the following inequalities
i 5x - 3 3s 2x - 1 ii 2 =£ 3 x - 5 < 7
b List the integers which satisfy the following inequality
3.5 < - x < 10.5

A nsw er 1 3
a i 5x - 3 2x - 1
5x - 2x ^ -1 + 3 (taking 2x from both sides and adding 3 to both sides)
3xS= + 2

3
ii 2 =£3x - 5<7 (add 5 to each part of the inequality)
2 + 5=s3x<7 + 5
7«3x<12 (divide all through by 3)
7.

o r2 |=S x< 4

so x is greater than or equal to 2 1 and less than 4, which could be shown on the
number line as:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
b 3.5 < - x < 10.5 (multiply all through b y -1 , and remember to change the inequality signs)
-3 .5 > x > -10.5 or -10.5 < x < -3.5
This is shown on the number line below:

-1 2 -1 1 - 1 0 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0

so the solution is {-10, -9 , - 8 , -7, - 6 , -5 , -4}.

(Drawing the number line makes it easier to see which integers are included. You will note
th a t-1 0 is included, b u t- 3 is outside the range of the inequality.)
18 JU g a B n II J

T w o in e q u a litie s m ig h t have to be solved s im u lta n e o u s ly . It is c o n v e n ie n t to s h o w b o th on a

n u m b e r line, as s h o w n in th e ne xt e xam ple.

E xam ple 1 4
3x 3= x + 4
3 x - 15 < 0
a Show the solution to these inequalities on a number line.
b List the integers which satisfy both inequalities.
c Write the solution as an inequality.

A n sw e r 1 4
a 3x3= x + A 3 x -1 5 < 0
2x3=4 3 x < 15
x 3= 2 x<5

- 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
• U

^ b {2,3,4} C 2 =£ x < 5

Exercise 16.12
1 S o lve th e fo llo w in g in e q u a litie s , s h o w in g th e s o lu tio n s o n a n u m b e r line:

a -2 x < l b 6 x > 7 -x c 3 (x + 1) = £ x - 2

d 2 ( 3 x - 2 ) = £ 7 ( x - l) e lx -3 < x + | f -7 < 2x < 4

g 1 =£ x - 1 < 6 h 3 < —x < 5

2 List th e in teg ers w h ic h s a tis fy th e fo llo w in g in e q u a litie s :

a 7 x < -1 4 b -3x^6 c 2 x - l < 2 d —5 < 2x + 1 < 2

e -2 s * x -l< 3 f l^ - x ^ 4 g —l < - x < 3

3 -x = s 6

3 x -5 < -ll

a List th e integers w h ic h s a tisfy b o th in e q u a litie s .

b W rite th e s o lu tio n as an in e q u a lity .

1 6 .8 Variation
We have a lre a d y lo o k e d a t th e ideas o f d ire c t and inverse p ro p o rtio n , and n o w w e m ust th in k
a b o u t th e m a lg e b ra ica lly, o r in m o re genera l term s.
An exa m p le o f direct p ro p o rtio n w o u ld be th e n u m b e r o f s im ila rite m s you buy (/V) and the to ta l
cost (T) o f th o se item s, because as the n u m b e r increases th e to ta l cost w ill increase in p ro p o rtio n

An e x a m p le o f inverse p ro p o rtio n w o u ld be th e n u m b e r o f ite m s you could b u y (N ) fo r a given

a m o u n t o f m o n e y and th e in d iv id u a l cost (c) o f th o s e item s, because as th e c o s t o f each item
increases th e n u m b e r you c o u ld buy decreases.

\
4141
 ^ 16 Algebra II

We w ill n o w lo o k at h o w you are a b le to express these v a ria tio n s alg e b ra ica lly.
Key term To d e m o n s tra te d ire c t p ro p o rtio n o r v a r ia tio n w e can th in k o f th e first e x a m p le above. If
Variation relates two N = n u m b e r o f ite m s and T = th e to ta l cost th e n w e can say th a t T is d ire c tly p ro p o rtio n a l to
or more variables
N and w rite :
which are in d ire c to r
inverse proportion in an T oc N
algebraic way. w h e re is th e sign m e a n in g ‘is p ro p o rtio n a l to ’. We read th is as T i s p ro p o rtio n a l to A/’, or
T varies as (or w ith ) A/'.
For inverse p ro p o rtio n , as in th e s econd e xam ple, if N is th e n u m b e r o f ite m s you can buy
fo r th e a m o u n t o f m o n e y you have and c is th e cost o f each ite m , th e n w e can say th a t N is
inversely p ro p o rtio n a l to c, and w rite :
N od
c
T his is read W is in ve rsely p ro p o rtio n a l to c o r ‘N varies inversely as (or w ith ) c. H a vin g w ritte n
d o w n th e s ta te m e n t s h o w in g th e v a ria tio n w e th e n re p la ce th e =* sign by ‘= k x \ w h e re A: is a
c o n s ta n t, k n o w n as th e c o n s ta n t o f v a ria tio n :
fo c /v and Nod
c
T=kxN N = kxl
c
B efore w e can m a ke use o f th e se e q u a tio n s it is necessary in each case to fin d th e v a lu e o fth e
c o n s ta n t k. Q u e s tio n s on v a ria tio n w ill give yo u a p a ir o f values so th a t you can fin d k. W ork
th ro u g h th e e x a m p le to see h o w th is is done.
T he c o n s ta n t o f v a ria tio n m a y o f co u rse be any letter, b u t A: is o fte n used to re p re se n t a
c o n s ta n t.
For exam ple, w e m ay be to ld th a t w hen th e to ta l cost, T, is Rs 980 and th e n u m b e r o f item s, N, is 20.
S u b s titu tin g in th e e q u a tio n :
T= kxN
9 8 0 = fc x 2 0
k = 49
We n o w have a fo rm u la :
T = 4 9 /V
T his fo rm u la can n o w be used to fin d o th e r values o f T o r N.

A q u a n tity m a y be d ire c tly o r in ve rse ly p ro p o rtio n a l to a s im p le fu n c tio n o f a n o th e r q u a n tity ,

such as th e cube, o r th e sq u a re ro o t as sh o w n in th e e x a m p le below .

E xam ple 1 5
a Given that N varies inversely as c, and that N = 550 when c = 0.20, find a formula
connecting N and c.
b Given that x is inversely proportional to y 3, and that x = 1 when jy = 2, find a formula
connecting x and y.
c Given that h is proportional to the square root of A, and that h = 3 when A = 81,
i find a formula connecting h and A,
ii use your formula to find h when A = 16.
d You are given thaty°= x 2. What happens to y if the value of x is doubled (multiplied by 2)?

r
[4 1 5
16 Algebra ll J

Answer 15
a A/* 1 b x<
y3
N= kx-
c x= k
Given N = 550when c = 0.20
given that x = 1 when y = 2
550 = k x
1
0.20 1= 23
550x0.20 = it
k= 8
fc = 110
The formula is x = A r
So thte formula is N = —
c

i h°cy[A d y o= (2x)2
h - k^A y oc Ax2
Given that h = 3 when A = 81 so y is quadrupled (multiplied by 4).
3 = kX\I%\
3 = fcx9

‘-i
The formula is h = ~ J A
ii When/4 = 16

h = ± -M

h= ±

Exercise 16.13 n o c a l c u l a t o r in t h is e x e r c is e
1 The to ta l cost (T) o f a n u m b e r o f s im ilar item s (A/) is directly p ro p o rtio n a l to th e n u m b e r o f items,
a Given th a t the to ta l co st fo r 30 Item s is Rs 990, fin d an e q u a tio n c o n n e c tin g T arid N.
b W h a t does th e c o n s ta n t o f v a ria tio n re pre sen t in th is exam ple?

2 Given t h a t / i s p ro p o rtio n a l to x 2, and th a t_ y = 4 w h e n x = 3 , fin d an e q u a tio n in x a nd y.

3 a I^K is p ro p o rtio n a l to l^and th e c o n s ta n t o f v a ria tio n is d.

Given th a t w h e n W = 10 kg, V = 7 m 3 fin d th e n u m e ric a l va lu e o f d.
b D is inversely p ro p o rtio n a l to V.
W hen D = 6 m g /m 3, l/= 3 .5 m 3.
Find a fo rm u la c o n n e c tin g D and V.

4 Given th a t a varies inversely as th e s quare ro o t o f b, and th a t w h e n b = 9, a = 4, fin d

a th e fo rm u la c o n n e c tin g a and b,
b th e va lu e o f a w h e n b = 16,
c th e v alue o f b w h e n a = 2.5, g ivin g y o u r answ er to 3 s ig n ific a n t figures.

5 G ordon is m a k in g a set o f c u b ic glass p a p e rw e ig h ts o f various sizes.

The mass, m g , o f each p a p e rw e ig h t varies as th e c ube o f th e length o f o n e o f its sides, /c m .
A p a p e rw e ig h to fs id e 5 c m h a s a m a s s o f3 7 5 g .
a Find a fo rm u la to c a lc u la te th e m ass o f each p a p e rw e ig h t, given th e le n g th o f o n e side,
b C a lcu la te th e m ass o f a p a p e rw e ig h t th a t m easures 6 cm on each side.

\
416
 I 16 Algebra II

6 The force o f a ttra c tio n (F) betw een tw o p lanets is inversely p ro p o rtio n a l to the square of
the dista n ce (d) betw een the planets.
The u n its to m easure force are N ew tons.
W hen F = 10"' n e w tons, d = 109 m etres,
a Find a fo rm u la c o n n e c tin g F a n d d.
b Find the force betw een th e tw o p lanets w hen th e y are 101'1m etres apart.

1 6 .9 Rearranging Formulae
We w ill n o w lo o k a t re arranging (o r tra n s fo rm in g ) m ore c o m p lic a te d fo rm u la e . R em em ber
th a t you are, in a sense, w o rk in g backw ards to rearrange th e fo rm u la e , u n d o in g each
o p e ra tio n , so inverses need to be used, and BoDMAS m ay have to be used backw ards. As
before, it is he lpfu l to u n d e rlin e th e va ria b le w e w a n t to m ake th e s u b je c t o f th e fo rm u la . For
e xam ple, a fo rm u la c o n n e c tin g speed («), d istance {d), tim e (t) and a cceleration (a) is:

5= ut + j at2

The fo rm u la is w ritte n in a w a y th a t m akes it easy to fin d s, th e distance. Rearrange th is

fo rm u la to m ake a th e subject.

• Turn th e fo rm u la ro u n d so th a t a is on th e le ft-h a n d side, and u n d e rlin e a.

ut + ^ a t 2= s
S u b tra c t u t from b o th sides.

1 a t 2= j ■u t
2 _
M u ltip ly bo th sides by 2.
a ? = 2 ( s - ut)
D ivide b o th sides by t2.
. 2(5 - U t )

The fo rm u la is n o w w ritte n in a w a y th a t m akes it easy to fin d a, th e acceleration, and you m ay

have n o tice d th a t, c o n tra ry to BoDMAS, s u b tra c tio n cam e before m u ltip lic a tio n and divisio n .

Exam ple 1 6

a 4 = p (l + - 0
I 100 J

Rearrange the formula to make rthe subject,

b ax-by = cx-d
Rearrange the formula to make x the subject.
Answer 1 6

a A=Ph+ b ax-by = c x-d

100
a x - c x = - d + by
p |1 + 4 ) = * x ( a — c) — b y — d
i + -100)
U by-d
P x = -------
a-c
1 + 100
:” \p so the first step is to
collect the x terms
Tod~Jp~1
I
r = 100|
T here are tw o m e th o d s a va ila b le to he lp you if you are n o t able to rearrange a fo rm u la . One
is to co m p a re it w ith a n u m e ric a l version, so in p a rt (a) o f th e exa m p le a bove w e c o u ld w rite
20 = 5 (1+ i £ o ) , c a lc u la te r, and n o te th e steps w h ic h had to b e ta k e n to fin d r. The n u m b e rs
used are n o t to o im p o rta n t as th e y are o n ly th e re to he lp you u n d e rs ta n d th e m e th o d .

T he a lte rn a tiv e is to use a n u m b e r m achine.

A lw ays in p u t th e le tte r you need to m ake th e n ew s u b je c t, and th e n w o rk backw ards. See

Figure 16.5 fo r th is p a rtic u la re x a m p le .
.2 ______ , ,2
input r g > 4 - [7 ? > i+ 4 E 5 > ( 1+^ - ) E > o u t p u M = p (i + ^ ,

output r <^x100
/ x100
‘ A
f < 3 input

r = 100| J — - 1|

F ig u re 1 6 .5 Using a number machine to rearrange the formula in Example 16 a

Exercise 16.14
1 V = ± (b -a Y m ake b th e s u b je c t 2 S= ^~ m a k e r th e s u b je c t
1 -r
r _ x2+y 2- z 2 m a ke z th e s u b je c t 4 y = 4ax m ake a th e s u b je c t
2xy
5 S = j [ 2a + ( n - ] ) d ] m ake a th e s u b je c t 6 E = ^ m ( v 2 - u 2) m ake v th e s u b je c t

7 e= _ w 8 v2- m 2 = 2 as m ake u th e s u b je c t
W+ W
a m ake w th e s u b je ct,
b m ake W th e subject.

9 t= m a k e /th e s u b je c t 10 a2 = b2+ c2-2 b A make/A th e s u b je c t

11 a x + b y = a c m ake a th e s u b je c t

12 2 x - 3 y = a x + b y
a m ake x th e s u b je ct, b m a k e /th e s u b je c t, c m ake b th e su b je ct.

Using Algebra to Solve Real Life Problems

Exam ple 17
Tom is going to have 10 hectares of his grass cut to make hay (a hectare is 10000 m2). The
grass will be cut, left to dry in the sun and then made into large bales of hay. The hay will
then be carted into his barn.
a Ben quotes for this work using the following charges:
Cutting $30 per hectare
 I 16 Algebra II

Baling $6 per bale

Carting and stacking $2 per bale.
Write down and simplify an equation for the cost in dollars (y) of making x bales if Ben
does this work,
b Amos quotes for the same work as follows:
Daily rate for use of machinery $500
Surcharge per bale $2
He estimates that the work will take three days.
Write down and simplify an equation for the cost in dollars (z) of m aking* bales if Amos
does the work,
c Amos’ quotation comes to $516 more than Ben’s.
Calculate the number of bales that Tom is expecting to be made.

Answer 17
a y = 3 0 x l0 + 6 x + 2 x b z = 3 x 5 0 0 + 2x
7 = 300 + 8* z = 1500 + 2*
C z - y = 516
1500 + 2 x - (300 + 8x) = 516
1 2 0 0 -6 * = 516
120 0 -5 1 6 = 6*
114 = *
Tom expects to have 114 bales made.

Exercise 16.15
Mixed exercise DO NOT USE A CALCULATOR IN QUESTIONS 1 TO 9
1 Solve th e fo llo w in g e q uations:
a 4 x + 1_ x + 5 b =6
2 5 X+1
2 Solve th e fo llo w in g e q u a tio n s , g iv in g y o u r answ ers c o rre c t to 3 s ig n ific a n t figures if th e y
are n o t exact.
a 9x2- 2 5 = 0 b 2x2 + 3 x - 2 7 = 0 c 3 x2 + 8 x - 4 = 0

3 W rite x 2 - x - 5 in th e fo rm ( x + a ) 2 + b.

4 Find th e n th te rm o fth e fo llo w in g sequences:

] 3 5 X
a 3 6 9 12
b 0 1 ± i- .
4 9 16

5 Given t h a t y is inversely p ro p o rtio n a l to V * , and that_y = 10 w h e n x = 9, fin d

a a fo rm u la c o n n e c tin g *: and y
b i y w h e n * = 40 ii x w h e n y = 20.

6 R earrange th e fo llo w in g fo rm u la e :
a = D m ake 8 th e subject

b —= ^ m ake B th e s u b je c t
a b
7 Solve th e fo llo w in g in e quality.
3 * - 5 < 5x 3* + 2

/■------
419
16 Algebra II J

8 Solve th e fo llo w in g pairs o f s im u lta n e o u s e q u a tio n s

a 2y + 3 x = 1 0 b ly - x = ll
3 y-2 x = - l l 5x + y = -7 3

(n —2)2
9 The n th te rm o f a sequence is ------- W rite d o w n th e firs t 5 term s.
(« + 2)

Exam-style questions J DO NOT USE A CALCULATOR IN

QUESTIONS 1 0 TO 3 1
10 a H----------1----------b ■ e-
-3 -2 -1 1

T h e s e M = {x : 1 =£ x < 3 } is sh o w n on th e n u m b e r line above.

i Set B is show n o n th e n u m b e r lin e below .
— I----------1-------- 1— 0 — H---------------------------------------------- 1---------1--------------1--------------•
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
C o m p le te th e d e s c rip tio n given below .
B = { x : .............. x ...............}

ii The set C = { x : x =£ -3 }.
Illu stra te th e set C' using th e n u m b e r lin e given below .
— I------------1--------- 1---------- 1---------- 1--------1----------- 1------ 1------------1—

b X = { 1 , 3 ,5 }, Y = {3,5], Z = {{x,y): x e X , y e Y , x * y } .
List th e m e m b e rs o f Z.
satisfy b o th
2x + 7 < 3 a n d x ^ - 4 . (4024 p a per 01 Q20 June 2005)

11 It is given th a t p =

a Describe the relationship between p and <j in w ords

b C a lcula te q w h e n p = 4. (4024 p a per 01 Q6 June 2006)

12 a Factorise fu lly 5X2 - lO x.

b Solve 3 ^ + 6 = 7 y - 10.
c S o lv e 3 p (p + 2) = 0. (4024 p a p e r 01 Q l l N o ve m b e r 2005)

13 a The firs t five te rm s o f a sequence are 1 ,3 ,6 ,1 0 ,1 5 .

The n th te rm o f th is sequence is ln (n + 1).
Find th e 19th term .
b W rite d o w n an expression, in te rm s o f n, fo r th e n th te rm o fth e sequence
3 , 6 , 1 0 ,1 5 ,2 1 ,... (4024 p a p e r 01 Q6 N ove m b er 2005)

1 4 Solve th e s im u lta n e o u s e q u a tio n s

3 x = 7y
12y = 5 x - l . (4024 pa p e r 01 Q 1 1 J jn e 2006)
 I 16 fllgeftra II

15 a Given th a t x = 6 is a s o lu tio n o f ^ + k = 0 find th e va lu e o f k.

b Solve 2yl - 3 y - 2 = 0. (4024 paper 01 Q17 June 2006)

S o lv e - 7 *£ 3 x - 4 < 2 .
b W rite d o w n all th e integers w h ic h s a tis fy - 7 *= 3 x - 4 < 2. (4024 paper 01 Q9 June 2006)

17 a W hen an o b je c t is fallin g, th e a ir resistance varies as th e square o f the speed.

At a certain speed, th e resistance is 30 new tons.
W h a t is th e resistance a t tw ic e th is speed?
b y is inversely p ro p o rtio n a l to x.
G iven th a ty = 6 w h e n x = 4, fin d th e value o f / w h e n x = 3.
(4024 paper 01 Q12 N o ve m b e r 2007)

18 Solve th e e q u a tio n s
a -?44 = 1, b 12 - 2 (5 - y ) = 5y. (4024 paper 01 Q14 N o ve m b e r 2007)

19 a S o lv e 8 - 3 t > 1 4 + f.
b E v a lu a te x 2- 6 x / + 2y2 w h e n x = 2 a n d / = -3 . (4024 p a p e r01 Q21 June 2008}

20 a T he n th te rm o f a sequence is 7 - 2n.
W rite d o w n th e 23rd te rm in th is sequence.
b i The first five te rm s o f a n o th e r sequence are
4 7 10 13 16.
W rite d o w n an expression, in te rm s o f n, fo r th e n th te rm o f th is sequence.
ii The firs t five te rm s o f a n o th e r sequence are
4 7 10 13 16
1 4 9 16 25'
a W rite d o w n th e next te rm in th is sequence.
b W rite d o w n an expression, in te rm s o f n, fo r th e n th te rm o f th is sequence.
(4024 p a p e r 01 Q 22 J u n e 2008)

2 1 It is given t h a t / is d ire c tly p ro p o rtio n a l to th e square o f x and t h a t / = 1 w h e n x = j .

Find
a th e fo rm u la f o r y in te rm s o f x,
b th e values o f x w h e n / = 9. (4024 p a per 01 Q10 J u n e 2008)

2 2 7" is inversely p ro p o rtio n a l to th e square o f L

Given th a t T = 9 w h e n L = 2, fin d
a th e fo rm u la fo r T in te rm s o f L,
b th e values o f I w hen 7"= 25. (4024 p a p e r 01 Q10 N o ve m b e r 2008)

23 a Solve th e in e q u a lity 3 - 2 x < 5.

b Solve th e e q u a tio n 3 ( y + 2) = 2 ( 2 / - 7) + / . (4024 p a per 01 Q16 N o ve m b e r 2008)

2 4 / is d ire c tly p ro p o rtio n a l to th e s q u a re ro o t o f x.

Given t h a t / = 12 w h en x = 36,
fin d
a th e fo rm u la f o r / i n te rm s o f x,
b t h e v a lu e o f x w h e n / = 1 0 . (4024 p a p e r01 Q12 J u n e 2009)

25 a Express + ^ as a single fra c tio n in its s im p le s t term s.

b Solve th e in e q u a lity 5(x + 4) < 7 x . (4024 paper 01 Q13 N ovem be, 2009)

421
16 ftlgeftra II J

2 6 y is inversely proportional to x.
Given that y = 250 when x = 4, find y when x = 80. (4024 paper 01 Q6 November 2009)

27 a Solve
.. 5 _ 1
i 9 -k < 7 II 57-75
21 12
b Solve the simultaneous equations x + y = 29 ,

4 *= 9 5 - 2 y . (4024 paper 01 Q22 June 2007)

2 8 Solve the simultaneous equations j x + 2y = 16,

2x + l y = 19.
(0580 paper 02 Q8 June 2005)
29 c = h a --k

a Find cwhen a - 4 and b = -2 .

b Rearrange the formula to make a the subject. (4024 paper 12 Q ll June 2012)

YOU MAY USE A CALCULATOR FOR THE REST OF THIS EXERCISE

30 a i The cost of a book is $x.
Write down an expression in terms of x for the number of these books which are
bought for $40.
ii The cost of each book is increased by $2.
The number of books which are bought for $40 is now one less than before.
Writedown an equation in x and show that it simplifies to x2+ 2x - 80 = 0.
iii Solve the equation x 2 + 2 x - 80 = 0.
iv Find the original cost of one book.

b Magazines cost $m each and newspapers cost $n each. One magazine costs $2.55
more than one newspaper. The cost of two magazines is the same as the cost of five
newspapers.
i Write down two equations in m and n to show this information.
ii Find the values of m and n. (0580 paper 04 Q8 November 2005)

31

Diagram 1 Diagram 2 Diagram 3

The first three diagrams in a sequence are shown above.

The diagrams are made up of dots and lines. Each line is one centimetre long,
a Make a sketch of the next diagram in the sequence,
b The table below shows some information about the diagrams.

\
422]
 I 16 Algebra II

D iagram 1 2 3 4 n

Area 1 4 9 16 X

N u m b e r o f do ts 4 9 16 P y
N u m b e r o f one 4 12 24 q z
c e n tim e tre
lines
i W rite d o w n the values o fp and q.
ii W rite d o w n each o f x , y a n d z in te rm s o f n.

The to ta l n u m b e r o f one c e n tim e tre lines in th e firs t n d iagram s is given by the

expression
| n 3 + f n 2 + gn

Use n = 1 in th is expression to sh o w th a t f + g ~ 10
3 '
i Use« = 2 in this expression to show that 4 / + 2g = 32
3 '
ii Find the values of/and £.
v Find the total number of one centimetre lines in the first 10 diagrams.
(0580 paper 04 Q9 June 2007)

3 2 Solve the inequality4-5x<2(x + 4). (0580 paper 02 Q16 November 2005)

3 3 The length,;/, of a solid is inversely proportional to the square of its height, x
a Writedown a general equation for x and y.
Show that when x = 5 and y = 4.8 the equation becomes x 2y = 120.
b Find y when x = 2.
c Findxwheny=10.
d Findx when^ = x.
e Describe exactly what happensto^whenxisdoubled.
f Describe exactly what happens to x when y is decreased by 36%.
g Makexthesubjectoftheformulax2y=120. (0580 paper04 Q5 Ju n e 2006)
3 4 Make c the subject of the formula

V3C- 5 = b. (0580 paper 04 Q5 June 2006)

3 5 Make d th e subject ofthe formula

d2
c - ~y + 5- (0580 paper 02 Q12 November 2005)

3 6 Use the formula P = ^ to calculate the value of P when V = 6 x 106 and R = 7.2 x 10s.
(0580 paper 02 Q2 November 2007)

3 7 Solve the equations

a ^-9 =0 b x 2- 3 ; c - 4 = 0
(0580 pa p e r 02 Q14 N o ve m b e r 2007)

38 S o lve th e in e q u a lity
2s-5 ^ x -A
(0580 p a per 21 Q13 June 2008)

423
16 Algelra II J

39 a There are 109 nanoseconds in 1 second.

Find the number of nanoseconds in 5 minutes, giving your answer in standard form,
b Solve the equation
5 ( x + 3 x 106) = 4 x 107 (0580 paper 21 Q14 June 2009)
40 a i Factorise x2- x - 20.
ii Solve the equation x2- x - 20 = 0.
b Solve the equation: 3x2- 2 x - 2 = 0.
Show all your working and give your answers correct to 2 decimal places,
c y = m 2- 4 n 2.
i Factorise w2- 4 m2.
ii Find the value of y when m = 4.4 and n = 2.8.
iii m = 2 x + 3 a n d n - x - 1 .
Find y in terms of x in its simplest form.
iv Make n the subject of the formula y = m2- 4 n 2.
d i m4- 16n4 can be written as [m 2- k n 2){m 2 + k n 2).
Write down the value of k.
ii Factorise completely m4« - 16n5. (0580 paper 04 Q2 June 2008)
41 The length of time, T seconds, that the pendulum in a clock takes to swing is given by the
formula
T= ~ r ^ =

Rearrange the formula to make^the subject. (0580 paper 02 Q17 November 2007)

42 a Factorise ax2+ bx\

b Make x the subject of the formula ax2+ bx2- d 2= p 2.

(0580 paper 21 Q8 November 2008)

43 The quantity p varies inversely as the square of (q + 2).
p = 5 when q = 3.
Findp when q = 8. (0580 paper21 Q13 November 2008)
44 Rearrange the formula to make;/ the subject.

x+& ^
9 (0580 paper 21 Q9 June 2006)

45 Solve the simultaneous equations 2x + ~ y = 1,

6x ^ y 21. (0580 paper 02 Q7 November 2007)

46 a Solve the equation + m ± A - _ 7,

b i x-1 x -23
Find the value of y when x = 5.

ii Write - 3 - — i —as a single fraction.

x -l x+3 b

iii Solve the e q u a t i xo- n

1
- 2 - 1x '
x +3

Find q in terms of p and t. (0580 paper 04 Q3 N o ve m b e r 2009!

424
 lv 16 Algebra II

I,*2 - 1?
4 7 It is given th a t / ------- 5— .
a Find/when x = -3.
b Find thevaluesofxw hen / = 0.
c For values of x in the range -3 *£ x =£ 2, write down
i the largest value o f / ii the smallest value of/,
d Express x in terms of/.
e It is also given th a t/ = when x = t.
i Show that t satisfies the equation 6f2- 5 f - 9 = 0.
ii Solve the equation 6f2- 5 f - 9 = 0, giving each answer
correct to tw o s ig n ific a n t fig u re s . (4024 paper 02 Q10 June 2007)

48 a Solve the equation 7 a2+ 12a - 11 = 0, giving your answers correct to two decimal
places.
b Ann drove for 4 hours at an average speed ofxkm/h and then for 6 hours at an average
speed of/km/h.
She drove a total distance of 816 km.
i Writedown an equation in terms of x an d/, and show that it simplifies to
2x + 3/ = 408.
ii Ken drove for 3 hours at an average speed ofxkm/h and then for 5 hours at an
average speed of/km/h.
He drove a total distance of 654 km.
Writedown an equation, in terms of x and/, to represent this information.
iii Solve these two equations to find the value of x and the value of/.
(4024 paper 02 Q6 November 2006)
49 a Solve the equation 3x2- 4 x - 5 = 0, giving your answers correct to two decimal places,
b Remove the brackets and simplify (3a - 4b)2.
c Factorise completely 12 + 8 f - 3 / - 2ty. (4024 paper 02 Q1 June 2006)
5 0 A road tanker holds 24 tonnes of oil.
a In c o ld w e a t h e r it c a n p u m p o u t at t o n n e s o f o il p e r m in u te .
Write down an expression, in terms of x, for the number of minutes it takes to empty
the tanker in cold weather,
b In hot weather it can pump out (x + 0.5) tonnes of oil per minute.
Write down an expression, in terms of x, for the number of minutes it takes to empty
the tanker in hot weather. /-
c It takes 2 minutes longer to empty the tanker in coldweather than in hot weather.
Write down an equation in x, and show that it simplifies to 2x2+ x - 12 = 0.
d Solve the equation 2x2+ x - 12 = 0, giving the solutions c o rre c t to 3 d e c im a l places,
e Find the time taken, in minutes and seconds, correct to the nearest second, to empty
the tanker in cold weather. (4024 paper 02 Q6 November 2005)

51a Solve the equation = 4.

b Solve the simultaneous equations
2 x + / = 12
3/ —2x = 56
c Simplify 3y2pjj%-- .
d Given that 3h + 2x = 2 f - g x , express x in terms o f / g and h.
(4024 pa p e r 02 Q2 N o ve m b e r 2005)

425
16 Algebra II J

5 2 Solve the equations

a 2' = 8
b 3p + 4 = 8 - 2 ( p - 3 )
c 18 16 _ i
q q+ 2
d 5x2+ x - 7 = 0, giving each solution correct to 2 decimal places.
(4024 paper 02 Q1 November 2009)

53 a Each diagram in the sequence below consists of a number of dots.

• • • •
• • • • •
• • • • • 4
• • • •
• • • • • 4
• • • • •
• • 4

Diagram number 1 2 3 4
Number of dots T, t2 t3 T<

Diagram number (n) 1 2 3 4 5

Number of dots (Tn) 1 5 11 P <1

i Write down the value ofp.

ii Find the value of q.
b Another sequence of patterns of dots is shown below.
•
• • 4
• • • • •
• • • • • • • • 4
• • • • •
• • 4
•
Diagram number 1 2 3 4
Number of dots Si S s3 s4

Diagram number (n) 1 2 3 4 5

Number of dots [T„) 1 4 9 j k

i Write down the value of;'.

ii Find the value of k.
iii Express S„ in terms of n.
c Another sequence is formed whose nth term U„ is T„ - S„.
Ul = T l = S1= l - l = 0, U2= T 2- S 2 = 5 - 4 = 1 , (73= r 3- S 3= 1 1 - 9 = 2.
i Evaluate UA and U5.
ii Express U„ in terms of n.
iii Hence, using your expression for S„ found in (b)(iii), express Tn in terms of n.
(4024 paper 02 Q6 November 2008)

5 4 A light aircraft flew from Maseru to Nata and returned to Maseru,

a The distance from Maseru to Nata is 1080 km.
i On the outward flight, the average speed ofthe aircraft was x kilometres per hour.
Write down an expression, in terms ofx, for the time taken in hours.
ii On the return flight, the average speed was 30 km/h greater than the average speed
on the outward flight.
Write down an expression, in terms ofx, for the time taken, in hours, on the return
flight.

\
426)
 I 16 Algebra II

b The time taken on the return flight was half an hour less than the time taken on the
outward flight.
Form an equation in x and show that it reduces to x2+ 30x- 64800 = 0.
c Solve the equation x2+ 3 0 x - 64800 = 0.
d Calculate
i the time taken, in hours, on the outward flight
ii the average speed for the whole flight from Maseru to Nata and back to Maseru.
(4024 paper 02 Q7 N ove m b er 2008)

55 a Solve the equation 2E±1 = '\ + P z l.

b Simplify ,2v~6
r 1 v2 - 2 v - 3
c The tens digit of a number is x and the units digit is/.
Hence the value of the number is 10x + y .
For example, if x = 5 a n d / = 6, the number would be 10 x 5 + 6 = 56.
i When the digits x and / are reversed, the value of the number is increased by 63.
S h o w t h a t /- x = 7.
ii The sum of the original numberand the number with reversed digits is 99.
a Sh o w th a tx + / = 9.
b Hence find the value of x and the value of/. (4024 paper 02 Q3 November 2008)

56 a It is given that x = a + ’Ja 2 + b2.

i Calculatex when a - 0.73 and b = 1.84.
Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
ii Express bin terms of x and a.
b A shopkeeper sells pens and pencils.
Each pen costs $5 and each pencil costs $3.
One day he sold x pens.
On the same day he sold 9 more pens than pencils.
i Writedown an expression, in terms ofx, for his total income from the sale of these
pens and pencils.
ii Tl ib to ta l in c o m e w a s less th a n $ 3 0 0 . F o rm dn in e q u a lity i n x a n d s o lv e it.
iii Hence write down the maximum number of pens that he sold.
(4024 paper 02 Q2 November 2007)

427
 Geometry and Shape ll
WmI

Learning Objectives Syllabus sections 28,31 and 32

In this ch a p ter w e investigate m ore circle facts

• look a t sym m etry in th re e -d im e n s io n a l w o rk w ith irregular polygons.
s h a p e S f - J ' ■'

17.1 Introduction
This chapter develops the ideas that began in Chapter 6. It is essential that you fully
understand that work.

You will need a ruler, compasses, protractor and possibly tracing paper.

17.2 Essential Skills

1 Construct accurately a triangle with sides 6cm, 4cm and 5 cm. Measure the angles of
the triangle.
2 Calculate the interior angle of a regular nonagon.
3 Calculate the total interior angle of a 13-sided polygon.
4 Name the quadrilaterals with the following properties:
a The diagonals bisect each other but not at right angles,
b One diagonal is the perpendicular bisector of the other,
c One pair of opposite sides is parallel.
d Each diagonal is the perpendicular bisector of the other. The diagonals are different
lengths.
5 Describe the symmetry of each figure shown below

*H b% c#
6 The figure below is the net for which solid shape?

428
 [ 17 Geometry and Shape II

7 T a Name a pair of corresponding angles,

b Name a pair of alternate angles,
c Name a pair of vertically opposite
angles.
d Calculate the size of angle BAC, giving
reasons foryour answer.

17.3 Symmetry in Three-Dimensional

Shapes
We have seen that two-dimensional shapes can have lines of symmetry, with one side of the line
Key term of symmetry perfectly matching the other when the shape is folded along the line. The line of
Supplem entary angles symmetry is a mirror line, and one side of the line of symmetry is the mirror image ofthe other.
add up to 180°.
In a similar way, three-dimensional shapes can have planes o f sym m etry. One side ofthe plane
of symmetry perfectly matches the other, and is in fact the mirror image ofthe other side.

A simple example is a cuboid as is shown in Figure 17.1. The cuboid has three planes of
symmetry: one in a horizontal direction, as shown in the first diagram, and two in vertical
directions, shown in the second and third diagrams.

Figure 17.1 Planes o f s y m m e try o f a cuboid

Exam ple 1
a Draw a plane of symmetry in these shapes:
i a square-based pyramid
ii a regular tetrahedron (triangular-based pyramid)
iii a cylinder.

b How many planes of symmetry are there in

i the square-based pyramid?
ii the regular tetrahedron?
iii the cylinder?
Answer 1
a i v ii in

429
17 Geometry and Shape II J

b i 4

iii 1 horizontal plane of symmetry as shown

in part (a), but an infinite number of vertical planes of symmetry.

We have also seen that a two-dimensional shape may have rotational symmetry about a point,
or centre of symmetry. The order of rotational symmetry is given by the number of different ways
that the shape can be rotated and fitted into its own outline until it returns to the first position.
A three-dimensional shape may also have rotational symmetry, but it will be about an axis,
rather than a centre. An example is shown in the diagrams of a square-based pyramid in
Figure 17.2; this has a vertical axis of rotational symmetry, and the symmetry is of order 4
because the pyramid will fit its own outline in four different ways. One vertex of the base of
the pyramid is marked with a cross to show the four different positions.

Figu re 17.2 R otational s ym m etry

Example 2
The cuboid shown below has two square faces and four rectangular faces,
a Describe the symmetry of the cuboid about the axis of symmetry XY.
b How many other axes of symmetry does the cuboid have?
c Copy the diagram, draw in the other axes of symmetry, and beside each axis write down
the order of symmetry about that axis.
X

/ /

/
/

Answer 2
a The cuboid has rotational symmetry of order 2 about the axis of symmetry XY.
b The cuboid has two more axes of symmetry.

\
430
 [ 17 Geometry and Shape II

Example 3
a Sketch a cone.
b Draw an axis of symmetry of the cone.
c What is the order of rotational symmetry ofthe cone about this axis?

Answer 3
a, b

c The order of rotational symmetry is infinite.

Exercise 17.1
1 a Sketch an equilateral triangular prism.
b How many axes of symmetry does the prism have?
c Draw two ofthe axes of symmetry on your sketch, and beside each one write down the
order of rotational symmetry about that axis,
d How many planes of symmetry does the prism have?
2 a Sketch a regular tetrahedron.
b Draw one of its axes of symmetry.
c Write down the order of rotational symmetry beside this axis.
3 Describe the symmetry of the shapes shown below.

circular
base

hexagonal cross-section

17.4 Further Circle Facts

We have seen how the two-dimensional symmetry of the circle means that the tangent at a point
is at right angles to the radius at that point. We now look at three more properties of the circle
which are due to its symmetry. In Figures 17.3-17.5, a line of symmetry is drawn as a dotted line.
In each case folding the circle along that line will result in one side fitting exactly over the other.

• Equal chords are e q u id is ta n t fro m th e cen tre o fth e circle:

AB = CD
OP is p e rp e n d ic u la rtO /4 6
OQ is p e rp e n d ic u la r to CD
OP = O Q
17 Geometry and Shape II J

line of symmetry

Figu re 17.3 Equal chords

• T h e p e rp e n d ic u la r b isecto r o f a chord passes th ro u g h th e cen tre o f th e circle:

Fig u re 17.4 P e rp en d icu lar bisector o f a chord

• Tang ents fro m a p o in t o u ts id e th e circle are e q u a l in length:

You need to be able to recall these facts and use them in solving circle problems.

In the diagram, 0 is the centre of circle, angle AOB = 50°, and DA and DC are tangents to
the circle. BOC is a straight line. AP = PC.
a Show th a M fi is parallel to DE.
b Find angle ADC.

\
432
 I 17 Geometry and Shape II

Answer 4
a /BAC = 90° (angle in a semicircle)
ZAPD = 90° (perpendicular bisector of a chord
passes through the centre of the circle)
So AB is parallel to DE (alternate angles)
b ZAOC= 180 - 5 0 =130° (angles on a straight line)
/DAO = /DCO = 90° (angle between a tangent and a radius)
ZADC = 360 - 130 - 2 x 90 (angle sum of a quadrilateral)
/ADC = 50°

Exercise 17.2

In the diagram, 0 is the centre of the circle. Find a, b, c, d and e.

The perimeter of the triangle is 29 cm. Find a, giving reasons.

In the diagram, 0 is the centre of the circle and PR is parallel to CD.AOC is a straight line.
Find a, b, c, d, e ja n d g , giving reasons.
17 Geometry and Shape II J

Investigations

In each of these investigations draw the diagrams and measure the angles accurately. Record
the measured angles for comparison.
1 Draw a circle, centre 0 and radius 6 centimetres. Mark the centre with a dot as soon as you
remove your compass point so th a t you can find it accurately.
Choose any three points on the circumference, and label them A , B and C as in Figure 17.6.
Join AB, AO, BC and OC as shown.
Measure angles ABC and AOC.
Repeat with circles of different radii and different positions on the circumference. You
should find that: Figure 17.6 Angles
• The angle a t th e centre o f th e circle is tw ice th e angle a t th e circum ference. at centre and
2 Draw another circle, centre 0 and radius 6 centimetres. circumference

Mark four points on the circumference and label them A , B ,C and Das shown in Figure 17.7.
Join^B, B D ,A C , CD and A D as shown.
Measure angles ABD and ACD.
Repeat with other circles and points on the circumference.
Draw some with C above the chord AD and some with C below the chord A D as shown
in Figure 17.8.
Remember th at the chord A D divides the circle into tw o segments. When 8 and C are both
above the chord they are in the same segment; when one is below the chord they are in
opposite segments.
You should have found that:
• Angles in th e sam e segm ent stand ing on th e sam e chord are equal.
• Angles in opposite segm ents stan d in g on th e sam e chord add up to 180°. Figure 17.7 Angles subtended
The term for pairs of angles which add up to 180° is s u p p lem entary, so we
by chord
can reword the second o fth e above facts:
• Angles in opposite segm ents a re s u p p lem entary.
1 D ra w o n e f in a l c ir c le a n d m a r k a n y f o u r p o in t s o n t h a c ir c u m f e r e n c e . J o in
the points to form a quadrilateral, as shown in Figure 17.9. Measure all the rf/y y /
angles. major segment
You should find that the opposite angles o fth e quadrilateral add up to 180°. 1
This also follows from the fa c t th a t just found, namely th a t angles in
opposite segments o fth e circle are supplementary, because the diagonals
o fth e quadrilateral form chords which divide the circle into segments. D
A quadrilateral th at has its vertices on a circle is called a cyclic m,nor segment
q u a d rila te ra l, so w e have a new fact: C
• O pposite angles o f a cyclic q u a d rila te ra l are su p p lem en tary. . .
A cyclic quadrilateral can have a circle drawn through all its vertices, but Figure 17. ajor an minor segments
this does not apply to all quadrilaterals. We can use the fact that if opposite
angles of a quadrilateral are supplem entary then the quadrilateral is a / /
cyclic quadrilateral. / / \ \
• If th e opposite angles o f a q u a d rila te ra l are supp lem entary th en th e / / \
q u a d rilateral is cyclic. / / . \
It follows th at all squares and rectangles are always cyclic quadrilaterals. Why? LA ° \
Which o fth e otherspecial quadrilaterals can be cyclic, and w hat conditions would V \ ,
apply? \ \ r \ J
To test your answers to the above try to draw each type of quadrilateral in a circle, —---------
and see if you a re right. -------------
Figure 17.9 Cyclic
quadrilateral

434
 [ 17 Geomeiry and Shape H

17.5 Finding the Centre of a Circle

We can use the fact that the perpendicular bisector of a chord passes through the centre of
the circle to find the centre of any circle.
Try the following:

Draw carefully round any circular object, such as a tin lid or a cylinder.
• Draw a chord, and construct the perpendicular bisector of the chord.
Draw another chord, and construct the perpendicular bisector of the second chord. The
two perpendicular bisectors will intersect at the centre of the circle.

Example 5

Answer 5
ZACB = ZADB = 15° (angles in the same segment
standing on the same chord
or arc, AB)
a =15°
ZOBC = ZOCB = 20 + 1 5 = 35° (isosceles triangle)
b = 35“
ZDAC = ZDBC=35° (angles in the same segment
standing on the same chord
or arc, DC)
c=35°
d = 70° (angle at the centre is twice the angle at the circumference)

Example 6

f
435
17 Beometry and Shape II J
 [ 17 Ceometry and Shape II

17.6 Irregular Polygons

Key term R egular polygons have all angles and all sides equal, but this does not apply to irregular
polygons. However, the angle sum of irregular polygons can be calculated in the same way as
An irregular polygon
d o e s n o t h a v e a ll its
before. Figure 17.10 shows an irregular hexagon divided into four triangles. The angle sum is
s id e s o r a ll its a n g le s 4x180° = 720°.
e q u a l.

Figu re 17.10 Irreg u lar polygon

The exterior angles of each irregular polygon add up to 360° as before.

Example 7
Calculate x in the following polygons.
a

Answer 7
a Using the fact that the exterior angles add up to 360°.
x + 2x + (180 - x) + (x + 20) = 360
3x + 200 = 360
3x = 160

b The angle sum of the interior angles = (7 - 2) x 180 = 900°

3x + 3x + (x + 50) +155 + (x + 50) + (4x - 20) + (3x - 1 0 ) = 900
15x + 225 = 900
15x = 675
x= 45
V .

Exercise 17.4
1 An irregular polygon has an angle sum of 1980°. How many sides does the polygon have?
2 An irregular nonagon (9 sides) has interior angles 2x°, (2x+ 1)°, (x - l)°,x°, 3x°, [ 2 x - 1)°,
3x°, (x+ 1)° and 2(x + 1)°. Calculatex.
3 An irregular pentagon has angles 3a°, (a + b)°, 2b°, 3b° and 40°. A triangle has angles a°, b°,
and (a + b)°.
Form two equations in a and b and solve them simultaneously to find a and b.
17 Seometry and Shape il J

Exercise 17.5
M ixed exercise
1

ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral.

Calculatexandy.
ABCDE is an irregular pentagon. Calculate
w ,x ,y and z.

a Find the angles marked a, b,c and d.

b Show thatAX7"is a cyclic quadrilateral,
c Describe where the centre of the circle
AO CT would be located.

4 Describe the symmetry of a pyramid whose base is a regular hexagon.

5 What can you say about {a)AE and BD, (b)AF,FE, BC and CD in this diagram?
Give reasons foryour answers.

NOT TO SCALE

Find X, g ivin g reasons fo r y o u r answ er. Find the angles m arked a, b, c, d and e,
g iv in g reasons fo r y o u r answ ers.

438
 [ 17 Geometry and Shape II

Exam-style questions

NOT TO SCALE

ABCDE is a pentagon.
A circle, centre 0, passes through the points A, C, D and E.
Angle EAC = 36°, angle CAB = 78° and AB is parallel to DC.
Find the values of x, y and z, giving a reason for each.
Explain why ED is n o t parallel to AC.
Find the value of angle EOC.
AB=AC.
Find the value of ang\e ABC. (0580 paper 04 Q8 November 2008)

NOT TO SCALE

Points A B and C lie on a circle, centre 0, with diameter AB.

BD, O C E and/IFare parallel lines.
Angle CBD = 68°.
Calculate
a angle BOC b angle ACE. (0580 paper 21 Q19 November 2009)
17 Geometry anil Shape II J

10 In the diagram, AB touches the circle, centre 0, at T.

OB intersects the circle at C.

a State, with a reason, the value of BTO.

b Given that T B - 40 cm, CB = 10 cm, and the radius of the circle is x centimetres,
form an equation inx, and hence find the radius of the circle.
(4024 paper 11Q26 November 2011)
11 A, B, C and D lie on a circle with centre O.AC is a diameter of the circle. AD, BE and CF are
parallel lines. Angle,4fi£ = 48° and angl e A C F = 126°.

NOT TO SCALE

a angle DAE b angle EBC c angle BAE.

(0580 paper 02 Q15 November 2005)

12 a In the diagram, ABCD is a parallelogram.

ADE and BFE are straight lines.
AF=BF.
ABF = 54° and CBF = 57°.
Find the value of
i t ii u
iii x iv y.

This hexagon has rotational symmetry of order 3. Calculate the value of z.

(4024 paper 02 Q3a, b June 2005)

440
 ^ 17 Geometry and Shape II

The points A B, C and D lie on a circle centre 0.

Angle/108 = 90°, angle COD = 50° and angle BCD = 123°.
The line DT is a tangent to the circle at D.
Find
a angle OCD b angle TDC
c angl eABC d reflex angle AOC. (0580 paper 02 Q20 November 2007)
14 D ABCD is a square.
It is rotated through 90° clockwise about B.
Copy the square and draw accurately the locus of the point D.
(0580 paper 21Q5 November 2008)
17 Geometry and Shape II J

In the diagram, the points A, B, C and D lie on circle I.

The points A E, C and F lie on circle II.
AEB and A D F are straight lines.
fBC = 73° and AEC = 146°.
a Calculate
i ADC
ii CFA.
b Explain why the centre of circle I lies on circle II. (4024 paper 0 1 Q22 June 2004)

A, B, C and Dare points on the circumference of the circle and AC is a diameter.

AFBE and DCE are straight lines.
DF is perpendicular to AE and CDF = 67°.
i Find AED.
ii Find CBE, giving a reason for your answer.
iii Explain why DF is parallel to CB.

In the triangle PQR, the bisectors of PQR and PRQ intersect at Y.

The straight line-XYZ is parallel to QR.
Prove that the perimeter of triangle PXZ=PQ + P/?. (4024 paper 22 Q2 November 2014)

18 D

The points A, B, C, D and E lie on a circle.

AD is a diameter of the circle.

\
442
 lv 17 Geometry and Shape II

DB bisects angle/lDC.
Angle ADC = 56°.
a Giving your reasons, writedown
i angle DCA ii angle DAC iii angle CBA iv angle AEB.
b It is given thatfS is parallel to DC and that EB cuts/lDatX.
[You m ust n o t assume that X is the centre of the circle.]
Show that triangle BDX is isosceles,
c Find angle EBA.
d Hence or otherwise show that X is the centre of the circle.
(4024 paper 02 Q3 N ovem ber 2005)
19 A n AB and BC are adjacent sides of a regular polygon.
ABC = 140°.
a Calculate the number of sidesofthe polygon,
b CB and BD are adjacent sides of a congruent
regular polygon.
Calculate ABD. (4024 paper 01 Q12 June 2006)

20 The diagram shows a circle, centre O, passing

through A B ,C and 0.
AOD is a straight line, BO is parallel to CD and
CDA = 36°.
Find
a BQA
b BCA
c DCB
d OBC. (4024 paper 01 Q14 June 2009)

In the diagram, the 9-sided polygon has 6 angles of x° and 3 angles o f / ,

i For this polygon, state
a the number of lines of symmetry
b the order of rotational symmetry.
a Show that the sum of the interior angles of a 9-sided polygon is 1260°.
b Find an expression foryin terms o fx
c Given also that y = 12 + x, find x. (4024 pap e r0 2 Q4a June 2009)

/
443
V Geometry and Shape II J

The quadrilateral ABCD has its vertices on the circumference of a circle.

AE is a tangent to the circle and AED = 20°.
The centre of the circle, 0, lies on the straight line DE.
a Find ADO.
b Given that DE is the perpendicular bisector of AB and DBA = 55°,
i write down BAD
ii find BCD. (4024 paper 0 1 Q20 June 2009)

444
 Algebra and Graphs II
Learning Objectives Syllabus sections 24,26 and 27

In this c h ap te r you w ill calculate g rad ien t, length, and m id p o in t o f a

• w o rk w ith d is ta n c e -tim e and s p e e d -tim e straight line segm ent
graphs w o rk w ith p arallel and perp en d icu lar lines.
• p lo t and sketch graphs o f curves

18.1 Introduction
This chapter continues the work in Chapter 7. Travel graphs, straight line graphs, and
curves are studied in more depth.

18.2 Essential Skills

1 Write down the gradients and /-intercepts of the graphs of the following lines:
a y=x+l b / = -*- 3 c y=^x
d / =5 e y = -2 x + l
2 By writing in the form y = mx + c find the /-intercept and the gradient of the line
2x = -5/ + 3.
3 a Draw a graph for converting degrees Centigrade (°C) to degrees Fahrenheit (°F),
given that0°C = 32°F and that 100°C = 212°F. (The graph should be a straight line
connecting these two points.)
b Use your graph to convert (i) 25°C to °F and (ii) 125°Fto°C.
4 a Completethetableofvaluesfor/=x2- x - 2 .

x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
y 10 4 0 -2 -2 0 4 10

b What is the equation of the line of symmetry of this graph?

445
18 mahra and Graphs II J

18.3 Distance-time Graphs

We will now look in more detail at travel graphs.
In Chapter 7 you studied distance-time graphs, and saw that the gradient of the line gave
the speed of movement because speed = d'tj retaken 6' w^'c^ 's gradient of the line
(gradient = when the distance travelled is on the vertical (y) axis and the time taken is
on the horizontal (x) axis.
You may, for example, need to use a distance-time graph to workout when and where
one object overtakes another. The graph in Figure 18.1 shows the journeys of two cyclists,
Brendan and Amit, leaving school and travelling along the same route. Brendan leaves school
later than Amit, but travels faster. Brendan overtakes Amit at the precise moment when they
are both in the same place at the same time; that is, at point P on the graph.

F ig u re 1 8 .1 D is ta n c e -tim e graph

If the graph shows straight lines, as in the above case, it means that the gradient is the same
a t a n y p o in t o n e a c h lin e , s o t h e s p e e d is t h e s a m e a t a n y p o in t o n t h e jo u r n e y . T h e c y c lis ts
are travelling at a constant speed.
However, if we think more about a typical journey we realise that the object starts from rest
and gradually increases speed until it is travelling at a constant speed. It may then gradually
reduce speed until it stops. Such a journey could be shown by the graph in Figure 18.2,
showing the short journey of a car.

F ig u re 1 8 .2 Car journey
 ^ 18 Algebra and Graphs 11

From A to B on the graph the car is accelerating (getting faster), from B to C it is at constant
speed, and from C to D it is decelerating or retarding (getting slower). How could we work out
its speed at any precise moment on a curved section, for example when it is accelerating?

Imagine that you could zoom in to look very closely, in great detail, at a curved section. You
could imagine it broken into a series of short line segments as in the first diagram in Figure
18.3. The gradient at any point on the curve would be the gradient of the line segment at that
point.

F ig u re 1 8 .3 G rad ien t o f a curve

We could work out the gradient of the line at that point by extending it as in the second
diagram, and then finding ^gchgngein ^ by constructing a right-angled triangle at
convenient points.
Now imagine that we can zoom out so that the series of line segments become a smooth
curve again, as in the third diagram. The line we have drawn to work out the gradient is now
the ta n g e n t to the curve.
We have shown that the gradient at any point on a curve is the same as the gradient of the
tangent at that point. You have met tangents to circles in Chapter 6 and you should know
that a tangent is a line that just touches a curve at one point. Drawing a tangent to a curve is
not something that can be done exactly, but at least it gives an estimate of the speed at any
particular time. You will see more about tangents later in this section.
I o draw the tangent as accurately as possible it is best to approach the point slowly by sliding
your ruler along the paper. If you do this from the inside of the curve, you can make sure that
you are cutting off equal arcs on each side of the point until you reach the point where the
ruler nearly leaves the curve altogether. Then draw the tangent.

The diagrams in Figure 18.4 show this.

The gradient found by drawing a tangent will only give an estimate of the speed because it
would be impossible to be sure of drawing the tangent at precisely the right place.
18 AlgaDra and Craplis II J
Key terms
Speed is rate of change
of distance.
Acceleration is rate of
change of speed,
A straight line
segm ent is part of a
straight line.
It might help you to
remember that the area
underthe graph is the
distance gone if you
think of area as involving
the multiplication of
two lengths in two
perpendicular directions.
Taking these directions to
be the x and> directions,
we will be multiplying
the change in speed
by the time taken.
Rememberi ng that
speed = distancejjone
time taken
distance gone= speed x
time taken.
448
18.4 Speed-time Graphs
Finding the Acceleration
Another type of travel graph is a speed-time graph. With speed on the vertical (y) axis and
time on the horizontal (x) axis the gradient gives ch^ , ^ | ^ P ^ ecl which is, as we know, the
acceleration of the object. Constant acceleratio n will give a straight line graph because
the gradient (acceleration) stays the same. An example of a speed-time graph is shown
in Figure 18.5.
At/A the object is stationary. From A to B the object is accelerating with a constant
acceleration. From 6 to C it is travelling at constant speed so the gradient is zero, as is the
acceleration. From C to D it is decelerating, until at D it is once again stationary.
45
The acceleration of the object from A to 6 in Figure 18.5 is 20 = 2.25 m/s2.
F ig u re 1 8 .3 S p e e d -tlm e graph
The deceleration from C to D is = 5 m/s2.
You will notice that the gradient while the object is decelerating is negative. We can either say
that the acceleration is -5 m/s2or that the deceleration (retardation) is 5 m/s2.
In other words, the word ‘deceleration’ takes account of the negative gradient.
Finding the Distance Travelled
The area underthe graph from the time at A to the time at D in the above diagram gives the
distance travelled in that time.
In Figure 18.5 the distance travelled over the whole journey may be calculated by using the
formula for the area of a trapezium, or it can be split into triangles and a rectangle.
Using the trapezium formula: Area = ^ (A D + BC) x distance between them
= ^(44 +15) x 45 = 1327.5 metres
So distance gone duringthejourney = 1.33 km.
 [ 18 Algebra and Graphs II

REMEMBER:
Travel graphs
• On travel graphs the time is shown on the horizontal axis.
Distance-time graphs
• On a distance-time graph the gradient of the line gives the speed.
• A straight line indicates constant speed.
• A curve indicates varying speed, and. an estimate of the speed at any time can be found from the
gradient of the tangent.
• A horizontal line indicates that the object is Stationary. .
• A negative gradient indicates that the object has turned round and is heading back to the start.
(This means that the distance from the starting point is getting less, not that-the object is going
back to the origin on the graph.) The gradient still indicates speed, but the sign of the gradient
indicates that the object is going in the opposite direction.
Speed-tim
c - „ j t i m ae graphs
sra n k e

• On a speed-time graph the gradient of the line gives the acceleration. -

• A straight sloping line indicates constant

A negative gradient indicates that the <

graph, it does not necessarily mean th;

Example 1

A car starts from rest at a set of traffic lights at A, shown on the distance-time graph below.
It gradually increases speed until it is travelling at a constant speed, shown from fi to C on
the graph. It then slows to stop at the next set of lights at E.

20 30 40
T im e (s e c o n d s )
a Calculate the constant speed of the car from B to C.
b Calculate the average speed for the whole time between the traffic lights.
Copy the graph,
c By drawing a tangent, estimate the speed at D.
Answer 1
a The speed of the car from 6 to C is:
distance gone 410-75
— = 12.18
tim e taken 37.5-10 27.5
= 1 2 .2 m/s to 3 sign ifican t figures

/
449
18 Algebra and Graphs II j

b The average speed of the car over the total distance is:
total distance gone 475 „ „ ,
--------- — --------- =------ = — = 9.5m/s
to tal tim e taken 50

A 10 20 30 40 50
Time (seconds)
From the triangle drawn the gradient of the tangent is:
up _ 425-300 125
along 3 7 5 -1 7 5 20

Speed at D = 6.25 m/s

Example 2
A train leaves station A and steadily increases speed for 60 seconds.
It then travels at a constant speed of 30 metres per second for 2 minutes, finally steadily
reducing speed until it comes to rest at station 8 5 minutes after leaving station A.
a Draw a speed/time graph to show this journey,
b Calculate the total distance between stations A and 8 .
c Calculate the acceleration from station A to the maximum speed.
Answer 2

b Total distance = area under graph.

Area of a trapezium = \ x sum of the parallel sides x distance between them

4 (1 2 0 + 300) x 30 = 6300 m
Total distance = 6.3 km
c Acceleration = gradient of line = 60 = 0.5 m/s

\
450
 ^ 18 Algebra and Graphs II

Exercise 18.1
1 Calculate the areas under the following:

a y (cm) b y(cm)

2 Sister and brother, Svetlana and Igor, go to the same school 2 kilometres from home.
Svetlana walks to school, and Igor cycles.
Igor stops on the way at the shops, but Svetlana goes straight to school.
The graph shows their journeys.

Time (am)

Give your answers to parts b, c and e in kilometres per hour.

a How long does it take Igor to get to school?
b What is his average speed?
c Calculate his speed before and after his visit to the shops,
d Al w lidt lim e does Svelland oveildke Igoi?
e Calculate Svetlana’s speed,
f When does Igor overtake Svetlana?

3 A small plane leaves an airfield at 1200, and takes 20 minutes to accelerate to its steady
cruising speed of 350 km/h. At 1435 it starts to descend for landing. The graph shows this
information. (The zig-zag line indicates a break in the scale.)

Time (hours)

a Calculate the acceleration of the plane during take-off.

b Calculate the total distance the plane travelled.
18 Algenra and Graphs II J

18.5 More Graphs of Curves

Plotting Graphs of Curves
You need to be able to plot and recognise more curves.
If you do all the questions in the following exercise, you will build up a reference of some of
the more frequently used curves together with their equations and special features. You will
then be able to recognise curves more easily.

Example 3
Draw the graphs ofth e following equations for -3 *£ x =£ 3.
a y = 2* b y = 3 x 2* + x2
Answer 3

X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

y 0.13 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 A

X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

y 9.4 4.8 2.5 3 7 16 33

452
 ^ 18 Algebra and Graphs II

Exercise 18.2
For each of the equations shown below,

i copy and complete the table, giving your answers correct to 1 decimal place,
ii draw and label the graph.

Question Equation X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

a y = x2 y 9 1 0 9

b y - —x 2 y -1 0 -1 -9

c y = (x + lY y 4 1 0 1 4

d 0 -3 0

"n|-
II
y
l
e y = x2- 2 x- 8 y 7 0 -8 -9

Question Equation X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
a y -27 -1 0 1
ll >

b y 1 0 -27
II

c y = { x + 1)3 y -1 0 8
%

d y -31 -5 -4 4 23
II
1

X -4.5 -4 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1

y = x 3+ Ax2 + 1 -9.1 1 10 9 4 1 2.1 6

X -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 2

y = x 3+ x 2- 2 x -4.4 1.9 2 0 0 8

X -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1

y = x ? [x + 2) -3.1 0 1 0.4 0 3

d x -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1

y = -x^x + 2) 0 -1 -0.4 0 -3

4 Question Equation X -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

a y -l -1.2 -2 -6 6 3 2 1
7 x
b y i 2.3 4 9 36 4 1.4 1
yy=-2-
X2
c y 8 2.5 0.3 -2 6.3 4 5.5 10
y = x2+l

5 Equation X -0.5 -0.25 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1

OX
h-*

0.3 1 5.6 10
II

(453
18 Algebra and Graphs II J

Using Graphs of Curves

Having drawn your curve you these are some problems which can be solved using graphs

Example 4

The diagram shows the graphs ofth e cu rvey= x2+ 2 x - l and the straight line y = x + 5.
a Use the graph to find the solutions to the equation x2+ 2 x - 1 = 0. Give your answers
correct to 1 decimal place,
b Use the curve and the straight line to find the solutions to the equation - x 2+ x - 6 = 0.
c What is the minimum value of y = x2+ 2 x - 1?
d Give the coordinates of the point where the gradient of the curve = 0.
e Find an estimate o fth e gradient ofth e curve at the point (-2 , -1 ).

Answer 4
The solutions to x 2 + 2 x - 1 = 0 are the points where y = 0 (that is, on the x-axis). So
from the graph, the solutions are x = -2 .4 or x = 0.4.
The curve and the line meet when the x and y values ofth e tw o equations are the
same, that is, when they are solved simultaneously.
y = x 2+ 2 x - l
y =x+5
Substitutingy = x + 5 in the first equation:
x + 5 = x2+ 2 x - l
x2+ x - 6 = 0 (-x-5)
 [ 18 AlgeDra and Graphs II

This is the equation you were asked to solve, so its solutions can be found where the graphs
intersect: x = -3 and x = 2.

NOTE:
The equatiori you are asked to solve is in xonly, so do not give the/values of the
points of intersection!

c The minimum value ofy = x2+ 2 x - 1 is the minimum value of_y as you see it on the
graph. The minimum value isy = -2.
d The gradient of the curve is zero where the curve is horizontal, so the coordinates
are (-1 ,-2 ).

e The gradient at the point (-2 ,-1 ) is estimated by drawing the tangent at that point.
This is shown in the next diagram.
y

y= x+ 5

i = x2 + 2x - 1

change in y
The gradient is
change in x
From the tangent drawn on the graph an estimate of the gradient is given by

^5_ _3-. Gradient = " = ~2.

455
18 Algebra and Braphs II j

Sketching Graphs of Curves

You should have noticed features in the graphs you plotted in Exercise 18.2. For example, the
constant term gives they-intercept just as it does in the equation of a straight line.
The sign in front of the x 2 term in the graph of a parabola also tells us about the parabola. If
the sign is negative the graph i s ‘n’ shaped. If the sign is positive the graph is ‘u’ shaped. If in
doubt about the orientation of any curve try putting in a high positive value for x, such as 10
or 100, and see whether the corresponding/value is positive or negative. When you are asked
to ‘sketch’ a curve you do not have to plot points, but just draw a sketch showing key features
such as where the curve crosses the axes and its general shape. For a parabola the line of
symmetry will always be a vertical line through the midpoint of the two points where the
curve crosses the x-axis, as shown in the example below.

Example 5

a Forthecurve>'=x2+ x - 2 ,
i factorise the right-hand side.
ii Hence find the tw o values of x which m akey = 0.
iii Write down the/-intercept.
iv Sketch the curve.
v Write down the equation ofth e line of symmetry,

b Repeat parts (i) to (v) for the curve y = x 2- 2 x + 1.

Answer 5

a i y = (x + 2 ) ( x - l)
ii y = 0 w henx = - 2 o r x = l .
iii The /-intercept is y = -2 .

* = -0 .5

v The line of symmetry is x = -0 .5 .

b i y = {x -l)(x -l)
ii y = 0 w h e n x = l.

456
 [ 18 Algebra and Graphs ll

iii They-intercept isy = + l.

v The line of symmetry is x = 1.

Using Function Notation

You will be working with function notation in Chapter 20. Meanwhile, you may meet it briefly
in questions about graphs. The following example should show you that you do not have to
worry about it at this stage. The/(x) o rg (x ) just replace/in the equation, as you will see in the
example.

Example 6

/( * ) = ? Ti
a Copy and complete the table of values for 0 ■

X 0 1 2 3 4 5
f ix ) 0 0.5 0.96

Using 2cm to 1 unit on the x-axis, and 10cm to one unit on they-axis, draw the graph
of y = /(* ).

Why c a n /( x ) = - ^ p j never be 1?

Why can/(x) = never be < 0?

X2+1
S<*) = 5 = *

e On the same axes draw the graph of y=g{x).

Use your graphs to solve the equation = giving your answer to 1 decimal place.
Answer 6

X 0 1 2 3 4 5
/(* ) 0 0.5 0.8 0.9 0.94 0.96

457
18 Algebra and Braphs ll J

*2 + 1

c f(x) can never be greater than or equal to 1 because x2+ 1 is always 1 more than x2, so
th a t the num erator is always less than the denominator.

d f(x) can never be negative because both the numerator and the denominator will always
be positive or zero as x is squared in both, and then 1 is added in the denominator.

e This is a straight line graph.

Usingy = when x = 0, y = 1 and when y = 0, x = 5 so the line goes through (0,1) and
(5,0) as shown on the graph.

f x = 1.5 to 1 decimal place.

Exercise 18.3
1 Draw sketch graphs ofthe following curves.
On each parabola show the line of symmetry together with its equation. Show the
coordinates ofthe points where the curves cut the axes,
a y = 2 x 2+ 3 x - 5 b y = x(x-2)2
c y = - x 2+ 3 x - 2 d y = [ x - l)(x + 2 )(x -3 )

2 Match the following graphs to their possible equations.

ii y = x3 - x
iii 7 = x - x 3 iv y - 2 x - x 2
v y7 = ~ — v i y = x2 - 2x
x

458

since
X2 - X 1 X ,-X 2 ;
both thenumerator and
the denominator have
been multiplied b y -1 ,
You may choose which
points to call ( x ^ ) and
{x2,y 2), but do not change
in mid calculation!
[ 18 Algebra and Graphs II
10X
3 v
Copy and complete the following table, giving the values of y to 1 decimal place.
X 0 1 2 3 3.5 4
y 0 2.2
b Plot these points, using a scale of 2 cm represents 1 unit on each axis,
c By drawing a tangent estimate the gradient when x = 0.5.
18.6 Straight Line Segments
Line segments are sections, or segments, of lines.
Two points on a coordinate grid may be joined by a line segment; for example, the line
segmenMB joiningthe points (1,2) and (9,8) in Figure 18.6.
F ig u re 1 8 .6 S tra ig h t line seg m en ts
Finding the G radient of a Line Segm ent
Since the gradient of a line is ^hang in we can easily see from Figure 18.6 that the
gradient of the line/IB i s | = | .
If you do not have a diagram there are two choices.
Either you can use a formula, or you can write the answer down almost ‘by inspection’.
y2 —y<
The formula is: g r a d ie n t = - — —
*2
where the line segment joins the points (x 1, y 1) and (x 2, y 2).
In Figure 18.6 the gradient would be calculated using
( ^ , ^ = (1,2) and {x2, y 2) = (9.8).
gradient = | ^ = | = |
The alternative is to say to yourself ‘how do I get from 2 to 8?’, and write down +6, followed by
'how do I get from 1 to 9?’, and write the+8 underthe +6: ^ | = | .
The method you use depends on whether you like learning formulae or not! Either way is
acceptable.
The danger with the formula method lies in the misuse of minus signs.

Both methods will be shown in the example.

Finding the Gradient of a Line Perpendicular

to a Given Line
Look at the line CD in Figure 18.6. CD has been drawn perpendiculartoAB. If you calculate the
gradient of CD you should see that it is - j .
This illustrates a new rule:

If m1 and m 2 are the gradients of two perpendicular lines then m: x m 2- - l .

From our example: 1 x ^ = - 1.
4 3
Conversely, to prove that two lines are perpendicular, show that the product of their
gradients is —1.
To find a gradient perpendicular to a given gradient you might say to yourself‘turn it upside
down and change the sign’. So:
^ is perpendicular to f
“ b
3 —7
j is perpendicular to-j-

-1 is perpendicular to 1

-3 is perpendicular to

Finding the Length of a Line Segm ent

The length of a segment is easily found using Pythagoras’ theorem. This important theorem is
introduced in Chapter 9. The theorem states that ‘the square on the hypotenuse of a right-
angled triangle is equal to the sum of the squares on the other two sides.’ The hypotenuse is
the longest side of a right-angled triangle and is opposite the right angle.
y
 [ 18 Algebra and Graphs II

Figure 18.7 shows a right-angled triangleABC drawn on the line segment/46. The length of
the line/IC is 9 - 1 = 8, and the length of the side BC is 8 - 2 = 6. By Pythagoras' theorem,
AB2 = AC2 + BC2, so

AB = %/S2+ 62 = 10 units.

The formula would b eA B = ^ (x , - x 2f + (y : - y 2f ■

Notice that it does not matter which way round the subtraction is performed (either x { - x 2 or
x2- x,), because the result will be squared, thus losing any minus sign. The alternative would
be to think ‘how do I get from ...?’ as before, and straight away write down:

AB = V82 + 6 2 = 10 units.

Again, the choice is yours, as either method is acceptable.

Finding the Midpoint of a Line S egm ent

Finding the midpoint could hardly be easier as it is found by taking the m e a n of the x values
and the m e a n of they values. (The mean is dealt with in more detail in Chapter 23 but it is
obtained by adding the two values together and then dividing by 2.) In the example above,
the midpoint is given by:
[!±21±S],(5,5)

Check Figure 18.7 and you will see this is correct.

For formula fans, the midpoint is given by *1 + *2 h ± h \

2 ' 2 J’

Example 7

Find
a the length,
b tho gradient,
c the midpoint o fth e line joining A (5 ,-2 ) and 6 (-7 ,-8 ).
d Find the gradient of a line perpendicular to AB.
Answer 7

For this example we will draw a diagram so that you can see that the methods are correct,
but normally it is not necessary. However, it does no harm to draw a diagram if that gives
you more confidence.
 Let/4(5, -2) be [x^yj, and B(-7, -8 ) be (x2,y2).
Then AB is given by

V(5 - - 7)2 + (-2 - - 8);

= Vl22 + 6 2
= y /m
= 6n/5

The gradient of AB is c^anSe jn >'

b change in x

-7 -5
-6 1
-1 2 2

Or
To get from A to 6:
-2 to -8 is subtract 6
5 to -7 is subtract 12,
so gradient = =^

Midpoint of AB is the mean of the tw o points.

x = 5 + -7' - 4 — 1

- 2+-8 -10
>' = - = -5
2 2

Midpoint is (-1, -5).

The gradient of the perpendicular line is -y = -2

Example 8
a Write down i the gradient and ii they-intercept of the line y = ^x - 1 .

b Write down the equation of the line parallel to y = | * ~ 1 and passing through (0,3).

c Writedown the equation of the line perpendicular to y = j X - ‘\ and passing through (0,3).

d Find the equation of the line passing through A (2 ,-5 ) and B (6,3).
Answer 8

a i gradient = | ii y= - 1

b y = j X+ 3 c y = -2x + 3

d gradient = | = 2

Substitutingm = 2 , x = 2 and y = - 5 (e ith e rA o rfic a n be used) into y = m x + c:

-5 = 2x2 + c
c= - 9
equation is y = 2 x -9 .
 ^ 18 Algebra and Graphs II

Exercise 18.4
For each of the line segments joining the following pairs of points find
a its length (giving your answer to 3 significant figures if necessary)
b its gradient (as simplified fractions if not whole numbers)
c its midpoint
d the gradient of a perpendicular line.

ro
6 = (1,6)

O
M

II
2 A = (-1, -1) 8 = (- 2,-2)
3 A = (5,10) e = (-5, -io)
CO
^r
6 = (13,14)
II

5 A = (4, -7) i 6 = (-3,1)

6 A = (-1,3) 8 = (3,-1)

00

>—
7 A = (-3, 5)

II

1
1
8 A = ( 5,3) 8 = (1,-2)

Exercise 18.5
M ixed exercise

1 A ball is thrown vertically up into the air from ground level.

Its height varies with the time of flight according to the following equation:
h = 1 5 t-5 t2

a Copy and complete the table, giving the values for h correct to 1 decimal place.

t (seconds) 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5 2.75 3
h (m etres) 0 3.4 10 10

b Using scales of lcm to represent 1 metre on the vertical axis and 4cm to represent
1 second on the horizontal axis, draw the distance (height) / time graph for the ball,
c What is the maximum height of the ball?
d Draw a tangent to estim ate the speed of the ball after 1.25 seconds.
e What happens to the speed of the ball at its maximum height?
f With approximately what speed does the ball return to the ground?
2 The speed of the same ball as in the previous question varies with the time according to
the following equation:
speed = 15 - lOf.
a Copy and complete the table showing how the speed varies for the first part of the
ball’s flight.

t (seconds) 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5

speed (m /s) 10 5

b Using scales of 1 cm represents 2 metres per second on the verticalaxis, and 1 cm

represents 0.25 seconds on the horizontal axis, draw thespeed-timegraph for the first
part of the flight of the ball,
c i What would happen to the graph if you were to carry on and plot the whole of the
flight?
ii Why is this?
d Using the graph calculate the height after 1 second,
e Using the graph calculate the acceleration of the ball.
3 The line 3 y + 2 x - 12 = 0 cuts they-axis at A and the x-axis at B. Find the length of AB.

463
18 Algebra and Graphs II J

4 y = x2+ ^
a Copy and complete the table of values for x and y. Give values of y correct to 1 decimal
place.

X 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

y 10 2.7 2.9 9.3

b Using a scale of 1 cm to 1 unit on they-axis, and 1 cm to 0.2 units on the x-axis, plot the
points in the table and draw a smooth curve,
c On your graph draw the liney=x.
d By drawing a tangent parallel to the liney = x , estimate the coordinates of the point
where the gradient of the curve = 1. Give the coordinates to the nearest whole number,
e Write down the equation of the tangent at this point in the form y = m x + c , giving c to
the nearest whole number.
5 y = x 2- x - 6
y = - x 2- x + 6
Using a graphical method, solve these two equations simultaneously.
Use integer values ofx: - 3 x 4.
6 /4Bisasegmentoftheline2y = 3 x - 8 .
a Writedown i its gradient, and ii they-intercept.
b Find the equation of the line parallel to AB and passing through (0,1).
c Find the equation ofthe line perpendicularto>46 and passing through (0,1).

7 By first finding the gradient of each ofthe lines below,

a find two lines which are parallel, and
b prove that two of the lines are perpendicular.
&

LO

AB:
X
II
l

CD 4y + 2 x - 7 = 0
EF y = 3x-8
GH 2y = 5 - x
JK y + 3x = 8

Exam-style questions J
8 The straight line graph ofy = 3 x - 6 cuts the x-axis a t >4 and th°y-axisat6.
a Find the coordinates of A and the coordinates of 6.
b Calculate the length of AB.
c Mis the midpoint of AB.
Find the coordinates of M. (0580 paper 12 Q ll June 2012)

464
 [ 18 Hlaelira and Graphs II

9 a P is the point (-3, 3) and Q is the point (13, -2).

Find the coordinates ofthe midpoint of PQ.

b The linex-3y = 2 is shown on the diagram.

The line jc —3y = k cuts they-axis at the point (0, -4).
i Copy the diagram and draw the linex-3y = fc on your diagram.
ii Calculate the value of A:. (4024 paper 01 Q13 June 2005)

a The diagram is a sketch of the graph ofy = | for x > 0 .

Copy the diagram and complete the sketch forx<0.
b Sketch the graph ofy = xon the same diagram,
c T h eg ra p h so fy = -|an d y = x m eetatx = fc .
Find the values of Ac. (4024 paper 01 Q22 June 2005)

11 The table below gives some values of x and the corresponding values ofy, correct to one
decimal place, where

X i 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 7 8

y 13.2 7.3 4.5 3.0 2.1 1.5 1.7 P 3.7 5.3

a Find the value ofp.

b Using a sheet of graph paper and a scale of 2 cm to 1 unit, draw a horizontal x-axis for
0 « x « 8.
Using a scale of lcm to 1 unit, draw a vertical y-axis for 0 =£y *£ 14.
On your axes plot the points given in the table, and join them with a smooth curve.

465
18 Algebra and firaplrc II J

c Use your graph to find

i the value ofx when y = 8,
ii the least value of + for values ofx in the range 0 < x « 8 .
d By drawing a tangent, find the gradient of the curve at the point where x = 2.5.
e On the axes used in part (b) draw the graph of y = 12 -x .
f The x-coordinates ofthe points where the two graphs intersect are solutions ofthe
equation
x3+ Ax? + B x +144 = 0.
Find the value of A and the value of 6. (4024 paper 02 Q8 June 2006)

12 a J W - J J ,
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
JW p 6 4 3 2.4 2 1.71 <1 1.33 r 1.09 1

i Calculate the values ofp, q and r.

ii On a sheet of graph paper draw the graph of y = f ( x ) for 0 =£ x =£ 11.
Use a scale of lc m to 1 uniton each axis.
iii By drawing a suitable line, find an estimate ofthe gradient ofthe graph at the
point (3,3).
b On the same grid draw the graph of y = 8 - x for 0 x *£8.
c i Showthattheequation/(x) = 8-xsim plifiestox2- 7 x + 4 = 0.
ii Use your graph to solve this equation, giving your answers correct to 1decimal
place. (0580 paper 04 Q2 November 2004)
13 A sketch ofthe graph ofthe quadratic function y = p x * + q x + r is shown in the diagram.

The graph cuts the x-axis at K and L

The point M lies on the graph and on the lines of symmetry.
a Whenp = l , q = 2 , r=-3,find
i they-coordinate ofthe pointwherex = 4
ii the coordinates of K a n d L
iii the coordinates of M.
b Describe how the above sketch ofthe graph would change in each ofthe following
cases:
i p is negative ii p = l ,q = r = 0.
c Another quadratic function is y = ax2+ b x+c.
i Its graph passes through the origin. Write down the value of c.
ii The graph also passes through the points (3, 0) and (4,8). Find the values of a
and b. (0580 p a per 04 0 7 N ovem ber 2004)

4661
 ^ 18 Algebra and Graphs II

14 The points/4 (o, ~) and 6 (2, 4^j He on the curve as shown in the diagram.

i Calculate the gradient of the straight line/16.

ii Using the diagram, estimate the value of x at which the gradient of the curve is equal
to the gradient of the straight line/\B. (4024 paper 01 Q13b June 2007)

Time (s)

The diagram shows part of a jou mey by a truck.

a The truck accelerates from rest to 18 m/s in 30 seconds. Calculate the acceleration
of the truck.
b The truck then slows down in 10 seconds for some road works and travels through the
road works at 12 m/s.
At the end of the road works it accelerates back to a speed of 18 m/s in 10 seconds.
Find the total distance travelled by the truck in the 100 seconds.
(0580 paper 02 Q21 June 2007)

r
467
18 Algebra anil Graphs II J

Adam stood on a slope, 15 m from the bottom.

He rolled a heavy ball directly up the slope.
After t seconds the ball v j a s y metres from the bottom of the slope.
The table below gives some values of t and the corresponding values of y.
t 0 i 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
y 15 22 25 25 24 22 19 15 10 4
a Using a scale of 2 cm to represent 1 unit, draw a horizontal f-axisforO =s t =£ 6.
Using a scale of 2cm to represent 5 units, draw a vertical y-axis for 0 y 30.
On your axes, plot the points given in the table and join them with a smooth curve,
b Extend the curve to find the value of t when the ball reached the bottom of the slope,
c i By drawing a tangent, find the gradient of the curve when t = 3.5.
ii State briefly what this gradient represents,
d Immediately after he rolled the ball, Adam ran down the slope at a constant speed
of 1.5 m/s.
i Write down the distance of Adam from the bottom of the slope when
a t- 0 b t = 4.
ii On the same axes, draw the graph that represents the distance of Adam from the
bottom of the slope for 0 =£ t « 6.
iii Hence find the distance of Adam from the bottom of the slope when the ball
passed him. (4024 paper 02 Q08 June 2007)

17 a Find the values of k, m and n in each of the following equations, where a >0.
i a0= k ii am= ~ iii a" = sfa*
b The table shows some values of the function/*) = 2*.

X -2 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 3

/to r 0.5 0.71 5 1.41 1 4 t

i Write down the values of r, sand t.

ii Using a scale of 2cm to represent 1 uniton each axis, draw an x-axis from -2 to 3
and a y-axis from 0 to 10.
iii On your grid, draw the graph of y = f[x ) for -2 « x «£ 3.
c The function g is given byg[x) = 6 - 2 x .
i On the same grid as part (b), draw the graph of y =g(x) for-2 =£ x=£ 3.
ii Use your graphs to solve the equation 2* = 6 - 2 * .
iii Writedown the value of x for which 2X< 6 - 2 x f o r x e {positive integers}.
(0580 p a p e r 04 Q3 J u n e 2006)

18 J { x ) = l - ± x * 0 .
X -3 -2 -1 -0 .5 -0 .4 -0 .3 0.3 0.4 0.5 1 2 3

fix) P 0.75 0 -3 -5.25 <7 9 -5.25 -3 0 0.75 P

Find th e values o fp and q.

b i Draw an x-axis f o r - 3 sS x^e 3 u s in g 2 c m to repre sen t 1 u n ita n d a ^ a x is f o r

-1 1 =£ 2 using 1cm to repre sen t 1 u n it,
ii Draw th e graph o f y = f ( x ) f o r - 3 =£ x « - 0.3 and fo r 0.3 x «£ 3.

468
 I 18 Algebra and Graphs II

c Write down an integer k such that/(x) = k has no solutions,

d On the same grid, draw the graph o f y = 2 x - 5, for-3 s= x « 3.
e i Use your graphs to find solutions of the equation l - - y = 2 x - 5.
ii Rearrange 1 ~ ~ ^ = 2 x - 5 into the form axi + bx} + c = 0, where a, b and c are
integers.
f i Draw a tangent to the graph of y = f( x ) which is parallel to the line jy= 2 x - 5.
ii Write down the equation of this tangent. (0580 paper 04 Q5 November 2005)
19 During one day, at a point P in a small harbour, the height of the surface of the sea above
the seabed was noted.
The results are shown in the table.

Time (fhours) after 8 a.m. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Height (y metres) above the
3.8 3.3 2.5 1.8 1.2 1.0 1.2 1.8 2.5 3.3
seabed

a Using a scale of 1 cm to represent 1 hour, draw a horizontal f-axis for 0 =£ t 9. Using

a scale of 2 cm to represent 1 metre, draw a vertical y-axis for 0 y 4. On your axes,
plot the points given in the table and join them with a smooth curve,
b i By drawing a tangent, find the gradient of the curve at the point where t = 4.
ii Explain the meaning of this gradient,
c On the same day, a straight pole was driven vertically into the seabed at the point P.
Work started at 8 a.m.
The pole was driven in at a constant rate.
The height, 7 metres, of the top of the pole above the seabed, t hours after 8 a.m., is
given by the equation y = 4 - ^ t .
i Write down the length of the pole.
ii On the same axes as the curve, draw the graph of 7 = 4 - j t .
iii How many centimetres was the top of the pole above the surface of the sea at
noon?
iv Find the value of t when the top of the pole was level with the surface of the sea.
(4024 p a p er 02 Q8 Ju n e 2005)

20 The diagram shows the points,4(1,2), 8(4,6) and D(-5,2).

a Find the coordinates of the

midpoint of AB.
b Calculate the length of AB.
x B (4, 6) c Calculate the gradient of the
line/48.
d Find the equation of the line/48.
e The triangle/18C has line of
X X symmetry x = 4.
D ( - 5, 2) >4(1,2) Find the coordinates of C.
* X
0
(4024 paper 01 Q25a-e June 2006)
18 Algebra and Graphs II J

21

Figure 1

Which of the graphs shown above could be the graph of

a y = x3? b y = -y? c y = x - 1?
(4024 paper 0 1 Q9 November 2005)

22 A straight line passes through two points with coordinates (6,8) and (0,5). Work out the
equation ofthe line. (0580 paper 21 Q9 June 2008)

23 Find the coordinates of the midpoint ofthe line joining the points A(2, -5) and 6(6,9).
(0580 paper 2 1 Q7 June 2009)

24 a The table shows some values for the equation

jv= y fo r —4 jc ^ -0.5 and 0.5 *£ x 4.

X -4 -3 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 3 4

y -1.5 -0.83 0 0.58 -3.75 -0.58 0 0.83 1.5
i C o p y the table and write the m issing valu es o f y in the em pty spaces.
ii On a sheet of 2 mm graph paper draw the graph of
y = :f - - f o r - 4 =£ x s s - 0 .5 and 0 . 5 ^ x « 4 , using a scale of 2 cm to
represent 1 unit on each axis,
b Use your graph to solve the equation = 1.
c i By drawing a tangent, work out the gradient of the graph where x = 2.
ii Write down the gradient of the graph where x = -2.
d i On the grid, draw the liney = - x fo r - 4 *£ x =s 4.
ii Use your graphs to solve the equation j - ^ = - *•
e Write down the equation of a straight line which passes through the origin and does
not intersect the graph ofy = (0580 paper 04 Q5 June 2009)
25 The diagram shows the graph o f y = x 2+ x - 12.
a The graph cuts they-axis at K (0, k).
Write down the value of k.

\
470)
 I 18 Algebra and Graphs II

b The graph cu ts th e x -a x is a t L (I, 0) and M (m , 0).

Find th e value of

(4024 paper 01 Q ll November 2004)

2 6 The points/!, 6 and C are (9,8), (12,4) and (4, -2) respectively,
a Find
i the gradient of the line through A and B
ii the equation of the line through C which is parallel to AB.
b Calculate the length of the line segment
i AB ii BC.
c Show that/16 is perpendicular to BC.
d Calculate the area of triangle/\6C. (4024 paper 02 Q2 November 2004)

Time (t seconds)

The diagram shows the speed-time graph of a car’s journey,

a Find the speed when t = 20.
b Find the acceleration when t = 20.
c Find the distance travelled in
i the first 40 seconds ii the first 60 seconds,
d Part of the distance-time graph for the same journey is shown below. Complete this graph.

1000
'c/T
0La 800
E 600
<OD
c 400
CO
CO
Q 200
0
10 20 30 40 50 60
Time ( ( seconds)
(4 0 2 4 /0 1 O c t/ N o v 2 0 0 5 q 2 0 )

471
18 Algebra and Graphs II J

y*
4' R
X

1■

P 0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 *
-1 ■

PQRS is a parallelogram.
P is (-4,0), Q is (1,0) and R is (9,4).
a Find the coordinates of S.
b Find the coordinates of the midpoint of PR.
c Find the equation of the line RS.
d Find the equation of the line QR.
e Calculate the area of the parallelogram PQRS. (4024 paper 0 1 Q21 November 2005)
2 9 The points/I and B are (5,3) and (13,9) respectively,
a Find
i the midpoint of AB
ii the gradient of the line through^ and B
iii the length of the line/A6.
b C is the point (-8,5).
The point D is such that dc =
i Find the coordinates of D.
ii What type of quadrilateral \sA B C D l (4024 paper 02 Q2 November 2006)

Time ((seconds)

The diagram is the speed-time graph of a cyclist’s journey,

a Calculate the time taken to travel the first 300 metres,
b By drawing a tangent, find the retardation of the cyclist when t = 55.
(4024 paper 01 Q22 N ovem ber 2007)
 ^ 18 Algebra and Graphs II

31 The diagram is the speed-time graph of the first 20 seconds of a motorcyclist’s journey.

35

30

</) 25
£ *o
I I 20
<D
■0 w
0) 15f-
a
Q. Q-

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (seconds)
a Calculate the motorcyclist’s retardation during the final 8 seconds,
b Calculate the distance travelled in the 20 seconds. (4024 paper 01 Q13 June 2008)

3 2 A straight line passes through the points P (1, 2) and Q (5, -14).
Find
a the coordinates ofthe midpoint of PQ
b the gradient of PQ
c the equation of PQ. (4024 paper 01 Q17 June 2008)

33 The curve y = x 3- 5 is shown on the axes below.

y

a Use the graph to find an approximate value of lls.

b i On the axes above, draw the graph o f y = 1 5 - 5x.
18 Algebra and Graphs II J

ii Write down the coordinates of the point where the graphs cross.
iii The x coordinate of the point where the graphs cross is a solution of the equation
x 3 = a + bx.
Find the value of a and the value of b. (4024 paper 0 1 Q17 November 2008)
34

Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4

Which of the figures shown above could be the graph of

a y = x * + 21
b y = ( x - 2)(x+l)?
c y = 2 - x - x 2l (4024 paper 01 Q13 June 2009)
35 a

Time (f seconds)
Ali was on a training run.
The diagram is the speed-time graph of part of his run.
At t = o, his speed was 8 m/s.
His speed decreased at a constant rate until it was 4 m/s at t = 200.
Calculate
a his retardation during the 200 s,
b the distance he ran during the 200s,
c his speed at t = 150.
Ben ran at a constant speed in the same direction as Ali.
At f = 0 , Ali and Ben were level.
They ran the same distance in the next 150 seconds.
Calculate Ben’s speed.
Chris ran 200 m, correct to the nearest 10 metres.
He took 25s, correct to the nearest second.
Find lower bounds for
i the distance run,
ii his average speed. (4024 paper 02 Q5-une 2009)

\
4741
length, Area and Volume II
Learning Objectives Syllabus sections 30 and 35

In this c h a p te r w e w ill use th e ratios o f lengths, areas and volum es o f

• calcu late arc lengths and areas o f sectors o f a sim ila r shapes
circle w o rk w ith s im ila r and cong ruent triangles.
• c alcu late m ore v o lu m e s and surface areas o f
solid shapes

19.1 Introduction
This chapter continues the work from Chapter 8. The essential skills exercise in Section
19.2 will remind you of the work already covered.

19.2 Essential Skills

1 Convert
a 250 mm to metres b 20cm3 to cubic metres
e IS m 1 to sq u a re centim etres d 1.7 litres to m illilitres.

2 Calculate
a the circumference, b the area
of a circle with diameter 18 cm.

3 Calculate
a the perimeter, b the area
of each of the following shapes:

5 cm
3 cm

4.5 cm 4 cm

4 Calculate
a the total surface area, b the volume
ofacuboid measuring 12cm by5cm by 10cm.

475
19 la—um m aw iW lm ll J

5 Calculate
a the total surface area, b the volume
of a solid cylinder with a radius of 5 cm and a height of 10 cm.
6 Calculate the capacity in millilitres of a cylinder measuring 6cm in diameter and 25cm in
height.

19.3 Arc Lengths in Circles

As you saw in Chapter 6, an arc is a section of the
circumference of a circle.

The diagram in Figure 19.1 is of a circle, centre 0 and

a radius shown as an arrow. If the arrow is rotated
clockwise, to the position shown as a dotted line, through
an angle of 60° at the centre, it traces out an a rc shown as
the heavy curved line on the circle.
The length of the arc depends on the angle at the centre
of the circle. The larger the angle, the longer the arc.
The angle at the centre is called the angle s u b te n d e d at
the centre by the arc. The angle can be expressed as a F ig u re 1 9 .1 A rc o f a circle
fraction of the complete turn (360°).

In Figure 19.1, the arc length will b e ^ = | o f t h e whole circumference.

Example 1
Key term Calculate the length of an arc subtended by the angle 60° at the centre of a circle, radius 4 cm.
The angle at the centre Answer 1
of a circle standingon an Circumference = 2nr=2 x n x 4cm
arc of that circle is called
Arc length = ^ x 2 x 7t x 4 = 4.18879...
the angle subtended at
the centre by the arc. Arc length = 4.19 cm
V_______________________________________

19.4 Sector Areas in Circles

In Figure 19.1, the region between the two arrows (shaded) is a sector of the circle. The area
of the sector is a fraction of the area of the whole circle, in this case of the total area of the
ooU
circle.

Example 2
\
Calculate the area of the sector subtended by the angle 100° at the centre of the circle with
radius4cm .

Answer 2
Area of the whole circle = 7tr2= n x 42cm 2
Area of the sector = ^ 5 x i r x 4 ; = 13.96263...
360
^ Area of sector = 14.0 cm2_____________________________________________________________

\
4761
 ^ 19 Length, Area and Volume II

Exercise 19.1
C a lc u la te th e q u a n titie s re p re s e n te d b y le tte rs in th e fo llo w in g ta b le .

A n g le a t th e c e n tre R adius L en g th o f arc A rea o f s e c to r

o
00
O
10 cm a b

I— *
8cm

o
c d

O
200° 5cm e f
g 3cm 10 cm h
60° i 12 cm j
k 15 cm I 30 cm2
20° m n 40 cm2

P 9cm <? 25 cm2

o
i— l
O
O

r 5 60 cm2

19.5 More Volumes and Surface

Areas of Solids
When calculating the volume or surface area of spheres, cones or pyramids.

Example 3
Calculate the total surface area of a square-based pyramid as shown in the diagram below.

The base is a square with side = 5 cm. The four isosceles triangles have a height of 6 cm,
shown by the dotted line.
Answer 3
The diagram below shows the net of the pyramid.
The total area of the net = area of square + 4 x area
of triangle
= 52+ 4 x i x 5 x 6
= 85cm2

V
19 IbhH i,Areaan WtomflII J

19.6 Curved Surface Areas

Cylinders, cones and spheres all have curved surfaces.
• When calculating the curved surface of a cone or a sphere you will be given the
corresponding formula.
• When calculating the total surface area of a cone you will need to add the area of the
circular base.
• The net (Chapter 6) of a cylinder is a rectangle and two circles. The rectangle makes the
cu rved surface of the cylinder. The length of the rectangle is the circumference of the
circular ends. The to ta l surface area includes the two circles. You will be expected to be
able to calculate the surface area of the cylinder without being given a formula.

Example 4
Calculate the total surface area of a cone with a base radius = 10 cm and a
slant height = 3 0 cm.
(The curved surface area of a cone = nrl, where I is the slant height.)
Answer 4
The slant height of a cone is the height measured along the
surface, as in the diagram.
Curved surface area = n x 10 x 30 = 3007ccm2
Circular base = itx 102 = lOOrccm2
Total surface area = lOOit + 300rc = 1256.637... cm2
Total surface area = 1260 cm2to 3 significant figures.

19.7 Volumes
If you are asked to calculate the volume of a cone or a sphere you will be given corresponding
formula.

Example 5
Calculate the volume of a child’s toy which is in
the shape of a cone on a hemisphere.
The total height of the toy is 12 cm, and the
radius is 4cm.
(The volume of a cone = r 3h, where h is the perpendicular 12 cm
height, and the volume of a
sphere = | 7 c r 3.)
Answer 5
The height of the cone = 1 2 - 4 = 8 cm
4 cm ■
Volume of cone = ^7tr 2h = ^xjc42 x8cm 3

Volume of hemisphere = ^ x | j i r 3 = i x ^ x 7 t x 4 3cm3

2 3
Total volume = ( | x n x 42 x 8) + x | x jr x 43) = 268.082 57... cm3

Total volume of toy = 268 cm3to 3 significant figures.

478

Key term
A frustum is th e p a r t
o f a c o n e le ft w h e n th e
p o in te d p a rt (ve rte x ) o f
th e c o n e is re m o v e d .
[ 19 tenth, ftrea and Volume II
19.8 Volume and Surface
Area of a Frustum
The first d ia g ra m in Figure 19.2 show s a cone sliced h o riz o n ta lly in to tw o sections. The to p
section is a s m a lle r cone and the lo w e r section is called a fru s tu m . The second d ia g ra m
show s th e fru s tu m on its ow n. The v o lu m e and surface area o f th e fru s tu m can be c a lc u la te d
b y s u b tra c tin g th e v o lu m e o r surface area o f the s m a lle r cone fro m th a t o f th e la rg e r cone, as
th e next e xa m ple show s.
Example 6
The frustum shown in Figure 19.2 is made by removing a cone with slant height 6 cm from a
cone of slant height 12 cm. The radius of the top of the frustum is 2 cm and the radius of the
base of the frustum is 4 cm.
Calculate, giving your answers in terms of jt:
a t h e c u r v c d a u r f a c c a re a o f t h e la rg e r c o n e
b the curved surface area of the smaller cone
c the to ta l surface area of the frustum, given that the frustum is solid.
You are given that the curved surface area of a cone = nrl.
Answer 6
a The curved surface area of the larger cone = ji x 4 x 12 = 48rccm2
b The curved surface area of the smaller cone = n x 2 x 6 = 12rc cm2
c The curved surface area of the frustum = 48rc - 12rc = 367tcm2
The to ta l surface area of the frustum = 367t + jr x 2 2+ jc x 4 2= 56n cm2.
Exercise 19.2
You can use th e fo llo w in g fo rm u la e in th is exercise:
S urface area o f a sphere = 4 n r 2
V o lu m e o f a sphere = ^71^
C urved surface area o f a cone = nrl, w here / is the s la n t h e ig h t o f th e cone
•j
V o lu m e o f a cone = ^n^h, w here h is th e p e rp e n d ic u la r h e ig h t o f th e cone.
19 lenuMi, Area and Volume II J

1 Calculate the quantities represented by letters in the following table.

S p h ere H em isp h ere

radius surface area v o lu m e to ta l surface area vo lu m e
3 cm a b c d

7 cm e f g h

i 20 cm2 j k I

m n 30 cm3 P <1
r 5 t u 50 cm3

2 Calculate the quantities represented by letters in the following table.

C one
radius s la n t h eig h t p e rp e n d ic u la r h e ig h t curved surface area v o lu m e
3 cm 5 cm a

6 cm 7 cm b

c 10 cm 8 cm 60 cm2 d

e 13 cm 10 cm / 15 cm3

3 Calculate
a the curved surface area,
b the total surface area,
c the volume
of a cylinder with radius 4.5 cm and height 12 cm.
4 A cylinder has a height of 10 cm and a volume of 283 cm3. Calculate
a the radius ofthe cylinder
b its total surface area.

19.9 Similar Shapes

You have already met similar shapes in Chapter 6, but this is a reminder. Similar shapes
have the same shape but are different sizes. This means that they have corresponding angles
equal and corresponding sides in proportion. For example, all squares are similar because
they all have four angles = 90°, and four equal sides.
All cubes are similar because they all have six equal faces at right angles to each
other. The diagrams in Figure 19.3 show two lines (A and B) with lengths in the ratio 1:2,
and two squares (C and D) drawn from sides with these lengths, followed by two cubes
(E and F).

480
 [ 19 length, Area and Woliime II

2 cm

4 cm

F ig u re 1 9 .3 The re la tio n sh ip o f le n g th , area and vo lu m e ra tio s o f s im ila r shapes

The areas of the two squares are 2 x 2 = 4 cm2 and 4 x 4 = 16 cm2, so the ratios of the areas of
the squares are 4 :16 = 1:4. The area of D is four times the area of C. The volumes ofthe two
cubes are 2 x 2 x 2 = 8 cm3 and 4 x 4 x 4 = 64 cm3, so the ratios ofthe volumes are 8 : 64 = 1:8.
The volume of F is eight times the volume of E.
This is an important fact to understand.
If the sides or lengths of two s im ila r shapes are in the ratio 1:2, then the areas are in the ratio
1 :4 (l2: 22), and the volumes are in the ratio 1: 8 (l3: 23). In general, for similar shapes:
• if lengths are in the ratio a : b
• then areas are in the ratio a2 : b2
• and volumes are in the ratio a3 : b3.
Notice the importance of the word ‘similar’. These ratios only apply to similar shapes.

Always checkthat your
answeris sensible. In this
case, the surface area
islargerforthe larger
cylinder. Also, if the area
of the smaller cylinder
had been 3icm2, then
the ratio 16:25 would
have made the larger
cylinder 50 cm2, so the
answerdoes seem
reasonable. > 20
Example 7
The heights of two similar cylinders are 4cm and 5cm respectively.
The total surface area ofthe smaller cylinder is 30 cm2.
Calculate the total surface area o fth e larger cylinder.
Answer 7
Length ratio = 4 :5
Area ratio = 16 : 25
Total surface area of small cylinder = 30 cm2
Total surface area of large cylinder = 30 x | | = 46.875 cm2.
Example 8
The surface areas of two spheres are in the ratio 4 : 9. The volume ofthe smaller sphere is
cm3. Calculate the volume ofth e larger sphere.

481
19 Length. Area and Volume II
T O millilitres.
J
Answer 8
Area ratio = 4 :9
Length ratio = V4:V9 = 2 :3
Volume ratio = 23: 33= 8 :2 7
Volume of the smaller sphere = 20 cm3
Volume of the larger sphere = 20 x ^O = 675cm3.
Example 9
The heights of tw o similar bottles are in the ratio 3 :5 .
The capacity of the larger bottle is 1.5 litres.
Calculate the capacity of the smaller bottle in millilitres.
Answer 9
Capacity is the same as volume.
Length ratio = 3 :5
Volume ratio = 27 :1 2 5
Capacity of larger bottle = 1.5 litres
Capacity of smaller bottle = 15 x ^ = 0324 litres
Capacity of smaller bottle = 324 millilitres.
The ratios o f lengths, areas and volum es o f sim ila r shapes can also be used to find th e surface
area o r vo lu m e o f a frustum as th e next exam ple shows. Slicing a cone parallel to its base
gives a sm all cone w hich is sim ila r in shape to th e o rig in a l cone.
Example 10
The first diagram below shows a cone of height 20 cm and base radius 5 cm. A small cone is
removed from the top of the larger cone to leave a frustum of height 8 cm as shown in the
second diagram.
20 cm
8 cm
a For the two cones, w ritedow n
i the length ratio
ii the area ratio
iii the volume ratio.
b Calculate the volume of the larger cone.
c Using the ratio of the volumes, calculate the volume of the smaller cone and hence the
volume of the frustum.
 ^ 19 Length. Area and Volume ll

Answer 10
a i Theheightofthesm allcone = 2 0 - 8 = 12cm
The height of the large cone = 20 cm
So length ratio (small co n e: large cone) = 12 : 20 = 3 :5
ii Area ratio (small cone : large cone) = 9 : 2 5
iii Volume ratio (small cone : large cone) = 27 :125
b Volume of large cone = ^ n r2h
= ^7tx52 x 20 = 523.598...
= 525 cm3 to 3 S.f.
c Volume of small cone = ^ x 523.598... = 113.097...
Volume of frustum =523.598... -1 1 3 .0 9 7 ...
= 410.500...
= 411cm3to 3s.f.

Exercise 19.3
1 The v o lu m e s o f tw o s im ila r c u b o id s are in th e ra tio 1 :1 2 5 .
a Find th e ra tio o f
i th e surface areas ii th e lengths
b C opy and c o m p le te th e fo llo w in g ta b le fo r these tw o cuboids.

len g th heig h t to ta l surface area v o lu m e

s m a lle r c u b o id 20 cm (i) (ii) 80 c m 3

la rg er c u b o id (iii) 2 cm 10600cm 2 (iv)

2 The areas o f th e tw o s im ila r ‘s m ile y faces' are in th e ra tio 1 0 :1 .

NOT TO SCALE

The h e ig h t o f th e la rger face is 4 cm . C alculate th e h e ig h t o f th e s m a lle r face.

T he v o lu m e s o f tw o s im ila r cones are in th e ra tio 8 :2 7 .

a Find th e ra tio o f th e h e ig h ts o f th e tw o cones,
b Find th e ra tio o f th e areas o f th e bases o f th e tw o cones.
c T he curved surface area o f th e s m a lle r c one is 20 c m 2. C alculate th e curved surface
area o f th e la rger cone.

A so ft d rin k is sold in tw o d iffe re n t sizes o f bo ttle s. The b o ttle s are s im ila r in shape. The
h e ig h t o f th e s m a lle r b o ttle is 25 cm and th e h e ig h t o f th e larger b o ttle is 35 cm .
a C a lcu la te th e ra tio o f th e v olum es,
b The v o lu m e o f th e s m a lle r b o ttle is 730 m l.
C a lcu la te th e v o lu m e o f th e la rger b o ttle . Give y o u r a nsw er co rre c t to 3 s ig n ific a n t figures.

A m a p is in th e scale 1 : 25000.
A lake on th e m a p has an area o f 5 c m 2.
C a lcu la te th e area o f th e a c tu a l lake. Give y o u r answ er in square m etres in s ta n d a rd form .
19 length, Brea and Volume II J

6 A fru s tu m is c u t fro m a c o n e w ith a h e ig h t o f 15 cm , by re m o vin g th e to p s e c tio n w h ic h is

a cone o f h e ig h t 10 cm . T he v o lu m e o f th e cone w h ic h is rem oved is 40 c m 3. C alculate the
v o lu m e o f th e fru stu m .

1 9 .1 0 Sim ilar Triangles

S im ila r tria n g le s have th e sam e shape, w h ic h m eans th e y have eq u a l angles.
Key terms
Sim ilar triangles are The c o rre s p o n d in g sides o f s im ila r tria n g le s are in th e sam e ratio. C o rre s p o n d in g sides are
the same shape (have th e sides o p p o s ite e q u a l angles, as sh o w n in Figure 19.4.
equal angles) but are
different sizes.
Corresponding sides
in two or more similar
triangles are the sides
opposite the equal
angles in each triangle.

F ig u re 1 9 .4 S im ilar triangles

We w ill use th e n o ta tio n o f a single c a p ita l le tte r fo r each angle w h e re th e a n g le is

u n a m b ig u o u s , and th e lo w e r case le tte r fo r th e le n g th o f th e o p p o s ite side.

It is c o n v e n ie n t to m a rk th e angles th a t are eq u a l w ith th e sam e s ym bols, as y o u w ill see in

Figure 19.4.

The c o rre s p o n d in g sides are as follo w s:

a co rre s p o n d s to p , b c o rre sp o n d s to q and c c o rre sp o n d s to r.

So w e can w rite : a b c
~p~q~r
In o rd e r to keep e v e ry th in g in th e c o rre c t order, as you w ill see la te r in th e less ob vio u s
exam ples, it is w ise to p u t th e tria n g le s in as w ell.
large trian g le .a _ b _ c
small tria n g le ' p ~ q ~ r
H ow ever, y o u m u s t re m e m b e r th a t th is refers to th e le ngths o f th e sides, n o t to th e areas o f
th e tria n g le s!

Conditions for Sim ilarity in Triangles

We have seen th a t s im ila r tria n g le s have th e sam e shape, w hich m eans th a t th e y have eq u a l
angles. C on side r th e tria n g le s show n in Figure 19.5.
A

F ig u re 1 9 .5 C onditions for s im ilarity

 [ 19 Lengtli, Urea and Wolume ll

To prove that triangles are similar you may prove any of the following conditions:
• Their angles are equal. For example, in Figure 19.5, if
Z A = Z P and Z B = Z Q and Z C = ZR, the triangles are similar.
• Their sides are in the same ratio. For example, if
% ~ W= % ' trianS*es are similar.
• The triangles have one equal angle and the sides making up that angle are in the same ratio. For
example, if
Z A = Z P and ^ t h e triangles are similar.

Example 11
In the diagram, PT is parallel to QS. Find the lengths of QS and PR.
P

Answer 11
First of all we have to be sure the triangles PRT and QRS are similar.
ZP = ZSQR (corresponding angles in parallel lines)
ZT = ZQSR (corresponding angles in parallel lines)
ZR is common to both triangles.
So the angles are equiangular, and therefore the triangles are similar.
Copying the diagram and marking in the equal angles:

la r g e t r ia n g le J R _ PR_ _ PT_
NOTE: s m a ll t r ia n g le 's /? QR QS
A quick chedkshows that 2 + 8 _ PR _ 3.5 10 _PR_
these are reasonable 8 _ 9 ~ QS 8 ~ 9

because PR is in the large PR = 9 X — = 1 1.25cm

triangle, and is larger 8
10 _ 3.5
than QR, and QS is in Also,
1T - QS
the small triangle and is
QS X 10 = 3.5 X 8 (x QS a n d X 8)
smaller than PT.
QS = 3.5 X — (- 10 )
10
QS = 2.8 cm PR = 1 1 .2 5 QS = 2.8 cm.
19 LengUi. Area and lfolume II J

Example 12

Using the diagram above,

a prove that triangles ACD and ADB are similar.
b Use similar triangles to calculate the lengths of AB and AC. All the measurements are
correct to 1 decimal place.
Answer 12
a In triangles ACD and ADB, /ADC = /DBA = 90° (given in the diagram).
/A is common to both, so /DCA = /BDA (angle sum of a triangle).
Triangles ACD and ADB are equiangular so they are similar,
b It is a good idea to split the diagram into the tw o triangles unless you can easily see
which sides are corresponding. Mark the equal angles.
A

la r g e t r i a n g l e . AC _D C _ AD
s m a ll t r i a n g l e A D BD AB
la r g e t r i a n g l e . A C _ D C _ J55
s m a ll t r i a n g l e ' 5.5 4 .8 AB
AC = 5.5 x — = 11,5cm
4.8

AB = 5.5 x — = 2.6 cm
10
All correct to 1 decimal place.
Remember to check that these are reasonable.
Example 13
a Prove that triangle ABC is similar to triangle DEF.
A

486
 ^ 19 Length, Area and Wolume II

b Prove that triangle PQR is not similar to triangle STU.

2 cm
T

7 cm

Q R U
5 cm

Answer 13
a In triangle DEF, ZF= 180° - 60° - 50° = 70°
So ZC = ZF= 70°
£ = 15 = 2.5 and §£ = ^ = 2.5
DF 4 EF 6
so triangle ABC and DEF are similar (two sides in the same ratio and the included angles
equal).

So the sides are not all in the same ratio and the tw o triangles are therefore not similar.

Exercise 19.4
1 Triangles ABC a nd PQR are sh o w n below . AD is th e h e ig h t o f tria n g le ABC and PS is th e
h e ig h t o f PQR. AD = DC, and PS = SR.
a S h ow th a t tria n g le s ABC a n d PQR are sim ilar,
b Use s im ila r tria n g le s to
I c a lc u la te th e le n g th o f SR
ii c a lc u la te th e area o f tria n g le PQR, given th a t th e area o f tria n g le ABC is 14 c m 2.
P

S D 4 cm C Q S R
2 In th e d ia g ra m b elow , AB and DE are parallel,
a S how th a t tria n g le s ABC and CDE are sim ilar,
b C a lc u la te th e length o f AB.
c The area o ftria n g le /lB C = 6 c m 2. C alculate th e area o f tria n g le CDE.

D' 10 cm E

r
487
19 length, Area and Volume H J

3 a U s in g y o u r k n o w le d g e o f c y c lic q u a d r ila t e r a ls ( C h a p t e r 1 7 ), s h o w t h a t t r ia n g le s PRT

a n d QRS a r e s im ila r .

T
b C a lc u la te t h e le n g th o f PR.

1 9 .1 1 Congruent Triangles
C o n g ru e n t tria n g le s a r e t r ia n g le s w it h e x a c tly t h e s a m e s h a p e and s iz e . T h is m e a n s t h a t ,
Key term
lik e s im ila r tr ia n g le s , t h e y h a v e e q u a l c o r r e s p o n d in g a n g le s , b u t u n lik e s im ila r t r ia n g le s t h e ir
Congruent triangles
c o r r e s p o n d in g s id e s a r e a ls o e q u a l in le n g th .
are exactly the same
shape and the same size.

Example 14
In the triangles shown below, AC=Q P= YZ, ACP = PQR = XYZandBAC = PRQ = XRY.
State, giving reasons for your choice, which tw o of the triangles are congruent.

NOT TO SCALE

Answer 14
In tr ia n g le s ABC a n d XYZ,
BAC = XZY (g iv e n )
ACB = XYZ (g iv en )
ABC = XYZ (a n g le su m o f a tr ia n g le )
AC = YZ (g iv en )

488
 ^ 19 Length, Area and Wolume II

AC and YZ are corresponding sides because they are opposite to the equal angles ABC
and YXZ.
So triangles ABC and XYZ are congruent (AAS).
Example 15

In the diagram 0 is the centre of a circle, P is a point outside the circle, and PS and PT are
tangents drawn from the point to the circle.
a Using the fact that the tangent and the radius drawn to the point of contact of the
tangent are at right angles, prove that the tangents are equal in length,
b What other facts can be deduced from this proof?
Answer 15
a In triangles OSP and OTP,
/OSP = /.OTP = 90°
OP is common to both triangles
OS = OT (radii of the circle)
So triangles OSP and OTP are congruent (RHS).
In particular, SP=TP.
So the two tangents drawn from a point outside the triangle to a circle are equal in
length.
b The line OP bisects ZSOT and ZSPT and is a line of symmetry of the diagram.
V______________________________________________
E xe rcise 1 9 .5
NOT TO SCALE

In th e dia g ra m 0 is th e centre o f a circle, d ia m e te r d c m . BC = Y Z = x cm .

Prove th a t tria n g le s ABC and XYZ are co n g ru e n t.

489
19 length. Area and Wolume II J

In th e d ia g ra m , a n g le /\6 C is a rig h t angle, and a n g le B A C = 50°.

AB Q P a n d ACSR a re sq ua res.
P rove t h a t tria n g le s ABR a n d ACP are co n g ru e n t.

In th e d ia g ra m C is th e m id p o in t o f BE.
P rove th a t tria n g le s ABC a n d CDE are co n g ru e n t.

Exercise 19.6
M ix e d E xercise

1 A c o n e is to be m a d e fro m a th in card. The cone w ill have a base radius o f 4 c m , and a

s la n t h e ig h t o f 1 0cm .
Raj d ra w s a c irc le o f ra d iu s 10 cm , and is g o in g to c u t o u t fro m th a t a s e c to r to m a k e th e
c one. C a lc u la te th e a n g le x.

\
490
 I 19 Length, Area and Volume ll

2 A m a p has a scale o f 1 : 2500.

On th e m a p a re se rvoir has an area o f 2 c m 2.
W hat is th e area o f th e reservoir? Give y o u r a nsw er in m 2.

NOT TO SCALE

a By s h o w in g th a t pairs o f sid e s are in th e sa m e ra tio p ro v e th a t tria n g le s ABC and DEF

are sim ilar.
b Find th e angles m a rke d w ith le tte rs in th e tw o tria n g le s ,
c C a lc u la te th e ra tio o f th e areas o f th e tw o tria n g le s .

4 A re cta n g le w ith le n g th [x + 6) a n d b re a d th (x + 1) has th e sa m e area as a square w ith

sides = 2x. (M easurem ents in c e n tim e tre s .)
C a lcu la te th e d im e n s io n s o f th e sq u a re a n d rectangle.

5 Tw o b o w ls are m ade fro m tw o id e n tic a l w o o d e n c ylin d e rs.

O n e b o w l is m a d e by d r illin g o u t a h e m isp h e re w ilh th e s a m e la d iu s a s the cylin d er.
The o th e r is m a d e by d rillin g o u t a c o n e w ith th e sa m e ra d iu s as th e c y linder, and
p e rp e n d ic u la r h e ig h t e q u a l to th e h e ig h t o f th e c y lin d e r.
The c y lin d e rs have h e ig h tx c m , a n d radius x c m .
a C alcu late th e v o lu m e o f th e w o o d w h ic h m akes u p th e hem isp h e rica l b o w l in te rm s o f x.
b C a lc u la te th e v o lu m e o f th e w o o d w h ic h m akes u p th e c o n ic a l bow l.

xcm

c C o m m e n t on y o u r answ ers to (a) and (b).

19 length, Urea and Volume ll J

Exam-style questions
6 a [The v o lu m e o f a sphere is | 7 t r 3.]
[The surface area o f a sphere is 4n r 2.]

j.

20
A w o o d e n c u b o id has length 20 cm , w id th 7 cm and h e ig h t 4 cm .
T hree h e m is p h e re s , each o f radius 2.5 cm , are h o llo w e d o u t o fth e to p o f th e c u b o id ,
to leave th e b lo c k as s h o w n in th e diagram .
i C a lcu late th e v o lu m e o f w o o d in th e b lo c k .
ii The fo u r v e rtic a l sides are p a in te d blue.
C a lcu la te th e to ta l area th a t is p a in te d blue.
iii The in sid e o f each h e m is p h e ric a l h o llo w is p a in te d w h ite .
The fla t p a rt o fth e to p o fth e b lo c k is p a in te d red.
C a lcu la te th e to ta l area th a t is p a in te d
a w h ite b red.
b The v o lu m e o f w a te r in a c o n ta in e r is d ire c tly p ro p o rtio n a l to th e c u b e o f its depth.
W hen th e d e p th is 12 cm , th e v o lu m e is 576 c m 3.
C alcu la te
i th e v o lu m e w h e n th e d e p th is 6 c m
ii th e d e p th w h e n th e v o lu m e is 1300 cm 3. (4024 p a p e r 02 Q 7 June 2007)

NOT TO SCALE

R S

In th e dia g ra m , PQ is p a ra lle l to RS. PS and QR in te rs e c t atX .

P X = y cm , QX = [ y + 2) cm , RX = [ 2 y - 1) cm and 5 X = (y + 1) cm .
i S h ow t h a t / - 4 y - 2 = 0.
ii Solve th e e q u a tio n f - 4 y - 2 = 0.
S how all y o u r w o rk in g and give y o u r answ ers c o rre c t to tw o d e c im a l places.
iii W rite d o w n th e le n g th o f RX. (0580 p a per 04 Q 3b J jn e 2007)

\
492
 ^ 19 Length, Area and Wolume II

The d ia g ra m show s w a te r in a channel.

This c h a n n e l has a re c ta n g u la r cross-section, 1.2 m etres by 0.8 m etres,
a W hen th e d e p th o f w a te r is 0.3 m etres, th e w a te r flo w s a lo n g th e ch a n n e l at 3 m e tre s /
m in u te .
C a lcu la te th e n u m b e r o f c u b ic m etres w h ic h flo w s a lo n g th e ch a n n e l in o n e hour,
b W hen th e d e p th o f w a te r in th e ch a n n e l increases to 0.8 m etres, th e w a te r flo w s a t 15
m e tre s /m in u te .
C a lc u la te th e percentage increase in th e n u m b e r o f c u b ic m etres o f w a te r w h ic h flo w s
a lo n g th e ch a n n e l in one hour,
c T he w a te r com es fro m a c y lin d ric a l tank.
W hen 2 c u b ic m etres o f w a te r leave th e ta n k , th e level o f w a te r in th e ta n k goes d o w n
by 1.3 m illim e tre s .
C a lcu la te th e radius o f th e ta n k , in m e tre s , c o rre c t to o n e d e c im a l place,
d W hen th e ch a n n e l is e m p ty , its in te r io r surface is repaired.
T his costs $0.12 p e r square m etre. The to ta l cost is $50.40.
C a lcu la te th e le n g th , in m etres, o f th e channel. (0580 p a p e r 04 Q7 J u n e 2007)

9 These tw o cylin d e rs are sim ilar.

The ra tio o f th e ir v o lu m e s is 8 :2 7 .
The h e ig h t o f c y lin d e r A is 12 cm .
Find th e h e ig h t o f c y lin d e r B.

A B

(4024 p a p e r 12 Q10 J u n e 2011)

10 NOT TO SCALE

12 cm
18 cm
........ n .
12 cm O

cm
D iagram 1 Diagram 2

D iagram 1 show s a closed box. The box is a prism o f le n g th 40 cm .

The cross-sectio n o f th e box is sh o w n in D iagram 2, w ith all th e rig h t angles m arked.
AB is an arc o f a circle, centre O, radius 1 2cm . E D - 2 2 c m and DC = 18cm .
C alculate
a th e p e rim e te r o f th e cross-section
b th e area o f th e cross-sectio n
c th e v o lu m e o f th e box
d th e to ta l surface area o f th e box. (0580 paper 04 Q2 J u n e 2006)

/
493
19 length, Urea and Volume II J

11 2x + 4
■q
NOT TO SCALE
x X

x 2-4 0

The d ia g ra m show s a trapezium .

Tw o o f its angles are 90°.
The le n gth s o f th e sides are given in te rm s o f x.
The p e rim e te r is 62 units.

i W rite d o w n a q u a d ra tic e q u a tio n in x to s h o w th is in fo rm a tio n . S im p lify y o u r

e q u a tio n .
ii Solve y o u r q u a d ra tic e q u a tio n .
iii W rite d o w n th e o n ly po ssib le value o f x.
iv C a lcu late th e area o f th e tra p e z iu m . (0580 p a p e r 04 Q8a J u n e 2006)

12 a A c a n d le is in th e s hape o f a c y lin d e r o f radius 1.6 cm and h e ig h t 7.5 cm .

i C alcu late th e v o lu m e o f th e candle. (U n it fo r answ er: c m 3).
ii Six o f these ca n d le s are packed in to a box o f h e ig h t 7.5 cm as s h o w n .

7.5

a Find th e le n g th and w id th o f th e box. (U n it fo r answ er: cm ),

b C a lcu la te th e v o lu m e o f e m p ty space in th e box. (U n it fo r a n sw e r: c m 3).
b The le ng th o f a re c ta n g u la r p h o to is 17.8cm , c o rre c t to th e nearest m illim e tre .
The w id th o f th e p h o to is 12.7 cm , c o rre c t to th e nearest m illim e tre .
i C a lcu late th e lo w e r b o u n d o f th e area o f th e p h o to . (U n it fo r answ er: c m 2).
ii Kate has a re c ta n g u la r fram e w ith length 18 cm and w id th 13 cm , b o th m easu re d
c o rre c t to th e nearest ce n tim e tre .
W ill th e p h o to d e fin ite ly fit in to th e fram e?
Explain y o u r answ er. (4024 p a p e r 21 Q6 J u n e 2014)

13 A c y lin d ric a l glass has a radius o f 3 c e n tim e tre s and a h e ig h t o f 7 c e n tim e tre s .
A large c y lin d ric a l ja r fu ll o f w a te r is a s im ila r shape to th e glass.
Th e glass can be fille d w ith w a te r fro m th e ja r e xactly 216 tim es.
W ork o u t th e radius and h e ig h t o f th e jar. (0580 p a p e r 21 Q10 J u n e 2008)

1 4 A spacecraft m a d e 58376 o rb its o f th e Earth and tra v e lle d a dista n ce o f 2.656 x 109
kilo m e tre s.
a C a lcu late th e d ista n ce tra ve lle d in 1 o rb it c o rre c t to the nearest k ilo m e tre ,
b The o rb it o f th e spacecraft is a circle. C a lcu la te th e radius
o f th e o rb it. (0580 paper 21 Q14 N o v e m b e r 2008)

494
 ^ 19 Lengtn, Area and Volume ll

15 Tw o s im ila r vases have heights w h ic h are in th e ra tio 3 : 2.

a The v o lu m e o f the larger vase is 1 0 8 0 c m 1.
C a lcu la te the v o lu m e o f th e s m a lle r vase,
b The surface area o f the s m a lle r vase is 252 c m 2.
C alcu late the surface area o f the larger vase. (0580 paper 21 Q 18 J u n e 2009)

16 A sta tu e tw o m etres high has a v o lu m e o f five cu b ic m etres.

A s im ila r m o d e l o f the statue has a h e ig h t o f fo u r centim etres.
a C a lcu la te th e v o lu m e o f th e m o d e l statue in c u b ic ce ntim etres.
b W rite y o u r answ er to p a rt (a) in c u b ic m etres. (0580 pa p e r 02 Q13 N o v e m b e r 2006)

17 The surface area, A, o f a cylinder, ra d iu s ra n d h e ig h t/!, is given by the

fo rm u la A = 2n rh + I n r 1.
a C a lcu la te th e surface area o f a c y lin d e r o f radius 5 cm and h e ig h t 9 cm.
b M ake h th e s u b je ct o f th e fo rm u la .
c A c y lin d e r has a radius o f 6 c m and a surface area o f 3 7 7 c m 2.

C a lcu late th e h e ig h t o f th is cylinder.

d A c y lin d e r has a surface area o f 1200 c m 2 and its radius and h e ig h t are e q u a l. C a lcu la te
th e radius. (0580 pa p e r 04 Q 8(part) N o v e m b e r 2006)

18 a The scale o f a m a p is 1 :2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 .
On th e m a p th e dista n ce betw e e n C airo and A d dis A baba is 12 cm.
i C a lcu la te th e distance, in kilo m e tre s, betw een C airo and A d dis Ababa.
ii On th e m a p th e area o f a d esert region is 13 square centim etres.
C a lcu la te th e a ctu a l area o f th is d esert region, in square kilom etres.
b i The a ctu a l dista n ce b e tw een C airo and K h a rto u m is 1580 km.
On a d iffe re n t m a p th is distance is represented by 31.6 cm .
C alculate, in th e fo rm 1 : n, th e scale o f th is m ap.
ii A p la n e flies th e 1580 km fro m C airo to K h artoum .
It d e p a rts fro m C airo a t 1155 and arrives in K h a rto u m a t 1403.
C a lcu late th e average speed o f th e plane, in k ilo m e tre s per hour.
(0580 p a per 04 Q5 J u n e 2007)

19 A re cta n g le has sides o f length 6 .1 cm and 8 .1 c m c o rre c t to 1 d e c im a l place.

C opy and c o m p le te th e s ta te m e n t a b o u t th e p e rim e te r o f th e rectangle.
..................... cm ^ p e rim e te r < ............... cm (0580 p a p e r 02 Q13 N o v e m b e r 2007)

The d ia g ra m show s p a rt o f a fan.

OFG and OAD are sectors, c e n tre O, w ith radius 18 cm and s e cto r angle 40°.
B, C, H and E lie on a circle, centre O and radius 6cm .
C alcu late th e shaded area. (0580 paper 04 Q19 J u n e 2009)
19 Lengtti, Area and Volume II J

21 4 P B In th e d ia g ra m ,ABCD is a square.
P o ints P,Q, R a n d S lie o n AB, BC, CD a n d
DA so th a t AP = BQ = CR = DS.
S a G iving a ll y o u r reasons, show th a t
i PB = QC
ii tria n g le BPQ is c o n g ru e n t to
tria n g le CQR
i i i PQR is a rig h t angle.
b W rite d o w n tw o reasons to sh o w th a t
PQRS is a square.

(4024 p a per 02 Q4 N o ve m b e r 2004)

22 a In th e d ia g ra m , ABCD is a p a ra lle lo g ra m .
ADE and BFE are s tra ig h t lines.
AF=BF.
A B F = 5 4 ° and C B F = 57°.

Find th e va lu e o f
t
i u
ii x
v y.

b T h is h e xa go n h a s ro tatio n a l s y m m e try o f o rd e r 3. C a lc u la te the va lu e o f z.

In th e dia g ra m , tria n g le PQR is s im ila r to tria n g le PSQ.

PQR -P S Q .
PQ = 1 8 cm , Q R = 1 4 c m and QS = 2 1 cm .

\
496
 I 19 length, Area and Wolume II

s C alculate the length o f

i PR
ii RS.

(4024 paper 02 Q3 June 2005)

2 3 The d ia g ra m show s a circle, centre 0, w ith the s e cto r POQ shaded.

Given th a t POQ = 140° and th e radius o f th e circle is 8 cm , ca lc u la te

i th e area o f th e shaded region
ii th e t o ta l p e rim e te r o f th e u n s h a d e d region. (4024 p a per 02 Q 3b June 2006)

A s o lid cone, C, is c u t in to tw o parts, X a n d Y, by a pla n e p a rallel to th e base.

The le n g th s o f th e s lo p in g edges o f th e tw o parts are 3 cm and 2 cm .
Find th e ra tio o f
a th e d ia m e te rs o f th e bases o fX a n d C
b th e areas o f th e bases o f X and C
c th e v o lu m e s o f X and Y. (4024 p a per 01 Q20 N o ve m b e r 2006)
19 Length. Urea and Wolume II J

2 5 [Surface area o f a sphere = Ani2]

[V o lu m e o f a sphere = | n r 3]

A h o t w a te r ta n k is m ade by jo in in g a h e m isp h e re o f radius 30 c m to an o p e n c y lin d e r o f

ra dius 3 0 c m and h e ig h t 7 0 c m .
a C a lcu la te th e to ta l surface area, in c lu d in g th e base, o f th e o u ts id e o f th e ta n k ,
b The ta n k is fu ll o f w ater.
i C a lcula te th e n u m b e r o f litres o f w a te r in th e tank.
ii The w a te r d ra in s fro m th e ta n k a t a rate o f 3 litres p e r second.
C a lcula te th e tim e , in m in u te s and seconds, to e m p ty th e tank.

A ll o f th e w a te r fro m th e ta n k runs in to a b a th , w h ic h it ju s t c o m p le te ly fills .

The b a th is a p rism w h o se cross-sectio n is a tra p e z iu m .
T h e le n g th s o f the p a ra lle l s id e s o f th e tra p e ziu m are 0.4 m a n d 0.0 m .
T he d e p th o f th e b a th is 0.3 m.
C alcu late th e le n g th o f th e bath. (4024 p a p e r 02 Q7 N o v e m b e r 2006)

26 a C o m p o s t fo r g ro w in g p la n ts consists o f 3 parts o f soil to 2 p a rts o f sand to 1 p a rt o f

peat.
i C alculate th e n u m b e r o f litres o f sand in a 75 litre bag o f c o m p o s t.
ii C o m p o s t is s old in 5 litre, 25 litre and 75 litre bags c o s tin g $2, $8.75 and $27
respectively.
S h o w in g y o u r w o rk in g clearly, state w h ic h bag represents th e best v a lu e fo r m oney,
b [The v o lu m e o f a cone = | x base area x he ig h t.]
The d ia g ra m show s a p la n t pot.
The o pe n end o f th e p la n t p o t is a c ircle o f radius 10cm .
The closed end is a c ircle o f radius 5 cm .
The h e ig h t o f th e p la n t p o t is 12 cm .
The p la n t p o t is p a rt o f a rig h t c irc u la r c one o f h e ig h t 24 cm .

498
 [ 19 length. Area and Volume II

i C alcu la te th e v o lu m e o fth e p la n t pot. Give y o u r answ er in litres.

ii H ow m a n y o f these p la n t p ots can be c o m p le te ly fille d fro m a 75 litre bag o f
com post?
iii A s m a lle r p la n t p o t is g e o m e tric a lly s im ila r to th e o rig in a l p la n t po t. The o p e n end
o f th is p la n t p o t is a c irc le o f radius 5 c m .

H ow m a n y o f these p la n t p o ts can be c o m p le te ly fille d fro m a 75 litre bag o f com post?

(4024 p a p e r 02 Q7 N o ve m b e r 2007)

27 a A f u e lta n k is a c y lin d e r o fd ia m e te r l.8 m .

i The ta n k ho ld s 25 000 litre s w h e n full.
Given th a t 1 m 3= 1000 litres, ca lc u la te th e le n g th o fth e cylinder.
Give y o u r a nsw er in m etres.

The d ia g ra m show s th e cross-sectio n o fth e cylin d e r, centre O, c o n ta in in g som e

fuel. CD is h o riz o n ta l a n d is th e level o f th e fuel in th e cylinder.
AB is a ve rtica l d ia m e te r and intersects CD at E.
Given th a t E is th e m id p o in t o f OB,
a sh o w th a t EOD = 60°
b c a lc u la te th e area o fth e s egm ent BCD
c c a lc u la te th e n u m b e r o f litres o f fuel in th e cylinder.

499
19 Length, Area and Wolume II j

b [V olum e o f a sphere = -|7tr3]

A d iffe re n t fuel ta n k consists o f a c y lin d e r o f d ia m e te r 1.5 m and a he m isp h e re o f
d ia m e te r 1.5 m a t o n e end.

The vo lu m e o f th e c y lin d e r is 10 tim e s th e v o lu m e o f th e hem isphere.

C a lcu la te th e le n g th o f th e c y linder. (4024 p a p e r 02 Q7 N o ve m b e r 2009)

\
500
 Further Algebra 2

c x = - 6 in to * +,5^
x-^0

c y = - 4 in t o y - 2 > x + 4

2 0 .3 Beginning Matrices
A m a trix (plural m atrices) is a re c ta n g u la r a rra n g e m e n t o f num bers.

For e xam ple, in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e n u m b e rs o f boys and girls in years 10 and 11 at a

sc h o o l co u ld be sh o w n in a ta b le , like Table 20.1.

Y e ar 10 Y ear 11
Boys 60 56
Girls 58 61

T ab le 2 0 .1 Boys and girls in Years 10 and 11

|501
20 further Algeftra J

If th is is pre sen te d as a m a trix it becom es:

Key term <60 56 ^
A m atrix (plural [ 5 8 61 J
matrices) is a
rectangular arrangement The o rd e r o f th e m atrix is given by the num bers o f rows and colum ns. Rows are always given
of elements, usually first. The exam ple above is a square m atrix w ith 2 rows and 2 colum ns, so it is a 2 x 2 m a trix . This
numbers. is referred to as a ‘tw o by tw o m a trix’ and w ritte n ‘2 x 2 ’. The sign does n o t im p ly m u ltip lic a tio n .

Exam ple 1
Key term Write down the order of these matrices:
The order of a matrix is ’X
given as the number of 10 11'
a b'
rows by the num berof 12 13 d y
c d 14 15,
columns. z

A nsw er 1
a 2x2 b 2x3 c 3x2 d 3x1

2 0 .4 Operations on Matrices
M atrices o f th e sam e o rd e r can be a d d e d o r s u b tra c te d by a d d in g o r s u b tra c tin g th e
c o rre s p o n d in g e le m e n ts in each m atrix.

For exa m p le , if th e sch o o l sh o w n a bove co m b in e s w ith a n o th e r sc h o o l w e w o u ld have th e

s itu a tio n sh o w n in Table 20.2.

School A Y e a r 10 Y e ar 11
Boys 60 56
Girls 58 61

S c h o o lB Y e ar 10 Y ear 11
Boys 43 52
Girls 39 60

T a b le 2 0 .2 Years 10 and 11 from schools A and B

This can be sh o w n in m a trix fo rm as:

0
m

(60 56 '’ 108^1

| + f 43
5 2 J] = l 1
(58 61; I 1^39 60 k 97 1 2 1J

502
 20 Further Algebra

A m a trix m ay be transposed by tu rn in g the c o lu m n s in to row s and the row s in to co lu m n s.

Key term S ch oo l A co u ld be show n as in Table 20.3.
A matrix is tra n sp o se d
by turning the columns B o ys G irls
into rows and the rows Year 10 60 58
into columns. Year 11 56 61

T a b le 2 0 .3 School A transposed

In m a trix fo rm th is is w ritte n as:

(60 56^ , (60 58'I
= ^58 6 lJ ;A tra n S P ° Se = A = U 6lJ
M atrices are n o rm a lly d e n o te d by ca p ita l letters.

Exa mple 3
'2 1 o'
c = is 3 4; 1. Find C \

Ans wer 3
(2 s'
C = 7 3
k0 4)

V
A m a trix m ay be m u ltip lie d by a n u m b e r. For e xam ple,
(1 6^ (3 18^
3(o —i ) “ (o - 3 )

You w ill see th a t each e le m e n t is m u ltip lie d by th e num ber.

Example 4
1(5 - f |
Calculate - 2^8 Oj

Answer 4
'- 5n
- if5 2 2
2 Is 0J
,-4 0 j
V

Exercise 20.1
1 W rite th e fo llo w in g in fo rm a tio n in a ta b le and then in m a trix fo rm .
a A m a n u fa c tu re r o f c o m p u te rs m akes la p to p s and d esktops, b o th in e ith e r b la c k o r w h ite
cases. There are 10 bla ck la p to p s , 20 w h ite la p to p s, 4 bla ck d e skto p s, and 15 w h ite
desktops.
b F our team s, th e Reds, th e Blues, the Greens, and th e Y ellow s are in a frie n d ly league.
T he Reds have 2 w ins, 2 draw s and lose 2 gam es. The Blues have 3 w ins, 2 draw s and
lose 1 gam e. The Greens have 1 w in , 5 draw s and d o n o t lose any gam es. The Yellows
have 1 w in , 1 draw and lose 4 gam es.
20 Further Algebra J

2 Work out the following matrix calculations:

5 4
10 3 M:,» 3 {1 -3)-C 1)
(1 0 f-2 5
d -1
3 -8 0 1

3 A
■G1 D t) c-C« i 3)
rs t
E= 4 6 F = (-1 2 6)
- n
9 3

a W rite d o w n th e o rd e r o f each m atrix,

b W rite d o w n th e tra n sp o se o f each m atrix,
c W rite d o w n th e o rd e r o f
i D’ ii E' iii F'
d C a lcu late
i A+ C ii D - B iii 4 x F

2 0 .5 Multiplication of Matrices
We have seen th a t m a trice s can o n ly be a d d e d o r su b tra c te d if th e y are o f th e sam e order,
because c o rre s p o n d in g e le m e n ts fro m each m a trix have to be a d d e d o r su b tra cte d .

A s im ila r re s tric tio n a p p lie s fo r m u ltip lic a tio n o f m a trices, and w e say th a t m a trice s have to be
Key term
c o n fo rm a b le fo r m u ltip lic a tio n .
Two matrices are
conform able for Take fo u r m atrice s, fo r exam ple:
m ultiplication if the '1 2'
number of colum ns in D— 5 G
the first is the same 1 9 - ( 3 3- ~ ( S^9 aB I; ) '
9 1,
a |f^ R tim b e r o f|o w s in
the second. Th e ord ers o f th e se m a trice s are:

A = 2x3, B = 2x2, C = 2 x 33,, D= 3x2.

M atrices are o n ly c o n fo rm a b le fo r m u ltip lic a tio n if th e n u m b e r o f c o lu m n s in th e firs t m a trix is

th e sam e as th e n u m b e r o f row s in th e second. This m eans th a t, u n like in n o rm a l a rith m e tic
w h e n 5 x 1 0 is th e sam e as 1 0 x 5 , in m a trix m u ltip lic a tio n th e o rd e r o f m u ltip ly in g does m a tte r.

L o o k in g a t th e m a trice s A, B, C a n d D, w e see th a t B x A is po ssib le because B has 2 c o lu m n s

and A has 2 rows:
B A
row s c o lu m n s row s c o lu m n s
2x2 2x3

these tw o are equal

H ow ever, A x B is n o t possible:
A B
row s c o lu m n s row s c o lu m n s
2x3 2x2

these tw o are n o t equal

504
 [ 20 Further Algebra

W hen the tw o m atrices are co n fo rm a b le fo r m u ltip lic a tio n , the o rd e r o f the resulting m atrix is the
rows from the first m atrix and the c olum ns from the second. Figure 20.1 sh o u ld m ake this clearer.

m atrix: Bx A result: BA
order: 2 x 0 (2 )x 3 2x3
c o n fo rm a b le

Figu re 2 0 .1 C onform able m atrices

Example 5
Using the matrices A, B, C and D above, state whether these matrices are conformable in the
order given, and if they are, the order of the product.
a AC b CA c DA
d DB e BD
Answer 5
a A c

2x© © x 3 not conformable

b c A
2 x (D © x3 not conformable
c D A DA
3x© © x3 conformable 3x3
d D B DB
3x© © x 2 conformable 3x2
e B D
2x@ (D x 2 not conformable

Exercise 20.2
F, G, H, K, L are five m atrices. T h e ir orders are

F = 2x2, G= 3x3, H= 2x4, K= 4x2, L= 3x2.

For each o f th e fo llo w in g m a trix p ro d u c ts s tate w h e th e r th e y are c o n fo rm a b le fo r

m u ltip lic a tio n , and if so w h a t th e o rd e r o f th e p ro d u c t w ill be.

1 FG 2 GH 3 HK 4 KH
5 LG 6 GL 7 LF 8 FL

We now need to fin d h o w to m u ltip ly tw o c o n fo rm a b le m atrices. T he d a ta in q u e s tio n l b o f

Exercise 20.1 pro d uce s Table 20.4 a n d th e m a trix A.

W in D ra w Lose
Reds 2 2 2
Blues 3 2 1
Greens 1 5 0
Yellows 1 1 4

T a b le 2 0 .4 League results
'2 2 2^

3 2 1

1 5 0

0 1

505
20 Further Algebra J

In o rd e r to d ecid e w h ic h te a m w in s th e league it is d e c id e d to aw ard 5 p o in ts fo r a w in , 2 p o in ts

fo r a draw , and no p o in ts fo r losing a gam e. This is sh o w n in Table 20.5 and in m a trix fo rm in B.

P o in ts
W in 5
D raw 2
Lose 0

T a b le 2 0 .5 League s c o rin g
/c \
B=

N ow w e can m u ltip ly th e tw o m a trice s to fin d th e ove ra ll w in n e r:

2 2 21 V
3 2 1
AB: X 2
1 5 0
1 1 aJ A

T h e to ta l p o in ts fo r th e Reds a r e 2 x 5 + 2 x 2 + 2 x 0 = 14.

C heck th a t you agree w ith th is, and th e n fin d th e p o in ts fo r th e o th e r th re e team s.

C heck th a t th e m atrices are c o n fo rm a b le fo r m u ltip lic a tio n and fin d th e o rd e r o fth e p ro d u c t.

B AB
4X3 3x1 4X1
'2 2 2" '2x5 + 2x2 + 2x0' 14'
J
3 2 1 3x5+2x2+1x0 19
AB = 2 =
1 5 0 1x5+5x2+0x0 15
J 1 4, 1 x5+1x2+4x0y J ,

W hich te a m w o n th e league?
W hich te a m ca m e second?
W h a t w o u ld th e re su lt have been if 4 p o in ts w ere a w a rd e d fo r a w in and 3 fo r a draw?

W h a t a b o u t 3 fo r a w in and 1 fo r a draw?

Example 6
Using the information above,
a w ritedow n A 'and B'
b w ritedow n the orders of A 'and B1
c multiply A1and B' together in the order in which they are conformable.
Answer 6
(2
a A' = 2 B '= (5 2 0)

b A' = 3 x 4 B' = 1 x 3 B 'A ' = (14 19 15 7 X

\
506
 ( 20 Further AlgeDra

We n o w need to fin d a general m e th o d fo r m u ltip ly in g m atrices.

You need to be p a rtic u la rly careful and system atic w hen m u ltip ly in g m atrices. It is
stro n g ly advised th a t you w o rk o u t th e o rd e r o f th e p ro d u c t and draw a m atrix w ith d o ts in the
p o sitio n s w here each e le m e n t o f th e answ er w ill go. We w ill n ow go step by step th ro u g h the
process.

For e xa m ple , w e w ill m u ltip ly these tw o m atrices:

fl 2) / \ f.

3 4 • •
Q = fq
v9 i10y
n ] PQ =
,5 e j
p Q PQ
3X2 2 x 2 3X2

PQ is c o n fo rm a b le , b u t n o t QP. C heck th a t you agree.

The rule is th a t yo u m u ltip ly th e row s o f th e first m a trix on to th e c o lu m n s o f th e second

m a trix, a nd add th e results.
column 1 column 1
I
row 1- l O i 1x 7 + 2 x 9 •'l row 1 25 •'l
3 4
5 6 f.9 VI0,
Then re p e a t fo r th e re m a in in g row s and co lum ns,
colum n 2 column 2

O ' 25 1 x 8 + 2 x 1 0 row 1 -> 25 28

3 4
9
.5 6,

column 1 column 1
I
1 2' '25 3 x 7 + 4 x 9' '25 28'
7 \ 81
row 2 - G> .97 10
28 = row 2 —> 57 •
5 6 V
• • / \• • /

C heck th a t you can fo llo w th is and c o m p le te th e m u ltip lic a tio n .

'1 2' 25 28 '25 28 '
3 4 (? 8 1- 57 3 x 8 + 4 x 1 0 = 57 64
UV 1 o/J "
,5 6, 5 x 8 + 6 x 1 0 y ,89 100/

• Check that the t

• Write down the order of the product.
• Open brackets of a suitable size.
Multiply rows on to columns and add.

/
507
20 Further Umbra J

Example 7

r
v -
T
O
) Y=

"

r\j
!
l 1 4

Calculate
a XY b YX
Answer 7

X Y XY
2x3 3x2 2x2
-1
2x-1+1x2+3x1 2 x 0 + 1x2 + 3 x 4 1 / 3 14
2
-> ) 1
0 x - 1 + 5 x 2 + 1x1 0 x 0 + 5 x 2 + 1 x 4 / _ \ 1 1 14

XY

Y X YX
3x2 2x3 3x3
-1 0 -1 x 2 + 0 x 0 -1 x 1+ 0 x 5 -1 x 3 + 0 x 1 -1
2 2 2x 2+ 2 x 0 2 x 1+ 2 x 5 2x 3+ 2x 1 12
1 4 1x 2 + 4 x 0 1x1+4x5 1x3+4x1 21

-1
XY = 12
21

Exercise 20.3
1 (o % 3 - ( 7 :)
Find a.

> C :X: - > ( » 9

Find b and c.
/ \ / \ (6 7\
k , -1 „ M 2 1 , /
B= C = (3 -1 2)/ D = 4 2
0 1 3 J I 3 4) 1
I-1 V

W here p o ssib le ca lc u la te
a AB b BA c CD d DA

‘ I M - ")
Find x , y and z.

\
508
 [ 20 Further Algebra

Part b: -1 x E
C a lcula te
a 3E
b -E
c E2
d 3E + E2 P a rte E x E
e E+ E

Key te rm
All the elements o f a
2 0 .6 The Zero Matrix
zero m atrix are zero.
S in c e a - a = 0 and b x 0 = 0, can s im ila r results be o b ta in e d w ith m atrices?
'a iA w x
If A = and X =
d) y z

^ °

:)(«:)■(: :)■
(o oY ,
so is th e zero 2 x 2 matrix.
1° V

From n o w on w e w ill be d e a lin g m a in ly w ith 2 x 2 m atrices.

Exam ple 8
2 -3 a -b
-c 10 5 -d -C 3
Find a, b, c and d.
Answ er 8
2 - o = 0 a= 2
-3 — b= 0 b= 3
-c - 5 = 0 c= - 5
10— d = 0 d = - 10

Key term 2 0 .7 The Identity Matrix and

A 2 x 2 m a trix m ultiplied
by the 2 x 2 id en tity
m atrix is unchanged.
Inverse Matrices
R em e m b e rin g th a t a x 1 = a, is th e re a m a trix th a t has th e sam e property?
We m ig h t th in k th a t L j j w o u ld m u ltip ly a n o th e r m a trix and leave it unchanged.
20 Further Algebra J

In v e s tig a tin g th is w e find

a b) h 1 ^a + b a + b
c d ) X [l 1 c+ d c+ d
so th a t d oe s n o t w o rk.
The m a trix w e are lo o k in g fo r is th e identity matrix, I = ^ °j .

T e sting this:
f 1 0V a b'j fa + O xc &+ 0 x tA
\0 1y \ c d) ^0 + f lx c 0+ bxdJ

T his is an im p o rta n t re s u lt because it helps us to fin d a m e th o d fo r fin d in g inverse m a trices.

Key term
A 2 x 2 m atrix m ultiplied
by i t s ^ i ^ i i ^ l ^ a t r i x
gives the identity matrix.
S u pp ose you need to w o rk o u t a + b? This can be w ritte n ^ o r a x 1. 1 is th e m u ltip lic a tiv e
inverse o f b, so -1 x b = b x 1 = 1.
b b
You d o n o t need to re m e m b e r th e te rm ‘m u ltip lic a tiv e inverse’, b u t it is used here to illu s tra te
th e use o f inverses, g is also kn o w n as th e reciprocal o f b.
T he in v e rs e o f a m a tr ix A is w ritte n as A-1, so A x A-1 = A '1x A = I; th a t is, th e m a trix A
m u ltip lie d by its inverse s h o u ld give th e id e n tity m atrix.
2 3'
For exam ple, le tA = and A
4 5,
’ -(* i)
If A-1 is th e i nverse o f A th e n AA-1 = I.

2 3
4 5 X : 3-G “)
f 2a + 3c 2b + 3<A _ ( 1 o']
^ 4 fl + Sc 4b + 5 d ) ~ \ 0 ij

C o m p a rin g each e le m e n t o f th e tw o m atrices:

2« + 3 c = l 2b + 3 d = 0
4« + 5c = 0 4b + 5 d = l

Solve each pair o f equations sim ulta neously and you w ill see th a t a = — , b = - , c = 2 and d = - 1:
2 2
-5
A = 2
v2 -V

This can also be w ritte n as:

A-1 = i
2 -45 M U 1)
2 3'
C o m p are w ith A =
4 5,
Key term We have sh ow n o n e p a rtic u la r n u m e ric a l fo rm o f th e general rule fo r fin d in g inverse m a trices.
The d eterm inant of a
(a b).
2 x 2 m atrix is a b' 1 (d -b
U d) A= then A-i-
c d ad-be -c a
the number obtained
from the difference of the
products of the diagonals: a d - b e is calle d th e d e te rm in a n t o f A and can be w ritte n as d e t A o r |A|. D e te rm in a n ts can
ad-be.
o n ly be eva lu ated fo r square m atrices, and here o n ly 2 x 2 d e te rm in a n ts w ill be co n sid e re d .

A p a rt fro m th e d e te rm in a n t, w e can see th a t th e e le m e n ts a and d have changed places, and

th e e le m e n ts b and c have re m a in e d in th e sam e place b u t have had th e irs ig n s changed.

\
510
 ^ 20 Further Algebra

Example 9
Find the determinant of each of these matrices:
1 3 -1 0
X= b Y:
5 2 2 4 ■ I"
Answer 9
a det X = l x 2 - 5 x 3 = 13
b d e tY = lx 4 -2 x O = 4
c det Z = 10 x - 2 — 7 x 3 = -2 0 + 21 = 1

If th e d e te rm in a n t com es to zero, th e n th e m a trix has no inverse because 1 does n o t exist.

Exercise 20.4
Find th e d e te rm in a n t o f each o f these m atrices.
(9 n

nn
(1 5 ^ (2 3}

I
1 P= 2 Q= 3 R= 4 S=
U 20) V 1-1 -2) lo 3) ,4 5,

H aving fo u n d th e d e te rm in a n ts w e can fin d th e inverse m atrices.

Example 10

*-G :) »-(? -«) 3

Find a X'1 bV 1 c Z^1
Answer 10
a d e tX = 7 x 4 - 3 x l = 2 8 - 3 = 25

X 1
= S ( ‘3
b d e tYY = - 5 x - 8 - 2: x 6 = +40 - 1 2 = 28

W -8 -6 \
28 I" 2 -5 /

Y -1 = l l [ 8 6
28 \ 2 5
C d e t Z = 2 x 6 —3 x 4 = 1 2 - 1 2 = 0
Z 1 does n ot exist.

Exercise 20.5
_ (2
0 is nottheMen,tity A =. B
matrixl, so make
V9 10> -1
«) H i «) o)
sure you can see
Find: 1 A-1 2 B 3 C 4 D 5 I Find I
the difference in the
positions ofthe ones
(o ;)
and zeroes.

511
20 Further AlgeDra J

Example 11

a A

Find A-1,

b Given that A

s o lv e A -1A ^ J = A - | l0J

c Write down the values of x and y

Answer 1 1
a d e tA = 3 x 2 - lx 4 = 2
A
?)
b A
K )
i n )
= l p X 1 0 - 4 X 6 ' ) = I / ' ^ = ( '- 2 '|
2 ^ -1 X 1 0 + 3 X 6 j 2[ 8 J [ 4J

since I (* 1 = f X )
W (y,
f —2 \
then

C x = -2,y = 4

T h is e xa m p le illu stra te s a n o th e r u se for m atrice s, w h ic h is for s o lv in g s im u lta n e o u s

equations.
To understand how this works, go back to part (b) of the example.

Simplifying the left-hand side of this equation we have:

3x + 4y^\ ( icTj
v *+ 2 y J ~ U J
These tw o m a trice s are e qual, so th e c o rre s p o n d in g e le m e n ts are equal:
3 x + 4 y = 10
x + 2y= 6

S o lving th ese tw o e q u a tio n s s im u lta n e o u s ly gives:

x = - 2 and;> = 4.

U sing m a trice s m ay n o t be th e q u ic k e s t w ay to solve a p a ir o f s im u lta n e o u s e q u a tio n s , b u t it

leads on to s o lv in g m u ltip le s im u lta n e o u s e q u a tio n s in m u ltip le variables. T he m e th o d s fo r
these are c o m p lic a te d and n o t required fo r y o u r course.
 ^ 20 Further Algebra

Exercise 20.6
-1 0 7 1 6 0 2
0 2 3 5 2 2 0

1 -1
J = (4 6) K= 2 3
-1 0

W rite d o w n th e o rd e r o f each m atrix.

W rite d o w n th e orders o f these products:
a FK b KF c HJ d JH e KH
W rite d o w n F' (F transpose), and the o rd e r o f F
C alculate:
a EF b GF c HJ d JH
W rite d o w n th e id e n tity m atrix, I.
Find
a E 1 (the inverse o f E) b G '1 c EE- d IE e Gl
a S im p lify

b W rite d o w n th e values o f a and b.

a S im p lify

/p q] = ( ° -1 1 f ~ 2 4
r s ll o il 3 -4 j
b W rite d o w n th e values o fp ,q , ra n d s .
S im p lify th e fo llo w in g :
'T r-1 N b V ro N
8 -3 2 X 2 + 2 4x
,9 ,
,3 , >
1 0 Find th e values o f th e letters in these s tatem ents:

3 2 4
-5 4 24
1 6 1

s j
-J
\
3
1 -2 1
— 4
3 -4 -'G -«) 2
-1
=p
r ----
2

11 A car sales person sells tw o ty p e s o f cars, ca lle d R eliable and Gofaster. She sells 10 blue,
5 red and 2 bla ck Reliables, and 5 blue, 16 red and 3 b la c k Gofasters.

R eliables retail a t $5000 and G ofasters a t $6000.

a C opy and c o m p le te th e tw o ta b le s below .
R e lia b le s G o faste rs
Retail value $5000

B lue Red B lack

R eliables 10
Gofasters 16 3
20 Further Algebra j

b C o p y a n d c o m p le t e t h e t w o m a tr ic e s

(. = (5000 ...) N - ( ' C 16 ,}

w h e re R is t h e m a tr ix o f t h e r e ta il v a lu e s a n d N is t h e m a t r ix o f t h e n u m b e r o f c a r s s o ld ,

c E v a lu a te RN.

d E v a lu a te RN 1

vV
e W h a t d o e s RN 1 r e p r e s e n t?
vV
12 W h y is it n o t p o s s ib le t o fin d t h e p r o d u c t o f

A = ( h 6 7) and B = (1 2 3 4)
1 3 W h y is it n o t p o s s ib le t o fin d t h e in v e rs e o f C
■ (-)

Key terms
A function is a m a p p in g
fro m o n e s e t o f n u m b e rs
to a n o th e r.
The dom ain is th e first
s e t o f n u m b ers.
T h e range is th e secon d
s e t o f nu m b ers.
2 0 .8 Functions
W hat is a Function?
A fu n c tio n is a m a p p in g o f o n e s e t o f n u m b e r s o n t o a n o t h e r a c c o r d in g to s o m e ru le . F o r
'sq u are an d ad d 2 ’. If t h e fir s t s e t o f n u m b e r s is { 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 } t h e
e x a m p le , t h e r u le m ig h t b e
s e c o n d s e t w o u ld b e { 2 , 3 , 6 , 1 1 }.
In a lg e b r a ic n o t a t io n , th is is w r it t e n as:
f.x -* x ? + 2
which reads 'the fu n c tio n /m a p s *o n to x2+ 2 ’
d o m a in (th in k o f ‘h o m e ’), a n d t h e s e c o n d s e t is c a lle d
T h e fir s t s e t o f n u m b e r s is c a lle d t h e
th e ran ge (t h in k o f g o in g o u t o n to t h e ra n g e ).

T h is c a n a ls o b e s h o w n in a d ia g r a m , a s in F ig u re 2 0 .2 .

f
CM

X
CM
+
*
(
i

f * 0 j.
_____ / * • 2 \
• 1 ^ 3
•2 6
V • 3 J
domain range

Figu re 2 0 .2 A f u n c t io n m a p s f r o m its d o m a in t o its r a n g e a c c o r d i n g t o its r u le

For th is m a p p in g d ia g ra m th e d o m a in is p a rt o f th e set o f integers, ( x : 0 « x « 3 , x e Z], and

th e re are o n ly fo u r pairs o f values. H ow ever, if th e d o m a in is p a rt o f th e set o f real num bers,
( x : 0 ^ x « 3 , x e R } , th e re are an in fin ite n u m b e r o f pairs o f values in the d o m a in and th e
fu n c tio n is sh ow n by a line, o r in th is case a curve, on a graph, as Figure 20.3 show s.

\
514
 [ 20 Further fllgedra

fu>

Figure 2 0 .3 Function from a real dom ain

The graph illu stra te s th e range o f th e fu n c tio n w ith th e given d o m a in .

As you can see fro m Figure 20.3, th e range is fro m 2 to 11, w h ic h is w ritte n (f(x ): 2 f(x) 11,
f(x) e R }, a nd read as 'th e set o f values o f f(x) such th a tf(x ) is greate r th a n o r e q u a l to 2 and
less th a n o r eq u a l to 11, f(x) is a m e m b e r o f th e set o f real n u m b e rs ’.

There is an o th e r, very c o n v e n ie n t n o ta tio n fo rf. We can w rite f(x) = x 2 + 2, w h ic h is read ‘f o f x

e qu als x sq ua re d plus tw o ’. It is c o n v e n ie n t because w e can then w rite f(0) = 02 + 2 = 2, f( l) = 3
and so on, as you w ill see in th e ne xt exam ple.

Exam ple 12
Using the domain {-2 , -1 ,0 ,1 ,2 }, list the values of f(x) in the range for
a f(x) = x2—2 b f(x) = (x + 1 )2 c f(x) = (3x-4)
Answer 12
Using a mapping diagram:
*2 - 2

range = {-2 , - 1 , 2 }

range = { 0 ,1 ,4 , 9}

range = { - 1 0 , - 7 , - 4 , - 1 ,2 }

Part (c) o f th e above e xa m ple show s w h a t is kn o w n as a ‘o n e -to -o n e ’ m a p p in g . Every m e m b e r

o r e le m e n t o f th e d o m a in m aps to exactly o n e m e m b e r o f th e range.
20 Further Algebra J

Parts (a) an d (b) sh o w a ‘ m a n y -to -o n e ’ m a p p in g beca u se tw o m e m b e rs o fth e d o m a in

s o m e tim e s m a p to o n e m e m b e r o f th e range.

To be a function, every m e m b e r o f the dom ain m ust m a p to one and only one m em ber o fth e range.

L o o k in g a t Figure 20.4, w e can see tw o reasons w h y th is does n o t repre sen t a fu n c tio n .

S q u a r e ro o t

Fig u re 2 0 .4 M apping d iag ram fo r square ro o t

First o f a ll th e re are tw o m e m b e rs o fth e d o m a in th a t c a n n o t be m a p p e d to th e range, and

a lso th e re are tw o m e m b e rs o fth e d o m a in th a t m a p to m ore th a n o n e e le m e n t o f th e range.

It is easy to see th e d iffe re n t types o f m a p p in g s in th e sketches o f graphs in Figures 20.5-20.7.

y

/
/
i
/ i

/
/
/
/

Figu re 2 0 .5 A o n e -to -o n e m apping; this is a fu n c tio n o fx

Figu re 2 0 .6 A m a n y -to -o n e (in this case tw o -to -o n e ) m apping; this is a fu n ctio n o fx

\ V

_j— —

Figu re 20.7 A o n e -to -m a n y m apping; this is n o t a fu n c tio n o fx

 20 Further Algebra

This s h o u ld have given you an idea o f w h a t m akes a fu n c tio n . N ow w e w ill go on to use th e m

and y o u sh a ll see h o w c o n v e n ie n t th e y are. F unctions are u su a lly re p re se n te d by s m a ll le tte rs
such a s / g an d h.

\
Example 13
If f(x) = x3 + x and g(x) = + Jx 2 + 1, find
a f(l), f(4) and f(-5 )
b g(l), g(0) and g(7).
Answer 13
a f (1) = l 3+ 1 = 2
f (4) = 43+ 4 = 68
f(-5 ) = -1 2 5 - 5 = -130
b g(1) = W l 2 + 1 = + V 2
g(o) = +VT = 1

g(7) = W 7 2 +1 = + r/4 9 +1 = + V 5 0 = + V 2 5 x 2 = +>/25 x J 2 = + 5 ^ 2

Example 1 4
If f(x) = x2+ 3x, find x when f[x) = 10.
Answer 1 4
x2+ 3x = 10
x2+ 3x — 10 = 0
(x + 5 )( x - 2 ) = 0
e ith e rx = - 5 o rx = 2
V
From n o w o n th e d o m a in s w ill all be fro m th e set o f real n u m b e rs unless o th e rw is e sta te d .
H ow ever, y o u m ig h t co m e across an extra re s tric tio n in th e d e s c rip tio n o fth e d o m a in . Take,
fo r e xa m p le ,

f(x ) = , x e R , x * 2.

The v a lu e x = 2 has been s p e c ific a lly e xcluded fro m th e d o m a in because f(2) = ~ ^ = ^ . As

yo u k n o w , y o u c a n n o t d iv id e by zero, so f(2) does n o t e xist a n d x = 2 m u s t be e x c lu d e d fro m

th e d o m a in iff(x ) is a fu n c tio n . An a lte rn a tiv e re s tric tio n m ig h t be to m a k e * > 2 , so th a t y o u
e lim in a te 2 a n d all values less th a n 2.

Exercise 20.7
1 f(x ) =
Find: a f ( l) b f( - l) c f ( j) d f(0)

2 f(x) = 2 x 2 + x - l
g(x) = x 2 - 5 x - 6
Solve f(x) = g(x).
3 h(x) = x*6
o X

Find a h ( l) b h(1.2) c h |2 |J

517
20 FurthBrAlgeftra J

4 g(x) = x 3 + 5

Find x w h e n g(x) = -2 2 .

5 7

U sing th e g ra p h e v a lu a te th e fo llo w in g :

a f(2) b f(—2) c g(x) = 0

d g W = fW e f(0) f g(0)

20.9 Inverse Functions

As u sual w e have to be a b le to w o rk b a ckw ards to u n d o a n y th in g w e have ju s t done.

For exam p le, th e m a p p in g o f f(x) = 2 x + l on th e d o m a in {2 ,3 ,4 } can be s h o w n as in

F igure 20.8.

F ig u re 2 0 .8 f(x ) = 2 x + 1 o n th e d o m a in {2 ,3 ,4 }

B u t h o w d o w e ge t b ack fro m 5 to 2, fro m 7 to 3, and fro m 9 to 4?

T he m e th o d is q u ite sim ple .

• W rite y = 2x + l.
• Rearrange to m ake x th e s u b je c t.
• C h a n g e x to f _1(x), and y to x.

\
518
 [ 20 Further Algebra

The in v e rs e o f th e fu n c tio n f(x) is w ritte n as (x). G oing th ro u g h th e steps:

Key term
f(x) = 2 x + 1
The inverse of a
function maps the • y = 2x + 1
members of the range v -1
y— = x
back to the dom ain. 2
y -1
• x = —
2
• r\x ) =

Example 15
Find the inverse of
a /( * ) = x T 2 - x >2 b g (x ) = ^ , x>0

Answer 15
y = —-— b y =—
a y x-2 x
y (x + 2) = 1 yx = x + 5
y x - 2y = 1 _yx - x = 5
^ x = 1+ 2_v x(_y-1) = 5
x =- i t i Z x =-^

f-'(x) = ±±2* *-'(*) =

Exercise 20.8
Find th e inverses o f th e fo llo w in g fu n c tio n s

1 f[ x ) = 3 x + l 2 f{x )-2 -5 x 3 f[x )= ^ x + l

4 f l x ) = f ( x + 2) 5 flx) = ^ 6 g(x) = ^ 3 . x - 3

7 g(x) = x 3 - 1 8 g(x) = x * -1 9 £(*) = 3^ - p X * - l

10 # (*) = 3 ( * “ ][)

Example 16
, x +1
f ( x ) = ---------,X * 4
X —4
Find:
a f(2) b f(—3) c f-‘(x)
d e xw h en f(x) = 2

Answer 16
a f(2 ) = j ± l b f(-3) = f | ± i

f(2) = ^ « -3 ) = 5 f
f(2) = ^ f<—3) = j

519
20 Further Algeftra J

1+ 4 X 3
fix) _~ xs -+41 d / - ’(3) = 3 -4 e f(x ) = 2
13 X + 1_ O
-x + l / - ’(3) = 2 x -1
x-A
x + 1= 2 x - 8
yx - Ay = x +1 0= x -9
y x - x = 1+ 4)' x=9
jc( ^ - 1) = 1+ 4 y

7 -1
/ - ’W = ^ r f

Exercise 20.9
1 lf/(x ) = 2x2 + 3 x - l , fin d :

a /(0 ) b f [ - 1) c x w h e n f(x) = - 2 .

2 _ /(x )= x 2+ l ^ U ) = ^ j , x ’ * - 1 h(x) = 2x2 - 3

Find, s im p lify in g w h e re necessary:

a y (l) b #(1) c d g - l [x)

e th e values o f x w b e r\J [x ) = h(x).

3 h (x ) = jc * -3 ; fin d :-

c h r l {x) d x w h e n h[x) = 0
■ *(T -(I)
e hrl [—2) f h -'i 0) g x w h e n h{x) = - 2 .

20.10 Graphs of Inequalities

We have a lrea dy fo u n d s o lu tio n s to lin e a r in e q u a litie s in o n e v a ria b le , and sh o w n th e results
on a n u m b e r lin e o r o n e -d im e n s io n a l graph. We have also illu s tra te d lin e a r e q u a tio n s in tw o
va ria b le s as s tra ig h t lines on graphs.

We n o w need to illu s tra te lin e a r in e q u a litie s in tw o va ria b le s o n graphs. You w ill see th a t th e y
have to be sh o w n as areas o n graphs.

Taking a s im p le e x a m p le , y ^ x + 1, w e can fin d pairs o f values fo r x a nd y fro m th e set o f real

n u m b e rs w h ic h satisfy th is in e q u a lity . We w ill pick a fe w a t random .

4 > 1+1 so x = l,y = 4 satisfies th e in e q u a lity

and 2.5 > 0 + 1 x = 0 ,y = 2 .5
-1 > -3 + 1 x = -3 ,y = - l
-1 .5 > -3 + l x = - 3 , y = - 1 .5
1 > -2 + 1 x = -2 ,y = l
3.5 > - 1 + 1 x = - 1 , 7 = 3.5 all also satisfy th e in e q u a lity .

If w e d ra w th e line_x = x + 1 on a graph and th e n p lo t these p o in ts w e w ill see in w h ic h region

o f th e graph th e p o in ts lie (Figure 20.9).
 ^ 20 Further Algebra

y
I 1
-U — n
/ y -

3 /
H1
o’

- y f I ....
/
-J -7 i u t. j
/
y
-4
/
-2
7 '

Figure 2 0 .9 Points satisfyin g ^ x+ 1

The lin e jy = x + 1 jo in s all th e p o in ts w ith x and y c o o rd in a te s w h ic h satisfy th e e q u a tio n . So

the_y-coord inate o f every p o in t is e q u a l to its x -c o o rd in a te p lus one. The line also d ivid e s the
graph in to tw o regions, m arked and R2. In th e region Rt, all th e y -c o o rd in a te s are g reate r
th a n x + 1, and in th e region R2 all th e ^ -c o o rd in a te s are less th a n x + 1.

The graph is redra w n in Figure 20.10 to m ake th is clear.

-4 /
/
/7
F
y -a «— _

r f" Fl2
/
-3 o I! n r
A <x-\ '
-= + -
/
/
-= g -

Figure 2 0 .1 0 y = x + 1 splits th e plane into tw o regions

The in e q u a lity w e are illu s tra tin g i s y > x + l, s o th e l in e y = x + 1 is in clu d e d . The region R2 is
n o t in c lu d e d , and is shaded to s h o w th a t it is u n w a n te d .

For a s tric t in e q u a lity , fo r e x a m p le ; / < - x + 1, w e firs t d ra w th e l i n e y = - x + 1, b u t because th e

line is n o t in c lu d e d (< ra th e r th a n =s) w e d ra w a broken line as sh o w n in Figure 20.11.
y
V
V /\
\
\ Q
*
\
V
> 2
\
f
V
\
-3 J > -1 0 \ i
\ t

1 \
R \
>
p \
s
\ I ?
\
o Nf
\
<I
I

Figure 2 0 .1 1 The lin e y = - x + 1

W e n o w have to d e c id e w h ic h side o f th e line is th e region w e w a n t, so w e te s t a p o in t w h ic h is
n o t on th e line. The o rig in (0,0) is co n ve n ie n t.

y<x + 1
O cO + l

This is tru e : zero is less th a n zero plus one, so th e o rig in lies in th e region w e w a n t a n d w e can
m a rk R o n th a t side o f th e line.

T h e region R w ill usu a lly be sh o w n by s h a d in g th e o th e r side o f th e line, th e u n w a n te d region.

You sh o u ld read th e q u e s tio n c a re fu lly to d e c id e w h ic h sid e o f th e lin e to shade.

Example 17
By shading the unwanted side of the line, show the regions defined by these inequalities:

a 7 2x + 1 b x < 2 c y ^ O

Answer 17

If a ll th re e in e q u a litie s in th e e xa m p le a bove are n o w d ra w n o n o n e graph w ith th e excluded

regions shaded, th e re m a in in g unshaded region is th e s o lu tio n o f th e th re e in e q u a litie s taken
sim ultaneously, as show n in Figure 20.12. All th e p o in ts in th e unshaded region satisfy y 2 x + 1,
x < 2 and y 5* 0 a t th e sam e tim e,
r

F ig u re 2 0 .1 2 R egion R d e fin e d by th re e in e q u a litie s

R repre sents th e region d e fin e d by th e in e q u a litie s.

 [ 20 Further Algebra

Exam ple 18
aShow the region defined by the inequalities x + y < 5, x s= 0 ,y ^ 1 on a diagram.
Shade the unwanted region,
b Mark with a cross on the diagram all the points which have integer values o fx and y, and
are in the required region. That is, {[x,y): x ,y e Z).
c List these points.
Answer 18

y
V
\
oc
%
\
c>
\
\
\
A
\
Q \
\ NOTE:
k
o \ Pointssuchas(l,4)are
\
\ not included in the region
y = ■
because they are on the
\
\ broken tine representing the
\

i •
\ strict inequality x + y < S.
0 \ i r t
i \ i
X = 5 \
(0,1), (0,2), (0,3), (0,4), (1,1),(1,2),
(1,3), (2,2), (2,1), (3,1).

Example 19
Show on a diagram the region which satisfies the inequalities
—3 ^ x *<2, 2 < y < 5.
Shade the unwanted region.
Answer 19
y
■
£ py &'
%i Sij •
■■■
if
* 4

o >•

;v‘
-r
1

* 3 i *' . 1 0 :*• iI
‘
1I

£o
x = -3 X = 2

V______
28 m m r W e ill J

Example 2 0
Define the region R using simultaneous inequalities.
y

Answer 2 0
The lines surrounding Ron the graph arey = 3 ,y = :j Lx + 2 a n d y = 2 x - 2 . It is clear that the
required side ofth e liney = 3 isy < 3.

Testing (0,0) for the line;- = ^ x + 2 ,0 < 0 + 2.

We want the side which does not contain the origin, so the required inequality is y 2= - | x + 2 .

For the lin e y = 2 x - 2, testing the origin, 0 > 0 - 2. For this line we want the side which does
contain the origin so the required inequality is y > 2 x - 2. Remember that the broken line
represents a strict inequality.

The region R is defined by:

y< 3 y > :j- x + 2 y > 2 x - 2 .

S tric tly speaking, th e d e fin itio n sho u ld also give th e u niversal set o f num bers. If (x,y) e Z ,
w e are o n ly in te rested in in te g e r values o f x and y. If (x,y) e R , w e are in te re s te d in th e e n tire
area, as in th is case.

Example 2 1
1 A firm has to manufacture two types of tractors: the Mini and the Maxi.
They already have orders for 4 Maxi tractors and 1 Mini tractor. They can only
manufacture 10 tractors in a month, and they want to make more Maxis than Minis.
Let the number of Mini tractors be x and the number of Maxi tractors be y.

a Write down four inequalities to show the above constraints,

b Draw a graph and shade the unwanted regions.
c Mark with crosses all the points with integer values of x and y which lie in the required
region.
d List the coordinates of all the points you have marked with crosses,
e The profit on the Mini tractors is $1500 and on the Maxi tractors is $2000.

Determine the most profitable combination of tractors the firm should manufacture in
the month and write down the total profit.

\
5241
 ^ 20 Further Algebra

Answer 2 1
1 a x + y *£ 10,x 5z l ,y Sz 4 ,y > x

NOTE:
You could have arrived
at this answer without

itthe method
used ftere will show you
Hew d (1,4), (1, 5), (1,6), (1, 7), (1,8), (1, 9), (2,4), (2,5), (2, 6), (2, 7), (2, 8), (3,4), (3, 5), (3, 6),
t, (3,7), (4,5), (4,6)
e Testing the points marked with crosses shows that (1,9), which means 1 Mini tractor
■I
and 9 Maxi tractors, gives the maximum profit because the total profit becomes
Total Profit = 1 x $1500 + 9 x $2000 = $19500

Exercise 20.10

The lin e s x = 0 , x = 3 , y = 0 , y = x + 3 and x + y = 5 d iv id e th e graph in to 15 separate regions.

Use in e q u a litie s to d e fin e th e fo llo w in g regions:
a E b J c I
d N e G and P to g e th e r f A, B a n d C to g e th e r
g D and K togethe r.
20 Further fllBBbra J

S how th e s o lu tio n s o f these sets o f in e q u a litie s o n a graph, s h a d in g th e u n w a n te d regions

a nd la b e llin g th e re q u ire d region w ith an R.
a ys*0, x + y 5; 4, x^O
b 4x + 3y< 12, y ^ 2x, y=£0

a S how th e s o lu tio n set o f these in e q u a litie s on a graph by s h a d in g th e u n w a n te d

regions.
y < 3 x + 6, 0<y<4, x^O .
b M ark w ith a cross all th e in te g e r so lu tio n s ,
c List th e p o in ts w h ic h are in te g e r s o lu tio n s.

A d e a le r sells R eliable a n d G ofaster cars. There is ro o m a t th e s h o w ro o m s fo r no m ore

th a n 10 cars. The d e a le r know s th a t m o re R eliables w ill be sold th a n G ofasters so she
needs to have m o re R eliables th a n G ofasters in stock. The d e a le r needs to d e c id e h ow
m a n y o f each car to keep in stock.

The p ro fit on th e R eliables is $1500 and th e p ro fit on th e G ofasters is $1800.

The d e a le r w rite s d o w n tw o m atrices. C repre sen ts th e p ossible c o m b in a tio n o f n u m b e rs

o f R eliables and G ofasters he co u ld stock. The firs t c o lu m n show s th e n u m b e rs o f
R eliables and th e second c o lu m n show s th e c o rre s p o n d in g n u m b e rs o f Gofasters. P
represents th e p ro fit on th e tw o ty p e s o f car.
(6 4 ^
7 3 ( 1500
1500'!
C=
8 2 \1 8 0 0
9 1

a Find th e p ro d u c t, CP, o f th e tw o m atrices,

b W h a t does CP represent?
c H o w m a n y o f each c a rs h o u ld th e d e a le r s to c k and in th is case w h a t w o u ld her to ta l
p ro fit be if she sold a ll th e cars?

Exercise 20.11
M ixe d exercise

1 A
_ ( 1 oN
“ 1° 1>
1 2\
:
‘
G1) 0

D = (3 - 4 ) E= 3 4 F=
\5 6
a W rite d o w n th e o rd e r o f each m atrix,
b W rite d o w n th e o rd e rs o f th e p roducts:
i CE ii EC iii OF iv FD
c W rite d o w n C tra n s p o s e (C1).
d Find:
i det A ii AB iii BA
iv A 1 v B_1
±
2 f i x ) = 4 -, fix)-- x ' h[x) = x 2 + 1

a Find:
i /(-l) ii h(Q) iii x wheng(x) = 0.25
iv g-]lx) v g -' U

\
526
 I 20 Further Algebra

b Find x w h e n
i f[x ) = A ii h(x) = 1 iii g(x) = - 2 f ( x ) + 1

3 a j[x ) = 2 x + 3 - F i n d / _ ,(x ). b g(x) = ^ 3 . F in d ^ 'M -

4 a Show , by sh a d in g the u n w a n te d regions, th e s o lu tio n set o f these in e q u a litie s on a

graph:
-1 x<4
x +y< 5
0 =£y<3

b List all th e p o in ts w h ic h are in te g e r s o lu tio n s to th e set o f in e qualities.

Exam-style questions
k 5
5 a The d e te rm in a n t o f th e m a trix is 14. Find k.
-1 2

b Find th e inverse o f th e m a trix (4024 pa p e r 01 Q15 N o ve m b e r 2004)

3 -1 5 3
6 A= B-
-2 4 0 -2

a Find 3 A - B.

b Find A2.
1 0
c Find t h e 2 x 2 m a trix X, w h e re AX = (4024 p a p e r 11 Q25 J u n e 2014)
0 1

7 y a O ne o f th e lines in th e diagram is
la b e lle d y - m x + c.
Find th e values o f m and c.

b Show, by s h a d in g all th e u n w a n te d
regions on th e graph, th e region d e fin e d
by th e in e q u a litie s

x ^ l , y ^ m x + c , y ^ x + 2 and 7 4.

W rite th e le tte r R in th e region required.

(0580 p a p e r 02 Q20 Ju n e 2006)

8 a M ake k th e s u b je ct o f th e fo rm u la ^5 .

b The m a trix Y satisfies th e e q u a tio n

ci b
Find Y, expressing it in th e fo rm (4024 p a p e r 02 Q 2(part) June 2004)
(c d
20 Further Algebra J

9 a f ( x ) = x 3- 4
Find
i / ( —2),
ii /- l( x ) .
b ^ ( y ) = y 2-3> ' + l
W rite d o w n and s im p lify an expression fo r g(a - 2). (4024 p a p e r 12 Q19 June 2012)

1 0 a In th e d ia g ra m , th e unsh a d e d region, R, is d e fin e d by th re e in e q u a litie s .

T w o o f these are
y =£ 2 x + 2 a n d y =£ 5 - x .
W rite d o w n th e th ird in e q u a lity .

b Find th e in te g e r values o f x w h ic h satisfy th e fo llo w in g :

4 ss 2 x + 13 < 9 (4024 p a p e r 01 Q 14 N o ve m b e r 2005)

11

In th e d ia g ra m ,A is th e p o in t (6,3) and C is th e p o in t (-8 , -4 ).

T he e q u a tio n o f AB \ s y = 3, and th e e q u a tio n o f CB i s / = x + 4 .
 [ 20 Fnrdier Algebra

a Find th e c o o rd in a te s o f 6.
b The un sh a d e d region R in sid e tria n g le /lB C is d e fin e d by th re e in e q u a litie s.

One o f these i s ^ < x + 4.

W rite d o w n the o th e r tw o in e q u a litie s . (4024 pa p e r 01 Q10 J u n e 2007)

12 Given th a t f ( x ) = 4 , find

a ff i - ], b \- \x ) .
v 57 (4024 p a p e r 01 Q16 J u n e 2007)

13 Jo h n w o rk s in a shop.

The m a trix b e lo w show s th e n u m b e r o f hours he w o rk e d on M o n d a y to Friday, S aturday,

and S u n d a y d u rin g tw o d iffe re n t w eeks.

M onday
S a turday S unday
to Friday
W eek 1 30 0
W eek 2 35 2

The m a trix b e lo w show s th e pay th a t he received per h o u r on M o n d a y to Friday, S aturday,

and Sunday.

$ /h r
9 M onday to Friday
12 S aturday
15 S unday
'9 '
5
a p= 12
fU3s0 6 2)
J5,
Find P.
b E xplain th e m e a n in g o f th e in fo rm a tio n given by m a trix P.
(4024 p a p e r 11 Q l l N o v e m b e r 2014)
1 4 Given th a t f(x ) = 2x + 3 i fin d t \ x ) .
5x (4024 p a p e r 11 Q5 N o ve m b e r 2011)

(2 6
15 A = (5 - £ B
^5 -4 j ■G » -U )
a W hich o n e o f th e fo llo w in g m a trix c a lc u la tio n s is n o t possible?
i AB ii AD iii BA iv DA
b C a lc u la te BC.
c Use y o u r answ er to p a rt (b) to w rite d o w n B 1, th e inverse o f B.
(0580 p a p e r 02 Q22 J u n e 2004)
'2 O' '2 -1'
16 A = (1 2 3 ) B= 1 4 c= 2 2

Find -1 - 3 , -i o,

a B -C b AB. (4024 p a p e r 01 Q15 N o ve m b e r 2005)

529
20 Further Algebra j

17 a E v a lu a t e ^ ^

b W rite d o w n th e inverse o f (4024 p a per 01 Q3 June 2005)

( 1 )

2 1 2 4
1 8 W o r k o u t | l 5 0 -3
(0580 p a per 21 Q15 June 2008)
>3 - 2 4 J l- 8 J

19 A
-G o - c ° )
a T h e m a tr ix B = A 2- 2 A - l .
C a lcu la te B. S how a ll y o u r w o rkin g .

b S im p lify AA-1. (0580 pa p e r 02 Q22 N o ve m b e r 2007)

20 A
-G3
a Find |A|, th e d e te rm in a n t o f A, in te rm s o f * ,
b Find th e values o f * w h e n |A| = 9. (0580 p a p e r 02 Q l l June 2007)

2 1 / ( * ) = * 3 - 3x? + 6 * - 4 and g(x) = 2 * - 1 .

Find:
a /(-l) b g - 1(*) (0580 p a p e r 21 Q18a, c June 2008)

(\ -i\ / \
22 0 ( 3 4 8 7 ]
1
1\ 3 3/
I5 6J
T he a n sw e r to th is m a trix m u ltip lic a tio n is o f o rd e r a x b .
Find th e values o f a and b. (0580 p a p e r 21 Q2 N o ve m b e r 2008

23 H i 3
Find A "1, th e inverse o f A. (0580 pa p e r 21 Q21 June 2009

24 A
-(: 9 - d 3
a F in d A B .
b W hen A B = BA, fin d th e value o f* . (0580 p a p e r2 1 Q21 June 2009)

25
- ( : ; ) m2=(i :) m3-( s ,*,)
Find M4. (0580/02 M ay/June 2107 q 7) s

x +5
2 6 A fu n c tio n f is d e fin e d b y f : x -»

a Given t h a t f : l —>k, fin d th e value of/c.

b Given also th a t : * - » cx + d, fin d th e v a lu e o f c and th e va lu e o f d.
(4024 pa p e r 01 Q 'l June 2004)

\
530
 [ 20 Further Algebra

27

6
5
4 \
3 \ The unshaded region R is d e fin e d by 3
2
\ ineq u a litie s.
1 \ One o f these is x > 1.
0 1 ' 1 -■
k W rite d o w n th e o th e rtw o in e q u a litie s.
-1
t
N
! ' 1i j

-2
R \
-3 \
-4
\
-5
-6 (4024 p a per 01 Q16 N o ve m b e r 2004)
2 8 a Given th a t/( x ) = 3 x + 5 ,fin d /(3 ) .
b The fu n c tio n g is d e fined b y g{x) = (2 x - 3 ) ( x + k ).
G iven t h a tg(0) = - 5 , fin d
i k ii x such th a t g(x) = 0. (4024 paper 01 Q17 N o ve m b e r 2004)

2 9 lt is g iv e n t h a t/ ( x ) = 3 x - 5 .
Find:
a /(-4 ) b th e value o f f , given th a t/( f) =10 c f~ \x ) d / ' 1(4).
(4024 p a per 01 Q16 N o ve m b e r 2005)

3 0 a f ( x ) = {x + 2 ) ( 2 x - l )
E v a tua te/(5 .5).

b g(x) = - - { 2 x - l )
Find ^ ( 5 ) . ( 4 0 2 4 p a p e r 01 Q 1 4 June* 200G)

31 a The m a trix M satisfies th e e q u a tio n 3 M + 4 M.

(3 3
- -

Find M, expressing it in th e fo rm
(:;)
b Find th e inverse o f th e m atrix (4024 paper 0 1 Q15 N o ve m b e r 2006)
I3)
3 2 a Given t h a t f [ x ) = x 2- 2 p x + 3, fin d
i / ( - 2 ) , g ivin g y o u r a nsw er in te rm s o fp , ii th e value o fp w h e n / ( - 2 ) = / ( 0 ) .
b G iven t h a t ^ ( y ) = y 2- l , f i n d # ( a - l ) .
G iven y o u r answ e r in its s im p le s t form . (4024 paper 01 Q16 N o ve m b e r 2006)

33 a Evaluate
f142l - 3 f-13l
l 6J I 2J
b A business m akes to y buses and to y lorries.
The fo llo w in g ta b le is used in c a lc u la tin g th e cost o f m a k in g each toy.
20 Further Algebra J

L a b o u r (h o u rs) W o o d (b lo cks) P a in t (tin s )

Bus 2 3 1
L orry 1 w 2

L a b o u r costs $10 per hour, w o o d costs $1 per b lo c k and p a in t costs $p per tin.
The in fo rm a tio n a bove can be s u m m a rise d in th e m a trice s A and B,
f 10^
w h e re A and B = 1
-G - 3 \p j

i Given th a t AB fin d

a p b w.
ii Evaluate (1 oo 200) ^

iii E xplain w h a t y o u r a n sw e r to (ii) represents. (4024 p a p e r 0 1 Q24 June 2007)

3 4 The
The s hhaaddeedd region in
insid
s id e th e tria n g le /\8 C is d e fin e d by th re e in e q u a litie s .

O n e o fth e s e is x + _ y < 5 2
2'

/
\ /
N /
\ /
\ /
\

c )'\N
/
I- \
/ N
/
/ \
\
\
xs B
L.
1
i
i

\
>\
\
1 2 3 4 S 6

a W rite d o w n th e o th e r tw o ine q u a litie s.

b H ow m a n y p o in ts w ith in te g e r c o o rd in a te s lie in th e shaded region?
(4024 p a p e r 01 Q8 N ove m b er 2007)

3 5 Given th a t/( x ) = ~ p , fin d

a /(3 ), (4024 pa p e r 01 Q12 N ove m b er 2008)

36 A = I 2 1 I and B
1 3
■0 o)
Find:
a AB, b B 1. (4024 paper 01 Q 15 N ovem ber 2008)

3 7 Given th a t/(jc ) = 4 x - 7 , find

/ .
a / b th e value o fp w h e n /(/> ) = p .
(4024 paper 01 Q12 N ovem ber 2009)
 [ 20 Further Algebra

3 8 The d ia g ra m b e lo w show s tria n g le LMN.

y

The e q u a tio n s o f th e lines LM and /./V a re 2 , = 3 x + 5 and x + 4 , = 24 respectively.

a Solve th e s im u lta n e o u s e q u a tio n s x + 4 , = 24

2 , = 3 x + 5.
H ence w rite d o w n th e c o o rd in a te s o f L.
b M is (-3 , - 2 ) and MN is p a ra lle l to th e x-axis.
T he shaded region, R, in sid e tria n g le LMN, is d e fin e d by th re e ineq u a litie s.
O ne o f these is 2y < 3 x + 5.
W rite d o w n th e o th e r tw o in e q u a litie s . (4024 p a per 12 Q l l N o ve m b e r 2009)

3 9 Ann w e n t on a car jo u rn e y th a t w as s p lit in to th re e stages.

Tw o re le va n t m a trice s are sh o w n below .
The firs t m a trix show s th e average speed, in kilo m e tre s per hour, o f th e car d u rin g each
stage.
The second m a trix s how s th e tim e , in hours, taken fo r each stage.
First Second Third Time
Stage Stage Stage

( 1x
First Stage
Average speed (40 30 so) 1 Second Stage
1 T hird Stage
2-
V 2J

Fir|d (40 30 50) 1

1
2-
V 2
\\ W h a t in fo rm a tio n is given by th e m a trix o b ta in e d in p a rt (i)?
iii C a lcu la te th e average speed fo r th e w h o le jo u rn e y . (4024 p a per 02 Q5c J u n e 2008)
21 Trigonometry H
Lea rning Objectives Syllabus section 36

In th is c h a p te r you w ill
• exten d trig o n o m e try to cover angles b etw een
90® a n d 180° (o b tu se an g le s )
• use th e sine a n d cosine rules to ca lcu late
a c u te and obtu se angles in non-right-angled
trian g le s

2 1 .1 Introduction
We n o w extend th e use o f trig o n o m e try to cover tria n g le s w h ic h d o n o t have rig h t angles.
We lo o k a t angles grea te r th a n 90°, and use trig o n o m e try in th re e dim e n sio n s.

2 1 .2 Essential Skills
1 Use th e sine, cosine and ta n g e n t ratios and P ythag oras’ th e o re m to fin d th e sides and
angles m a rked w ith letters in th e fo llo w in g diagram s. A ll le ngths are in ce n tim e tre s.

534
 [ 21 Trigonometry II

2 The b e a rin g of A from 6 is 065°. Find the b e aring o f B fro m /I.

3 The b e a rin g o f C fro m D is 200°. Find the b e aring o f D fro m C.

4 W rite th e fo llo w in g as th re e -fig u re bearings:

a SE b NNW.

2 1 .3 Trigonometry with Angles

between 0° and 180°
Figure 21.1 show s an angle, a . T his is th e Greek le tte r a lpha, w h ic h is often used in
m a th e m a tic s . The angle is m a d e by th e p o sitive x-axis and a line, OP, w h ic h can ro tate
anticlockw ise th ro u g h 180° a b o u t th e o rigin. The line is 1 u n it lo n g (m easured by th e scale on
th e axes). A se m icircle w ith th e sam e radius is draw n w ith its centre a t th e o rigin.

The d ia g ra m show s tw o q u a d r a n ts , (q u a rte r circles) o f th e c o m p le te circle. You w ill go on to

Key term
s tu d y th e o th e r tw o q u a d ra n ts if you take m a th e m a tic s b eyond O Level. The q u a d ra n t in
A quadrant is a quarter w h ic h b o th th e x - and th e y -c o o rd in a te s are p o sitive is alw ays called th e firs t q u a d ra n t, and
o f a circle.
th e q u a d ra n t w ith negative x -c o o rd in a te s and p o s itive y -c o o rd in a te s is alw ays ca lle d th e
second quad ra n t.

F ig u re 2 1 .1 First and second q u ad ran ts

In C h a p te r 9 w e d e fin e d th e sine ra tio in a rig h t-a n g le d tria n g le as hypotenuse• ln Fig u re 2 l-1>

usin g th e sam e d e fin itio n , w e see th a t

sin ZX O P = sin a =

w h ere is the_y-coordinate o f th e p o in t P. B u t w e have m ade OP to be o f u n it le n g th , so

sin a = j , w h ic h is th e sam e as sin a = y .

N ow w e have a new d e fin itio n : sin a = y w hen a is th e an g le th e line OP m akes w ith th e

p o s itive d ire c tio n o f th e x-axis and P is th e p o in t (x,y).

M easure th e angle XOP in th e d iagram . It sh o u ld be a b o u t 37°. The_y-coordinate o f P is 0.6. The

c a lc u la to r value fo r sin 37° is 0.60 to tw o d e c im a l places, so a llo w in g fo r e x p e rim e n ta l e rro r
and th e lim ita tio n s o f th e p rin tin g process, th is is a good agreem e nt.

All th is is no d iffe re n t fro m th e e a rlie r w o rk you d id on th e trig o n o m e tric ratios, except th a t it

gives us a m e th o d fo r e x te n d in g th e angles to in c lu d e o b tu s e angles.

r
[5 3 5
21 Trigonometry ll J

P' is in th e second q u a d ra n t in Figure 21.1, so ZXOP' is obtuse. A cc o rd in g to th e new

d e fin itio n , sin ZXOP' = , , w h e r e , is th e ,-c o o r d in a te o f th e p o in t P \ M easure th e angle XOP' in
th e d ia gram . It sh o u ld be a b o u t 127°. T h e ,-c o o rd in a te is 0.8. T he c a lc u la to r va lu e fo r sin 127°
is 0.80 to tw o d e c im a l places, so again th e re is a g o o d agreem e nt.

By th e s am e a rg u m e n t, cos a = a d v e n t = -£ r = % = x -
y 5 hypotenuse OP 1
In Figure 21.1, ZX O P is a b o u t 37°, and th e x -c o o rd in a te o f P is 0.8. The c a lc u la to r value fo r
cos 37° is 0.80 to tw o d e c im a l places, w h ic h is a g o o d a g re e m e n t as w e w o u ld expect.

N ow lo o k a tth e x - c o o r d in a te o fP '. It is - 0 . 6 , and angleX O P ’ is a b o u t 127°.The c a lc u la to r value

o f cos 127° is -0 .6 0 to tw o d e c im a l places, so o u r n e w d e fin itio n o f cosine w o rk s fo r o b tu s e
angles to o . R e m e m ber th a t th e cosines o f angles b e tw e e n 90° and 180° are negative because
th e x -c o o rd in a te s o f p o in ts in th e second q u a d ra n t are negative.

Practical Copy Figure 21.1, and draw a few more angles of your own. Complete Table 21.1 with your extra
Investigation examples. Add the calculator values of the sines and cosines of your angles to your table. You
should find quite a good agreement between your experimental values and the calculator values.

angle 35° 118°

sine ( , -coordinate) 0.58 0.88
cosine (x-coordinate) 0.81 -0 .4 8
calculator value for sine 0.57 0.88
calculator value for cosine 0.82 -0 .4 7

T a b le 2 1 .1 Sines and cosines in th e firs t and second q u ad ran ts

Investigation o f Sine and Cosine Curves

Copy and complete Table 21.2, using your calculator and giving the sines and cosines to 2
decimal p l^ e s .

a° 0 20 40 60 80 90 100 120 140 160 180

sin a 0 0.64 0.64
cos a 1 0.77 -0.77

T a b le 2 1 .2 Sine and Cosine values

Using the values in Table 21.2 copy and complete the graphs in Figures 21.2 and 21.3, drawing a
smooth continuous curve through all the points.
If you have drawn these graphs correctly they should look something like Figures 21.4 and 21.5.

20 4 0 60 80 1 0 0 1 2 0 1 4 0 1 6 0 1 8 0 2 0 4 0 60 8 0 X 0 0 1 2 0 1 4 0 1 6 0 1 8 0

cos x

F ig u re 2 1 .2 S ine c u rv e F ig u re 2 1 .3 C osine c u rv e

\
536
 21 Trigonometry II

You can now use your graphs to find angles when given their sines or cosines. To find the angle
whose sine is 0.5 draw a horizontal line through 0.5 on the_y-axis. Mark the point where the line
meets the curve, and read offthex-coordinates of those points. You should find that the two
points are (30,0.5) and (150,0.5).
Use your calculator to find sin'^O.S). It will give you 30°, which, as you see, is only one of the
answers.
Your calculator will always give you the acute angle when you enter sin-1. In a right-angled
triangle this is no problem, because if one angle is 90° both the others must be acute. However,
in other triangles it is possible to have an obtuse angle, and you should always be aware that
there might be two possible solutions when you enter sin'1x into your calculator. The second
solution (the obtuse angle) is found by subtracting the acute angle from 180°.
If you look at the cosine curve you will see that there is no problem: cos-10.5 = 60° and
cos_1(-0 .5) = 120°.
Now that you have drawn these graphs of the sine and cosine curves you will see that we should
think of sines and cosines of x as functions o fx ratherthan ratios.
If you continue your study of mathematics beyond this course you will find that we can work
out the sine, cosine and tangent of any angle, no m atter how large. You might like to continue
your sine and cosine curves, using your calculator, to angles up to 360°. If you are also studying
physics or science you might recognise these curves as waves.

Finding Acute and Obtuse Angles from their Sines and Cosines
The signs of sines and cosines in the first tw o quadrants are summarised in Figure 21.4.

Second quadrant, First quadrant,

obtuse angles acute angles

Sine positive, Sine positive.

cosine negative cosine positive

F ig u r* 2 1 .4 Sines and cosines in th e first and second

q u ad ran ts

Using your calculator to find angles:

• Your calculator will automatically give you an acute angle if you enter, for example,
cos'^O^), and an obtuse angle if you include a negative sign, for example cos_1(-0.4).
• Your calculator will give you an acute angle if, for example, you enter sin-1(0.4). To find the
obtuse angle you need to subtract the acute angle from 180°.
You might try entering sin_1(-0.4) into your calculator. Your calculator will probably give you a
negative angle. Check this with your own calculator. Negative angles are not required in your
0 Level course and are beyond the scope of this book.

Exercise 21.1
1 Find th e fo llo w in g :
a sin 40° b sin 140° c sin 150° d sin 75°
e cos 40° f cos 140° g cos 150° h cos 75°

2 Find x in th e fo llo w in g given th a t x lies betw een 0° and 180°:

a cos x = 0.27 b cos x = 0.59 c cos x = -0 .2 7 d cos x = -0 .5 9

r
537
21 Trigonometry II J

F in d x g iv e n t h a t x is o b tu s e :
a sin x = 0 .2 8 b sin x = 0 .8 3 c s in x = 0 .5 7 d s i n x = 0 .7 7

F o r t h e f o llo w in g fin d t w o p o s s ib le v a lu e s o f x , g iv e n t h a t x lie s b e t w e e n 0° a n d 1 8 0 °:

a sin x= 0 .5 6 4 3 b s in x = 0 .1 2 5 4 c sin x = 0 .8 4 3 2 d sin x - 0 .5 3 3 3

Key term 2 1 .4 The Sine Rule

The sine r a t e e q u a te s
th e ratio s o f th e lengths In t h e t r ia n g le ABC s h o w n in F ig u re 2 1 .5 , AD is d r a w n p e r p e n d ic u la r to BC. T h e le n g t h s o f t h e
o f sid es o f a n o n -rig h t- s id e s a r e r e p r e s e n te d b y le tte r s , a n d a ll t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e in c e n t im e tr e s .
a n g le d tria n g le a n d th e A
sin es o f th e o p p o s ite
an gles.

F ig u re 2 1 .5 D eriving th e sine rule

In tr ia n g le /4 D C , s in ZACD = ^
h = b x s i n ZACD
In tr ia n g le /A B D , s in ZABD =
h = cx s in ZABD ...( ii)

S in c e t h e r ig h t- h a n d s id e s o f b o th e q u a t io n s (i) a n d (ii) a r e e q u a l t o h, t h e y m u s t b e e q u a l to
each oth er. , .
b X sinZACD = c x sin ZABD

b = -c xsm Z A B D
sin ZACD
c
sin ZABD sin ZACD

R e w r itin g sin ZACD a s s in C , a n d sin ZABD a s s in B, t h e e q u a t io n b e c o m e s :

b c
sin 6 sinC
In t h e s a m e w a y it c a n b e s h o w n th a t :
a _ b c
sin/4 sinf sinC
T h is is k n o w n a s t h e sin e ru le , a n d c a n b e w r it t e n in t w o w a y s :

sin/\ sin8 sinC

or
sin/1 _ sinfl _ sinC
a b c

For convenience, if you need to c a lc u la te th e length o f a side you w ill use th e first
a rra n g e m e n t, b u t to c a lc u la te an angle use th e second.

You can pick any p a ir o f ra tio s fo r th e c a lc u la tio n . For exam ple, =

538
 lv 21 Trigonometry II

Example 1 ^
Using the measurements shown in the diagram of triangle ABC calculate the length of
side-4C.
A

x *? \
7 cm y/ A

Answer 1
To use the sine rule we need pairs of opposite sides and angles, so to find b we need
angle ABC.
Angle ABC = 180 - 50 - 55 = 75°
Using - ± - = - ± -
° sinS sinC
b — c
sin 75 sin 50
l _ 7 x sin75
sin 50
b = 8.8 26 4 8 ...
The side AC = 8.83cm

The Ambiguous Case of the Sine Rule

Example 2
A
In triangle DEF, angle EDF= 20°, ED= 10 cm and EF= 4cm.
Calculate angle EFD.
Answer 2
Using the sine rule,
I
sinF sin/3
T s'
s in f _ sin 20 4 cm
— = —-— 10 cm
10 4 IS
r 10 x sin 20 S '^
s i n f = ------- -------- ,/N .
F
sin F = 0.85505...
s^2a° —■
—

F=sin"10.85505... D
F = 58.7652...
Angle EFD = 58.8°
V

The a nsw er to th e a bove exa m p le appears to be 58.8°. B u t is th is right?

In th e d ia g ra m above angle EFD lo o ks o b tuse, a lth o u g h th is co u ld be because it is n o t draw n

to scale.
21 TrigBMmatryll J

Look a t th e dia g ra m in Figure 21.6.

F ig u re 2 1 .6 A m biguous sine rule

There are tw o p o s s ib le tria n g le s th a t can be draw n w ith th e given m e asurem ents. T h e y are
sh o w n as tria n g le s EDF1 and EDF2 in Figure 21.6.

A n gle EF2D = 58.8° and angle E F f i = 180° - 58.8° = 121.2°.

T h is is ca lle d th e a m b ig u o u s case and unless fu rth e r m e asurem ents are a va ila b le it is n o t

p o ss ib le to say w h ic h is th e required answ er, so b o th sh o u ld be given.

N o tice th a t 2 0 °+ 58.8° = 78.8°, and 20° +121.2° = 141.2°; b o th pairs o f angles add u p to less
th a n 180° so b o th are po ssib le as tw o o f th e angles in a triangle.

In each o f th e tw o tria n g le s th e re is o n e o b tu s e angle.

Exam ple 3
In triangle PQR, PQ = 8.4cm , QR = 6.7cm and angle PRQ = 71°.
Calculate angle QPR.
Answ er 3
sinP _ sinR
P r
6.7 cm
sinp _ sin71
~ % 7 ~ 8.4

sin P = —
8.4
8 .4 c m
sin P = 0.75416...
sin"10.75416... = 48.9523...
Angle QPR=49.0°. There is no ambiguity over the value of angle QPR because 49.0° + 71° = 120°
leaving the third angle as 60°.
If angle QPR =180° - 4 9 ° = 131°, then 131°+ 71° = 202°, which is not possible in a triangle!

Using the Sine Rule in a Practical Situation

H o w can you fin d th e h e ig h t o f a m o u n ta in if you c a n n o t get d ire c tly u n d e r its peak? O ne
s o lu tio n to th is p ro b le m is sh o w n in Figure 21.7.
P

F ig u re 2 1 .7 M e a s u rin g th e h e ig h t o f a m o u n ta in
 ^ 21 Trigonometry II

The ang le o f e le va tio n is m easured fro m a p o in ts , and th e n a second angle o f e le v a tio n is

m easured fro m a p o in t B, 5 k ilo m e tre s closer to th e m o u n ta in . The h e ig h t o f th e m o u n ta in is
fo u n d by using th e sine rule as sh o w n below .

In tria n g le ABP, Z A B P = 180° - 32° = 148°,

/ A P B = 180° - 23° - 148° = 9°

AP 5
U sing th e sine rule, ^ 4^ = ^
.» 5 x s in 1 4 8 °
AP = ------■
—ttt—
sin9°
A P = 1 6 .9 3 7 4 ...

In tria n g le ACP, sin 23° = ~

P C = A P x sin 23°

PC = 1 6 .9 3 7 4 ...x s in 23°

PC = 6.617 9 7 ...

T he h e ig h t o f th e m o u n ta in is 6.62 k ilo m e tre s to 3 s ig n ific a n t figures.

Exercise 21.2
Find th e v a lu e re pre sen ted by th e le tte r in each dia g ra m . The dia g ra m s are n o t to scale.

8 In tria n g le A B C . A B - 4 .2 cm ,
BC = 5 c m and a n g l e / 0 = 50°.
C a lc u la te th e tw o possible values
o f an g le BAC.
21 TriBononmnfli J

2 1 .5 The Cosine Rule

The sine ru le involves pairs o f o p p o s ite sides and angles. For exam ple, lo o k a t Figure 21.8.

Key term
The cosine rule extends
Pythagoras’ theorem
so th a t it can be used
in any triangle. It has a
‘correction term ’ which
a Hows for the feet that F ig u re 2 1 .8 Using the sine rule
the triangle is not right
angled.
If, how ever, w e are given e ith e r o f th e tria n g le s in Figure 21.9 w e c a n n o t use th e sine rule. (Try
if yo u are n o t sure. In each case you w ill fin d you need a n o th e r angle.)

F ig u re 2 1 .9 Using the cosine rule

The a lte rn a tiv e m e th o d uses th e cosine rule.

This is s lig h tly m o re c o m p lic a te d to derive, so it w ill ju s t be s tated here. It invo lve s th re e sides
an d o n e a ngle (see Figure 21.10).

F ig u re 2 1 .1 0 The cosine rule

• To fin d an angle use: cos A =

• To fin d a side u s e :a 2 = b2 + c 2 - 2 be cos/4

These are b o th th e sam e fo rm u la , b u t arranged d iffe re n tly .

It is w o rth s tu d y in g these tw o fo rm u la e carefully. You w ill see som e s y m m e try in th e w ay

th e y are used. The tw o sides (lengths b and c) w h ic h in c lu d e the angle (a n g le d ) are alw ays
squared and added. Each le tte r (e ith e r in ca p ita l o r lo w e r case)appears tw ice. The second
a rra n g e m e n t re m in d s us o f P ythag oras’ th e o re m , b u t inclu des a 'c o rre ctio n te rm ’ (2 be cos A)
to a llo w fo r th e fact th a t a n g le d is n o t a right angle.
 I 21 Trigonometfyll

Using the Cosine Rule and Avoiding

the Very Common Errors
Practise th e cosine rule using y o u r calculator.

To fin d th e angle, use brackets as show n here:

(2be)

To fin d th e side, e n te r th e te rm s in to y o u r c a lc u la to r exactly as show n in th e fo rm u la . You

w ill have to e n te r th e m u ltip lic a tio n sym b o l in betw een each n u m b e r in th e final te rm , b u t
y o u r c a lc u la to r w ill deal w ith th e p lus and m in u s signs co rrectly. One o f th e m o st c o m m o n
m istakes is to c a lc u la te th e 2be cos A firs t and th e n get confused w ith th e signs.

There is no a m b ig u ity in th e answ ers using the cosine rule because the c a lcu la to r w ill distinguish
betw een acute and ob tuse angles according to w h e th e r th e cosine is positive o r negative.

Before g o in g any fu rth e r try these tw o q u e s tio n s to m ake sure th a t you u n d e rsta n d th e c o rre c t
use o f th e c a lc u la to r, and to ch eck th a t you u n derstan d th e logic y o u r c a lc u la to r uses.

1 U sing y o u r c a lc u la to r fin d a n g le d , given th a t

cos A = 62+ s * ~ y
2x6x5
The c o rre c t a n sw e r is A = 29.9°.

• If you w ere c o rre c t try th e next q u e stio n .

• If y o u g o t 0.866 6 6 6 ... you have fo u n d th e cosine o f th e angle. Press j shift | j cos f [| Ans f
to g et th e angle.
• If yo u g o t 0.52 y o u r c a lc u la to r is set in radians. C hange to degrees and recalculate.
• If y o u g o t 780, o r 60.85 o r any o th e r im p o s s ib le re s u lt you have p ro b a b ly n o t fo llo w e d
th e advice a bove to p u t brackets ro und th e n u m e ra to r and d e n o m in a to r.
2 U sing y o u r c a lc u la to r fin d side a, given th a t

a2 = 72+ 52- 2 x 5 x 7 x cos 150°

The c o rre c t answ e r is a = 11.6.

• If you w ere c o rre c t you are ready to proceed w ith th e rest o f th e chapter!
• If yo u g o t 134.62... you have fo u n d a2 n o t a. Find th e square ro o t to finish th e q u e stio n .
• If yo u g o t 5.01 o r 25.05 y o u r c a lc u la to r is in radians. C hange to degrees.
• If yo u g o t -3 .4 6 , o r any o th e r im p o s s ib le answ er, you have n o t fo llo w e d th e advice to
e n te r th e v alues in to y o u r c a lc u la to r e xactly as th e y a p p e a r in th e q u e stio n . Do n o t
w o rk o u t p a rt o f th e c a lc u la tio n firs t o r p u t brackets in to th e ca lcu la to r.

543
 Answer 4
a c o s R = P! + ^ - r
2 pq

cos r = (7:( 2;X8;7 X- 8 ") )

cos« = -0 .0 7 1 4 2 8 ...
R = 9 4 .0 9 6 0 ...
Angle PRQ = 94.1° to 1 decimal place.
q2= p 2+ r2 - 2pr cos Q
q2= 62+ 42—2 x 6 x 4 x cos 100°
q2= 60.33511...
q = 7.767 56...
PR = 7.77cm to 3 significant figures.

Exercise 21.3
Calculate th e values represented by letters in th e fo llo w in g triangles. All lengths are in
centim etres.

3 4

5 6

7 In tria n g le ABC, A C - 15 cm , BC = 12 cm and a n g le /lC B = 30°. C a lcu la te th e le n g th o f AB.

8 In tria n g le DEF, D F = 5 cm , E F = 11 cm and angle D FE = 112°. C a lculate th e le n g th o f DE.

9 In tria n g le GHJ, GH = 3 .1 c m , GJ = 6.7 cm and HJ = 4.9 cm . C alculate an g le GHJ.
10 In tria n g le KLM, KM = 3 5 cm , KL = 15.1cm and angle LKM = 130°. C a lcu la te th e le ngth o f LM.

The ne xt exercise m ixes sine ru le and cosine rule so th a t you get p ractice in d e c id in g w h ic h to
use, and also p ro vid e s som e exam ples in w h ic h you w ill have to use both.
 I 21 Trigonometry!!

Exercise 21.4
1 C a lcu late th e values represented by letters in these q u estions. You m ay n o t have to use all
the in fo rm a tio n in the q u estions. All th e lengths are in ce ntim etres.

2 A s h ip leaves a p o rt P and sails fo r 21 kilo m e tre s on a b e a rin g o f 073°. It th e n alters course

to a b e a rin g 125° and sails 13 kilom e tres.

Copy th e dia g ra m and fill in th e in fo rm a tio n given,

a Find th e angle a.
b C alculate th e d is ta n c e d ,
c Find th e angle c.
d Find th e b e a rin g on w h ic h th e s hip m u s t sail to
return to p o rt P.

545
21 Trigonometry II J

21.6 Area of a Triangle

You already know how to calculate the area o f a
trian g le if you are given, o r can find, the base and the
height.
However, there is a nother useful form ula w hich can
be used if you know tw o sides and th e included
angle. The included angle is the angle between the
tw o know n sides.

Look at Figure 21.11.

Suppose you are given th e lengths o f AC (b) and CB

F ig u re 2 1 .1 1 Finding th e area o f a
(a), and th e size o f angle C.
trian g le
Drop a perpendicular line from A to BC. If BC is the
base o f the triangle then th is perpendicular is th e height.

s in C = 5 f i e 4
hyp b
h = b x s \r\C

The area o f triangle A B C = jX B C x h

= ^ x a x fc x s in C

T h e a re a o f tr ia n g le A B C = ^ab sinC

This form ula is often used and does n o t have to be derived each tim e.
Remember, the area is 'h a lf th e p rod uct o f the tw o sides tim es th e sine o f the angle between
th e m ’.
It does n o t m atte r if th e angle is obtuse, th e area w ill still be correct.

Example 5
Calculate the area of triangle PQR, where PQ = 15.1 cm, QR = 17.2 cm and angle PQR = 50°.
Answer 5
Q

Area of triangle PQR = ^pr - xQ= ^2-x 17.5 x 15.1 x sin 50°
2r - -sin
= 99.4785...
Area of triangle PQR = 99.5 cm2to 3 significant figures.

\
546
 ( 21 Trigonometry II

Exercise 21.5
1 c a lc u la te th e areas o f th e fo llo w in g triangles.

a b
5 ci

e In tria n g le /4 B C ,/lB = /tC = 1 0 cm , Z A B C = 60°.

C a lcu la te th e area o f tria n g le ^S C .

2 U sing th e fo llo w in g triangles, c a lc u la te

i th e a n gle m a rked x
ii th e angle m a rke d y
iii th e area o f th e tria n g le .

2 1 .7 Three-dimensional Trigonometry
You need to be ab le to a p p ly P ythag oras’ th e o re m , sine, cosine and ta n g e n t ratios and th e
sine and co sin e rules to th re e -d im e n s io n a l o b je c ts such as pyram ids.

Example 6
A
B 8 cm C

4.5 t

ABCDEFGH is a cuboid.
AB = 5 cm, BC = 8 cm and»H = 4.5cm.
Calculate
a BH b GE c BE
d angle GBE e angle HBE.
21 Trigonometry II J

Answer 6
a BH is the diagonal of the rectangle ABGH:
A 5 cm B

4.5 cm

H G

Using Pythagoras’ theorem,

BH2= 52+ 4.52
BH2= 45.25
BH = 6.72681...
BH = 6.73 cm
b GE is the diagonal of rectangle EFGH.
Using Pythagoras’ theorem,
GE2= 82+ 52
GE2= 89
G£ = 9.43398...
G f= 9.43 cm
c BE is the hypotenuse of triangle BEG.

BE2= 4.52+ 9.433 982

BE2 = 109.249 97...
BE =10.45227...
BE= 10.5 cm
d tan ZGBE = ^ - = ^
flG 4.5
tan ZGBE= 2.095 55555...
ZGBE= 64.4895...
angle GBE= 64.5°
e Angle HBE is in triangle BEH.
EH is perpendicular to ABGH so it is perpendicular to BH.
We now know all the sides of triangle BEH so any of the ratios can be used to find ZHBE.

should use thfe memory -

facility on your calculator
to obtain the best
accuracy. In part (c) if
G E=9.43 had been used
tan Z * B E = f = ^
instead of GE= 9.43398...
the answer obtained tan ZHBE =1.18870..
would have been Z H B f = 49.927 77...
BE= 10.4cm. angle HB£ = 49.9°

548
 ^ 21 Trigonometry II

Make sure th a t you have w o rke d th ro u g h th is exam ple c a re fu lly and u n d e rs to o d it. You sh o u ld
see th a t it can be a help to d ra w d ia g ra m s as you go along.

1he q u e s tio n s you w ill be asked w ill n o t be as lo n g as this, b u t th is exa m p le sh o u ld have

he lpe d yo u u n d e rsta n d w h a t is required.

Exercise 21.6
i ABCDE is a square-based pyram id. F is th e p o in t o f
in te rs e c tio n o f th e d ia g o n a ls o f th e base. M is th e
m id p o in t o f th e s ide CD.
BC = 5 ce n tim e tre s , A F = 6 centim etres.
a C alculate EC. b C a lcu la te AC.
D
c C alculate angle d C a lculate angle
ACF. AMF.

The dia g ra m show s a c u b e w ith each side o f le ngth 8 ce n tim e tre s.

C alcu late th e len gth o f th e d ia g o n a l show n.
A ABCDEFis an isosceles tria n g u la r prism w ith
D E = E F = A C = A B = 1 centim etres.
The length o f th e prism is 15 ce n tim etres.
A n g le O F F is 4 0 °
a C a lcu la te th e le n g th o f DF.
b C alculate th e length o f DB.
c C alculate th e le n g th o f EB.
d Use th e co sin e rule in tria n g le BDE to c a lc u la te
th e angle EBD.

Exercise 21.7
M ixed exercise

U sing th e d ia g ra m , ca lc u la te
a AC b AD
c th e area o f ABCD d a n g le BAD.
21 TriBonometnHi J

The d ia g ra m show s a circle, c e n tre 0, and radius

10 ce n tim e tre s. A ngle CAB = 50°,
a Find angle BOC.
b C a lc u la te th e length o f th e c h o rd BC.
c C a lc u la te th e area o fth e q u a d rila te ra l ABCO.

10 cm

ABCD is a p a ra lle lo g ra m , and X is th e p o in t o f in te rs e c tio n o f th e dia g o n a ls.

A n gle ABC is 45°.
C a lcula te
a AC b DB
c a n g le A Y fi d th e area o f tria n g le >4CD.

U sing th e d ia g ra m a bove ca lc u la te

a BD b AD
c a ngle DAB d th e area o f th e qu a d rila te ra M B C D .

ABCD is a square, w ith sides o f length (b + c) ce n tim e tre s.

PQRS is a n o th e r square w ith sides o f length a ce ntim etres,
a W rite d o w n th e area o fth e square ABCD in te rm s o f b and c.
b W rite d o w n th e area o f th e square PQRS.

\
550
 ^ 21 Trigonometry II

c W rite d o w n th e area o f tria n g le APS in term s o f b and c.

. TU ti. • i A m AB C D -PQ R S
d The area of tria n g le ASP = --------- — - — .
W rite A B C D -PQ R S -n te rm s 0 f ancj c

e P ut these tw o expressions fo r the area o f the tria n g le ASP e qual to each other.
By m u ltip ly in g o u t th e brackets and s im p lify in g sh o w th a t
a 2 = b2 + c2.
f W h at have you ju s t proved by a lgebraic m eans?

Exam-style questions
_______________________________________ j

6 C

D iagram I
In D iagram I, th e p o in t D lies on AC and N is th e fo o t o f th e p e rp e n d ic u la r fro m C to BD.
AB = 61 m, AD = 30 m and DC = 45 m.
A n gle B A C = 41°.
a C a lcu la te BD.
b S h o w th a t, c o rre c t to th e nearest square m etre, th e area o f tria n g le BDA is 600 m 2.
c Explain w h y a re a o .T ^ P = | .
r 1 area of ABDA 2
d C a lcu la te th e area o f tria n g le BCD.
e H ence c a lc u la te CN.
f c

D iagram II
The sam e p o in ts B, C, D and N lie on a s lo p in g plane.
The p o in t E is 15 m v e rtic a lly b e lo w C.
The p o in ts 6, E, D and N lie o n a h o riz o n ta l plane.
D iagram II repre sents th is in fo rm a tio n .
C a lcula te th e angle o f e le va tio n o f C fro m N. (4024 paper 02 Q9 J u n e 2007)
21 Trigonometry II J

NOT TO SCALE

A, B, C and D tie on a circle.

AC and BD intersect atX .
Angle/4BX=55° and angleA\'B = 92°.
B X = 26.8cm, A X = 4 0.3 cm and >CC=20.1cm.
a Calculate the area of triangle AX’S . You m u s t sh o w y o u r w o rk in g ,
b Calculate the length of AB. You m u s t sh o w y o u r w o rk in g ,
c W ritedown the size of ang\e ACD. Give a reason for your answer,
d Find the size of angle BDC.
e Write down the geometrical word which completes the statement
‘Triangle AXB is___________ to triangle DXC
f Calculate the length ofXD. You m u s t show y o u r w o rk in g . (0580 paper 04 Q3a June 2007)

8 a Use your calculator to w orkout

1 — (ta n <1Q°);
2(tan40°)
b Write your answer to part (a) in standard form. (0580 p a p e r 02 Q2 June 2007)

9 Calculate the value of (cos 40°)2+ (sin 40°)2. (0580 pa p e r 02 Q4 June 2005)

10

Mark-
' Water

The he ig h t, h m etres, o f th e w ater, a b o ve a m a rk o n a h a rb o u r w a ll, changes w ith th e tid e .

It is given by th e e q u a tio n
/i = 3sin (30f)°
w h e re t is th e tim e in hours a fte r m idday.
 ^ 21 Trigonometry II

a C alcu late th e value o f h at m idday,

b C a lcu la te th e value o f h a t 1900.
c Explain th e m e a n in g o fth e negative sign in y o u r answ er. (0580 paper 02 Q17 June 2005)

NOT TO SCALE

The d ia g ra m show s a rig h t-a n g le d triangle.

The le n gth s o f th e sides are given in term s o f y.
S how th a t 2 f - 8_y - 3 = 0.
i Solve th e e q u a tio n 2 / - 8 y - 3 = 0, g ivin g y o u r answ ers to 2 d e c im a l places.
ii C a lcu late th e area o fth e tria n g le . (0580 p a per 04 Q8b June 2006)

12

A, B, C and D are fo u r p o in ts on h o riz o n ta l g round .

CBD is a s tra ig h t line.
AD = 65 m an d CD = 84 m.
DAB = 48° and ADB = 60°.
a C a lc u la te d .
b C a lcu la te th e area o f tria n g le ACD.
c C a lc u la te d .
d A v e rtic a l tre e o f h e ig h t 35 m stands a t A
P is th e p o in t on th e line BC such th a t th e angle o f e le v a tio n fro m th e line BC to th e to p
o f th e tre e is greatest.
C a lcu la te th is angle o f e le v a tio n . (4024 pa p e r 21 Q9 N o ve m b e r 2012)

13 A x cm

NOT TO SCALE

In triangle/ABC, AB = 2 x c m ,A C - =x c m , BC = 21 cm and angle BAC = 120°.

C a lcu la te th e value o fx . (0580 paper 21 Q l l J u n e 2008)
21 TrtBonometryll J

1 4 sin x° = 0.86603 and 0 « x = 180 .

Find th e tw o values o f x. (0580 p a per 2 1 Q6 N o ve m b e r 2008)

W hen th e area o f tria n g le ABC is 48 c m 2,

sh o w th a t x 2 + A x - 96 = 0,
solve th e e q u a tio n x 2 + 4 x - 96 = 0,
ii w rite d o w n th e le n g th o f AB.
b W hen ta n y = ^ , fin d th e value o f x.
c W hen th e le n g th o f AC is 9 cm ,
i sh o w th a t 2x2 + 8 x - 65 = 0,
ii s o lv e th e e q u a tio n 2 x 2 + 8 x - 6 5 = 0,
(S how y o u r w o rk in g and give y o u r a nsw ers c o rre c t to 2 d e c im a l places.)
iii c a lc u la te th e p e rim e te r o f triangle-46C . (0580 p a p e r0 4 Q 2 N o ve m b e r 2008)

16

NOT TO SCALE

In tria n g le PQR, an g le QPR is acute, P Q - 1 0 c m a n d PR = 14cm .

a The area o f tria n g le PQR is 48 c m 2.
C a lcula te angle QPR a nd sh o w th a t it ro u n d s to 43.3°, c o rre c t to 1 d e c im a l place. You
m u s t s h o w all y o u r w o rk in g ,
b C a lcu la te th e length o f th e side QR. (0580 p a p e r 04 Q3 June 2009)

\
554
 1 21 TriBonometry II

The rig h t-a n g le d tria n g le show n in the dia g ra m has sides o f length 7 x c m , 2 4 x c m and
150 cm .
a S how th a t x 2 = 36.
b C a lcu la te th e p e rim e te r o f th e tria n g le . (0580 paper 02 Q10 N ove m b er 2006)

NOT TO SCALE

M ah m o u d is w o rk in g o u t th e h e ig h t, h m etres, o f a to w e r BT w h ic h stands on level g ro u n d .

He m easures th e a ngle TAB as 25°.
He c a n n o t m easure th e d ista n ce AB and so he w a lks 80 m fro m A to BT, w h e re angle ACB -
18° and a ngle ABC = 90°.
C alcu late
a th e dista nce /16 ,
b th e h e ig h t o f th e tow er, BT. (0580 pa p e r 21 Q15 June 2009)

19

NOT TO SCALE

The d ia g ra m show s th e p o s itio n s o f fo u r citie s in Africa, W in d h o e k (14/), J o h a n n e s b u rg (J),

Harari (H) and Lusaka (L).

f
555
21 IHg— nwtryll J

WL = 1400 km and WH = 1600 km.

Angle LWH = 13°, angle HWJ = 36° and angle WJH = 95°.
a C a lcu la te th e d ista n ce LH.
b C alcu late th e d ista n ce WJ.
c C a lcu la te th e area o f q u a d rila te ra l WJHL.
d The b e a rin g o f Lusaka fro m W in d h o e k is 060°.
C a lcula te th e b e a rin g o f
i H arari fro m W in d h o e k, ii W in d h o e k fro m J o hannesburg,
e On a m a p th e d ista n ce betw een W in d h o e k and H arari is 8 c m .
C alcu late th e scale o fth e m a p in th e fo rm 1 : n. (0580 p a p e r 04 Q2 N o ve m b e r 2006)

2 0 The base o f a p yra m id is a square w ith d ia g o n a ls o f le n g th 6 cm .

The s lo p in g faces are isosceles tria n g le s w ith e q u a l sides o f le n g th 7 cm .
The h e ig h t o f th e p y ra m id is V /cm .
C a lc u la te /.

Diagram I show s a triangle A B C in w h ic h = 7 em,/\C - 8 cm and oA c — 120” .

a S h ow th a t 8 C = 13cm .
b C a lcu la te th e area o f tria n g le ABC.

D iagram II
The sides o fth e tria n g le ABC, show n in D iagram I, are ta n g e n ts to a c irc le w ith centre O
and radius rc e n tim e tre s .
 [ 21 Trigonometry II

The c ircle to u ch e s th e sides BC, CA and AB a t P, Q and R respectively, as show n in

D iagram II.
i Find an expression, in te rm s o f r, fo r th e area o f tria n g le OBC.
ii By s im ila rly c o n s id e rin g th e areas o f tria n g le s OAB and OAC, fin d an expression, in
te rm s o f r, fo r th e area o f tria n g le -46C.
iii H ence fin d th e value o f r.
d C a lcu la te th e percentage o f th e area o f tria n g le ABC th a t is n o t o ccu p ie d by th e circle.
(4024 paper 02 Q9 June 2004)

The dia g ra m represents so m e beam s w h ic h s u p p o rt p a rt o f

a roof.
AD and BC are h o riz o n ta l and CDE is v e rtical.
AC = 8 m etres, BAC = 78°, ACD = 35° and CAE = 90°.
C a lc u la te th e length o f th e beam
a AD,
b CE,
c AB. (4024 pa p e r 02 Q1 N o ve m b e r 2004)

Three paths, AB, BC and CA, run a lo n g th e edges o f a h o riz o n ta l tria n g u la r fie ld ABC.
8C = 5 1 m ,/4 C = 7 2 m and angley4CB = 81°.
a C a lcu la te th e length o f AB.
b C a lcu la te th e area o f th e fie ld ABC.
c C a lcu la te th e s h o rte s t d is ta n c e fro m C to AB.
d A v e rtic a l tree, CT, has its base a t C.
The angle o f e le v a tio n o f th e to p o f th e tre e fro m A is 15°.
C a lcu la te th e h e ig h t o f th e tree,
e J o h n m easured th e largest a n g le o f e le v a tio n o f th e to p o f th e tre e as seen fro m th e
p a th AB.
C a lcu la te th is angle o f e le v a tio n . (4024 p a p e r 02 Q7 N o ve m b e r 2004)
21 TrigowamBtnf H J

In th e d ia g ra m , th e q u a d rila te ra l ABCD represents a level park w ith a pa th BD.

AB = 600 m , BC = 1040 m , BD = 950 m , CBD = 42° and BAD = 118°.
a C alculate
i a ngle ABD,
ii th e le n g th o f CD,
i i i th e s h o rte s t d ista n ce fro m C to BD.
b A h e lic o p te r fle w d ire c tly above th e p ath BD a t a c o n s ta n t h e ig h t o f 500 m.
C a lcula te th e g re a te st angle o f d e pression o f th e p o in t C as seen by a passenger o n th e
helicop ter.
(4024 p a p e r 02 Q 9 June 2005)

25 North

T h ree po in ts, A, B and C, lie on a h o riz o n ta l field.

A n gle BAC = 75° and th e b e a rin g o f C fro m /I is 217°.
AB = 72 m and AC = 60 m.
 ^ 21 Trigonometry II

a C alcu late
i the b e aring o f B from A, ii BC,
iii ang\e ABC, iv the b e aring o f C from B.
b A girl s ta n d in g at 6 is fly in g a kite.
The kite, K, is v e rtic a lly above A.
The string, BK, a tta ch e d to the kite is at 24° to the h o rizo n ta l.
C a lcu la te the angle o f e le v a tio n o f the kite w hen
vie w e d fro m C. (4024 p a per 02 Q8 N o ve m b e r 2005)

The d ia g ra m show s a fo o tp a th PR across a park PQRS.

PQ = 64 m, PR = 53 m, PS = 74 m and QR = 91 m.
A ngle PR S= 68°.
C alculate
a QPR,
b RPS,
c th e area o f tria n g le PRS. (4024 pa per 02 Q3 N o ve m b e r 2006)

2 7 A v e rtic a l fla g p o le , BF, stands a t th e to p o f a hill.

AB is th e stee pe st pa th up th e hilt.
N lies v e rtic a lly b e lo w B and ANB = 90°.
A N — 100 m a n d A B — 104 m .

a S how th a t BN = 28.6m .
b It is given th a t = 25°.
i W rite d o w n th e size o f th e angle o f d epression o f A fro m F.
ii C a lcu la te th e height, BF, o fth e flagpole.
21 Trigonometry 11 J

The diagram shows three o th e r straight paths (CB, DB and ACD) on th e hill.
The path ACD is horizontal and BAC = NAC = 90°.
CN and DN are horizontal lines.
i Given th a M C = 6 0 m, calculate BCN.
ii Given th a t BDN = 10°, calculate DBA. (4024 paper 02 Q9 N ovem ber 2006)

The p o in ts/4 ,6, C and D represent fo u r tow ns on a map.

/4SC is a straight line.
AB = 2 4 cm, BD = 1 6 cm and CD = 20 cm.
Angle ABD = 112°.
a Calculate
i AD,
ii angle BCD,
iii the area o f triangle/lS D .
b The scale o f the m ap is 1:2 50 0 00 .
Calculate th e actual distance, in kilom etres, from to w n A to to w n 8.
(4024 paper 02 Q5 Novem ber 2007)
 ^ 21 Trigonometry II

The d ia g ra m show s th e p o s itio n s o f a harbou r, H, a lig h th o u s e , L, and tw o buoys/4 and B.

HAB is a s tra ig h t line.
The b e aring o f A fro m H is 042°.
HA = 4.5 kvn,AL = 2.8 km and HAL = 115°.
a Find th e b e arin g of
i H fro m A, ii L from A.
b C alcu la te
i HL, i th e area o f tria n g le HAL.
c A b o a t sailed fro m th e h a rb o u r a lo n g th e line HAB.
i C alculate th e s h o rte s t d ista n ce betw een th e b o a t and th e lighthouse.
ii The b o a t sailed at a c o n s ta n t speed o f 3 m /s.
Given th a t th e b o a t reached A at 0715, fin d at w h a t tim e it left th e harbour.

(4024 paper 02 Q9 June 2008)

561
22 Transformations, Vectors
and Matrices

In this ch a p ter you w ill find o u t about:

• th e m a g n itu d e o f a vecto r
• com b ining vectors
• divid in g a line in a given ratio

22.1 Introduction
We now look fu rth er a t vectors and transform ations. We w ill study h ow m atrices can be
used to describe transform ations.

22.2 Essential Skills

1 Describe fully each o f the fo llo w in g single transform ations. In each case A is m apped to 6.

-6 - -6 -

-5 - -5 J

-4 - /
J i 4
I A
> / A
-3 - 3 (
J - — 7
VA
-2 - / £3 /
-2- /
(
-4 - -1 - /

0 2 $ 4 a 0 3 4 II 6

562
 [ 22 Transformations, Vectors and Matrices

u 6 _____ _
/
/
L> / 5 -----__ ___ - t -
/ A 7
/
4
/ 4 ! . ..
J
B
o 3 r
J J /
j I ...

o ! 2
£- /
/ A 1
J B
1 ( 1 /

0 r t C ( 0 % t f> *
*>

2 S im p lify th e fo llo w in g vectors.

b 3
3 41 0 j + l5 u m ;
3 F in d x a n d y.

■M -G )
4 W hich o f these vectors are parallel?

b c=
~ (U
(4

'-(1 )
5 W ha t th re e th in g s can you say a b o u t th e re la tio n s h ip betw e e n th e se tw o vectors?

-U ) -(1 )

22.3 More About Vectors

M agnitude of a Vector
Vectors have a d ire c tio n and a m a g n itu d e . Figure 22.1 show s tw o vectors, a and b, th a t have
th e sam e m a g n itu d e b u t d iffe re n t d ire c tio n s , and tw o vectors c and d w h ic h have th e sam e
d ire c tio n b u t d iffe re n t m a g n itu d e s.

F ig u re 2 2 .1 Vectors have m ag n itu d e and direction

Each o f these vectors w o u ld p ro d u c e an im age in a d iffe re n t place w h e n a p p lie d to an o b je c t.

22 Transformations, Vectors and Matrices
Key terms
The m o d u lu s of a vector
is the same as the length
or magnitude of the
vector.
A d ire c te d lin e
segm ent A & , is the
particular vector which
joins the p o in ts to the
point 6.
564
J
The le n g th o f a v e c to r is easy to c a lc u la te using P ythag oras’ th eore m .
F ig u re 2 2 .2 Length o f a vecto r
Figure 22.2 sho w s h o w th e v e c to r can be p a rt o f a rig h t-a n g le d tria n g le . T he tw o p a rts o f th e
v e c to r m a ke up tw o sides o f th e tria n g le , and th e v e c to r its e lf is th e hyp o te n u se .
The len gth o f th e v e c to r^ as show n in Figure 22.2 is V (-3 )2 + 42 = n/9 + 16 = 5.
N o tice h o w th e fa c t th a t th e x -c o m p o n e n t is negative 3 m akes no d iffe re n ce w h e n w e are
c a lc u la tin g le n g th and n o t d ire c tio n , s in c e - 3 b e c o m e s +9 w h e n squared.
The ve cto rs in Figure 22.3 all have d iffe re n t d ire c tio n s b u t th e sam e le n g th s (5 units).
F ig u re 2 2 .3 Vectors w ith th e sam e length
The s h o rth a n d n o ta tio n fo r th e length o f th e v e c to r a is |o|, w h ic h is read 'th e m o d u lu s o f o ’, o r
s im p ly 'm o d o ’. T he length o f a v e c to r m ay also be referred to as th e m a g n itu d e o f th e vector.
So if a = ( j j , th e n \a\ = J ^ T f -
The p a rtic u la r v e c to r w h ic h jo in s th e p o in ts to th e p o in t 6 is w ritte n A § , and is ca lle d a
d ire c ted lin e s e g m e n t (Figure 22.4). ‘ D ire cte d ’ m eans it has a d irection, th a t is fro m A to B
(show n by th e arrow ), and ‘lin e s e g m e n t’ m eans th a t it is o n ly p a rt o f a line, th a t is, th e part
b e tw e en A and B. The line its e lf can g o o n in d e fin ite ly .
The len gth (or m a g n itu d e ) o f A B , o r th e m o d u lu s o f ~AB, is w ritte n |/48|, and |/48| = |6/\|.
------------------------------------•-------------------- ► »-------------------------------------------------
A B
F ig u re 2 2 .4 The d irected line segm ent from A to B
Combining Vectors
In C h a p te r 10 w e saw th a t v ectors can be a dded to p ro d u c e a new v e c to r w h ic h has the sam e
e ffe ct as a p p ly in g th e o rig in a l vectors o n e after another. We also saw th a t v e c to rs w h ic h have
th e sam e d ire c tio n and m a g n itu d e are eq u iva le n t.
 [ 22 Transformations, Weclors and Matrices

This m eans th a t v e cto rs m ay be d ra w n anyw here on y o u r d ia g ra m and w ill alw ays have th e
sam e e ffe ct as lo n g as th e y are p o in tin g in th e sam e d ire c tio n and have th e sam e m a g n itu d e .

The firs t d ia g ra m in Figure 22.5 sh o w s tw o vectors a and b d ra w n on tw o edges o f a re cta n g le

PQRS. The second d ia g ra m sh o w s th a t these tw o vectors m a y also be repre sen ted on th e
o th e r sides o f th e rectangle, because th e o p p o s ite sides are p a ra lle l and o f eq u a l le n g th .
N o tice th a t th e c o rre s p o n d in g a rro w s m u s t p o in t in th e sam e d ire c tio n in th e tw o dia g ra m s.

Q R Q b R

P b S P S

F ig u re 2 2 .5 Vectors have th e sam e effect e veryw h ere

S u pp ose w e w a n te d to get fro m P to R on th e rectangle. W e co u ld go from :

• P to Q and th e n fro m Q to R,
• fro m P to S and th en fro m S to R , o r
• d ire c tly fro m P to R.

In te rm s o f dire c te d lin e segm ents:

P $ + Q f i= P $ + S R =P$
a nd in te rm s o f vectors:

a + b = b + a = ~P$

T his s ho w s th a t vecto rs m ay be c o m b in e d to give a single v e c to r if th e y are jo in e d 'h e a d to

ta il’, th a t is, if th e arro w s fo llo w ro u n d , w ith o u t a break.

It is c o n v e n ie n t to th in k o f c o m b in in g vectors as g o in g on a jo u rn e y . T here are often several

ro u te s, b u t th e sta rt a n d th e e n d o f th e jo u r n e y a re th e s a m e .

Figure 22.6 show s th a t th e v ectors m a y be jo in e d in any o rd e r as lo n g as th e ‘head to ta il’ rule

is fo llo w e d . T he d o u b le a rro w show s in each case th e s in g le v e c to r w h ic h is e q u iv a le n t to th e
a d d itio n . T his is ofte n ca lle d th e re s u lta n t v e c to r.

You w ill see th a t th e re su lta n t is th e sam e regardless o f th e o rd e r in w h ic h th e vectors are added.

In each case S is th e s ta rt and F th e finish.

Figure 22.6 R esultant vectors

22 Transformations. Vectors and Matrices J

In te rm s o f c o lu m n vectors, if a = f 1J , b = ^ c = ( o ] t 'ie n

•♦* * ‘ -(3 -2 « + 3 ) = (l

a nd so on.

Example 1
ABCDEFis a regular hexagon.
Copy the diagram, D
a F in d *in terms o fp a n d /o r q.
b Find y in terms ofp and/or q and/or r. NOT TO SCALE
c Find z in terms o fp and/or q and/or r.

Answer 1
a AC =Af} + 6 ?
x =p + q

b a d = a? + b ? + cd
y=p+q+r

c z = fcT = fF + A B + B ?
z = —r + p + q

V______________

You sh o u ld be aw are th a t, w h ile w e can d ire c tly add vectors w h e n th e y are p o in tin g in
d iffe re n t d ire c tio n s , and jo in e d head to ta il, th e sam e d oes n o t a p p ly to le n g th s o f lines.

For exam ple, lo o k a t th e tria n g le in Figure 22.7, w h e re a is th e v e c to r P iJ a nd b is th e v e c to r

S u b tra c tio n o f one v e c to r fro m a n o th e r is d e a lt w ith by a d d in g th e negative o f th e v e c to r to

be su b tra c te d .

For exam ple, lo o k at th e tw o d iagram s in Figure 22.8.

R R

Figure 22.7 A dding vectors is not th e sam e as addin g lengths

\
566
 ^ 22 Transformations, Vectors and Matrices

In th e first, x = a + b, and in the s e c o n d ,, = a - b.

F ig u re 2 2 .8 V e c to r s u b tra c tio n : x = a + b ,y = - b + a = a - b

Multiplying a Vector by a Num ber

M u ltip ly in g a v e c to r by a po sitive n u m b e r alters its le ngth b u t n o t its d ire c tio n . The firs t line
draw n in Figure 22.9 show s the directed line s e g m e n t^ ? , w h ic h is representative o f th e v e cto r v.
The second line draw n show s M, th e m id p o in t o f th e line/16. It can be seen th a t th e d ire c te d
line se g m e n t AW is eq ual to th e d ire c te d line seg m e n t M4, w h ic h is equal to ^v.

The th ird line show s th e line e xtended to C, w here AB = BC. Itc a n be s e e n th a t^ ? " = 2v.

A B a M B A

F ig u re 2 2 .9 M u ltip ly in g a v e c to r by a n u m b e r

Example 2
Draw a parallelogram ABCD.
Mark M, the midpoint of BD.
AD = p, A& = q.
F in d t h e fo llo w in g d ir c c t c d lin e s e g m e n t s in t e r m s of/> a n d «f.
a W b AC
c M + BM d AM
e What can you say about AM and AC" and hence about the diagonals of a parallelogram?
Answer 2
D C

A q B
a BD =BA +AD = ~ q + p = p ~ q

b AC =AB +B? =q+P

c AB + W = AB + \ BD = q + j { p ~ q ) = \ ( p + q)

d AM=AB +BM = \ ( p + q)

e AM = ^AC = ^ (p + q)

Therefore M is also the midpoint of AC, and hence the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect
each other.
22 Transformations, Vectors and Matrices J

Dividing a Line in a Given Ratio

T he lin e n s is to be d iv id e d in th e ra tio 2 : 3 by th e p o in t C.

J u s t as in o rd in a ry ra tio q u e s tio n s w e th in k o f d iv id in g th e lin e in to 5 e q u a l parts,

(because 2 + 3 = 5). See Figure 22.10.

Then A C = 2 p arts and CB = 3 parts,

A C - ^ A B and also^C?" = | A § .

It is im p o rta n t to n o tic e th a t d iv id in g th e lin e BA in th e sam e ra tio w o u ld m o v e C nearer to B.

T he o rd e r o f th e letters s p e c ifyin g th e lin e se g m e n t m a tte rs.
• i----------------- » i------------------1-----------------•
A C B

F ig u re 2 2 .1 0 D ividing a line in a ratio

s
Exam ple 3
a Draw a triangledfiC. Mark the point D which divides BC in the ratio 3 : 2 .
A&= p and AC" = q.
b Find W in terms o fp and q.
Answ er 3
a B

b A D = M + B (T

To find ]bB '■

m = ffiT
B6 = | (~p + q)
so W = p + l ( ~ p + q)

M )= \p + f q
V____________________________________________

Parallel Vectors
As seen in C h a p te r 10, if on e v e c to r is a m u ltip le o f a n o th e r, e ith e r p o s itiv e o r negative, th e n
th e tw o vectors are p a ra lle l to each other.

H ow ever, th e y co u ld also be in th e sam e s tra ig h t line, as in Figure 22.11, fo r exam ple.

s
__ I__
j,
£!
r

Figure 22.11

568
 ^ 22 Transformations, Vectors and Matrices

In Figure 22.11, J B and A t are p a rallel (have the sam e d ire c tio n , b u t in o p p o s ite senses), b u t
th e y have the p o in ts in c o m m o n , so th is can o n ly be tru e if th e y are in th e sam e s tra ig h t line.
We say th a t 'A is c o m m o n to b o th ’, m e a n in g th a t/\ be lo n g s to both. The fa c to r -2 show s th a t
th e y are p o in tin g in o p p o s ite senses, and th a t AC is tw ic e as lo n g as A B .

Example 4
a Show that the vectors u = ^ j , v = ^ ~ and w = P j are all parallel to each other,

b What else can you say about these three vectors?

Answer 4

1 1
-u = — V = w
2 6

Therefore the vectors are all parallel,

b u is twice as long as w.
v is six times as long as w.
v is in the opposite direction (sense) to u and w.
v is three times as long as u.
u = 2w, v = - 6 tv, v = - 3 u.

Exercise 22.1
1 Find th e le n gths o f these vectors. Leave y o u r answ ers in surd (square root) fo rm , s im p lifie d
w h e re possible.
. ( 3^
1
( )

a Find
i u+v+w ii 2 u - 3w III u-v-w
b Find
i |« + v| II u -v II I u-v-w

3 ABCD is a p a ra lle lo g ra m .
AB = u and AD = v.
a Find AC in te rm s o f u and v. b Find ~B5 in te rm s o f u and v.

4 PQRS is a kite.
M is th e m id p o in t o f QS.
Q

569
22 Transformations. Vectors and Matrices J

a W hy is P ^ n o t equal to a + b?
b W rite QS in te rm s o f a and b.
c W rite PM in te rm s o f a and fc.

5 ABCDEFis a re g u la r hexagon.
M is th e c e n tre o f th e hexagon, and p, q and r a r e vectors as show n.
c

NOT TO SCALE

F
a C opy th e fig u re and m a rk all th e o th e r rep re se n ta tive s o f p,q and r. R em em ber th a t
th e fig u re is a regular hexagon. For exam ple, MC = p .
Find, in te rm s o f p a n d /o r q a n d /o r r th e fo llo w in g d ire c te d line segm ents, s im p lify in g
w h e re necessary.
b i M ii W iii AD iv TM
v m + C§ v i Z P '- A B vii W + M + W

Position Vectors
The p o s itio n ve ctors o f p o in ts on a pla n e are th e v e c to rs draw n fro m a c o m m o n origin
Key term to th e p o in ts. It is c o n v e n ie n t to label th e p o s itio n v e cto rs w ith th e sam e le tte rs as
A position vector,/>, is th e c o rre s p o n d in g p o in ts , b u t w ith th e vectors in lo w e rc a s e , and in b o ld (u n d e rlin e if
the vector w hich joins h a n d w ritte n ).
the origin to the point P.
Figure 22.12 show s th e p o in ts A B and C and th e ir p o s itio n ve ctors a, b and c.

F ig u re 2 2 .1 2 P o s itio n v e c to rs

These p o s itio n vectors are on a graph, so the v e c to r fo r each p o in t is th e sam e as th e

co o rd in a te s o f th e p o in t, expressed as a c o lu m n v e c to r in each case.

H ow ever, th e p o s itio n vectors d o n o t have to be on a graph, and any p o in t on th e dia g ra m

can be taken as th e o rigin. It s h o u ld be lab e lle d 0 to avoid any confusion.

For exam ple, Figure 22.13 show s a p a ra lle lo g ra m , OABC.

 ^ 22 Transformations, Vectors and Matrices

F ig u r e 2 2 .1 3 OA = a, OB = b a n d OC = c

M is th e m id p o in t o f AB, and N is th e m id p o in t o f BC.

m is th e p o s itio n v e c to r o f M and n is th e p o s itio n v e c to r o f N.

Vectors p ro v id e a p o w e rfu l to o l fo r p ro vin g g e o m e tric a l facts. For e xam ple, using th e above
d ia g ra m w e can prove th a t MN is p a ra lle l to AC, and th a t M N = ^ A C , as you w ill see in th e
w o rke d exam ple.

Exam ple 5
Using the diagram of parallelogram OABC in Figure 22.13, find the relationship between the
lines AC and MN.
Answ er 5
AC = - a + c = c - a
MN = —m + n + n —m

m = a + ~c,
tt = c + j a

Wfi = c + ^ a —( f l + ^ c ) = c + | f l - a —^c = j c = ^« = j ( c —a)

so W = \~A?-

Hence MN is parallel to/lC and M N = j AC.

Exercise 22.2
1 ABC is a tria n g le . The p o s itio n vectors re lative to an o rig in 0 and th e v e c to rs p, q and r are
sh ow n on th e dia gram .
B

Express in te rm s o f a, b a n d /o r c:

a p b p+q c r-q d p+r

22 Transformations, Vectors and Matrices J

2 a and b are th e p o s itio n vectors o f A and 8 as sh o w n on th e diagram .

M is th e m id p o in t o fth e line/48.

Express, in te rm s o f a and b,

a ~aS b AM c m

3 PQ is a s tra ig h t line.
N d iv id e s PQ in th e ra tio 2 :1 .
D raw a d ia g ra m , s h o w in g P, Q a nd N, and th e ir p o s itio n v e c to rs ,p , q and n, relative to an
o rig in , 0.
Express, in te rm s o f p a nd q th e fo llo w in g d ire c te d lin e segm ents and vectors:
a P(J bP/7 c n d/V$

4 ABC is a tria n g le .
The s ide BC is e xtended to D, w here B C = CD, as s h o w n in th e diagram .
A

Copy th e diagram , draw an origin, 0, and show th e p o sition vectors o fth e poi n ts A 6, C a n d D.
Express th e fo llo w in g in te rm s o f a, b and c:

a b% b w c w d m
5 ABC is a tria n g le .

a F in d ^ .

b C alcu late js cj a n d \AC as s im p lifie d surds.

c U s i n g s 2, |ec|2 and |/ic|2 sh o w th a t angle ABC = 90°.

6 D raw x - and y-axes fro m - 5 to + 5 w ith 1 c e n tim e tre per u n it.

P lo t th e fo llo w in g p o in ts
/}(—1 ,-4 ), 8 (0 ,5 ) and C ( - 4 ,5).
a Find as c o lu m n vectors

i CB •• BA »i C4
iv B ? - C A v 8 ? -4 C -M
b C alculate
 1 22 Transformations. Vectors anil Matrices

22.4 More about Transformations

Translation
As w e know , tra n s la tio n s are d e fin e d by c o lu m n vectors. The a b b re v ia tio n T is used to
repre sen t a tra n s la tio n .

Example 6
T represents the translation f * 1 and A is the point (1,4), as in the diagram.

NOTE:
A'brA 1arsioften
used to represent
frif t s i l M k o M a ie fta
transformation.

Answer 6
You can use the diagram as shown below.
.V

NOTE:
This hardly needs
a diagram, as you
can see that the
components of T
are added to the
coordinates of A
but a diagram does
makes this clearer.
Notice that this use
of the vector notation
is not the same as
A = T(A) = ^J j (1, 4) = (3 + 1, -5 + 4) = (4, - 1) the multiplication of
matrices.
Either way, T maps A (l, 4) to A'(4, -1), as in the diagram.

V __________________________________________________________________

/
573
22 TransfeniMtiBiis, Vectors m i Matrices J

It is im p o rta n t th a t you sh o u ld u n d e rsta n d th a t th e v e c to r n o ta tio n T ( l, 4), o r ^ ^ jd ,4 ), does

n o t repre sen t m a trix m u ltip lic a tio n . The (1,4) represents a p a ir o f co o rd in a te s , n o t a m atrix.
The tra n s la tio n is c a lc u la te d by a d d itio n , n o t m u ltip lic a tio n . If you are in any d o u b t d ra w a
d iag ra m .

Exercise 22.3
1 lf T j = ^ an d T 2= ^ j , fin d th e im ages o f th e fo llo w in g p o in ts a fte r th e tra n s la tio n s

in d ic a te d :
a T ^ - 1 ,0 ) b T (—1,0) c T (16,7) d T (5,1)

2 Find th e c o lu m n vectors associated w ith th e fo llo w in g tra n s la tio n s :

a A (4 ,12) m aps to 8(3, -8 )
b P ( - 6 ,7) m a p s to Q (-1 5 ,0)
c y (5 ,4) m a p s to Z ( - 7 ,4 )

Enlargem ent
W h a t h a p p e n s if th e scale fa c to r fo r an e n la rg e m e n t is negative?

Figure 22.14 show s th e e n la rg e m e n t o f tria n g le 4 8 C , scale fa c to r - 2 and c e n tre (1,-1).

The im age o f tria n g le /ABC u n d e r th e e n la rg e m e n t is tria n g le /4 '8 'C '.
y

O
(J

PU

co .

<> I
6 4 2 0 \

o
3
"~£-

\
\

P
A

A'
\ ‘c
u

F ig u re 2 2 .1 4 The process o f enlarging trian g le ABC, centre P( 1, -1 ), scale fa c to r -2

It is c o n v e n ie n t to p lo t th e p o in ts fo r th e e n la rg e m e n t by using vectors.

In Figure 22.14 th e p o in t P (l, -1 ) is th e centre o f th e e n la rg e m e n t. The v e c to r ~PA is ^ , so

m u ltip ly in g by th e scale fa c to r -2 gives - 2 ^ ^j=f j.

Hence v e c to r f t ? = f 2 j a n d -4' is the p o in t (-1, 7), and so on.
 ^ 22 Transformations, Vectors and Matrices

Rotation
The sense, o r d ire c tio n , o f the ro ta tio n m ay be described as clockw ise o r anticlockw ise, or an
a lternative n otatio n m ay be used. A nticlockw ise rotations m ay be taken as positive and clockw ise
d ire ction s as negative. So, for exam ple, a rotation o f -90° is 90° clockw ise. However, this is slightly
risky as a ro ta tio n o f 90° co u ld be a m b ig u o u s : it m ay n o t be recognised as a ro ta tio n o f +90°.

The c e n tre o fth e ro ta tio n can be fo u n d w ith a tra c in g as described in C hapter 6, o r by a

g e o m e tric m e th o d w h ic h you can practise in th e first q u e s tio n o f the next exercise.

Exercise 22.4
i ,

C opy th e dia g ra m s h o w in g th e o b je c t, t r i a n g l e a n d its im age, tria n g le A'B'C ' after a

single tra n s fo rm a tio n .
a A ccurate ly jo in a p a ir o f c o rre s p o n d in g vertices on th e o b je c t and im age, such as
A and A'.
b U sing th e m e th o d learned in C h a p te r 6 w ith s tra ig h t edge and com passes o n ly
c o n s tru c t th e p e rp e n d ic u la r b is e c to r o f th e lineA 4'.
c R epeat (a) and (b) fo r a n o th e r p a ir o f vertices such as C and C.
M ark, and label w ith th e le tte r P, th e p o in t w here th e tw o bisectors cross,
d W ith centre P and radius PA d ra w an arc from A to /4 ’,
e W ith centre P and radius PB d ra w an arc fro m B to S ’,
f W h a t is special a b o u t th e p o in t P, and why?

g D escribe fu lly th e single tra n s fo rm a tio n th a t m aps tria n g le /4SC to tria n g le A 'B 'C .
2 On 5 m illim e tre squared paper, o r graph paper, d ra w a rectangle 15 c e n tim e tre s by
6 c e n tim e tre s as sho w n in the dia g ra m . The dia g ra m here is reduced to fit on th e page.
M ark a p o in t A' in the centre o fth e rectangle. C opy triangle/1.
22 Transformations, Wectors and Matrices J

a W ith ce n tre X a n d th e scale factors below, enlarge triangle/4.

i Scale fa cto r 2. Label th e image/4r

ii Scale fa c to r^ . Label the im age Ar

iii Scale fa c to r-2 . Label the im age A,.
iv Scale fa c to r - ^ . Label th e image Aa.
b Describe the single tra nsform a tion w hich w o u ld m ap tria ng le /4 3o n to triangle/A2.
3 a f(x )= -^ r
' ' x+2
i Find
ii Draw a set o f axes w ith 0 x =£ 6 and also 0 =£ y *£ 6.
iii Draw accurately th e lin e y = x
iv Plot th e c u rv e s ,= f(x) (dom ain 0 *£ *= £ 6) a n d , = f _1(x) (dom ain 0 *£ **£ 4 .5 ) on
th e same graph.
v W hat single tra nsform a tion w o u ld m a p y = f(x ) o n t o , = f _1(x)?
b Repeat questions (a) (i) to (a) (v) w ith f(x) = | x + 1, dom ain 0 x *£ 6, and f - l (x),
dom a in 1 ^ * * £ 5 .

4 Describe fu lly th e single tra nsform a tion w hich m aps

A( 2,4) to /4 '( - l, -2 ) and B ( - 4 , 2) to 8 '(2 ,1).

Plot the points and join AB and A'B'.

22.5 Matrices and Transformations

Figure 22.15 sh ow s th e re fle c tio n o M ( 3 ,2) and 6 (2 ,1 ) in th e y -a x is to /V ( - 3 ,2) and 6 '( - 2 ,1).

2
A’*

I
S'* ‘b

—4 i 3 2 -1 0 c t i

Figure 22.15 R eflection in th e y -a x is

\
576
 ( 22 Transformations, Vectors and Matrices

The p o in ts A (3 ,2) and 6 (2 ,1 ) can be represented by e n te rin g th e ir p o s itio n vectors a = [ 3 ] and

b=R in to a m atrix: P *1
(-3 -2 )
in th e sam e way, A' and B' can be w ritte n 2 1 .

These m a trice s give us a p o w e rfu l to o l w hen w o rk in g w ith tra n s fo rm a tio n as w e w ill see. Is
th e re am a trix w h ic h co u ld p e rfo rm the re fle ctio n o f -4 and B in th e y -a x is as sh o w n above? We
w ill lo o k a t th re e m e th o d s fo r fin d in g a s u ita b le m a trix fo r th is task.

First Method for Finding a Matrix

L ook a t th e fo llo w in g m a trix e q u a tio n :

(: 30 H i D
and m u ltip ly o u t th e le ft-hand side a c c o rd in g to th e m a trix rules (see C h a p te r 15).
NOTE:
We have confirmed in (3a + 2b 2fl+ fc'l_ f -3 -2^
Section 20.5 of Chapter l^3c+ 2d 2C+ dJ ( 2 1J
20 that the order of
3a + 2b = - 3 ...( i)
matrix multiplication
matters. When the matrix 2a + b= 2 ... (ii)
3c + 2d = 2 ...( iii)
2c + d= 1 ... (iv)

S o lv in g (i) and (ii) s im u lta n e o u s ly gives a = - 1 and b = 0,

and s o lv in g (iii) and (iv) s im u lta n e o u s ly gives c = 0 and d = 1.

(a b) f-1 o\
S o lA = \ o 1 1w hich is th e m atrix w hich maps/1 to/V and 6 to B' u n d e r reflection in they-axis.

in general. ( “ ’

C h e c k t h is y o u r s e lf.

Second Method for Finding a M atrix

A n o th e r m e th o d fo r fin d in g th e re q u ire d m a trix is to use an inverse m a trix.

If A = ^ ^]. A '= ^ 23 and M is the required matrix,

then M A = A ', and m ultiplying both sides by A-1 gives

M A A 1 = A 'A 1
A A _1 = I, th e id e n tity m atrix, so
M = A ’A 1.
S in c e A =^ ^ j,|A o r d e tA = - l , a n d A '1= ^2 _3j.

A ' = ^ 23 so A 'A -1 = ^ ^ ^ 23) = q1 ° i)’ a 8ain & ves m a trix re p re se n tin g

re fle c tio n in th e y -a x is .

Again, you are advised to w o rk th ro u g h th is to practise th e m e th o d .

w fp more than two points becauseyou only kn$wft6wtoi'find the inverse

of a tw o by two matrix.
22 Transformations, Vectors and Matrices J

Third Method for Finding a Matrix

T he fin a l, and q u icke st, m e th o d fo r basic tra n s fo rm a tio n s is s h o w n in Figure 22.16.

T he firs t d ia g ra m show s tw o u n it vectors, o n e a lo n g th e x-axis and o n e a lo n g th e y-axis, w h ic h

fo rm tw o sides o f a u n it square. A u n it v e c to r is a v e c to r w ith a m a g n itu d e o f 1 u n it.

T he v e c to r in th e x -d ire c tio n is m arked w ith a d o u b le arrow , because it is im p o rta n t to be

a b le to d is tin g u ish th e tw o v e cto rs a fte r th e tra n s fo rm a tio n . The second d ia g ra m sh o w s w h a t
h a p p e n s to th ese tw o ve ctors a fte r re fle c tio n in th e y -a x is .
y y

-1 - 1

n - < o :)
F ig u re 2 2 .1 6 R eflection o f u n it vecto rs in th e y -a x is
U n d e rn e a th each dia g ra m th e tw o v ectors are sh o w n in m a trix fo rm , w ith th e d o u b le -a rro w e d
v e c to r first.

You w ill see th a t th e firs t m a trix is th e u n it m atrix, a n d th e second m a trix repre sen ts re fle c tio n
in th e y -a x is , as proved above.

Hence, fo r a ny p o in t ( x . y ) , ^ 1 ° ) ( * ) - ( ” *)■

Example 7
a Derive the matrices for
i reflection in the lin e ^ = x ,
ii enlargement, scale factor 3, centre the origin.
b Describe fully the transformation represented by ^ Q1 ^ j .
c R = rotation 90° clockwise about the origin.
i Find the matrix representing R.
ii Find the matrix R 1.
iii Describe fully the transformation represented by R 1.
Answer 7
a i y y

\
578
 I 22 Transformations, Vectors and Matrices

rA [—*r
--
9 O

- 2 d.
\
1 (3
(C 'I
)
0
i> ii 0 1I
/ 1\
(U 3
( Q—,

11
O °1J -
3 0
0 3
3 o
Enlargement, scale factor 3, centre the origin is represented by the matrix o 3

^
Q
1
°j
n - * (o -°.)

The transformation is rotation about the origin 180°.

c I

■i 1r

0 1 0 1

1 0 0 1
0 1 -1 0

0 1
R
-1 0

ii R
^ o 'M : o)

H o)
iii R 1is rotation about the origin, 90° anticlockwise.
22 Transformations, Wectors and Matrices J

Example 8
a Find the coordinates of the image of the triangle ABC where A is the point (-1, -2), 6 is
(3,5) and C is (4 ,-1 ) under the transformation represented by the matrix ^
b Describe the transformation represented by this matrix.
Answer 8

■ (i r, i !,)•(,-2 :)
b Clockwise rotation of 90° about the origin.

Exercise 22.5
1 Derive m a trices fo r th e fo llo w in g tra n s fo rm a tio n s :
a re fle c tio n in th e l i n e , = - x
b e n la rg e m e n t, scale fa c to r - 2 , centre th e o rig in .

2 A tra n s fo rm a tio n m a p s tria n g le /! to tr ia n g le ^ ', as sh o w n in th e d ia g ra m ,

a Find th e m a trix associa ted w ith th is tra n s fo rm a tio n .
b D escribe th e tra n s fo rm a tio n fully.

3 A tra n s fo rm a tio n m a p s /4 (2 ,2) and 6 (5 ,3 ) t o 4 '( - 2 , - 2 ) and 6 '(—3, -5 ).

a Find th e m a trix associa ted w ith th is tra n s fo rm a tio n .
b D escribe th e tra n s fo rm a tio n fully.
c Use th e m a trix to fin d th e im age o f C(—1 ,6) and 0(0, - 4 ) u n d e r th e tra n s fo rm a tio n .

4 Find th e vectors w h ic h p ro d u c e th e fo llo w in g tra n s la tio n s :

a (0,2) to (2,0)
b (1,5) to (-1 ,5 )
c ( - 7 ,- 3 ) to ( - 4 ,- 6 ) .

5 Find tria n g le /\'8 'C ‘ a fter re fle c tio n o f tria n g le ABC in th e ,-a x is , w h e re A = (-1 , -3 ), 6 = (5, 7)
an d C = (0,1).

Notation
The fo llo w in g a b b re v ia tio n s are c o m m o n ly used in tra n s fo rm a tio n w o rk .

• M R eflection
• R R o tatio n NOTE:
• E E n la rg e m e n t For Reflection think o f Mirror
• T T ra nsla tion

Any ca p ita l le tte r m a y be used as lo n g as th e tra n s fo rm a tio n is d e fin e d in so m e way.

\
580
 ^ 22 Transformations, Vectors and Matrices

Successive Transform ations

m ay be asked to d o m ore th a n one tra n s fo rm a tio n on an o b je c t, fo r e xa m p le re fle c tio n
ih e x-axis fo llo w e d by a ro ta tio n o f 90° clo ckw ise a b o u t th e o rigin. U nder these
tra n s fo rm a tio n s t r ia n g le m a p s to tria n g le /^ , and this th e n m aps to tria n g le A,, as sh o w n in
Figure 22.17.

If repre sen ts re fle c tio n in th e x-axis, th e n M (4) = A

If R_90 represen ts ro ta tio n 90° c lo ckw ise a b o u t th e o rig in , th e n R ^ / ^ ) = A,.

The c o m b in e d tra n s fo rm a tio n o f re fle c tio n (Mx) first th e n ro ta tio n (R_90) on t r i a n g l e t o give
t r i a n g l e i s w ritte n R_90Mx(/4) = A r

The o rd e r in w h ic h th is is w ritte n is im p o rta n t, as p e rfo rm in g successive tra n s fo rm a tio n s in a

d iffe re n t o rd e r w ill n o t necessarily give th e sam e result.

F ig u re 2 2 .1 7 Successive tran sfo rm atio n s

It m ig h t h e lp to read as ro ta tio n (R J afte r re fle c tio n (MJ.

L o o kin g a t Figure 22.17, is th e re a single tra n s fo rm a tio n th a t w o u ld m a p A d ire c tly to A,?

You s h o u ld see th a t re fle c tio n in th e lin e _ y = -x w o u ld m a p /U O /4 2.

So s o m e tim e s th e re is a single tra n s fo rm a tio n w h ic h w ill p e rfo rm th e sam e o p e ra tio n as a

succession o f tw o o r m ore tra n s fo rm a tio n s.

We can ch eck th is result w ith th e m a trice s fo r th e tw o tra n s fo rm a tio n s.

m- - ( o a
M firs t and th e n R w o u ld be p e rfo rm e d by th e fo llo w in g m a trix m u ltip lic a tio n
22 Transformations, Vectors anfl Matrices J

The m a trix fo r re fle c tio n in th e tin e 7 = - x is ^ _ 1 Qj , so w e have proved th e result. Use the
a bo ve m e th o d s to check th e re su lt fo r th e tra n s fo rm a tio n s in th e o p p o s ite o rder, th a t is, fo r
R _90 fo llo w e d by Mx.

You sh o u ld fin d th a t th e c o m b in e d tra n s fo rm a tio n is th e sam e as re fle c tio n in th e lin e y = x ,

n o t_ y = - x a s before.

T h is is fu rth e r p ro o f th a t th e o rd e r o f tra n s fo rm a tio n s can m ake a d iffe re n c e to th e o u tc o m e .

Example 9
a My= reflection in the_y-axis, R1S0= rotation of 180° about the origin and
Mx = 1, = reflection in the line x = l .
Find, either by drawing a sketch or by matrix multiplication where possible, single
transformations to represent the following:

b i Find by matrix multiplication M*, where M^= reflection in the 7 -axis as above.
ii Explain this result.
iii Hence write down M _1, the inverse of M .

c T^ 3 } T> = K ) andTK o
Find, by vector addition, single transformations to represent the following:
i ii TjT j iii TJJj
d M j= reflection in x=y, M2= reflection in the x-axis, R = rotation 90° clockwise. A is the
point (1,4). Find
i M jM2(/4) ii M ^ M iii MtR(/l) iv RM1(>4).
Answer 9

■ ' r" - ( o “) :)

“-"--(o -,)(■„’ n “j
R180M = reflection in the x-axis.

" X = ^

A
-----1-3E-4 : —
x

h
J -
---3i—il
A
A z:
■2 -t 0 1 -2

-2
M y MJ t =, l =translation
0

-1 0 -1 0 V -1 0 -10
M, ;= I
0 1
m
0 1 1I0 1 0 1
ii M* maps the object to the image and then back to the object.
... , , H O'!
m M;1= Q ,

582
 [ 22 Transformations, Vectors and Matrices

iii TXT,

J 0 AO -1JI4J
M,M;W) = ( —4, 1)

Alternative method:

1 oVo
ii M2M,W) =
l^o - i j l j oJU
M !M ,W = (4 ,-1 )

c :)(“ x
M,R(/4) = ( — 1,4)

'0 1Y0 1Y1

-1 oj[l 0J^4
R M ,W ) = d , - 4 )

Exercise 22.6
In th is exercise th e ‘u n it square’ refers to the square w ith c o o rd in a te s (0,0), (1,0), (1,1) and (0,1).

1 The tra n s fo rm a tio n o f th e u n it sq u a re show n in th e d ia g ra m s consists o f tw o separate

tra n s fo rm a tio n s , a re fle c tio n a n d an e n la rg e m e n t.
22 Transformations, Vectors and Matrices J

i D escribe b o th tra n s fo rm a tio n s fully.

ii W rite d o w n th e m a trice s re p re se n tin g th e re fle c tio n , th e e n la rg e m e n t and the
c o m b in e d tra n s fo rm a tio n s h o w n in th e d iagram .
iii Does th e o rd e r in w h ic h th e tw o tra n s fo rm a tio n s are carried o u t m a ke any difference
to th e o u tco m e ?
Explain h o w you k n o w th is, e ith e r by d ia g ra m s o r by m a trix m u ltip lic a tio n .

2 a A tra n s fo rm a tio n X m aps (1 ,3) to (5,11) and ( 2 ,1) to (5,7).

Find th e m a trix o f th is tra n s fo rm a tio n ,
b D raw th e i m age, A ', o fth e u n it square, A u n d e r th e tra n s fo rm a tio n X.
c This im a g e ,/!', is reflected in th e x-axis to give A".
Find th e m a trix w h ic h w ill tra n s fo rm A d ire c tly o n to A '.

3 a A is th e p o in t (1 ,2), B is (1 ,4) and C is (2,2). D raw tria n g le /\8 C .

b D raw tria n g le A2B2C2, w h ic h is th e im a g e o f tria n g le ABC a fte r a re fle c tio n in the x-a xis
fo llo w e d b y a ro ta tio n o f9 0 ° c lo c kw ise a b o u t th e o rig in ,

■
c W h a t sin g le tra n s fo rm a tio n w ill m a p A2B2C2 back to A B O

4 List th e m a trice s re p re se n tin g th e fo llo w in g tra n s fo rm a tio n s . Use th e u n it square to fin d

th e m a trice s w h e re necessary,
a Id e n tity , I
b R o ta tio n 90° clo c kw ise a b o u t 0 , R;
c R o ta tio n 180° a b o u t 0 , R2
d R efle ction in x-axis, Second tra n s fo rm a tio n
e R efle ction in_y-axis, M 2
f R efle ction in xRx = y , M 3R, Mx M, m3 M,
g R efle ction in y = - x , M4
Rx ", Rr1
5 U sing Rx= ro ta tio n 90° clo c kw ise a b o u t 0 as in q u e s tio n 4, fin d I V (th e inverse o f R;).
<v
W haEt d oe sR,R,-' represent? i
V.

-S th e n o ta tio n in q u e s tio n s 41 and 5 c o p y a nd c o m p le te th is ta b le s h o w in g the e ffe cts

6 U sing
o f tw o successive tra n s fo rm a tio n s .

m 3

M4

Exercise 22.7
Mixed exercise
1 Solve th is v e c to r e q u a tio n fo r x a n d y .
 [ 22 Transformations, Vectors and Matrices

2 Draw a tria n g le 0-48 w h e re ,4 is (7, 2) and 8 is (2,5).

a Draw tria n g le OA'B‘, u n d e r an e n la rg e m e n t, centre th e o rig in and scale fa c to r 1.5.
b W ha t can you say a b o u t tria n g le s OAB and O A 'B 'l
c If th e area o f tria n g le OAB is 32 square units, c a lc u la te th e area o f the tra p e z iu m A BB'A1.

3 C opy th e dia g ram .

y

a D raw th e im age o f tria n g le /4 a fte r re fle c tio n in th e l in e _ y = x - 1. Label th e im a g e s ,

b D raw th e im age o f tria n g le A a fte r re fle c tio n in th e lin e jc = —1. Label th e im a g e C.
c D escribe fu lly th e single tra n s fo rm a tio n w h ic h w ill m a p 8 o n to C.

C opy th e diag ra m .

a OABC is a u n it square. By c a rry in g o u t th e m a trix m u ltip lic a tio n b e lo w fin d th e im age

OA'B'C' o f OABC u n d e r th e tra n s fo rm a tio n given by th e m a trix
M 51 4^ J
0 A B C O A' B' C
2 Y 0 1 1 O')

4 J [o 0 1 1J
Draw O A 'B 'C ’ on y o u rc o p y o f th e diagram .
W hat is th e shape o f O A 'B 'C ?

/
585
22 Transformations, Vectors and Matrices J

c By d ra w in g a re cta n g le ro und OA'B'C', and re m o v in g triangles, o r o th e rw is e , c a lc u la te

th e area o f OA'B'C'.
d i Find th e d e te rm in a n t o f M.
ii W h a t d o you n o tic e a b o u t y o u r answ ers to (c) and (d) (i)?

Exam-style questions
5 a The d ia g ra m s sh o w tria n g le s A, B, C and D.
i The single tra n s fo rm a tio n P m a p s A4 o n to AB.
Describe, fully, th e tra n s fo rm a tio n P.
y

ii The single tra n s fo rm a tio n Q m a p s A A o n to AC.

Describe, fully, th e tra n s fo rm a tio n Q.

iii The re fle c tio n R m a p s AA o n to AD.

Find th e m a trix th a t represents th e re fle c tio n R.
 ^ 22 Transformations, Vectors and Matrices

b The d ia g ra m show s th e p o in ts E( 1,3), F {2 ,3) and G ( - l, 3). An e n la rg e m e n t,

c e n tre E, m a p s F o n to 6.
y

G E F

it

.............. T

- 3 - 2 - 1 0 1 2 3
W rite do w n
i th e scale factor,
ii th e c o o rd in a te s o fth e im age o f (0,4).

* “i l 3
i Find th e d e te rm in a n t o f M.
ii W rite d o w n th e inverse o f M.
iii Find th e m a trix X, w h e re M X = ^ 2j- (4024 p a per 02 Q l l J u n e 2007)

6 a

E, F, G a n d H are th e m id p o in ts o f AB, BC, CD and DA respectively.

A B = p , A D = q and 6 ? = r.

i Find, in te rm s o f p, q and r as a p p ro p ria te

a E?,
b Zxf,
c U S , expressing th e v e c to r as s im p ly as possible.
ii W h a t c o n c lu s io n s can be d ra w n a b o u t th e lines E F a n d HG1
(4024 p a p e r 021 Q l la N o ve m b e r 2012)

7 OABC is a p a ra lle lo g ra m . 0% = a and O ? = c.

M is th e m id p o in t o f OS.
Find J M in te rm s o f a and c.
C B

O a A (0580 pa p e r 02 Q8 N o ve m b e r 2005)
22 Transformations. Vectors and Matrices J

8 OAB is a tria n g le and ODBC is a rectangle w h e re OD and BC in te rse ct at E.

F is the p o in t on CD such th a t C F = | CD.
0% = a, 0 § = b and 0 ? = c.

a Express, as s im p ly as possible, in te rm s o f on e o r m o re o f th e vectors a, b and c,

M , O f, iii W .

b G is t h e p o in t o n / 4 B s u c h t h a t O ( jf a + f b .
i Express A ? in te rm s o f a and b.
Give y o u r a nsw er as s im p ly as possible.
ii F in d /4 G : GB.
iii Express TcT in te rm s o f a, b and c.
Give y o u r a nsw er as s im p ly as possible. (4024 p a p e r 22 Q7 J u n e 2012)

9 T ra n s fo rm a tio n T is tra n s la tio n b y t h e v e c t o r ^

T ra n s fo rm a tio n M is re fle c tio n in th e lin e y = x .

a The p o in ts has c o o rd in a te s (2,1).
Find th e c o o rd in a te s o f
i T(rf),
ii M T U ).

b Find th e 2 by 2 m a trix M, w h ic h represents th e tra n s fo rm a tio n M.

c 5 h o w th a t, fo r any va lu e o f k, th e p o in t Q ( k - 2 , k - 3 ) m aps o n to a p o in t on the
lin e _ y = x fo llo w in g th e tra n s fo rm a tio n TM(Q).
d Find M ~\ th e inverse o f th e m a trix M.
'0 3 ' "0 4 '
e N is th e m a trix such th a t N +
v 1 0 J vQ o y
i W rite d o w n th e m a trix N.
ii D escribe c o m p le te ly th e single tra n s fo rm a tio n repre sen ted by N.
(0580 p a p e r 0 4 Q7 J u n e 2006)

10 a q m

NOT TO SCALE

OPMQ is a p a ra lle lo g ra m and 0 is th e o rigin.

O P = p a n d o $ = q-
L is on PQ so th a t PL : LQ = 2 : 1.
Find th e fo llo w in g vectors in te rm s o fp and q. W rite y o u r answ ers in th e ir sim p le st form ,
i ~PQ ii ~PL iii m T
iv th e p o s itio n v e c to r o f L.

\
588
 Iv 22 Transformations,Vectorsand Matrices

P is th e p o in t (1,2). It is tra n s la te d o n to th e p o in ts by th e v e c t o r ^ j .
i W rite d o w n th e c o o rd in a te s o f S.
ii W rite d o w n th e v e c to r w h ic h tra n sla te s S o n to R.
(o n
c The m a trix _ 1 0 1repre sen ts a s in g le tra n s fo rm a tio n .

i D escribe fu lly th is tra n s fo rm a tio n .

ii Find th e c o o rd in a te s o f th e im age o f th e p o in t (5,3) a fter th is tra n s fo rm a tio n ,
d Find th e m a trix w h ic h represents a re fle c tio n in th e lin e _ y = x .
(0580 paper 04 Q6 N ovem ber 2006)

11
Z» •X

Y
A regular hexagon, ABCDEF, has centre O.
0% = a and ~0§ = b.
a Express, as sim ply as possible, in term s o f a a n d /o r b :
i 75(5 ii JS i i D§.
b Explain w hy |a| = |6| = |l» - a | .
c The points X, Z a n d Z are such th a t
7 $ = a + b , 0 ? = a - 2 6 and 0 ? = b - 2 a .
i Express,as sim p ly as possible, in term s o f a a n d /o rb ,
a aF b W .
ii W hat can be deduced a b o u t Y, A and X I
d Express, as sim ply as possible, in term s o f a a n d /o r b, th e vector x T .
e Show th a t tria n g le XYZ is equilateral.
f Calculate Areaoftriang|e0/'B .
Area of triangle XYZ (4024 p a p e r 02 Q l l N o ve m b e r 2005)

12 The diagram below shows the p o in t P and tria n g le s A S a n d C.

y
4
0
7
6
5
p, 11
a
2

-3- 5-4-3- 2- 1C 1 <>. ‘ i ■ > i J 1

-1 V
-i
-3
-4

a The tra n s la tio n T m aps AA o n to AS.

Given th a t T(P) = Q, w rite d o w n th e c o o rd in a te s o f Q.
22 Transformations, Vectors anil Matrices J

b D escribe fu lly th e single tra n s fo rm a tio n w h ic h m aps AA o n to AC.

c M is m a p p e d o n to A f by a ro ta tio n o f 90° c lo c kw ise a b o u t th e p o in t (4,2).
Draw and label A f on th e dia g ra m above.
(4024 pa p e r 01 Q25a, b and d N o ve m b e r 2004)

13
, ' b) q-(o )
i Find |p|.
ii On a c o p y o fth e u n it grid below , iii T he v e c to r r is sh o w n on th e u n it
d ra w and la b e l th e v e c to r p - q . g rid below .

It is given th a t r = a p + bq.
Find th e values o f a a n d b.
(4024 p a p e r 21 Q lO a J u n e 2014)

1 4 ABCD is a p a ra lle lo g ra m .

Find BD.
i C a lc u la te |7 c |.
ii The p a ra lle lo g ra m ABCD is m a p p e d o n to th e p a ra lle lo g ra m PBQR.
PB
-t? ) and BQ = 12
a D escribe fu lly th e single tra n s fo rm a tio n th a t m aps th e p a ra lle lo g ra m ABCD o n to th e
p a ra lle lo g ra m PBQR.
b S is th e m id p o in t o f PQ.
FindS F’’. (4024 p a per 22 Q9a . u r e 2013)
 [ 22 Transformations, Vectors and Matrices

15 O

NOT TO SCALE

OPQR is a p ara lle lo g ra m .

0 is th e origin.
OP = p a n d ~OR = r.
M is th e m id p o in t o f PQ and Lis on OR such th a t O L:LR = 2 :1 .
The lin e PL is exte nded to th e p o in t S.
a Find, in te rm s o f P and r, in th e ir s im p le s t form s,
i 0^ ii f f l
iii PL iv th e p o s itio n v e c to r o f M.
b PLS is a s tra ig h t line and P S = \P L .
Find, in te rm s o f p a n d /o r r, in th e ir s im p le s t form s,
i ~P§ ii 0 ? .
c W ha t can you say a b o u t th e p o in ts Q, R and S? (0580 p a per 04 Q9 J u n e 2008)

OBCD is a rh o m b u s w ith sides o f 25 cm . The length o fth e d ia g o n a l OC is 14 cm.

a Show, b y c a lc u la tio n , th a t th e le ngth o f th e d ia g o n a l BD is 48 cm .
b C alculate, co rre c t to th e nearest degree,
i an g le BCD, ii a n g le OBC.
c D B = 2 p and 0 ? = 2q.
Find, in te rm s o fp and q,
i 06 ii 0 /5.
d BE is para lle l to OC and DCE is a s tra ig h t line.
Find, in its s im p le st fo rm , O ? in term s o fp and q.
e M is th e m id p o in t o f CE.
Find, in its s im p le s t fo rm , OM in te rm s o f p and q. ,
f O is the o rig in o f a c o o rd in a te grid, OC lies a lo n g th e x-axis and <1 =
[DE is ve rtica l and \DB\ = 48.)
W rite d o w n as c o lu m n vectors
i p, ii ~BC.
g W rite d o w n th e value o f \DE\. (0580 p a per 04 Q5 June 200?)
22 Transformations, llectors and Matrices j

17 A

0 is th e o rig in , 0% = a a n d W = b.

a C has p o s itio n v e c to r | a + |b .
M ark th e p o in t C o n th e d iagram ,
b W rite d o w n , in te rm s o f a and b, th e p o s itio n v e c to r o f th e p o in t £.
c Find, in te rm s o f u a n d b, th e v e c to r W . (0580 p a p e r 02 Q15 N o v e m b e r 2007)

H is th e m id p o in t o f AD.
Find £77.

'»S ? = ('o 5) ^ = ( - i 5s)

F is th e m id p o in t o f BC.
Find r T.
iv Use y o u r a nsw ers to parts (ii) and (iii) to c o m p le te th e fo llo w in g s ta te m e n t.
The lines EH and FG a r e .......................................a n d ...................................
v Given th a t £ is th e m id p o in t o f AB, sh o w th a t 6 is th e m id p o in t o f CD.

\
592
 [ 22 Transformations, Vectors and Matrices

T ria n g le ^ has vertices (1,2), (1,5) and (3,5).

i An e n la rg e m e n t, c e n tre (1,2), scale fa c to r-1 .5 , m a p s tria n g le /! o n to tria n g le B.
Draw tria n g le 6.
ii An e n la rg e m e n t, c e n tre (1,2), scale fa c to r-0 .5 , m a p s tria n g le /! o n to tria n g le C.
D raw tria n g le C.
i i i Find th e ra tio area o f tria n g le C : area o f tria n g le B.
(40 9 4 p a p p r 9? Q1 ? N o v p m h p r 9 013)

r -b -
4
Q
'£? o \
1 A
^ t > i | ;5 '
> i _
0 !
- 1
—d.
—3
-4
*
(0
a A tra n s fo rm a tio n is repre sen ted by th e m a trix _ 1 0 I.

i On a co py o f th e grid above, d ra w th e im age o f tria n g le /! a fter th is tra n s fo rm a tio n .

ii Describe fu lly th is tra n s fo rm a tio n .
b Find th e 2 by 2 m a trix re p re se n tin g th e tra n s fo rm a tio n w h ic h m aps tria n g le /! o n to
tria n g le 6. (0580 paper 21 Q19 June 2008)
22 Transformations, Vectors and Matrices J

In th e d ia g ra m , ACD and BCE are s tra ig h t lines,

C B_CA_i
CE CD 2’
a D escribe fu lly th e single tra n s fo rm a tio n th a t m aps A CAB o n to ACDE.
b It is given th a t W = P o la n d 6 ? = ( - |
C a lc u la t e d . (4024 p a p e r 0 1 Q21 June 2005)

21

T ria n g le /\6 C has v e rtic e s -4(1,1), B{3 ,1 ) and C (l, 2).

Tria ng le DEF has vertices D ( - l, - 1 ), £ (-1 , - 3 ) and F (-2 , -1 ).
The m a trix P represents th e s in g le tra n s fo rm a tio n , T, th a t m aps tria n g le ABC o n to
tria n g le DEF.
a i D escribe T fu lly . ii W rite d o w n th e m a trix P.
b A n o th e r tra n s fo rm a tio n is repre sen ted by th e m a trix Q ,w h e re Q = I Q •
i This tra n s fo rm a tio n m aps 6 o n to Y.
Find th e c o o rd in a te s o f Y.
ii T his tra n s fo rm a tio n m aps K o n to C.
Find th e c o o rd in a te s o f K.
iii D escribe, fu lly , th e s in g le tra n s fo rm a tio n w h ic h is represented by Q.
iv The m a trix R is given by Q = RP.
By c o n s id e rin g th e effects o f tra n s fo rm a tio n s on tria n g le ABC, o r otherw ise, fin d R.
c The p o in t H lies on DC p ro d u c e d , w h e re DH =

C a lcu la te
i th e ra tio DC : DH,
ii th e value o f h. (4024 p a p e r 02 Q l l J in e 2005)

594
 lv 22 Transformations, Weciors and Matrices

22 a P is th e p o in t (2,9) and Q is th e p o in t (4, 6).

Find
i th e length o f PQ, ii th e e q u a tio n o f th e lin e PQ.

6 -

—2-

R 4 ;> o ;> L -

/
—=2- — /

fa
A v

■6

T he d ia g ra m show s tria n g le s A B, C and D.

i Find th e m a trix re p re se n tin g th e tra n s fo rm a tio n th a t m aps triangle/4 o n to tria n g le B.
ii D escribe fu lly th e sin g le tra n s fo rm a tio n th a t m a p s tria n g le B o n to tria n g le C.
iii T riangle C is m a p p e d o n to tria n g le D by th e tra n s la tio n T.
a W rite d o w n th e c o lu m n v e c to r th a t represents T.
b T h e tra n s fo rm a tio n R th a t m a p s tria n g le ^ o n to tria n g le C is represented by th e m a trix

P o)
S how th a t th e tra n s fo rm a tio n R fo llo w e d by T m aps [h ,k ) o n to { - k - 3 , h - 3 ) .
c Find th e value o f h and th e va lu e offc fo r w h ic h th e tra n s fo rm a tio n R fo llo w e d by T
m ap s (h, k) o n to itself,
d The bingit; tra n s fo rm a tio n th a i is e q u iv a le n t lo R fo llo w e d by T Is a ro ta tio n .
W rite d o w n th e c o o rd in a te s o f th e centre o f th is ro ta tio n .
(4024 p a per 02 Q l l N o ve m b e r 2007)

23 a The d ia gram show s tria n g le s A B, C and D.

y

D escribe fu lly th e sin g le tra n s fo rm a tio n th a t m aps tsA o n to AS.

i D escribe fu lly th e sin g le tra n s fo rm a tio n th a t m aps AS o n to AC.
ii D escribe fu lly th e sin g le tra n s fo rm a tio n th a t m a p s AC o n to AD.
v W rite d o w n th e m a trix th a t represents th e tra n s fo rm a tio n w h ic h m aps AC o n to M .

595
22 Transformations. Vectors and Matrices J

b In th e d iagram ,
0 T = 3 0 P , RS = ^R T and Q is th e m id p o in t o f PR.
~OP = p a n d P(J = q.
R

i Express, as s im p ly as possible, in te rm s o f p and q,

a o fi, b W, c qS.
ii W rite d o w n th e va lu e o f 2 |. (4024 pa p e r 02 Q l l June 2008)

24 a P^=(_1325)a n d Q ^ = (144).
i Find
a P$, b W.

ii Given th a t T is th e m id p o in t o f QR, fin d ~Pf.

iii PQRS is a p a ra lle lo g ra m .
T he c o o rd in a te s o f/? are (6,16).
Find th e c o o rd in a te s o f S.

^\i j

j— 4-

\
Q A
o

o
d.

\
\
4
I
\
B
c
I • ;i
_ (> ' l :i t f i1 !) 10

The d ia g ra m show s tria n g le /IS C .

i Find th e area o f tria n g le /lB C .
ii An e n la rg e m e n t, scale fa c to r4, m aps tria n g le /4 6 C o n to tria n g le LMN. The p o in ts
m aps o n to th e p o in t L[ 10,3).
a Find th e c o o rd in a te s o f th e centre o f e n la rg e m e n t.
b W rite d o w n th e area o f tria n g le LMN. (4024 paper 02 Q l l N ove m b er 2008)

596
 [ 22 Transformations, Weclors and Matrices

25 a =

a
a
Express a + 2 b as a c o lu m n vector.
b Find |a|.
Given th a t = -Jn, w here n is an integer, fin d th e value o f n.
(4024 paper 01 Q15 N o ve m b e r 2009)
23 Statistics il
Learning objectives Syllabus sections 41 and

In this c h a p te r you w ill

• w o rk w ith histograms w ith unequal class w idths
• find th e m ean from a grouped freq u en cy ta b le

23.1 Introduction
T his c h a p te r in tro d u c e s so m e m o re s ta tis tic a l diagram s, and m ore m easures o f spread.

23.2 Essential Skills

6 5
5 4
1 5
5 3
a C o n s tru c t a fre q u e n cy ta b le fo r th e a bo ve data,
b Find th e m ean, th e m e d ia n , th e m o d e and th e range fo r th is data.
2 The ta b le b e lo w show s som e d a ta fo r a pie ch a rt. Find th e m issing values (a), (b) and (c)

C o lo u r Fre q u e n cy A ngle
red 10 (a)
blue (b) 72°
green 5 (c)
y e llo w 9 108°

The ta b le show s th e heig hts o f som e s tu d e n ts ro u n d e d to th e nearest c e n tim e tre . C opy

and c o m p le te th e ta b le by a d d in g th e class b o unda rie s.

H e ig h ts o f s tu d e n ts (h cm ) L o w e r class b o u n d a ry U p p e r class b o u n d a ry
141 to 150
151 to 160
161 to 170

598
 lv 23 Statistics II

23.3 More Histograms

You w ill have seen in C hapter 11 h o w to draw sim ple histogram s. We w ill n ow look fu rth e r at
histogram s.

S o m e tim e s a set o f data w ill be groupe d into classes o f d iffe re n t w idths. In this case using the
height o f th e bars as a m easure o f th e frequency w o u ld be m isleading. Instead w e use the area
o f the b a r to represent the frequency.

Key terms
Frequency density of
a class is the ratio o f the
frequency to the class
width.
The m o d a l class of
a grouped frequency
distribution is the
class w ith the highest
frequency density.
To w o rk o u t th e height to draw each bar w e need to in clu d e th e class w idth in the table. The
height o f each bar can n ow be c a lcu la te d by d iv id in g the freque ncy (area) by the class w id th
(w idth). T he height o f the bar is called the fre q u e n c y d e n s ity .
. Freq u e ncy d e n sity = M S
class w idth
• This is th e sam e as:
.. . , . r, area of bar
H e ig h t o f b ar = —
w idth of bar
The fo llo w in g exam ples w ill s h o w th e m e th o d . The fre q u e n cy ta b le inclu des a n ew c o lu m n to
sh o w class w id th , and a n o th e r to sh o w th e fre q u e n cy density.
You s h o u ld n o tic e th a t b o th bar c h a rts and s im p le h isto g ra m s also have th e area o f each bar
p ro p o rtio n a l to th e frequency, b u t in th o s e cases w e d o n o t have to c a lc u la te th e fre q u e n c y
d e n s ity be cau se th e bars are all o f th e sam e w id th .

You need to k n o w th a t th e m o d a l c la s s o f a g ro u p e d fre q u e n cy d is trib u tio n is th e class w ith

th e h ig h e s t freq ue n cy density, w h ic h is n o t necessarily th e one w ith th e h ighest freque ncy.

Example 1
a Use the frequency table to draw a histogram.

Tim e (t minutes) Frequency

70 < t « 90 8

90 < f =S 100 7

100 < t « 110 28

110 < t =s 120 11

120 < t « 160 16

b Write down the modal class.

Answer 1

Tim e Class Frequency Frequency density (2 dp)

(t m inutes) w idth (area) (height = area + class w idth)

20 8 0.4
o

OT)
C
■*-»
V/
V

90 < f 100 10 7 0.7

1 0 0 < f =£ 110 10 28 2.8

1 1 0 < f =£ 120 10 11 1.1

120 < f =£ 160 40 16 0.4

599
23 Statistics II j

£W
c
Q)
•D

¥ 1

IV v V -
0 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160
Time (minutes)

b The modal class is 100 < t 110.

The scale o f th e histogram m ay be show n by lab elling the vertical axis w ith the frequency
density, or by show ing a key as in th e next exam ple.

Example 2
The table and the histogram show the heights of some seedlings measured to the nearest
centimetre.
a Use the table to complete the histogram.
b U se t h e h is t o g r a m to c o m p le t e t h e t a b le .

Height (Item ) Frequency ( /) Class w id th (w) Frequency density ( / + w)

1 -3 3 3 1
6 -7 5 2 2.5
8 -9 4 2 2
10-12 2 3 0.67

Key 1 see<llin q

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Heights of seedlings (cm)

\
600
 !x 23 Statistics II

Answer 2
It may help to add the class boundaries to the table.

Height Frequency Class w idth Frequency Class boundaries

(hem ) if) (w) density ( / + *v)
1 -3 3 3 1 0.5 3.5
6 -7 5 2 2.5 5.5 7.5
8 -9 4 2 2 7.5 9.5
10-12 2 3 0.67 9.5 12.5

NOTE:
The class boundaries in, for example, the first class, are 0.5 *£ h < 3.5 because the rounding
of the heights of the seedlings to the nearest centimetre means that a seedling of height 3.5
centimetres rounds to 4 centimetres and goes into the next class.

a The missing bar is the class 6 -7 . From the table we see that the frequency is 5 and the
class width is 2. The key shows that 5 cm2 will represent 5 seedlings. The height of the
bar will be 5 cm2+ 2cm = 2.5cm . We can now draw the bar and complete the scale on the
vertical axis

Ke V _
1 seecJlin<
~ 4
c
0
"D
o 3
c
0
iz

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Heights of seedlings (cm)

b The missing data in the table is for the class 4 -5 , which has a class width of 2 cm, and an
area of 6 cm2. The frequency density = 6 + 2 = 3.

H eight (A cm) Frequency ( /) Class w id th (w) Frequency density ( / + w)

1 -3 3 3 1

4 -5 6 2 3
6 -7 5 2 2.5

8 -9 4 2 2
10-12 2 3 0.67
So m e q u e s tio n s m ay give n e ith e r a key n o r a scale on th e fre q u e n cy d e n s ity axis. H ow ever,
th e y w ill te ll yo u th e fre q u e n c y th a t o n e o f th e bars represents, so th a t, k n o w in g th e
c o rre s p o n d in g class w id th , y o u can c a lc u la te th e scale o f th e fre q u e n cy d e n s ity fro m
th a t bar.

It is im p o rta n t to be a b le to w o rk o u t th e class w id th in every case. The class w id th is th e

d ista n ce b e tw e en th e class b o u n d a rie s .

In th e case o f th e h e ights o f th e s e e d lin g s in E xam ple 2 above, w h ic h w ere m easured to th e

nearest c e n tim e tre , w e k n o w w h e re each o n e b e lo n g s in th e ta b le b u t th e ro u n d in g d isguises
th e fa c t th a t th e d a ta is c o n tin u o u s , so w e m u s t re m e m b e r th e class b o u n d a rie s w h e n
d ra w in g th e histogram .

Example 3
Complete each of these tables:
a Masses o f oranges

Class (m grams) Class boundaries Class width

160 < m ^ 170

170 < m =s 190

190 < m « 250

b Num bers o f passengers in a coach

Class 10-12 13-16 17-30

Class
boundaries

Class width

c Ages of people at a family celebration, given as a whole number of years. (Remember that
ages are usually given to a whole number of years but not rounded up. so 9 years and
11 months would still be shown as 9, which is why the class is shown as 5 =£ age < 10.)

Class age Class boundaries Class width

5 =s age < 10

10 =s age < 40

40 age < 60

60 =s age < 100

Answer 3
Class (m grams) Class boundaries Class width

160 < m =£ 170 160 170 10

170 < m ss 190 170 190 20

190 < m =£ 250 190 250 60

 I 23 Statistics II

b In thisexample, the numbers of passengers, the data is discrete. If we are to draw

a histogram, which always has the bars touching, we have to use class boundaries as if
the data was continuous.

Class 10-12 13-16 17-30

Class boundaries 9.5 12.5 16.5
12.5 16.5 30.5
Class width 3 4 14
The class width may be found by the difference between the boundaries (12.5 - 9.5 = 3 in
the first class above) or by counting the data values represented (10,11,12 = 3 in this case).
However, the class boundaries are still needed when drawing the histogram, as we have seen.

Class age Class boundaries Class width

5 =£ age < 10 5 10 5

10 « age <40 10 40 30

40 =£ age <60 40 60 20

60 =£ age <100 60 100 40

V_____________________________________
Exercise 23.1
1 C o m p le te th e fo llo w in g ta b le s , a n d w rite d o w n th e m o d a l classes,

a T he le n g th s o f s o m e grass leaves

Class (/c m ) F re q u e n cy Class b o u n d a rie s Class Frequency

(/) w id th (w) d e n s ity ( f + w )

20 < I 30 1

30 < / «£ 50 10

50 < I =£ 70 15

70 < I *£ 100 20

100 < I ^ 150 3

b N u m b e rs o f le tte rs p o s te d each day in o n e le tte r box ove r 140 days

Class F requ ency ( / ) Class b o u n d a rie s Class w id th Frequency

M d e n s ity (f + w )
The lower class boundary 0 -3 0 5 0 30.5
afthe fifet class could
be-0.5, which makes 3 1 -5 0 25
little sense. However, the 5 1 -7 0 41
class width is still 31 if 7 1 -1 0 0 50
you count the days with
no envelopes as the first 1 0 1 -1 5 0 7
i | | P the class. Also, 1 5 1 -2 5 0 2
ftpourse the nurp^ieft of
letters are discrete. 2 D raw th e h is to g ra m s fo r th e d a ta sets in Q uestion 1. Label th e v e rtic a l axes w ith the
fre q u e n c y density.
23 SmteMcsH J

3 Draw up a fre q u e n cy ta b le fo r each o f these histogram s. Each ta b le s h o u ld in c lu d e 5

c o lu m n s s h o w in g Class, Class b o u n d a rie s, Class w id th , Frequency d e n s ity and Frequency.

1.0

t?
m 0.8
d)
■o
ca> 0.6
3a -
£
u- 0.4

0.2

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Ages of people in a small village

5
.£■
CO
c
■a 4
S'
c
©
O- 3
S
LL
2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Number of peas per pod

4 U sing th e ta b le and h is to g ra m below ,

a c a lc u la te and add th e scale o f th e fre q u e n cy d e n s ity to th e v e rtic a l axis,
b c o m p le te th e h istogram ,
c c o m p le te th e table,
d id e n tify and w rite d o w n th e m o d a l class.

N u m b e r o f step s (s) ta k e n in o n e d a y b y s o m e s tu d e n ts on a fitn e s s course

Class 0 < s =£ 1000 1000 < s 5000 5000 < s =£ 10000 10000 < * = £ 2 0 0 0 0
Frequency 20 100 105

604
 I 23 Statistics II

2 3 .4 The M ean from a Grouped

Frequency Table
In an ungrouped frequency table th e mean can be calculated by m u ltip lyin g each item o f
data by its frequency and then d ivid in g by the to ta l frequency, as we have seen in C hapter 11.
However, we do n o t know where each data value lies w ith in th e class intervals o f a grouped
frequency d istrib utio n , so we can o n ly estim ate the mean. This is done by using the class
m id p oin t, on the assum ption th a t the values in th e class w ill be scattered approxim ately
evenly th ro u g h o u t th e class.
The class midpoint is the number at the centre of each class, and is obtained by taking the
mean of the class boundaries.

Example 4
Estimate the mean of the following distribution
Class 5 -9 10-14 15-24 25-30
Frequency 3 5 7 3

Answer 4
Class 5 -9 10-14 15-24 25-30 TOTAL
Frequency 3 5 7 3 18
Class midpoint 7 12 19.5 27.5
Frequency x 21 60 136.5 82.5 300
midpoint

total (frequency x midpoint) 300 - . ._ . ~

The mean = --------5— - ------- 1-------- — - = — = 16.7 to 3 significant figures.
total frequency 18

/
605
23 Statistics II J

Exercise 23.2
Estim ate the mean o f each o f these data sets
l
Class Frequency
10 < x =s 15 10

1 5 < x = £ 25 20

25<x«40 32

40 < x ®£ 60 15

Class 1 -2 3 -4 5 -6 7 -8 9 -1 0
Frequency 5 6 3 8 2

Class 0.5-0.9 0.9—1.3 1.3-2.5 2.5-6.5

Frequency 5 6 3 8

2 3 .5 Cum ulative Frequency

Data th a t is presented as a grouped frequency d istrib utio n loses its original individual data values.
We have seen in Chapter 11 h o w to construct a grouped frequency table, and find th e mean,
Key terms
m edian and m ode from an ungrouped frequency table. Example 4 and Exercise 23.2 have shown
Cumulative frequency
how to estimate the mean from a grouped frequency table, and we can identify th e m odal class.
is the running tptal offhe
We w ill now look at estim ating the median from a grouped frequency distribution.
frequencies in ,a grouped
frequency distribution. To do this we plot a cum ulative frequency curve. Cumulative frequency is a running total of the
frequencies (add them up as you go along), starting from the lowest values, as is shown in Table 23.1.

Class (%) Frequency Mark C um ulative frequency

0 < m ark =s 15 3 *£15 3

15 < m ark *£ 20 2 *£20 5 (3 + 2)

20 < m ark *£ 25 5 *£25 10 (5 + 5)

25 < m ark *£ 35 10 =£35 20 (1 0 + 1 0 )

35 < m ark =£ 45 10 s=45 30 (20 + 20)

45 < m ark =£ 60 13 «60 43 (30 + 13)

60 < m ark 80 2 =£80 45 (42 + 2)

T a b le 2 3 .1 M arks o f 45 stud ents in an e x a m in a tio n

The firs t th in g to n o tice is th a t th e c u m u la tiv e fre q u e n cie s in th e c u m u la tiv e fre q u e n c y ta b le

sh o w th e n u m b e r o f data values in th e c o rre s p o n d in g class and all th e p re v io u s classes.
This m eans th a t th e c u m u la tiv e fre q u e n cy is p lo tte d a g ainst th e upper class b o u n d a ry as
sh o w n in th e cu rve in Figure 23.1. (For exam ple, th e re are 10 s tu d e n ts w h o scored 25 or less).
W hen d ra w in g a c u m u la tiv e fre q u e n cy curve:

• The c u m u la tiv e fre q u e n cy is alw ays show n on th e v ertical axis.

• The p o in ts are p lo tte d a g ainst th e u p p e r class b o unda rie s.
• The curve is alw ays increasing, o r p o ssib ly h o riz o n ta l, b u t never decreases.
• The to p o f th e c u m u la tiv e freque ncy cu rv e re p re se n ts the to ta l fre q u e n c y (100% o f the
d a ta set).

Key term
Cum ulative frequency
is the running total of the
frequencies in a grouped
frequency distribution.
Key terms
The interquartile range
is the difference between
upper and lower
quartiles.
The quartiles together
with the median divide
a set of data into four
equal parts.
^ 23 Statistics II
• It is usual to d raw a sm ooth curve connecting the data points unless you are asked to construct
a c u m u la tive frequency polygon, in w hich case the points are jo in e d by straight lines.
Marks (%)
F ig u re 2 3 .1 C u m u lative freq u en cy curve
The curve can n o w be used to estim a te the m edian o f th e data.
The m e d ia n is th e data value th a t divid es th e data set in to tw o equal parts w hen th e data values
are arran ged in order.
Since th e ta b le has already arranged th e values in to increasing o rd e r w e read th e data value th a t
co rresp on d s to 50% o f th e c u m u la tive frequency, th a t is, h a lfw a y to th e highest p lo tte d p o in t up
th e c u m u la tiv e fre q u e n cy axis. From th e axis, rule a horizontal line to th e curve, and th e n rule a
ve rtical lin e d o w n to th e ho rizo n ta l axis. Read th e m edian fro m th e scale on th e horizontal axis.
A
Example 5
use the curve in f-lgure 23.1 to estimate
a the median of the data set,
b how many students scored 30 or less.
Answer 5
a The median = 38.
b 15 students scored 30 or less.
V
2 3 .6 Quartiles, Interquartile Range
and Percentiles
In C h a p te r 11 w e lo o ke d a t th re e sets o f e x a m in a tio n m arks, and fo u n d th a t th e m ean w as
a ffe cte d by th e extrem e, n o n -ty p ic a l d ata values. These also a ffe c t th e range, w h ic h is used as
a roug h m e asure o f th e spread o f th e data.
The in te r q u a r tile range is a n o th e r m easure o f spread w h ic h is n o t so affected by extrem e
values.
The m e d ia n d iv id e s th e data in to tw o equal groups, so is a m easure o f th e m id d le o f the data.
The q u a rtile s d iv id e each o f these tw o equal groups again in to tw o e q u a l parts. So th e m edian
and q u a rtile s d iv id e th e data in to fo u r e qual parts.
23 Statistics II j

Consider the fo llo w in g ordered data set:

2 4 4 5 5 5 6 7 8 8 8 9
There are 12 data values so th e m edian is h a lfw a y between the 6th and 7th values.
The m edian is ^ y ^ = 5.5

2 4 4 5 5 5 . . . 6 7 8 8 8 9
The lo w e r q u a rtile divides th e low er half into tw o equal parts. There are 6 data values so the
low er quartile is between th e 3rd and 4th.
The low er quartile is 4.5.
Similarly, th e u p p e r q u a rtile is between the 9th and 10th values, so the upper q u a rtile is 8.
These are shown in Figure 23.2.

2 4 4 ... 5 5 5 ... 6 7 8 ... 8 8 9

T t T
4.5 5.5 8
Fig u re 2 3 .2 D ata set sp lit in to q u artiles

The m edian and quartiles are often abbreviated as:

Lower q u a rtile = q 1o r Q:
Median = q2 or Q2
U pper qua rtile = q3 o r Q3
So in this exam ple, Qj = 4.5 Q2 = 5.5 Q3= 8
The interq ua rtile range is th e distance between the u pp e r and low er quartiles.
In this case th e interquartile range = Q3- Q; = 8 - 4.5 = 3.5.
When we need to estim ate th e interq ua rtile range from a grouped frequency d is trib u tio n we
use th e cum ulative frequency curve. The typical curve in Figure 23.3 w ill illustrate this.
The highest p o in t on the cum ulative frequency curve (which represents the to ta l frequency)
is 100%. The low er q ua rtile is one q uarter (25%) o f th e way up to 100% on the cum u lative
frequency axis, and the u pp e r qua rtile is three quarters o f th e w ay up (75%).
Be aware th a t th e cum u lative frequency scale could go higher than th e highest p o in t on the
curve, b u t th a t part should be ignored, as Figure 23.3 shows.

NOTE:
When you are usingyour
cumulative frequency
curvelnthisway.ruied
pencil lines are part of
yourworking. Do not
leave them out. It is also
helpful to use arrows on
these lines to show the
direction of the working.

Figure 23.3 Q uartiles on a cum ulative frequency curve

\
608
 I 23 Statistics II

The data can also be divided into percentiles, w hich, as th e ir nam e suggests, are each one
Key term hundredth o f the way through th e data set.
Percentiles divide a set
of data into one hundred For exam ple, to find the 30th percentile you go 30% up the vertical (cum ulative frequency)
equal parts. axis and read across to the curve, and then dow n to the horizontal axis.

The last th in g you have to know a b o u t the use o f cu m ulative frequency curves is shown in the
exam ple below.

Exam ple 7
Use the cumulative frequency curve of some students’ percentage marks in a test (Example 5)
to estimate:
a how many students have marks of 60% or more,
b how many students have marks between 40% and 50%,
c the range of marks between the 40th and 60th percentiles.

Think carefullyvfhere these data itlfHilie! This question is often answered ii|p j||p P ? h
examinations.

609
23 Statistics II J

Answer 7
We copy the curve and rule lines to show our working:

40

| 30
a3
?
.1
3
i 20
o

10
t
it:

20 40 60 80
Marks (%)

a The mark of 60% corresponds with 43 students, so 45 - 43 = 2 students

have marks of 60% or more,
b 3 6 - 2 5 = 11
11 students have marks between 40% and 50%.
C 4 0 % Of 4 5 = 1 8 , 6 0 % Of 4 5 = 27
The 40th and 60th percentiles are at 18 and 27 on the cumulative frequency axis.
The range of marks between 40th and 60th percentiles = 42 - 33 = 9 marks.

M m I ...... ............... .... _.... ............ ......... .......................... ......... ................... .

o. The quartiles and percentiles are not
found by dividing the!
value of the data item, and the vertical axis represents its position in the ordered set of data.
i curve.

Exam ple 8
Use this cumulative frequency curve showing some more examination marks to find
a the 45th percentile mark,
b the number of candidates passing the examination if the pass mark is 60%.
 I 23 Statistics II

Answer 8

40 50 60 100
Marks (%)

45% of 70 = 31.5
So the 45th percentile lies between the 31st and 32nd items on the ordered list originally
used to draw the curve. We find that 31.5 on the cumulative frequency axis corresponds
with a mark of 48%.
The 45th percentile is the mark 48%.

70 - 48 = 22
22 students passed the examination.
23 Statistics II J

Example 9
a The tables below record the times, to the nearest minute, taken for students from two
forms (classes) at a school to complete a memory test. Draw two cumulative frequency
curves on the same grid to illustrate the tw o sets of data,
b Use the tw o curves to compare the performance of the two sets of students.

Form 3A
Time (t minutes) Frequency

1 0 < f= s i5 2

15 < («£ 20 6

20 < f =£ 25 10

25 < t « 35 11

35 < (=£ 45 1

Form 3B
Time (t minutes) Frequency

10 < f «£ 20 4

20 < t « 25 5

25<a«30 8

30 <£40 10

40 < t =£ 60 3

Answer 9
a Form 3A
Time (t minutes) Frequency Cumulative frequency
10 < ( =s 15 2 2

15 < t 20 6 8

2 0 < f= £ 2 5 10 18

25 < t s 35 11 29

35 < t « 45 1 30

Form 3B
Time (t minutes) Frequency Cumulative frequency

10 < t =s 20 4 4

20 < t =£ 25 5 9

25 < f =£ 30 8 17

30 < t =£ 40 10 27

40 < t =s 60 3 30
 [ 23 Statistics II

Time (minutes)
b From the cumulative frequency curves:
Form 3A Q; = 20
Q2= 23.5
Q3= 28
Interquartile range = 28 - 20 = 8
Form 3B Q; = 24
Q2= 28.5
Q3 = 35
Interquartile range = 35 - 2 4 = 11

V _________________________________________________________________________________________

On average Form 3A completed the test quicker than Form 3B. The spread of Form 3A’s marks
was less than that of Form 3B.

Exercise 23.3
1 a D raw a c u m u la tiv e fre q u e n cy curve to illu s tra te th e d a ta given in th e table,
b E stim a te th e m e d ia n , q u a rtile s and in te rq u a rtile range,
c E stim a te th e 65th p e rcentile.

Class F requency

10<x«20 9

20 < * = £ 3 0 16

3 0 < jcs£ 4 0 27

40 < x «£ 50 13

2 Masses o f 28 a d u lts, (m kg).

74.8 74.9 90 83.3 94.5 68.7 70.1
84.5 88.0 78.5 69.1 70.5 72.9 69.4
75.7 79.9 81.4 92.5 88.5 76.8 83.4
82.8 79.8 90.5 88.8 83.1 82.5 78.5
23 Statistics ll J

a Use th e d ata given a bove to c o m p le te th e g ro u p e d fre q u e n cy d is trib u tio n below .

Class 65 < m =£ 70 < m =£ 15 < m =£ 80 < m =£ 85 < m «£ 90 < m * Z
70 75 80 85 90 100
F requency
b D raw a c u m u la tiv e fre q u e n cy curve.
c E stim a te i th e m e d ia n mass, ii th e in te rq u a rtile range, iii th e 40th percentile.

Exercise 23.4
Mixed exercise
1 T h e ta b le b e lo w s how s th e tim e s s o m e h a lf-m a ra th o n runners to o k to c o m p le te the
course. The tim e s are in m in u te s.

74.2 75.2 77.6 79.4 80.1 80.2 84.4 86.0

88.0 93.6 94.1 95.5 98.4 98.9 99.0 99.9
100.0 100.0 101.5 102.9 103.0 103.5 104.7 105.6
105.8 106.0 106.2 106.9 107.1 107.4 107.7 107.9
108.4 108.5 108.7 108.9 109.1 109.1 109.3 109.4
109.6 109.6 109.9 109.9 110.6 111.2 111.8 115.2
116.1 117.0 117.0 117.8 118.1 118.9 119.3 120.0
134.6 135.2 135.9 141.4 143.9 146.8 149.9 153.1

a D raw a g ro u p e d fre q u e n c y ta b le w ith th e tim e s g ro u p e d in to classes

70 < t =£ 80,80 < t *£ 9 0 ,9 0 < t *£ 100,100 < t =£ 120 and 120 < * =£ 160.
Include in y o u r table, Class boundaries, Class w id th , Class m id p o in t, Frequency density
and C um ula tive frequency,
b Draw a histogram ,
c E stim a te th e m ean,
d Id e n tify th e m o d a l class,
e Draw a c u m u la tiv e fre q u e n cy curve.
f Use th e cum u la tive freque ncy curve to e stim a te the m edian, quartiles a n d 70th percentile.

2 T he fo llo w in g h isto g ra m show s th e results o f a n o th e r h a lf-m a ra th o n run.

* 2
w
c
Q)
T5
C
<1D
cr3
2 1A
LL

__
-

70 80 90 100 110 120 130

H a lf m a ra th o n tim e s

614
 [ 23 Statistics II

a Use the histo g ram to d ra w a gro u p e d fre q u e n cy ta b le , in c lu d in g Class w id th ,

Frequency density, Class m id p o in t, Frequency and C u m u la tiv e frequency, w ith the
tim e s gro u p e d as in q u e s tio n 1.
b E stim a te th e m ean,
c Draw a c u m u la tiv e fre q u e n cy curve,
d E stim ate th e m e dian and q u a rtile s.
e Flow m any p e o p le c o m p le te d th is m a ra th o n in less th a n 100 m inutes?
f Estim ate the n u m ber o f runners w ho to o k m ore than 108 m inutes to com plete this course.

3 A g irls ’ sch o o l and a b oys’ sch o o l are to m erge to fo rm o n e school.

The m ean n u m b e r o f girls p er class in th e g irls ’ sch o o l is 25.4 (to 3 s ig n ific a n t figures) and
th e re are 12 classes all togethe r. In th e b o ys’ school th e m ean n u m b e r o f boys per class is
23.8, and th e re are 15 classes. T he new school w ill have 22 classes.
C a lcu late th e m ean n u m b e r o f s tu d e n ts per class in th e new school, g ivin g y o u r a nsw er to
3 s ig n ific a n t figures. S how all y o u r w orking .

4 A g ro u p o f 20 stu d e n ts have a m ean m a rk o f 72% in th e ir m a th s exam . A new s tu d e n t jo in s

th e g ro u p . Fie had scored 68% in th e sam e e x a m in a tio n . W hat is th e n ew m ean m a rk o f
th e enlarg e d group?

5 In a n o th e r school the classes w ere being reorganised according to the m arks the students had
gained in th e ir end o f year exam ination. The to p set o f 25 students had a m ean m ark o f 75%
before th e reorganisation. Three students w ith a mean m ark o f 61% w ere m oved dow n to the
second set, and tw o students w ith a m ean m ark o f 80% were m oved up into the to p set.
a Flow m any s tu d e n ts are th e re n o w in th e to p set?
b W h a t is th e new m ean m a rk o f th e to p set?

Exam-style questions j
6 The h e ig h ts o f 40 c h ild re n w e re m easured.
The results are s u m m a rise d in th e ta b le below .
FHeight [h cm ) 1 0 5 < /is s 115 115 < /i =S 125 125 < / i *£ 135 135 < h *£ 145
Frequency 5 10 20 5

a i Id e n tify th e m o d a l class.
ii C a lcu late an e s tim a te o f th e m ean height,
b The c u m u la tiv e fre q u e n cy c u rv e re p re se n tin g th is in fo rm a tio n is show n below .

H e ig h t (h cm )

615
23 Statistics II j

Use th e cu rve to fin d

i th e in te rq u a rtile range,
ii th e n u m b e r o f c h ild re n w h o se h e ights are in th e range 120 cm to 130 cm.
(4024 p a p e r 01 Q25 June 2007)

7 Kristina asked 200 p e o p le h o w m u ch w a te r th e y d rin k in o n e day.

The ta b le s h ow s her results.

A m o u n t o f w a te r (x litres) N u m b e r o f p e o p le

0< x 0.5 8

0.5 < x =£ 1 27

K x s s i.5 45

1 .5 < x « s 2 50

2 < x * s 2 .5 39

2 .5 < x = £ 3 21

3 < x « £ 3 .5 7

3 .5 < x « 4 3

a W rite d o w n th e m o d a l interval,
b C alculate an e s tim a te o f th e m ean,
c M ake a c u m u la tiv e fre q u e n c y ta b le fo r th is d ata.
d U sing a scale o f 4 c m to 1 litre o f w a te r on th e h o riz o n ta l axis and 1 c m to 10 p e o p le o n
th e v e rtic a l axis, d ra w th e c u m u la tiv e fre q u e n c y graph,
e Use y o u r c u m u la tiv e fre q u e n cy g raph to fin d
i th e m edian,
ii th e 4 0 th p e rcentile,
iii th e n u m b e r o f p e o p le w h o d rin k a t least 2.6 litres o f w ater.
f A doctor recom m ends that a person drinks at least 1.8 litres of w ater each day.
W h a t percentag e o f th e s e 200 p e o p le d o n o t d rin k e n o u g h w ater?

(0580 p a p e r 04 Q6 J u n e 2007)

8 a The n u m b e rs 0 ,1 ,1 ,1 ,2 , k, m, 6 ,9 ,9 are in o rd e r (fc *m ).

T h e ir m e d ia n is 2.5 a n d th e ir m ean is 3.6.
i W rite d o w n th e m ode.
ii Find th e value o f k.
iii Find th e va lu e o f m.
b 100 s tu d e n ts are given a q u e s tio n to answ er.
The tim e taken (f seconds) by each s tu d e n t is recorded and th e results are sh o w n in
th e table.

t 0< 20 < 30 < 35 < 40 < 50 < 60 <

f= £ 2 0 t =£ 30 £ s£35 t S5 40 t =£50 t =S 60 t «80
Frequency 10 10 15 28 22 7 8
C alcu late an e s tim a te o f th e m ean tim e taken.

c The d a ta in p a rt b is regro uped to give th e fo llo w in g table.

T
o

O
CD

0 < ts £ 0 30 < f ^ 0
V/
V

Frequency P <? 8

\
616
 lv 23 Statistics II

i W rite d o w n th e values o fp and q.

ii Draw an accurate histo g ra m to show these results.
Use a scale o f 1 cm to repre sen t 5 seconds on th e h o riz o n ta l tim e axis.
Use a scale o f 1 cm to 0.2 u n its o f fre q u e n cy d e n s ity (so th a t 1 c m 2 on y o u r
h isto g ra m represents 1 stu d e n t). (0580 paper 04 Q9 (part) June 2006)

9 The jo u rn e y tim e s o f 80 drivers are s u m m a rise d in th e table.

T im e

CD

CO
»-+•
/A

o
co
o

CD
90 < t « 95 9 5 < t ^ 100 100 < f ^ 110 110 < f ^ 130

V/
•*-»
V
O
A

o
( t m in utes)

Num ber
4 10 14 20 24 8
o f drivers

C a lcu la te an e s tim a te o f th e m ean jo u rn e y tim e.

C opy th e d iagram and c o m p le te th e histogram to represent th e in fo rm a tio n in th e table.

2-
<n
c
<D
T3
>>
a)
D
cr
S»

60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

T im e (f m inutes)
(4024 pa p e r 21 Q6a, c N o ve m b e r 2012)

1 0 The c u m u la tiv e fre q u e n cy cu rve show s th e d is trib u tio n o f th e m asses o f 100 people.

Mass (m kg)

617
23 Statistics II J

Find
a th e m ed ia n,
b th e u p p e r q u a rtile ,
c th e n u m b e r o f p e o p le w ith m asses in th e range 65 < m «£ 72.
(4024 p a p e r 01 Q17 June 2005)

11 40011111111111 r 11 n i r-i 111 1 11 n 111 .............

£ 300
©
D
I§ 200
JS
D
E
O 100

0 10 20 30 40 50
Height (cm)

T h e d ia g ra m a bove is th e c u m u la tiv e fre q u e n cy c u rv e fo r th e h e ig h ts o f 400 p la n ts w hich

w e re g ro w n in Field A
Use th e graph to fin d
a th e n u m b e r o f p la n ts th a t grew to a h e ig h t o f m o re th a n 30 cm ,
b th e in te rq u a rtile range,
c A n o th e r 400 p la n ts w e re grow n in Field B.
The c u m u la tiv e fre q u e n c y d is trib u tio n o f th e h e ig h ts o f these p la n ts is show n
in th e ta ble.

H e ig h t (/ic m ) 10 / i « 1 5 /i= £ 2 0 h^25 /j* £ 3 0 h *s 3 5 h * £ 40 h *£ 5 0

C u m u la tiv e 35 75 130 200 280 330 370 400

fre q u e n cy

C opy th e grap h and on th e sam e axes as fo r Field A, d ra w th e c u m u la tiv e freque ncy

c u rve fo r th e p la n ts g ro w n in Field B.
d By c o m p a rin g th e tw o curves, state, w ith a reason, w h ic h field
p ro d u c e d th e ta lle r pla n ts. (4024 p a p e r 01 Q19 N ove m b er 2005)
12 O ne h u n d re d c h ild re n w ere asked h o w fa r th e y c o u ld sw im .
T h e results are s u m m a ris e d in th e table.

D istance (d m etres) 0 < d ^ 100 100 =5200 200 < d 400

N u m b e r o f ch ild re n 30 50 20

a The h isto g ra m b e lo w represents p a rt o f th is in fo rm a tio n .

C o m p le te th e h istogram .

\
6181
 i 23 Statistics II

0.6

0.5
&
(0
0 0.4
■o
o>%
§ 0.3
3
cr
£
^ 0.2

0.1

0 100 200 300 400

Distance (d metres)

b A p ie c h a rt is d raw n to repre sen t th e th re e gro u p s o f ch ild re n .

C a lcu la te th e angle o f th e s e c to r th a t represents th e g ro u p o f 20 ch ild re n .
(4 0 2 4 p a p e r 01 Q l l N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 5 )

13 On a certa in stretch o f road, th e speeds o f so m e cars w ere recorded.

The resu lts are s u m m a rise d in th e table.
Part o f th e c o rre s p o n d in g h isto g ra m is show n alongside.

S peed (x k m /h ) Frequency
4
25 < * = £ 4 5 q

45 < x =£ 55 30
3
55 < x ^ 65 P &
65 < x ^ 95 12

!
1

oil1111 ii1111111111111.1 u i u i i . tt r n .
25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95
Speed (km/h)
a Find th e value o f
i p, ii q.
b C o m p le te th e h istogram . (4 0 2 4 p a p e r 0 1 Q l l N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 7 )

14 a Each s tu d e n t in a class is given a bag o f sweets.

T he s tu d e n ts n o te th e n u m b e r o f sw eets in th e ir bag.
T he results are show n in th e ta b le , w here 0 x < 10.

N u m b e r o f sw eets 30 31 32

Frequency (n u m b e r o f bags) 10 7 X
23 Statistics II j

i S tate th e m ode.
ii Find th e possib le values o f th e m edian.
iii The m ean n u m b e r o f sw eets is 30.65.
Find th e value o f x.
b The mass, m gram s, o f each o f 200 c h o c o la te s is no te d and th e results are sh o w n
in th e table.

Mass [m gram s) 1 0 < w =£ 20 20<m «22 22 < m « 24 24 < m =£ 30

F requency 35 115 26 24

i C a lcu late an e s tim a te o f th e m ean m ass o f a ch o colate.

ii On a h istogram , th e h e ig h t o f th e c o lu m n fo r th e 20 < m =£ 22 in te rv a l is 11.5 cm .
C a lcu la te th e h e ig h ts o f th e o th e r th re e co lu m n s.
Do n o t d ra w th e h isto g ram . (0580 p a p e r 04 Q6 N o ve m b e r 2008)

15 T he m ass o f each o f 200 tea bags w as checked b y an in s p e c to r in a factory.

T he results are sh o w n b y th e c u m u la tiv e fre q u e n c y curve.

Use th e c u m u la tiv e fre q u e n cy c urve to fin d

a th e m e d ia n mass,
b th e in te rq u a rtile range,
c th e n u m b e r o f tea bags w ith a m ass g reate r th a n 3.5 gram s.
(0580 p a p e r 02 Q19 N o ve m b e r 2007)

16 a The d is trib u tio n o f th e tim e s s p e n t by 200 c u s to m e rs at a re sta u ra n t o n e e v e n in g is

sho w n in th e table.

T im e
3 0 « f< 6 0 60 =£ ( < 8 0 80 s; f < 90 90 f < 100 100 ^ f < 120
(t m inu tes)
Frequency 24 P <7 58 28

The d iag ra m show s p a rt o f the histo g ra m th a t represents th is data.

\
620
 ■ 23 Statistics II

4
C
c
O
(D
■a

0)
D
O'
2
u.
2

o -PTi t t n - r r i t r i - r t r m - | - i ~ r t t T i ii m .
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Time (f minutes)
i C opy and c o m p le te th e histogram .
ii F in d p a n d q .
iii E stim ate th e p ro b a b ility th a t a custom er, chosen a t ra n d o m , s p e n t m ore
th a n 95 m in u te s in th e restauran t.
b T he ta b le b e lo w show s th e d is trib u tio n o f th e ages o f these custom ers.

Age (y years) 0<y«20 2 0 < > 's £ 4 0 4 0 < > 's £ 6 0 60 < y *£ 80
Frequency 34 57 85 24

i State th e m o d a l class.
ii C a lcu late an e s tim a te o f th e m ean age o f these custom ers.
(4024 p a per / / Q / J u n e 2013)

17 A n o rm a l die, n u m b e re d 1 to 6, is ro lle d 50 tim es.

The results are sh o w n in th e fre q u e n cy table.

Score 1 2 3 4 5 6
Frequency 15 10 7 5 6 7

a W rite d o w n th e m o d a l score,
b Find th e m e d ia n score,
c C a lcula te th e m ean score,
d The d ie is th e n ro lle d a n o th e r 10 tim es.
The m ean score fo r th e 60 ro lls is 2.95.
C alcu late th e m ean score fo r th e extra 10 rolls. (0580 paper 04 0. June 2009)

621
23 Statistics II J

1 8 The le ng th s o f 40 nails w ere m easured.

T h e ir lengths, in ce n tim e tre s , are s u m m a rise d in th e ta b le below .
Length (/cm ) Frequency

0 < /« 4 14

4 < /« 8 18

8 < Z *s 16 8

a On a c o p y o f th e axes b e lo w in th e a nsw er space, d ra w th e h is to g ra m w h ic h represents

th is in fo rm a tio n .

£
cn
c
<D
T3

3CT
£
LL

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Length (/ cm)
b C a lcula te an e s tim a te o f th e m ean le n g th o f th e nails.
(4024 p a p e r 01 Q19 N ove m b er 2004)

19 a The le ng ths o f 120 leaves w ere m easured.

The c u m u la tiv e fre q u e n cy graph show s th e d is trib u tio n o f th e ir le n g th s.

Use th is graph to e s tim a te

i th e m edian,
ii th e in te rq u a rtile range,
iii th e n u m b e r o f leaves w hose length is m o re th a n 31.5 cm .
(4024 p a p e r 02 Q10a June 2006)

2 0 Paul and Sam are tw o a th le te s w h o have tra in in g sessions togethe r.

On 80 sessions d u rin g 2007 th e y ran th e sam e ro ute, and th e ir tim e s w ere recorded.

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622
 I 23 Statistics H

a The c u m u la tiv e fre q u e n cy curve show s th e d is trib u tio n o f P aul’s tim es.

Use th e curve to e s tim a te

th e m ed ia n,
i th e in te rq u a rtile range,
ii h o w o fte n Paul to o k m o re th a n 64 m inutes.
S a m ’s tim e s had a lo w e r q u a rtile o f 62.5 m in u te s, a m e d ia n o f 63 m in u te s and an
u p p e r q u a rtile o f 64 m in u te s.
S tate w h ic h a th le te w as th e m ore c o n s iste n t runner, g ivin g a reason fo r y o u r answer.
(4024 p a per 02 Q6 J u n e 2008)

21 a T he graph show s th e c u m u la tiv e fre q u e n cy c u rve fo r th e p la y in g tim e s o f th e

in d iv id u a l tra cks on A n d re w ’s MP3 player.
Use th e graph to fin d
i th e m ed ia n, ii th e in te rq u a rtile range.
80

60

40
CO
D
E
D
o
20
%
4 5
Playing time (minutes)
23 Statistics II j

b T h e t a b l e s u m m a r is e s t h e p la y in g t im e s o f e a c h o f t h e 1 0 0 tr a c k s o n T o m ’s M P 3 p la y e r.

P la y in g t i m e (t m in u t e s ) F re q u e n c y

2 .5 < t * £ 3 .5 5

3 .5 < t =S 4 .5 30

4 .5 < f *£ 5 .5 50

5 .5 < f ^ 6 .5 15

C a lc u la t e a n e s t im a t e o f t h e m e a n p la y in g t i m e o f t h e in d iv id u a l tr a c k s .
(4024 p a p e r 01 Q23 N o ve m b e r 2008)
50
22

40
&
S Mathematics

I 30

English
12 20
E
3
o
10

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Marks

F ifty s t u d e n t s e a c h t o o k a m a t h e m a t ic s a n d a n E n g lis h te s t. T h e d is t r ib u t io n s o f th e ir
m a r k s a r e s h o w n in t h e c u m u la t iv e f r e q u e n c y g r a p h ,
a U se th e g ra p h
i t o e s t im a t e t h e m e d ia n m a r k in t h e E n g lis h te s t ,
ii t o e s t im a t e t h e 2 0 t h p e r c e n t ile m a r k in t h e m a t h e m a t ic s te s t,
b S ta te , w ith a reason, w h ic h t e s t t h e s t u d e n t s f o u n d m o r e d iffic u lt.
(4024 p a per 01 Q 9 June 2009)

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624
L e a r n in g O b je c t iv e s Syllabus sections 2 and 40

In this ch a p te r you w ill • use Venn diagram s

• use tre e diagram s • use m o re set n o ta tio n .
• learn ab o u t d e p e n d e n t and in d e p e n d e n t
events

24.1 Introduction
T his c h a p te r c o m p le te s y o u r co urse fo r 0 Level M a th e m a tics.

We w ill lo o k a t u sin g tre e d ia g ra m s and Venn d ia g ra m s to solve p ro b a b ility p ro b le m s .

24.2 Essential Skills

1 A bag c o n ta in s 10 b eads c o lo u re d red, b lu e and green.

a If a bead is c h o se n a t ra n d o m it is k n o w n th a t th e p ro b a b ility o f it b e in g red is | .

H ow m a n y red beads are in th e bag?
b There are three green beads in the bag. W hat is the probability o f cho osin g a blue
bead?
c W h a t is th e p ro b a b ility o f c h o o s in g a y e llo w bead?

2 A m a n u fa c tu rin g c o m p a n y te sts 50 c o m p o n e n ts sele cte d a t ra n d o m fro m a b a tc h o f

1500, and fin d s th a t 3 o f th e m are fa u lty.
a W h a t p e rce n ta g e o f th e c o m p o n e n ts is faulty?
b H ow m a n y c o m p o n e n ts c o u ld be e x p e c te d to be fa u lty in th e w h o le batch?

3 U sing a p ro b a b ility space d ia g ra m w o rk o u t th e p ro b a b ility o f th ro w in g tw o even

n u m b e rs w ith tw o dice.

24.3 Tree Diagrams

In C h a p te r 12, w e lo o k e d a t c o m b in e d e v e n ts usin g p ro b a b ility space d ia g ra m s. We w ill
n o w stu d y a n o th e r useful d ia g ra m ca lle d a tr e e d iag ram .
24 Funner Probability J

A s im p le exa m p le o f a tre e d ia g ra m is th e to y tra in s e t sh o w n in Figure 24.1.

Key term
W hen th is tra in com es to a ju n c tio n (m arked w ith a d o t) th e re is a p ro b a b ility o f | th a t it w ill
A tre t diagram displays
go s tra ig h t o n. This m eans th a t th e re is a p ro b a b ility o f ^ th a t it w ill tu rn .
all possible resutts of
two o r wore events. - Figure 24.1 show s th e la y o u t, w ith th e p ro b a b ilitie s m a rk e d on each branch.

Start - Station A
_i_
4

3_ ■Station B
4

- Station C

■Station D

Station E

F ig u re 2 4 .1 Tree diagram fo r tra in set

The p ro b a b ility o f th e tra in a rriv in g a t s ta tio n A is

The p ro b a b ility o f th e tra in a rriv in g a t s ta tio n B is fo u n d by m u ltip ly in g th e p ro b a b ilitie s a t

each ju n c tio n a lo n g th e ro u te fro m th e s ta rt to s ta tio n B: J- x ^ = yjr.

If y o u are n o t sure a b o u t th is re m e m b e r th a t th is m e a n s th a t th e tra in tu rn s a t th e firs t

ju n c tio n a n d tu rn s a t th e second ju n c tio n . L o o k b a c k to S ection 12.6 in C h a p te r 12, w h e re w e
m u ltip lie d th e p ro b a b ilitie s w h e n w e w a n te d tw o o u tc o m e s together.

The p ro b a b ility o f th e tra in a rriv in g a t A o r B (w e d o n o t m in d w h ic h ) is fo u n d

by a d d i n g the probability of it arriving at station A a n d the probability o f it arriving
a t s ta tio n B. So:

P (A o rB ) = P(B) = f + ^

= — +—
16 16
_ 1_3
16

Example 1
Use the diagram of the toy train layout to answer the following questions,
a W hat is the probability o f the train arriving a t station C?
b W hat is th e probability of the train arriving a t station D?
c W hat is the probability of the train arriving at stations C, D or E?
d W hat is the to tal of all the probabilities?
e W hat is the probability of the train not arriving at A?
Answer 1

a P(C) = H XW = 2 f6 b P<D) = l X W X ! = 2l6

626\
 ^ 24 Further Probability

P(C,D or E) = P(C) + P(D) + P(E)

--1_ + -1_ + i x l x l
256 256 U 4 4

256 256 64
.3 . 9 , 36 _ 48
256 256 256 256

d P(A) + P(B) + P(C) + P(D) + P(E) = 1 e P(not A) = 1 - P(A)

:1“ !
.1
'4

A tre e d ia g ra m w ill help you d is tin g u is h betw een d e p e n d e n t and in d e p e n d e n t events.

Key terms
For e xa m p le , sup p o se you are g o in g to ch oose tw o co lo u re d discs a t ra n d o m from a box
Two events are
c o n ta in in g five red and six blu e discs, th a t is 11 discs a ltogether.
independent if the
result of the first has no The firs t tim e you d o th is e x p e rim e n t you w ill n o t replace th e first disc before c h o o s in g th e
effect on the probability seco n d disc. T his is called selectio n w ith o u t re p la c e m e n t.
of the second.
For th e firs t c h o ic e P(R) = p j, and P(B) = These p ro b a b ilitie s are sh o w n on th e tre e dia g ra m
Two events are
dependent if the in Figure 24.2.
probability of the second For th e s eco nd ch o ice th e p ro b a b ilitie s d e p e n d on w h a t h a p p e n e d first.
depends on the result of
the first. If a red w a s p icke d th e firs t tim e th e re are n o w o n ly fo u r reds, b u t s till six blues in th e box,
m a k in g te n discs altog e ther. So n o w P(R) = ^ and P(B) = ^ . The second ch o ice is de p e n d e n t
on th e first.

Figure 24.2 sh o w s these p ro b a b ilitie s .

First choice Second choice

P (R , R) =
5
A
4 20
11 10 110

P(R, B) =

P(B, R) =

P(B, B) =

F ig u re 2 4 .2 Tree diagram fo r choice o f discs

Im p o rta n t p o in ts a b o u t tre e diagram s:

• Read th e d ia g ra m fro m left to rig h t.

• Every tim e a cho ice is m a d e th e d ia g ra m s p lits in to branches.
• The o u tc o m e o f each ch o ice is show n a t th e end o f th e branch.
• The p ro b a b ility o f th a t o u tc o m e is show n on th e branch.
Every tim e th e re is a choice th e p ro b a b ilitie s on th e branches at th a t p o in t a d d up to 1.
• The p ro b a b ility of, fo r exam ple, tw o reds in Figure 24.2 (Red a n d Red), is fo u n d by
m u ltip ly in g th e p ro b a b ilitie s a lo n g th e branches th a t lead to P(R, R).

/
627
24 Further Probability J

• The p ro b a b ility o f g e ttin g one o f each c o lo u r in th e exam ple above is fo u n d by a d d in g the

p ro b a b ilitie s P(R, B) a n d P(B, R).
• The p ro b a b ilitie s o f all th e po ssib le o u tc o m e s are show n at th e ends o f th e branches. They
all add up to 1, because th e y co ve r all p o ss ib ilitie s .
• It is useful to re m e m b e r th a t if you tra ve l a lo n g th e branches fro m left to rig h t y o u m u ltip ly
th e p ro b a b ilitie s , and if y o u w a n t to c o m b in e p ro b a b ilitie s v e rtic a lly you a d d th e m .

Example 2
a Copy the diagram above and fill in the rest of the probabilities,
b What is the probability of getting one of each colour?
Answer 2
a First choice Second choice
4 RED _ /ri 5 4 20
P(R, R) = — x — = ----
' ' 11 10 110

5 6 30
P(R, B)
11 10 ~ 110
30
P(B, R) = i x i
11 10 110

30
P(B, B) = — x — =
' ' 11 10 110

b P(RandB) = P(R,B) + P(B,R) = ^ + ^ = ^

Now, if this experim ent were to be repeated w ith replacem ent the second choice w ill n o t be
d e p e n d e n t on th e first. The outcom es o f th e first and second choices are independent o f each other.
The tree diagram in Figure 24.3 show s this situation

First choice Second choice

l x i= 25
11 11 121

P(B , B) =

F ig u re 2 4 .3 Tree d iagram fo r choice w ith rep lacem en t

Exercise 24.1
1 a C opy and c o m p le te th e dia g ra m above s h o w in g th e p ro b a b ilitie s o f th e re m a in in g
o u tc o m e s o f se le c tio n w ith rep la ce m e n t,
b W hat is th e p ro b a b ility o f g e ttin g one o f each colour?

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628
 ^ 24 Further Prohaliility

2 The average n u m b e r o f w e t days in M um bai in S e p te m b e r is 13.

The average n u m b e r o f w e t days in N ew D elhi in S e p te m b e r is 4.
a W h a t is th e p ro b a b ility th a t any day chosen at ra n d o m in M um bai in S e p te m b e r w ill be
i w et, ii dry.
b D raw a tree d ia g ra m to s h o w th e p ro b a b ilitie s o f w e t and d ry days in M um bai and New
D elhi in Septem ber,
c Find th e p ro b a b ility th a t on S e p te m b e r 5th next year it w ill be
i w e t in M um bai a n d in N ew Delhi,
ii w e t in M um bai and d ry in New Delhi,
iii b o th citie s w ill be dry.
d W h a t is th e p ro b a b ility th a t it w ill be d ry in New Delhi?

3 The p ro b a b ility o f S ukatai passing her m a th s exam a t th e firs t a tte m p t is | .

If she fails it and resits th e p ro b a b ility o f h er passing th e second tim e is | .

Draw a tree diagram to show this. R em em ber th a t if she passes first tim e she does n o t have to
take th e exam again so there is n o need for a n other branch in this part o f the tree diagram .

2 4 .4 Venn Diagram s
Venn d ia g ra m s and set n o ta tio n are also useful to o ls in th e s tu d y o f p ro b a b ility .

You m ay w a n t to have a q u ic k lo o k back a t C h a p te r 13 to re m in d y o u rs e lf a b o u t Venn

d ia g ra m s b efore c o n tin u in g .

T he Venn dia g ra m m ig h t s h o w th e n u m b e rs in each set o r it can sh o w th e p ro b a b ilitie s in

each set.

\
exam ple 3
In a class of 40 students 20 play football, 24 play cricket and 9 play both cricket and football.
Draw a Venn diagram to show the numbers of students who play each game.
If a student is picked at random, what is the probability that he or she plays
a neither football nor cricket? b cricket but not football?
A nsw er 3
The Venn diagram shows the numbers of students who play each game.

a There are 5 students who play neither football nor cricket, so the probability that the
student plays neither is -5-.
40
b 15
There are 15 students who play cricket but not football, so the probability is 4Q

629
24 Further Probability j

2 4 .5 Using Set Notation

Set n o ta tio n pro vides a n e a t m e th o d fo r d iscussing p ro b a b ilitie s .

R e m e m b e r th a t:
P(A u B ) = P(A o r B o r both)
P(A n B) = P (both A and B)
P(A') = P (not A) = 1 - P(A)
P(A u B)‘ = P (n e ith e r A n o r B)

If th e eve nts are m u tu a lly e x c lu s iv e th e n P(A n B) = 0.

T he Venn d ia g ra m fo r th e e xa m p le a bove c o u ld have been d ra w n to s h o w th e p ro b a b ilitie s in

each set, as in th e e xa m p le below .

Example 4

The Venn diagram from the example above has been redrawn to show the probabilities in each set.
a Are F and C mutually exclusive?
Find the following probabilities:
b P(F) c P(C)
d P(neitherFnorC) e P(bothFandC )
f P(F or C or both). g If a student plays football, calculate the probability that
he or she also plays cricket.
Answer 4
First it is worth checking that the total probability is 1:
0.275 + 0.225 + 0.375 + 0.125 = 1.
So there should be no probabilities missing, and each probability is correct,
a F and C are not mutually exclusive because a student may play both football and cricket,
b Using the previous Venn diagram we can calculate P(F) by finding the total number who
play football and dividing by the number in the class.
P(F) = (11 + 9) -s- 40 = 2040 = 0.5
It is perhaps easier to use the second Venn diagram and add the probabilities in F. So
P(F) = 0.275+ 0.225 = 0.5
C P(C) = 0.225+ 0.375 = 0.6
d P(neither F nor C) = P (F u C )' = 0.125
e Pfboth F and C) = P (F n C) = 0.225
f P(F or C or both) = P(F u C) = 0.275 + 0.225 + 0.375 = 0.875
g Using the Venn diagram we can calculate the probability of students who play football:
P(F) = 0.5
Probability of students who play both football and cricket = P(F n C) = 0.225
Now the probability that the student plays cricket given that he or she also plays football
= 0.225 + 0.5
^ = 0.45_____________________________________________________________________________
 [ 24 Further Probability

Exam ple 5
The Venn diagram shows the probabilities of two events represented by the sets A and B.

a FindP(A uB )'.
b Find P(A).
c Find P(A o r B o r both),
d Find P(A and B).
e Find P(A or B but not both).
Answer 5
a P(A u B )' = l - (0.1 + 0.2 + 0.4) = 1 - 0.7 = 0.3
b P(A) = 0.1 + 0.2 = 0.3
c P(A or B o r both) = P(A u B) = 0.1 + 0.2 + 0.4 = 0.7
d P(A and B) = P(A n B) = 0.2
e P(A or B but not both) = 0 .1+ 0.4 = 0.5
V _____________________________ _ _ _______________________________

Exercise 24.2
1 The Venn dia g ra m show s tw o sets, D and E, and som e p ro b a b ilitie s .

a Are th e events D and E m u tu a lly exclusive?

b Find P(E).
c W rite d o w n P(D n E).
d Find P(D u E).
e Find P(D').
2 In a class o f 35 stu de nts, 20 w e a r glasses (G), 10 are ta ll fo r th e ir age (T) and 2 are ta ll and
w ea r glasses.
a D raw tw o Venn diagram s, o n e s h o w in g th e n u m b e rs in th e sets G and T, and one
s h o w in g th e p ro b a b ilitie s ,
b Find P(G u T )\
c A s tu d e n t w h o w ears glasses is picked at ra n d o m . W hat is th e p ro b a b ility th a t he o r
she is also tall?
24 Further Probability J

Using set Notation With Tree Diagrams

Exam ple 6
Peter drives to work. His journey takes him through two sets of traffic lights which can be either
red (stop) or green (go).
The probability that the first set is red when he reaches it is 0.4, and the probability that the
second set is red is 0.7.
a Draw a tree diagram to show these probabilities.
b Do you think that the events that the first set is red and the second set is green are
independent?
c Are the events that the first set is red and the second set is red mutually exclusive?
d Are the events that the first set of lights is red and the first set of lights is green mutually
exclusive?
e Find P(Rt n R2), where is the event that the first set is red, and R2is the event that the
second set is red.
f Find the probability that either both sets are red or both sets are green,
g Find the probability that the two sets show different colours.
Answ er 6

r2
P( R-i D R2 ) = 0 .4x0.7 = 0.28

P( R1H G 2 ) = 0.4x0.3 = 0.12

P ( G ,n R 2 ) = 0.6x0.7 = 0.42

G2 P (G 1 n G 2 ) = 0 .6 x0.3 = 0.18

b They could be dependent if the signals are linked together to improve traffic flow. If they
are not linked they are independent. These are independent because the probabilities of
the second set being red or green are the same regardless of whether the first set was red
or green. So the second set does not depend on what colour the first set was showing,
c These events are not mutually exclusive because they can both happen at once,
d These events are mutually exclusive because they cannot both happen at once,
e P(RXn R2) = 0.28
f PffRjPi R2) u (Gj n G2)) = 0.28 + 0.18 = 0.46
g P(sets are different) = 1 - P(sets are the same) = 1 - 0.46 = 0.54

Exercise 24.3
M ixe d exercise
1 T here are tw o classes in a sch o o l b o th w ith girls a n d boys.
There are 10 girls in Class 5, and 13 boys.
There are 24 girls a lto g e th e r, and a to ta l o f 49 p u p ils in th e tw o classes.
C opy and c o m p le te th e d iagram b e lo w to show th e num bers o f boys and girls in each class.

G irls (G) Boys (B) T otals

Class Five (F) 10 13
Class Six (S)
Totals 24 49

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632
 24 further Probability

a If a p u p il is picked at ra n d o m fro m th e tw o classes w h a t is th e p ro b a b ility th a t it w ill be

a girl?
b F in d P (G n S ).
c Find P(F).
d A p u p il is picked at ra n d o m from Class Six. W hat is th e p ro b a b ility th a t it is a boy?

2 A bag c o n ta in s 8 c o lo u re d discs, 3 red (R) and 5 y e llo w (Y). Tw o discs are selected w ith o u t
re p la ce m e n t.
a D raw a tree d ia g ra m to sh o w these events,
b Is P(R) fo r th e first and second s e le ctio n th e sam e o r different?
c Are th e e vents o f s e le ctin g th e firs t and second discs inde p e n d e n t?
d W h a t is th e p ro b a b ility th a t th e second disc is y e llo w given th a t th e firs t disc w as red?
e Find P(Rj n Y2) w here R; is th e eve n t th a t th e first disc w as red, and Y2 is th e e ve n t th a t
th e second disc w as yello w ,
f Calculate the probability that both discs are different colours.

A p a cke t o f m ixed flo w e r seeds c o n ta in s 50 seeds o f v a rio u s flow ers. S om e o f th e flow e rs

w ill be ta ll (T), so m e w ill be y e llo w (Y) and so m e w ill be s p rin g flo w e rs (S). S om e w ill have
m o re th a n o n e o f these characteristics.
The Venn diagram show s the distribution of these characteristics.
a If a seed is picked a t ra n d o m fin d th e p ro b a b ility th a t it w ill be o f a y e llo w flow er,
b Find P(S').
c W rite d o w n n ( S n T n Y ) .
d Find th e p ro b a b ility th a t a seed picked a t ra n d o m is o f a ta ll y e llo w flow er,
e Given th a t a seed picked a t ra n d o m w as o f a ta ll flo w e r fin d th e p ro b a b ility th a t it w as
also ye llo w .
A s h n a is a b o u t t o t a k e a m a t h s e x a m in a t io n . W h e n s h e g e ts h e r re s u lts s h e w ill d e c id e
w h e t h e r t o s tu d y e c o n o m ic s (E ), g e o g r a p h y (G ) o r s c ie n c e (S ). If s h e p a s s e s h e r m a t h s
e x a m in a t io n (M ) t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t s h e w ill s tu d y e c o n o m ic s is 0 .4 . If s h e fa ils h e r m a th s
e x a m in a t io n ( M 1) t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t s h e w ill s tu d y g e o g r a p h y (G ) is 0 .6 .
a C o p y a n d c o m p le t e t h e tr e e d ia g r a m a b o v e , a n d u s e it t o a n s w e r t h e f o llo w in g
q u e s tio n s .
b W h a t is t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t s h e w ill p a s s h e r m a t h s e x a m in a t io n a n d s tu d y
e c o n o m ic s ?
c C a lc u la te P ( M ' n E ) .
d C a lc u la te t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t s h e w ill s tu d y s c ie n c e .

Exam-style questions
A n o r d in a r y u n b ia s e d d ie h a s fa c e s n u m b e r e d 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 a n d 6 .
S a r a h a n d T e r r y e a c h t h r e w th is d ie o n c e .
E x p re s s in g e a c h a n s w e r a s a fr a c tio n in its lo w e s t te rm s , fin d t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t
i S a ra h th re w a 7, ii th e y b o th th re w a 6 ,
iii n e it h e r t h r e w a n e v e n n u m b e r , iv S a r a h t h r e w e x a c tly fo u r m o r e t h a n T e rry .
(4024 pa p e r 02 Q5b June 2003)
T w o u n b ia s e d s p in n e r s a r e u s e d in a g a m e .
O n e s p in n e r is n u m b e r e d fr o m 1 to 6 a n d t h e o t h e r is n u m b e r e d f r o m 1 t o 3.
T h e s c o re s o n e a c h s p in n e r a r e m u lt ip lie d t o g e th e r . T h e t a b l e b e lo w s h o w s t h e p o s s ib le
o u tc o m e s .

F irs t S p in n e r

1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 2 3 4 5 6
S econd 2 2 4 6 8 10 12
S p in n e r 3 3 6 9 12 15 18

F in d t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t t h e o u t c o m e is e v e n .
11.
W h e n t h e o u t c o m e is e v e n , fin d t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t it is a ls o g r e a t e r t h a n
(0580 p a p e r 02 Q15 June 2007)

First calculator Second calculator Third calculator

F = faulty NF = not faulty

The tre e dia g ra m show s a te s tin g pro ce d u re on ca lc u la to rs , taken fro m a large batch.
E a ch tim e a c a lc u la to r is chosen at ra n d o m , th e p ro b a b ility th a t it is fa u lty (F) is
a W rite d o w n th e values o \p and q.
 lv 24 Further Probability

b Tw o c a lc u la to rs are chosen at random .

C a lcu la te th e p ro b a b ility th a t
i b o th are faulty,
ii exactly one is faulty.
c If e xactly one o u t o f tw o c a lc u la to rs tested is fa u lty, th e n a th ird c a lc u la to r is chosen
at ra n d o m . C a lculate th e p ro b a b ility th a t exactly o n e o f th e firs t tw o c a lc u la to rs is
fa u lty and th e th ird o n e is faulty,
d The w h o le batch o f c a lc u la to rs is rejected
e ith e r if th e firs t tw o chosen are b o th fa u lty
or if a th ird o n e needs to be chosen and if is faulty.
C a lcu la te th e p ro b a b ility th a t th e w h o le batch is rejected,
e In o n e m o n th , 1000 b atches o f c a lc u la to rs are te ste d in th is way.
H o w m a n y b atches are expected to be rejected? (0580 paper 04 Q8 June 2009)

In a survey, 100 stu d e n ts are asked if th e y like b a ske tb a ll (6), fo o tb a ll (F) and s w im m in g
(S). The Venn dia g ra m show s th e results.

42 s tu d e n ts like s w im m in g .
40 s tu d e n ts like exa ctly o n e s p o rt,
a Find th e values o fp ,q and r.
b H o w m a n y s tu d e n ts like
i all th re e sp orts, ii ba sketball and s w im m in g b u t n o t fo o tb a ll?
c Finrl
i n{B'), ii n ( ( S u F ) n S ') .
d O ne s tu d e n t is chosen a t ra n d o m fro m th e 100 s tu d e n ts. Find th e p ro b a b ility th a t th e
s tu d e n t
i o n ly likes s w im m in g , ii likes b a sketball b u t n o t s w im m in g ,
e T w o s tu d e n ts are chosen a t ra n d o m fro m th o s e w h o like basketball. Find the
p ro b a b ility th a t th e y each like exactly o ne o th e r sp o rt.
(0580 p a per 04 Q9 N o ve m b e r 2008)

G rade 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

N u m b e r o f s tu d e n ts 1 2 4 7 4 8 2

The ta b le show s th e grades gain e d by 28 stu d e n ts in a h is to ry test.

i W rite d o w n th e m ode.
ii Find th e m edian.
iii C a lcu la te th e m ean.
iv Tw o stu d e n ts are chosen a t random .
C a lcu la te th e p ro b a b ility th a t th e y b o th gained grade 5.
24 Further Prohabimv J

v From all th e s tu d e n ts w h o gained grades 4 o r 5 o r 6 o r 7, tw o are c hosen

a t ra ndom .
C a lcu late th e p ro b a b ility th a t th e y b o th gained grade 5.
vi S tu d e n ts are chosen a t ra n d o m , o n e by one, fro m th e o rig in a l 28, u n til a s tu d e n t
chosen has a g rade 5.
C a lculate th e p ro b a b ility th a t th is is th e th ird s tu d e n t chosen,
b C la ud e goes to sc h o o l by bus.
The p ro b a b ility th a t th e bus is late is 0.1.
If th e bus is late, th e p ro b a b ility th a t C laud e is late to sch o o l is 0.8.
If th e bus is n o t late, th e p ro b a b ility th a t C laud e is late to sch o o l is 0.05.
i C alculate th e p ro b a b ility th a t th e bus is la te and C laude is late to s c h o o l.
ii C alcu late th e p ro b a b ility th a t C laude is la te to school.
iii The sc h o o l te rm lasts 56 days.
H ow m a n y days w o u ld C laude exp e ct to be late? (0580 pa p e r 04 Q2 N o v e m b e r 2007)

Six cards are n u m b e re d 1 ,1 ,6 ,7 ,1 1 and 12.

In th is q u e s tio n , give all p ro b a b ilitie s as fra ctio n s,
a O ne o f th e six cards is chosen a t random .
i W hich n u m b e r has a p ro b a b ility o f b e in g chosen o f |?
ii W h a t is th e p ro b a b ility o f c h o o s in g a card w ith a n u m b e r w h ic h is s m a lle r th a n a t
least th re e o f th e o th e r numbers?
b Tw o o f th e six cards are chosen a t ra n d o m , w ith o u t re p lacem ent.
Find th e p ro b a b ility th a t
i th e y are b o th n u m b e re d 1,
ii th e to ta l o f th e tw o n u m b e rs is 18,
iii th e firs t n u m b e r is n o t a 1 and th e second n u m b e r is a 1.
c C ards are chosen, w ith o u t re p la c e m e n t, u n til a card n um bere d
1 is chosen.
Find th e p ro b a b ility th a t th is h appen s before th e th ird card is chosen,
d A se ven th card is a d d e d to th e six cards sh o w n in th e diagram .
The m ean va lu e o f th e seven n u m b e rs on th e cards is 6.
Find th e n u m b e r on th e seventh card. (0580 pa p e r 04 Q3 N o v e m b e r 2009)

12 a N adia m u s t c hoose a b a ll fro m Bag A o r fro m Bag B.

The p ro b a b ility th a t she chooses Bag A is | .
Bag A c o n ta in s 5 w h ite and 3 bla ck balls.
Bag B c o n ta in s 6 w h ite and 2 bla ck balls.
The tree d ia g ra m b e lo w s how s som e
o f th is in fo rm a tio n . Bag A Bag B

while ball

2_ ^ Bag
3
black ball

white ball
P
Bag
black ball

\
636
 1 24 Further Prottaftiliiy

i Find th e values o f p ,q , ra n d s .
ii Find th e p ro b a b ility th a t N adia chooses Bag A a nd th e n a w h ite ball.
iii Find th e p ro b a b ility th a t N adia chooses a w h ite ball,
b A n o th e r bag c o n ta in s 7 green balls and 3 y e llo w balls.
Sani takes th re e balls o u t o f th e bag, w ith o u t re p la ce m e n t.
i Find th e p ro b a b ility th a t all th re e balls he chooses are yellow .
ii Find th e p ro b a b ility th a t at least o n e o f th e th re e balls he chooses is green.
(0 5 8 0 p a p e r 0 4 Q 3 J u n e 2 0 0 8 )

13 a T here are 30 stu d e n ts in a class.

20 s tu d y Physics, 15 stu d y C h e m is try and 3 s tu d y n e ith e r physics n o r chem istry.

i C opy and c o m p le te th e Venn dia g ra m to sh o w th is in fo rm a tio n .

ii Find th e n u m b e r o f s tu d e n ts w h o s tu d y b o th physics and chem istry.
iii A s tu d e n t is chosen a t ra n d o m . Find th e p ro b a b ility th a t th e s tu d e n t studies
physics b u t n o t c h e m istry.
iv A s tu d e n t w h o s tudies physics is chosen a t ra n d o m . Find th e p ro b a b ility th a t th is
s tu d e n t does n o t s tu d y c h e m istry.
Bag A c o n ta in s 6 w h ite beads and 3 b la c k beads.
Bag B c o n ta in s 6 w h ite beads and 4 bla ck beads.
O ne bead is chosen a t ra n d o m fro m each bag.
Find th e p ro b a b ility th a t
i b o th beads are black,
ii a t least o n e o f th e tw o beads is w h ite . B
The beads are not replaced.
A seco nd bead is chosen a t ra n d o m fro m each bag.
Find th e p ro b a b ility th a t
iii all fo u r beads are w h ite ,
iv th e beads are n o t all th e sam e colour. (0580 pa p e r 04 Q7 J u n e 2004)

1 4 The ages o f a s a m p le o f 40 s tu d e n ts w ere recorded.

The results are given in th e ta b le below .
Age
8 < x « 10 1 0 < x = £ 11 l l < x s £ 1 2 1 2 < *s£ 1 4 14 < x =£ 16 1 6 < x = £ 19
(x years)
Frequency 7 8 6 10 3 6
a U sing a scale o f 1 cm to repre sen t 1 year, d ra w a h o riz o n ta l axis fo r ages fro m 8 to 19
years.
U sing a scale o f 1 cm to repre sen t 1 u n it, d ra w a v e rtic a l axis fo r fre q u e n cy de n sitie s
fro m 0 to 8 units.
On y o u r axes, d ra w a h isto g ra m to illu s tra te th e d is trib u tio n o f ages,
b In w h ic h in te rva l does th e m e d ia n lie?
c C a lc u la te an e s tim a te o f th e m ean age o f th e students,
d C a lcu la te an e s tim a te o f th e n u m b e r o f s tu d e n ts w h o w ere u n d e r 13 years old.
 e O ne s tu d e n t is chosen a t ra n d o m fro m th is s a m p le o f 40 students.
W rite d o w n th e p ro b a b ility th a t th is s tu d e n t is
i u n d e r8 ,
i i ove r 16.
f A second s tu d e n t is n ow chosen a t ra n d o m fro m th e re m a in in g 39 s tu d e n ts. C alculate
th e p ro b a b ility th a t o n e s tu d e n t is o v e r 16 and th e o th e r is n o t o ve r 16.
Give y o u r a nsw er as a fra c tio n in its lo w e s t term s.
(4024 p a p e r 02 Q10 June 2004)

1 5 A bag c o n ta in e d 5 Red and 2 B lue beads.

Chris to o k 3 beads, a t ra n d o m , and w ith o u t re p la c e m e n t, fro m th e bag. T he p ro b a b ility
tre e show s th e p o s s ib le o u tc o m e s and th e ir p ro b a b ilitie s .
1st bead 2nd bead 3rd bead

i W rite d o w n th e values o f p. q and r.

ii Expressing each a n sw e r as a fra c tio n in its lo w e s t term s, fin d th e p ro b a b ility th a t
a th re e Red beads w ere taken,
b th e firs t bead w as Red, th e second Blue and th e th ird Red,
c tw o o f th e beads w ere Red and o n e w as Blue. (4024 p a p e r 02 Q5b J u n e 2005)

16 Each m e m b e r o f a g ro u p o f 16 c h ild re n solved a puzzle.

The tim e s th e y to o k are s u m m a rise d in th e ta b le below .

T im es (t m inutes) 5 < f« 1 0 10 < f= s 12 12 < f ^ 14 14 < f =£ 16 16 < £ = £ 2 0

Frequency 2 4 6 3 1

i W rite d o w n an e s tim a te o f th e n u m b e r o f c h ild re n w h o to o k less th a n 1 3 m inutes.

ii C a lcu la te an e s tim a te o f th e m ean tim e ta ke n to solve th e puzzle.
i i i Tw o c h ild re n are chosen at random .
C alculate, as a fra c tio n in its s im p le s t fo rm , th e p ro b a b ility th a t one o f these c h ild re n
to o k m ore th a n 10 m in u te s and th e o th e r to o k 10 m in u te s o r less.
i v A h isto gram is d ra w n to illu s tra te th is in fo rm a tio n .
The h e ig h t o f th e re ctangle re p re se n tin g th e n u m b e r o f c h ild re n in th e interval
10 < t *£ 12 is 8 cm .
C a lcula te th e h e ig h t o f th e rectangle re p re se n tin g the n u m b e r o f c h ild re n in the
in terva l 5 < t =£ 10 . (4 0 2 4 p a p e r 0 2 Q lO b J u n e 2 0 0 6 )
 ^ 24 Further Probability

17 Em m a no te d th e n u m b e r o f letters in each of the 25 w o rd s in an e x a m in a tio n q u e stio n .

The results are given in the ta b le below .
N u m b e r o f letters 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Frequency 2 6 5 5 4 0 3
a For th is d is trib u tio n ,
i w rite d o w n the m ode,
i i fin d th e m edian,
i i i c a lc u la te th e m ean.
b E m m a chose one w o rd , at ra n d o m , from th e 25 w ords.
Find th e p ro b a b ility th a t th is w o rd had
i 5 o r 6 letters,
i i fe w e r th a n 9 letters.
c P eter chose on e w o rd , a t ra n d o m , fro m th e 25 w ords.
He th e n chose a second w o rd , a t ra n d o m , fro m th e re m a in in g w ords.
Expressing each answ er as a fra c tio n in its lo w e st term s, fin d th e p ro b a b ility th a t
i b o th w o rd s had 6 letters,
i i o n e w o rd had 2 letters and th e o th e r had 4 letters. (4024 p a per 02 Q5 J u n e 2007)

18 a M ary has 50 counters.

S o m e o f th e c o u n te rs are square, th e re m a in d e r are round.
There are 11 square c o u n te rs th a t are green.
There are 15 square co u n te rs th a t are n o t green.
O f th e round counters, th e n u m b e rth a t are n o t green is d o u b le th e n u m b e rth a t
are green.
By d ra w in g a Venn d ia g ra m , o r o th e rw is e , fin d th e n u m b e r o f cou n te rs th a t are
i ro un d ,
i i ro u n d and green,
i i i n o t green.
b T ina has tw o fair, n o rm a l 6 -sided dice. O ne is red and th e o th e r is blue.
She th ro w s b o th o f th e m once.
You m ay find it h e lp fu l to d ra w a p o s s ib ility dia g ra m to answ er the fo llo w in g questions.
Find, as a fra c tio n in its lo w e s t term s, th e p ro b a b ility th a t
i th e red d ie show s a 2 a n d th e b lue die does n o t s h o w a 2,
i i th e sum o f th e tw o n u m b e rs show n is eq u a l to 5,
i i i o n e d ie show s a 3 and th e o th e r show s an even num ber.
(4024 p a p e r 02 Q5a and b Ju n e 2008)

19 The h e ig hts o f 120 ch ild re n w e re m easured.

The results are s u m m a rise d in th e ta b le below .

H e ig h t [h cm ) 135 < Aj =£ 140 140 < h 145 145 < h « 150 150 < /i*S 155 155 < h *£ 160 160 < h =£ 180
Frequency 15 20 25 30 20 10

a U sing a scale o f 1 c m to re p re se n t 5 cm , d ra w a h o riz o n ta l axis fo r heights fro m 135 cm

to 180 cm.
U sing a scale o f 2 cm to re p re se n t 1 u n it, d ra w a v e rtic a l axis fo r fre q u e n cy d ensities
fro m 0 to 6 units.
On y o u r axes, d ra w a h is to g ra m to represent th e in fo rm a tio n in th e table,
b E stim a te h ow m a n y c h ild re n have heights greate r th a n 170cm .
 c O n e c h ild w a s c h o s e n a t r a n d o m .
F in d t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t t h e h e ig h t o f th is c h ild w a s less t h a n o r e q u a l t o 1 4 0 c m .
G iv e y o u r a n s w e r a s a fr a c tio n in its lo w e s t te r m s ,
d T w o c h ild r e n w e r e c h o s e n a t r a n d o m .
F in d t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t t h e y b o t h h a d h e ig h ts in t h e r a n g e 1 5 0 < h ^ 155.
(4024 p a p e r 02 Q4 N ovem ber 2008)

20 T h e w a it in g t im e s o f 5 0 p e o p le a t a s u p e r m a r k e t c h e c k o u t w e r e r e c o r d e d .
T h e re s u lts a r e s u m m a r is e d in t h e t a b l e b e lo w .

T im e s 1<*=£3 3 < f s£4 4 < f =£5 5<t*£ 7 7<f*£9 9 < f « £ 12

(t m in u te s )
N um ber of 4 10 8 14 8 6
p e o p le

a U s in g a s c a le o f l c m t o r e p r e s e n t 1 m in u t e , d r a w a h o r iz o n ta l a x is f o r w a it in g tim e s
b e tw e e n 0 a n d 1 2 m in u te s .
U s in g a s c a le o f l c m t o r e p r e s e n t 1 u n it , d r a w a v e r tic a l a x is f o r f r e q u e n c y d e n s itie s
fr o m 0 to 1 0 u n its .
O n y o u r a x e s , d r a w a h is to g r a m t o illu s t r a t e t h e d is t r ib u t io n o f w a it in g tim e s ,
b In w h ic h c la s s d o e s t h e u p p e r q u a r t i le lie?
c C a lc u la t e a n e s t im a t e o f t h e m e a n w a it in g t im e ,
d O n e p e r s o n is c h o s e n , a t r a n d o m , f r o m t h e 5 0 p e o p le .
W r it e d o w n t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t th is p e rs o n w a it e d
i le s s t h a n 1 m in u t e , ii m o r e t h a n 5 m in u te s ,
e A s e c o n d p e r s o n is n o w c h o s e n , a t r a n d o m , fr o m t h e r e m a in in g 4 9 p e o p le .
E x p re s s in g e a c h a n s w e r a s a fr a c tio n in its lo w e s t te r m s , c a lc u la t e t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t
i b o t h p e o p le w a it e d m o r e t h a n 5 m in u te s ,
ii o n e p e rs o n w a it e d m o r e t h a n 5 m in u t e s a n d t h e o t h e r w a it e d 5 m in u t e s o r less.
(4024 p a p e r 02 Q10 June 2009)
First student Second student
21 In a g r o u p o f 8 s t u d e n ts t h e r e a r e 5 b o y s a n d 3 g irls .
T w o s tu d e n ts a r e c h o s e n a t r a n d o m .
T h e t r e e d ia g r a m s h o w s t h e p o s s ib le o u t c o m e s a n d
t h e i r p r o b a b ilit ie s .
a C o p y a n d c o m p le t e t h e t r e e d ia g r a m ,
b E x p re s s in g e a c h a n s w e r a s a fr a c tio n in its
lo w e s t te r m s , fin d t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t
i tw o b oys a re ch o se n ,
ii a t le a s t o n e b o y is c h o s e n . (4024 p a p e r 01 Q21 N ovem ber 2009)

22 A b a g c o n t a in s 1 re d , 1 b lu e a n d 3 g r e e n b a lls .
T w o b a lls a r e t a k e n fr o m t h e b a g , a t r a n d o m , w it h o u t r e p la c e m e n t .
T h e t r e e d ia g r a m t h a t r e p r e s e n ts t h e s e e v e n ts is d r a w n b e lo w .
 [ 24 Further Probability

First ball Second ball

1

a W rite d o w n th e va lu e o f h.
b Expressing each a nsw er in its s im p le s t fo rm , c a lc u la te th e p ro b a b ility th a t
i b o th balls are green, i i b o th balls are blue,
i i i n e ith e r b all is green. (4024 p a per 01 Q21 N o ve m b e r 2007)

641
 Revision and Examination
Technique

N ow th a t yo u have w o rk e d th ro u g h th e w h o le b o o k , h o w can you m a xim ize y o u r c hances o f

success? Read th ro u g h th e s u g g e stio n s an d h in ts b e lo w and m ake a n o te o f a n y th a t m ig h t
h e lp you.

Revision
Give y o u rs e lf tim e to d o so m e sy ste m a tic re visio n b efore y o u r e x a m in a tio n . T h e p o in ts o u tlin e d
here s h o u ld give yo u so m e ideas fo r a ro u tin e y o u c o u ld fo llo w .

• Have a sp e cia l n o te b o o k fo r revision, s o m e c o lo u re d pe n cils and a h ig h lig h te r o r tw o . Make

sure th a t y o u have so m e tra c in g paper, a p ro tra cto r, com passes and a ru le r ready b e fo re you
sta rt.

• M ake sure th a t yo u have a s u ita b le c a lc u la to r, w h ic h has a fu lly charged b a tte ry and y o u can
use it fo r a ll y o u r revision. You m u s t k n o w exactly h o w it w orks. You sh o u ld a lre a d y be v ery
p ra ctice d in w o rk in g w ith o u t a c a lc u la to r.

• Read each c h a p te r th ro u g h carefully, n o tin g d o w n in y o u r revision n o te b o o k a n y th in g you th in k

y o u m ig h t n o t re m em ber. In p a rtic u la r, w rite d o w n any fo rm u la e th a t you w ill need to learn It
is h e lp fu l to u n d e rlin e th in g s in d iffe re n t colours, o r use d iffe re n t c o lo u re d pens to w rite th e m
d o w n . M ake y o u r n o te b o o k as v is u a lly a ttra c tiv e as you can.

• T ry th e e x a m in a tio n q u e s tio n s a t th e e n d o f each ch a p te r, checking each a n s w e r as y o u go

a lo n g . It do es n o t m a tte r if yo u have a lre a d y d o n e th e se q u e s tio n s because y o u are u n lik e ly to
re m e m b e r th e m all! If you need to lo o k a n y th in g u p in y o u r revision n o te b o o k h ig h lig h t it, so
th a t yo u can learn it later.

• G et s o m e o n e to te s t yo u o n th e fo rm u la e th a t you need to know . You m u s t k n o w th e fo rm u la e

o r you w ill n o t be a b le to a n sw er th e q u e s tio n s ! Do n o t ju s t h o p e th a t you w ill re m e m b e r th e m ,
LEARN th e m , and keep c h e c k in g th a t y o u k n o w th e m .

Method marks
• Lo ok a t th e m arks a v a ila b le fo r each p a rt o f th e q u e s tio n : if th e re is m ore th a n one m a rk
a va ila b le you m u s t earn th e extra m arks. T his m eans th a t you m u s t show y o u r w orking , o r you
are in d a n g e r o f g e ttin g no m arks fo r th a t p a rt o f th e q u e stio n .

• In som e q u e s tio n s yo u w ill be asked to sh o w th a t so m e s ta te m e n t o r result is c o rre ct. In these

q u e s tio n s you w ill have to sh o w y o u r w o rk in g . This m eans th a t you m u s t w rite d o w n th e steps
in th e w o rk in g in a w a y th a t s o m e o n e can un d e rsta n d . Pretend th a t the a n sw e r is n o t given,

\
642
 [ Revision and Examination Technique

and w o rk it o u t. The reason th a t som e q u e s tio n s are w o rd e d in th is w a y is th a t th e result is needed

in th e rest o f th e q u e s tio n . This gives you a chance to finish th e q u e s tio n even if you get th e first step
w ro n g , b u t d o use th e result given in th e q u e s tio n even if you have n o t been ab le to prove it!

Accuracy marks
• Som e accuracy m arks are aw a rd ed fo r g e ttin g exactly th e rig h t answ er, and som e fo r g ivin g th e answ er
ro u n d e d to a re quired degree o f accuracy. In th e general in s tru c tio n s on th e fro n t o f th e p a p e r you
are u su a lly to ld to give answ ers to th re e s ig n ific a n t figures if th e y are n o t exact, o r unless th e q u e stio n
specifies oth e rw ise , so read each q u e s tio n c a re fu lly to see if a required degree o f a ccuracy is specified.
A ngles sho u ld be given co rre c t to one d e c im a l place. Answ ers sh o u ld be ro u n d e d , n o t tru n c a te d (for
exam ple, 12.36 sh o u ld be given as 12.4, n o t 12.3), and you sh o u ld n o t ro und in a stepw ise w ay, (for
exam ple, 14.345 sh o u ld be given as 14.3, n o t ro unde d to 14.35 and th e n 14.4.)

• H ow ever, you m u s t n o t ro u n d in th e m id d le o f y o u r w o rk in g o r you w ill lose th e accuracy in th e final

answ er. W hen you use y o u r c a lc u la to r w rite d o w n m o s t o f th e figures on y o u r c a lc u la to r d is p la y fo r
each step o f y o u r w o rk in g , and try to keep th e answ er in y o u r c a lc u la to r ready fo r th e next step (for
e xam ple, in a trig o n o m e try q u e s tio n , sin x = 0 .6 4 5 7 1 ... sh o u ld n o t be ro u n d e d before e n te rin g shift
sin 0 .6 4 5 7 1 ..., to o b ta in th e answ er x = 40.2189 ..., w h ic h is th e n given as x = 40.2°). In th is w a y you
sh o u ld n o t lose accuracy as yo u w o rk th ro u g h th e question.

General points
• W rite y o u r answ ers cle a rly in ink. If you m ake a m istake cross th ro u g h th e w o rk w h ic h is w ro n g and
replace it. Do n o t use c o rre c tin g flu id . If th e w o rk is crossed o u t, is s till readable, and has n o t been
replaced, it m ay be m arked.

• G raphs and accu rate d ra w in g s sh o u ld be d o n e in pencil. They m u st be recognisable, w h ic h m eans

th a t th e p e n cil m arks m u s t n o t be to o fa in t.

• M ake sure th a t y o u r w ritin g is readable.

• R em e m b er to check th a t y o u r answ er seem s reasonable. Do you exp e ct th e h yp o te n u se in a right-

an g led tria n g le to be large r o r s m a lle r th a n th e o th e r sides? If m o n e y is e a rn in g in te re s t in th e bank
s h o u ld you end up w ith m ore o r less th a n w h e n you started? Is it reasonable fo ry o u r jo u rn e y to school
to be 200 km? C ould th e m ean age o f th e s tu d e n ts in y o u r class p o ss ib ly be 3 years 5 m onths?

• R e m e m be r th a t th e re are 60 m in u te s in o n e hour, n o t 100. So 6.5 ho u rs is 6 hours and 30 m in u te s, n o t

6 ho urs and 50 m inu tes.

• Leave in y o u r c o n s tru c tio n lines w h e n you are d ra w in g accurately.

• You w ill alre ad y have been to ld m a n y tim e s to re a d the question carefully. This m eans th a t you sh o u ld
m ake sure th a t you are a n sw e rin g th e q u e s tio n th a t has been set, and also g ivin g th e answ er in th e
fo rm required.

• It is easy in th e stress o f an e x a m in a tio n to m a ke errors w h e n c o p y in g num bers, b o th fro m th e

q u e s tio n to y o u r w o rk in g , and th e n fro m y o u r w o rk in g to th e answ ers space. So take extra care.

• Make sure th a t y o u r c a lc u la to r is set in degrees, n o t 'ra d s ’ o r 'grads’.

• R em em b er th a t to o b ta in an answ er c o rre c t to a certain accuracy you m u s t n o t a p p ro x im a te u n til th e

last stage o f th e w o rkin g . (R o u n ding to o early in the w o rk in g is kn o w n as ‘p re m a tu re a p p ro x im a tio n ’
and can lead to an in a ccu ra te answ er).

• Learn to use y o u r c a lc u la to r m em ory.

Read th e q u e s tio n c a re fu lly to m ake sure th a t you are g ivin g y o u r a nsw er in th e required form , r ^ r
e xam ple, no te w h ic h u nits are required, o r w h a t degree o f a ccuracy is expected.

643
Revision and Examination Technique j

• Lo ok o u t fo r q u e s tio n s w h ere, fo r e xa m p le , so m e m e a s u re m e n ts are given in c e n tim e tre s and so m e in

m etres.

• In q u e s tio n s w h ic h re q u ire y o u to ‘s h o w th a t’ so m e s ta te m e n t o r re su lt is tru e m ake s ure th a t you w rite

d o w n s u ffic ie n t w o rk in g to s h o w th a t you k n o w th e m e th o d th a t is re q u ire d , a n d give y o u r answ er in a
cle a r a n d lo g ic a l o rder.

• Be ca re fu l h o w yo u w rite fra c tio n s . A q u a rte r o f x s h o u ld be w ritte n o r w ith th e x level w ith th e

1 in th e n u m e ra to r, n o t level w ith th e 4 in th e d e n o m in a to r. Careless use o f fra c tio n s can a ll to o
easily lead to w ro n g w o rk in g , th u s lo s in g m arks unn e ce ssa rily. R e m e m b e r th a t, in an e x a m in a tio n ,
'fo llo w th ro u g h ' m a rks m ig h t be a v a ila b le fo r s u b s e q u e n t w o rk in g , how ever, it can h a p p e n th a t th e
s u b s e q u e n t w o rk in g is n o t a c tu a lly p o s s ib le if a fu n d a m e n ta l m is ta k e has been m ade.

• R e m e m b e r to in d ic a te v e c to rs b y u n d e rlin in g th e lo w e rc a s e le tte ry o u are u s in g to re p re se n t th e

v e c to r (fo r e x a m p le , u), an d d ire c te d lin e s e g m e n ts b y u s in g an a rro w o v e r th e c a p ita l le tte rs (for
e xa m p le , ~a b ).

• Do n o t w a ste tim e u s in g th e Sine a n d C osine R ules in a rig h t-a n g le d tria n g le ; th e sine, co sin e and
ta n g e n t ra tio s are q u ic k e r a n d sim p le r.

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644
Answers
Chapter 1 Exercise 1.3
a divide b add
E s sen tia l S k ills c square root d cube
a 36 b 3 c 8
a 24 b 21 C 40 d 72 e 14 d 5 e 100 f 1000

f 54 g 64 h 45 i 49 j 18 a 27.04 b 9.1
c 10 d 10
k 13 I 13 m 16 n 17 o 17
a v/256,V841,7449.44 b V 6 l, -Jl
p 20 q 19 r 12 S 21 t 21
1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49 6 27,125
U 5 v 4 w 6 x 3 y 2 7 1 8 for example, 64
Z 4 9 __________________________________
Natural
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 11
numbers
Exercise 1.1 Prime numbers 2 3 5 7 11
1 a 5 ,-1 0 0 ,-3 .6 7 ,7 1 ,0 ,1 5 0 7 ,^,® 2 4 10
Even numbers 6 8

b 5 ,-1 0 0 ,-3 .6 7 ,0 ,1 5 0 7 ,^ , ^ Multiples of 3 3 6 9

c 5 ,-1 0 0 ,0 ,1 5 0 7 ,^ d 5,1507,5 e 71 Square numbers 14 9

2 a 1, 2, 3, 5, 6,10 ,15 , 30 b 2, 3, 5 Cube numbers 1 8

c 30 = 2 x 3 x 5 d for example, 60,90,120 Factors of 20 1 2 4 5 10

3 a 30, 45,15,1500 b 1, 5,15, 3
4 a 2, 3, 5
b 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 5 or 24x 3 x 5 Exercise 1.4
5 23, 29, 31, 37 1 a -5 b -5 c -3
6 37, 53,101 d -7 e 5
7 a 83, 89 b 80, 85, 90 c 87 2 a 2.5m b -3.6m c 5.6m
3 85m
Exercise 1.2 4 a $287 b yes c $3

1 a {1, 2,4, 8} {1, 2, 3, 4, 6,12} b 4

2 21 Exercise 1.5
3 a i 1 ,3,5 ,15 i i 1 ,5 ,7 ,3 5 iii 1 ,2 ,4 ,5 ,1 0 ,2 0 1 a 7i b r c r
b 5 d * e < f ;>
4 a 12,24,36,48,60,72 2 a 2<4 b -2 > -5
8,16,24 ,32,40,48 c -1 0 < 4 d -K 0
b 24 3 -100, -89, -76, -62, -1 , 0, 61, 75, 100, 101
5 60
6 21603:
does not divide by 2 (not even)
Exercise 1.6
does divide by 3 (digital root is 3) a 1.2 x lO 4 b 3.65 x 102
does not divide by 5 (does not end in 5 or 0) c 5.9103 x 10“ d 6 x 103
does not divide by 9 (digital root is not 9) e 7.0104 x 106
7 515196: a 3.5 x 10- 3 b 1.56 x lO " 1 c 5 x 10-
does divide by 2 (even number) d 4.3 x 10" 6 e x lO " 2
1 .0 2

does divide by 3 (digital root is 9) a 3.45 x 10' 3 b 5.2016 x 105

does not divide by 5 (does not end in 5 or 0) c 1 .1 2 x 1 0 2 d lx lO ' 3
does divide by 6 (even and divides by 3) e 1.001 x lO " 1 f 2 x lO 6
does divide by 9 (digital root is 9) a 5600 b 0.00027 C 0.0116
d 600000 e 0 .0 0 2
Answers J

5 a 18 b 14 cO d 3 6 a f C 3
b I 4
6 a 5 b 41 c 19
7 a (5 - 3) x 4 = 8 7 21
b 9 + (50 - 24) + 2 = 22 8 15
C (31 - 15) 4- (10 - 2) = 2
Exercise 2.2
Exercise 1.7 1 al b l5
c
4
1 a i true ii true iii false iv true c 15
2 a ii 32
b i -4 < 3 ii 0 > —2 iii 5 > —! iv 3 > - 2
c i {2, 3, 5, 7} 3 ■£ «>£ c 1
6
ii {1, 3, 5, 9,15,45 } 4 a al c
b <
iii {3, 6 , 9 ,1 2 ,1 5 ,18 }
2 a 60 b 90 5 a 71 b! c 1
14
3 a 4 b 4 35
4 a 4.41 b 27 c 5.3
6 a l ]b
b? c 54

5
d 9
23 x 3 x 5 2
e 5 7 a l b 3 c
1
8 a 1|b c 4
6 1 , 2 ,4 ,5 , 8 ,10,16,20,32,40, 80,160 b 73
7 a 42 b 4
8 1 + 72 (4 x 2) = 1 0
9 a 6
bI c

9
10
39
842 m
Exercise 2.3
11 a 2 x 7 x 11 b 1078 i 13.86 2 502.97 3 16.55
12 (10 - 5) x (9 + 3) = 60 4 4.109 5 13410 6 16.9
13 28 7 0.06017 8 31.62 9 15.8
14 3.62 x lO - 3
15 a 22 x 3 3 b 23x 3 3x 5 o r l0 8 0 C k = 75 Exercise 2.4
16 a 27,64 b 31,37
17 a 1 ,2 ,3 ,6 ,9 ,1 8 b 23 x 7 2 Fraction Decimal Percentage
18 a 98 b 28 1
1 2 0.5 50%
1
4
Chapter 2 2 0.2 5 25%
3
3 4 0.75 75%
Essential Skills 1
4 10 0 .1 10 %
1 a 10 b 14 C 24 d 60 3
5 10 0.3 30%
2 a 12 b 6 C 50 d 8
1
6 5 0 .2 20 %

Exercise 2.1 7 8
1
0.125 12.5%
1 .3 f b 20— C 161
10

b 201 Exercise 2.5

2 2
3 5 _ 10 _ 1 _ 7 _ 21 E xam ple m eth o d s
15 30 3 21 63
1 75% of 64 = 44 of 64 = 3 x 44 x 64 = 3 x 16 = 48
4 a -Z0 b 16
100 100 ‘ i i 2 30% of 1550 = 0.3 x 1550 = 465
9
e
100
3 9 % of 3400 = 9 x ^ x 3400 = 9 x 34 = 306
b 1
5 a ! 5 d i
4 55.5% of 680 = 50% of 680 + 5% of 680 + 0.5% of 680
• 3£ 8 7 = 340 + 34 + 3.4 = 377.4

5 3% of 73 = 3 x x 73 = 3 x 0.73 = 2 .1 9
100

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646
 I Answers

Exercise 2.6 2
3
i
i
5 + 6 = 11 ii
F a c to rs o f 20 = { 1 ,2 , 4, 5 ,1 0 ,2 0 }
5 x 6 = 30

1 25% 2 12 % F a c to rs o f 4 5 = {1, 3, 5, 9 ,1 5 , 45}

3 46% 4 32% F a c to rs o f 15 = {1, 3, 5 ,1 5 }
5 6.8% 6 50% H CF o f 2 0 ,4 5 a n d 15 is 5
7 200% 8 2 .9 %

Exercise 3.1
Exercise 2.7
a i 3x ii 90
I ^ 2 4.098,4.105,4.51,4.579 b i y ii 154
3 ^ 3 4 V7 4 _3_ _3_ _33_ _67_ c i zi ii 27
3 ’ 4 ' 5 ' 20 5 0 ' 2 5 ' 100' 3 °' 200
d i 3x - y ii 8
Exercise 2.8 e
f
i 2 x + 2y
i 0
ii
ii
22
0
i = , 13 h ^ g i x2 + / ii 25
1 3 15 b 7
2 a 4 + 6 x (7 - 5) = 16 b 0.054 h i 8 x -2 y ii 392
3 a 0.65 b 80%
4 a —
21
b —
35 Exercise 3.2
5 a 52.7% b 70 1 2m + n

6 a— b — 2 6.5 - m
21 45
3 a T = 10 + t b T = 25
7 80%, 62^%
4 a x = 21 b x=17 c x = 51
8 a .1 b 4|
14 3 5 a L = 2a + 3 b L = 23
9 a 6.7 b 0.051 c i and ii w ould not make triangles
10 a 0.0035 b 0.8 6 a C = | + b+ | b C = 75
II 0.39 | ^ 46%
7 a 6 b 1 c 5 d 33
12 a 15^ b 0.175
13 aJ I b 10 Exercise 3.3
14 d = 12 n = 26 1 13* 2 U x 3 7 x -4 y

15 a^ b 82 4 4a + 6b 5 3x + y 6 3x + 3
7 4z + 3w 8 6c- 3 9 3 + 2a
16 a 2.44 b 0.021 10 x 11 x 2+ 2y2

17 a 11 b 0.014 12 3 £ + 3x 13 5x2 + 3x y
14 3x 2 + y 2 - x y 15 3x 2 + x y - 4f

18 a1 b 15 16 3 x 2 - 5 x 3 + 3 x 2y 17 4 x 2y 2 - 2 x 2y

66 666
19 a W O
100 m ,
1000 0 .6 0.67
b 1.507 X 109 Exercise 3.4
1 15 a b 2 24 y z 3 6X2

4 5 6
Chapter 3 60X2 6x y z a
* \x

9
00

7 60a b d 2 2d

Essential Skills 10 2x
11 id 12 !
13 20a b e d 14 12
1 a 2x6 + 3x5 b 3 x (6 — 4)
= 12 + 15 = 27 =3x2 = 6
C 1 + 2 x 3 — 4 -h 2 + 5 x (6 -3 )
Exercise 3.5
= l + 2 x 3 -4 -s -2 + 5 x 3 i -7 2 7 3 0
= 1 + 6 - 2 + 15 4 0 5 0 6 0
= 20 7 -6 8 7 9 1
10 5
Answers j

E x e r c is e 3 . 6 E x e r c is e 3 . 1 0

1 a 5 b 1 c -1 1 2o + 2b 2 18 + 6x
d -5 e 1 f 1 3 3x-3> - 4 30 - 5b
g -5 h -5 5 1 2 x -8 6 7 -2 1 c
2 a 6 b -6 c 6 7 30x + 25^ 8 8x - 8y + 32z
d —6 e -6 9 5x2 + 20 10 14X2- 21y*
3 a 2 b -2 c 2 d -2 11 12xy + 20z 12 2x - 3x_y
4 a ^ b -1 13 a2 + 2a 14 x ? -x y
2 2 c 52 d “ 42
15 2c2 + 2cd 16 6m2 - 3mn
5 10 6 -2 7 10 17 8 x *y-36xy1 18 21X2 - 14x2y + 28x2z
8 10 9 -9
10 a 1 b -2 C 1
d -1 e 1 E x e r c is e 3 . 1 1
11 14 1 6 + 8* 2 -6 -8 x 3 3x2 + 4x
4 -3 x 2 - 4 xy 5 -3 x 2 + 4xy
E x e r c is e 3 . 7 6 -14X2 + 12x 7 —x —y
8 -2 + z 9 6pq + 18pr - 6ps
1 - 2 xy 2 2xy 3 -x -2 y 10 -6pq - 18pr + 6ps
4 - x + 2y 5S ^2 11 xiy2- 5 x iy 12 -6 x 2^ + 9x2
6 2b
y 13 -8 a - 12a2 14 8a + 12o2
7 8xy 9 -3x*y
8 # 15 2y 16 5a + 12b
17 -2 2 x - 1 3 y 18 I x - y
10 x y -3 x 11 5
12 - t e y
19 -3 x + 7y 20 x y - y
13 -6 z + 3X2 14 la + 3b
E x e r c is e 3 . 1 2
E x e r c is e 3 . 8
1 4(2 x + y ) 2 5 (3 a - 5b) 3 4 (x - 5)
1 a 1024 b 25 c 32 4 x{y + 2) 5 x (x - 2) 6 x (x - 1)
d 4 e 5 12 7 3x(y + 3) 8 3x2( x - 3y)
2 a x9 b x ^ x 5 c 2X3 9 3a(a - 2b) 10 yz(x + A)
d x6 e x4 f 6xu 11 1 0 y (l + lOy) 12 fg(5 + 6h)
g 5x5 h 4x2 i 4x2 13 3 x (b -2 y ) 14 3bx(b - 2)
j 4m6 k Ax6 1 JC45 IS 2b(2b - 1) 16 b ( A b - l)
3 a 6 x 10 b 2x‘y c 9x® 17 xy[xy - 1) 18 lcd2(c - 3)
d 24 ic’y

E x e r c is e 3 . 1 3
E x e r c is e 3 . 9 1 -2Ax2z 2 - 3 x + 3y
1 a 16 c 4 3 a 35 b -7 c 33
d -1 e -1 0 f 0
e Ts f I g -80 h -12
g -j- h A i 8
4 2x2- y - 5
& 10 25 5 a 1 b 1 c 1
k ^ o r i 2 -J- i 64 d 0 e x f 0
4 4 343
g 4x h 1 i 1
2 a 4x 2 C 1
j JC4 k 1 1 X2
d 1 e x 2/ / f xy m -x3 n -x2
3 a «=3 b n = -4 C n = -1 6 for example,
d n=2 e n= 3 f n = -3
a x= l,y = 3 b x = l , y = -3
g n - —i k
n pt — i1
— i n= 0
c x = 2,y= 1 d x = 5, y = 7
j n = -3 k n = -2 I n = l
e x= 3,y= 2 f x = 3 , y = --1
m n=2 n n=3 o n= 1
p «=4 q n= k + 1 r n =k -2 g x = 4,_y = 3 h x = 9,y =

fi i x = 12, y = 13
4 a 3X2 + Ix 3 » F c jx 2

d 9X2 e 18 f 24

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648
 (Answers

7
- 1!
c 1 Exercise 4.1
.w or4n 1 a 6 km2 b 45000 m2
d 4
c 48 cm2 d 2 0 m2
8 a 6x + Ay b -3x‘ C 6 xy
2 a 343 m3 b 1 0 0 0 cm3
d j e xA f X5 c 1 2 m3 d 2 0 0 cm3
c n= 3 a 32 cm b 24 m
9 a n= 4 b n = -2 1

d n= 2 e n= -1
10 a a'b - abc b 5x + 8y + 2xy
Exercise 4.2
c 6 ab + 8 ac d -3 x ‘ - 6x 1 33 cm 2 63 g 3 706 kg
11 a ab(b - a) b 2x(x - 3 y + 2 ) 4 611 m 5 500 km 6 91 cm
c 2xyz (z + 2 * 7 ) d 2 afec(l - 2abc) 7 90 kg 8 61 m 9 60 m
12 a x 2 b ab c 2 X5 10 800 11 1 0 12 1 0 0
d ab3cJ e aG f X2
13 a / = 1 0 - | b /= 7 c b = 12 Exercise 4.3
14 a 2 b -9 c -x + 2 1 240 2 520 3 7400
1 2 4 600 5 3990 6 8000
d 2y e I f 56.14
X 7 1000 8 56.1 9
15 2x(2y - 3z) 10 56.136 11 3.1 12 3.10
16 y = 13
17 a 100 b 400 Exercise 4.4
18 a a' b b 1 216 2 220 3 350
19 a i 8 ( + 17 ii 2 p + 13q 4 400 5 6010 6 6000
b 5y?y (5xy -3 ) 7 81.0 8 0.199 9 0 .2 0
20 a n = 3 b n = -4 10 1.00 11 0.000395 12 0.0004
c n= 0 d n= -2 13 10.1 14 657000 15 700000
21 4
9
22 a y = -30 b v(4u - 3) Exercise 4.5
23 1 1 23720 2 8.18 to 3 sf
64
3 5.6° to 1 dp 4 56.23
24 -9
25
26
a
a
3 r-3 s
p=
b q
b q'
c pA
c r°
Exercise 4.6
27 a 7a(c + 2) b 6ax(2x + 3a 2) 1 156.5 cm
28 a p = 10 b q= 3 c r = -2 2 a 9 .5 < w < 10.5 b 18.5 < h < 19.5
29 a 4as b 3 x 2 + 13x + 6 3 a 14.5 cm < 15 cm < 15.5 cm
30 (-1 ) 3 3- 3° 31 b 23.55 cm < 23.6 cm < 23.65 cm
31 9x 6 c 3055 £ 3060 < 3065
32 5x 6 d
99.65 <; 99.7 < 99.75
e
678.85 < 678.9 < 678.95
f
55000 < 60000 < 65000
Chapter 4 g
250 <300 <350
h
99.85 < 99.9 < 99.95
4 a 8.5 g b 9.5 g
E s s e n tia l S k ills
Exercise 4.7
a 1.2345 x lO 4 b 3.4x lO *4
i a 350 cm b 58.1 cm
a 3450000 b 0.005123 C 0.04096 km d 570000 mm
a 137.7 b 6 % e 812 g f 300 m m 2
g 0.050681 km 2 h 6700 cm 3
a i 64.5 ii 830000
i 0 . 2 1 litres
b i 25.9 ii 0.007015
a 195 cm 2
b 1977 m m 2 or 19.77 cm 2
a 3.038 m 3 b 10.44 cm 3
Answers J

Exercise 4.8 7 $25

1 tonne cement, 4 tonnes sand
8
a 2000 + 1000 + 2000 + 2000 = 7000 km 9 10 km
b 35 days 10 a 1 2 0 m 3
2 a 200000 + 500 x 1000 = 700000 b i 96 m 3 ii 24 m 3
b (4 + 1) 2 -j- (7—2) = 5
c 4000
200
4000_
50
100 Exercise 4.12
3 a 8 .2 x l 0 8 b 2.05 x 102 1 a direct b neither
c 4.272 x 107 d 9.0109 x 105 c inverse d direct
4 a 30 b 300 c 7 2 1 0 tins 3 $170
d 20 e 70 4 31 minutes 5 63 minutes
5 a 1320 b 100 c 14700 6 a 2 days b 9 painters
d 10761 e 2.4 f 35
6 a 3 b 1000 Exercise 4.13
7 a 1.89 b 6.75
1 $2
c 0.028 d 1890
2 a 5 hours 20 minutes b 90°
3 1200000 kg 4 lh o u r 4 5 m ir
Exercise 4.9 5 82.4 km/h 6 0615
1 Estimate: 30 + 4 0 0 x 0 .0 3 = 42 7 35000 kg/m 3 8 1.25 g/cm 3
Calculator: 45.2569
2 Estimate: 7 x 3 - 20 + 20 x 30 » 600
Exercise 4.14
Calculator: 480 to 3 sf 1 a i loss ii $5 iii 1 0 %
3 Estimate: M ± 3 + 30 = 33 b i profit ii $5 iii 1 0 %
c i profit ii Rs91.25 iii 25%
Calculator: 31.2 to 3 sf
d i profit ii Rs6.4on each one
Estimate: 20 + 20 . iii 8.14%
2 0 -6
e i profit ii £0.05 on each one
Calculator: 1.94 to 3 sf
iii 10%
5 Estimate: 1 x 104 - 6 x l 0 3= 4 x l0 3
2 a i $33.33 ii $50 b 2 years 6 months
Calculator: 6.52 x lO 3
3 a €5500 b €11406.25 c €4350
6 Estimate: 4 x 105 x 8 x 103 = 3 x 109
4 a 12.5 miles b 56 km
Calculator: 3.03 x 109
5 a 1,53 m /s b % km /h
6 a 0.628 kg b 0.572 kg The iron one is heavier.
Exercise 4.10 7 3 km
1 a 1 :1 6 b 2:3:5 8 41%
c 1 :8 d 5:1 9 Large: £1.80 per litre, small: £1.76 per litre. The small one is the
e 5:1 f 1 : 200000 better buy.
g 6:7 h 5 5 :2 8 10 Penti: 9 k m /litre , Q uadri: 12 k m /litre . The Q uadri is m ore
2 1 : 30 economical.
3 1 :4 11 Maths: 60%, Science: 69%. Science is his better subject.
4 a 0.9: 1 b 200000 :1 12 $15309
5 a 1: 0.25 b 1 : 12 13 $59.13
6 1 : 150 14 1813
7 a 1: 9 b .
0 1 1 1 :1 15 $5615.77

Exercise 4.11 Exercise 4.15

1 84 Hydrogen, 42 Oxygen 1 a 72 b 144
2 a Rs 484 : Rs 121 b 138.6 g : 693 g 2 a 1 2 0 m3 b 0.036 m 3
c 3.75 m : 0.75 m d $30 : $75 : $195 3 a 687.5 g and 625 g b 2
e 14.4 : 57.6 : 144 f 0.735 : 0.245 4 a 18 hours 5 minutes b 444 miles per hour
3 1 0 cm c 2140
4 1 :500 5 a 163 minutes b 7 hours 9 minutes
5 315 c 3.6 hours d 0.45 hours
6 a 6 b 33 6 7.37 x 1022 kg

650
 { Answers

7 a 3.844 x 10'- b 3.844 x 108 2 a 3 b 0 c 0 d 3 e 2

8 4.5 m f 0 g 3 j o
>1
9 a 0.95 b 2.8 k 1 m 1 n 0
I 1 o -a
10 For example,
p 2 q 9 r 0
/I costs $0.001625 per ml
B costs $0.001533 per ml 3 Expressions: (a) and (d)
6 is better value for money Equations: (b) and (c)
11 a $4.50 b 56.3% 4 a -5 y b 2x and -3 x c x,y,z,w
12 a 3 hours 19 minutes b 1550g d 2 e +
13 1250, 1350 5 square, square root; divide, m ultiply; add, subtract
14 $144
15 85.5 c m ,; ).5cm
16
NOTE:
17 3 5 :8 Unless the question states otherwise, answers to algebraic
questions which are fractions greater than J may be given
18 $900
as improper (top heavy) fractions, mixed numbers or, if they
19 a i 9 -3 x 2 ii 1 are exact, decimals. They should not be given as rounded
20 64 km/h decimals. The fractions must be simplified.
21 11.5 km
22 a 1.515 m b 3.96 km
23 $20 Exercise 5.1
24 a $12.32 b 10 hours
1 x=2 2 x =4
25 23 35
3 x=8 4 x =3
26 a $336 b £80
5 * =-! 6

X
II
27 a 20 30 b 4 hours * 2
28 a 16.66 m b 0.04 km 2 7 x=2 8 xX = l4
29 a 6 .8 x lO -241 b 0.612 g
9 x=5 10 x = - 6
30 a $14000 b 25%
11 x = - 9 12
X
II
31 100 or 120
13 x = - 3 14 x = -2 2
32 160.27 b 6820
33 259 g b 20% 15 X = 7 1 16 x = ——
* 3
34 9.19 x lO 7 km b 0.15terametres
35 800000 mm b 7 x 103 Exercise 5.2
36 14 00 b 14 40
37 375 euros b $27 1 x -f 2 x = —4
38 40 b 30 km /h
39 0845 b $775 3 * =-f 4 xX = n5
40 i 102.50 euros ii70%
41
*1
b 30 litres 5 6 x= -3

42 a x = 0 y = - 2 b i 13200 yen ii $500 7 x= -§ 8 x

X
=l
2
43 a 1.77 kg b 147 minutes
44 a H
18 b 70 c 8
9 x= 0 10
— ■¥
45 a 88x132 == N + 13 2, 8 7 x l3 1 = N - 8 7 ii x = |
4
12
b 219
46 a 8 hours20 minutes
13 y = 8 14
H
b i 120 km/h ii 4 hours 24 minutes
Exercise 5.3
Chapter 5 1 x = -H
9
2 x=n
3

3 x = -2- 4 x = ——
10 X 5
E s sen tial S kills
5 x= - 3 .5 6 x=—
* 14

1 a 1 b -1 0 c 0
d -18 e 25 f - 2 x + 2y
7
'
x=- —
X 9
8
— fi
g -3 -a 9 x=| 10
— M

651
towers)

Exercise 5.4 7 d = st 8 t = d
s

u_|a.
1 x = —— 9 10 c = |o

<1
2 x=3

II
3
x = — n — 2(S~U t)
3 X 2 4 x* = - l4 11 tl

’H I
5 6 a = -4 4 12 a a = H b

r>
II
H a
7 8 H

H 8.
d

n
II
a
9 X = 1 10
* - ! 13 a y = 5f b
y=~T
11 c = - 19 12 x = 2

a is i
14 b r= 2.52

at
-t
II
13 x = 0 14 x = —1
15 x = i3 15 a / = | b
C= f c
16 a 3x + 3x + (2x + 5) =■33
16 a h = ^ r b
b x = 3.5 C 10.5,10.5 c a+b * -¥

17 a blue = green1 = x —2
b x + j + ( x - 2 ) = 23 c x—
Exercise 5.7
1 a 53 b nth term = n+3
d 10 red, 5 blue and 8 green
18 a algebra = x + 4, shape = 2x 2 a 56 b nth term = n+ 6
b x + x + 4 + 2x = 20 3 a 12,15 b nth term = 3n - 9 c 300
c x=4 d 8 4 a 64, 81 b nth term = (n + 3) 2 c 3364
19 x + (x + 1) + (x + 2) = 114 x = 37 5 a 51, 6 6 b nth term = n2 + 2 c 363
37, 38 and 39 6 a 8,14, 20 b 52
20 x + (x + 2) + (x + 4) = 135 4 3 ,4 5 a n d 4 7 c nth term = n + 2 d 1274

Exercise 5.8
1 x = —4 7=2
2 x=2 7=2
3 x=0 7=1
4 x=2 y — ——
' 7 5
Exercise 5.5 Exercise 5.9
1 a x= 3 b x = d-b
1 x=7 , = -8
2 a x=18 b x = yz
2 x= 2 y = 2
3 a x= 6 b x _ (c + b) or c +a b 3 x=-|
a 7=-l
4 a x= Z b x- c 4 x=2
X 2 (a + b)
5 a x=* b X= — 5 x=2 r= i
X 3 (•a - b ) 6 p= 2 <j = 0
6 a *= 1 b x = , 3 or -3 7 x = -3 y = -1
(«-1) (1-a)
8 x=2 7=2
7 a
* 2
b X = T~^TT or -a
(c-b) (b-c) 9 x=3 7 = -l
8 a x= 6 b x = ab 10 x = 1 7=6
9 a b X= 1
y Exercise 5.10
10 a x = 20 b x = ab
1 a x= 1
b x=-|
Exercise 5.6 C X = -^ r
10
d x = 2

1 M _ Fd1 2 rf_ j G M e x=#

9 f * = !4
Gm
3 d--_ u - a 4 n= ^ +1 g x= -6 h x= 0
n -1 a
i a = -6 j fe = 2
5 a -= c/7 6 h=«
c
 (Answers

19 x = 7 y = -2
2 b ct =V
bi 20 a F = 800
d f = -2 * e V= M b m = Ft
a+b v -u
21 a 8,16,12
f b= >Ja2- c 2 b x = 2n y = n2 z = n‘ - n

A -B e
h x= or x = - - c
B

i b= * - c
a j x = \lb2- 3a2
Chapter 6
k /j = ^a I b= ad -c E s s e n tia l S k ills
. 2A 2A-bl
I 1 1 a 30° b 130°
2 a 5.2cm b 3.8cm
3 b nth term = 2« + 1 c 199
4 a nth term = 4n - 2
b nth term = 3n - 6 Exercise 6.1
c nth term = - 2 n + 6
5 a x=-l , =2 NOTE:
b x= 0 y=3 The answers to questions involvingmeasuring line and angles
c* =i are given as a range of V9 lues (for example, 5.5 to 5.6 cm). If
y = 3i
yourwprfcis sufficiently accurate you should gefrart answers in
6 a x + y = 57 x —y = 15 this range, #you do not, t i f fSjjjain.
b x = 36 , = 21
7 x=3 ,= 9

8 a p = -L 1 32 to 33° 2 90° 3 116 to 117°

rT
b i $16.25 4 180° 5 337 to 338° 6 360°
ii $375
iii 6% Exercise 6.2
iv 5 years
1 a x= ZBAC, y - BC
9 s= b x= ZEDH, y =■ZCFH, z = G H
C x= ZJM K ,y = ZKML
10 x = 3 d x= ZQPR, y = ZNPQ, z = NQ
11 a 55 b trm d L or a zb 2 a 24 to 26°
m m
b i 54 to 56° ii 124 to 126°
12 a 14 41 b 149
c i 4.9 to 5.1 ii 39 to 41°
C i 2 5 10 17 ii n 2 - 1
iii 82 to 84°
13 a i x=6 d i 89 to 91° ii 167 to 169°
ii y=9 3 a acute b reflex
iii z = 1.5 c acute d obtuse
b i p + q = 12 e reflex f reflex
ii 25p + 40g = 375 g obtuse h right angle
iii p=7 q=5 i acute j reflex
14 a 930 b ——— or — - a k obtuse
15 x = 33 y=-4 4 a x = 50 b x = 35
c x = 36 d x = 45
16 a -2 0
e x = 20 f x = 90
b r- 9 C+ i6o

17 a 2 ^ ,-1 Exercise 6.3

1 parallel vertical
b nth term = 3n - 2
3 vertical perpendicular, horizontal, vertical
18 a 4 ,1 ,1 b /c = 20
9

653
Answers J

5 intersecting 6 intersecting d equal lengths, bisect each other but not

7 vertical8 parallel, horizontal at right angles

Exercise 6.4
1 a i 7.6 to 7.8 cm ii asa
f different lengths, bisect each other at right angles
b This is not a triangle: the third angle
g 2 h 2 i 0 j 1
w ould be 0°
k 4 12 m 2
c This is not a triangle: 2 + 7 <10
d i 8.6 to 8.8 cm ii sas
e i 6.3 to 6.5 cm ii asa Exercise 6.8
2 a ZA = 52 to 54°, Z B = 36 to 38°, 1 a = 110 fc = 70
c = 110 d = 70
Z C = 89 to 91°
2 a = 20 b = 70 c = 40
b Z D = 66 to 68°, Z E = 89 to 91°,
3 a = 130 fc = 120
Z F = 22 to 24°
4 a = 70 fc = 20 c = 20
c GH = 3.9 to 4.1 cm, Z G = 89 to 91°, d = 70 e = 40
Z H = 59 to 61° 5 30,60,7 = 60
d Z J = 79 to 81°, JK = 5.8 to 6.0 cm, 6 x = 80 7 = 160 z=20
JL = 7.8 to 8.0 cm 7 ZTSR = 60° (equilateral triangle)
e Z M = 59 to 61°, Z N = 59 to 61°, ZSPQ = 60° (angles on a straight line)
Z P = 59 to 61° PQ is parallel to RS (corresponding angles)

3 a x = 36 b x = 65
c x = 36 d x = 45 Exercise 6.9
e x = 60 f x = 60, y = 55 i 2340° 2 30° 3 30°
4 a 72° b 108° C 54°
Exercise 6.5 d 54° e 144° f 18°
g 72°
O

1 a =145° c = 35°
OO
LO
II

ZC AE=ZAEF=12°
d = 145° e = 145°
AC and DE are parallel (alternate angles)
2 a = 70° b = 30° c = 70°
5 n = 18
d = 110° e = 150°
6 a 16 b 157.5°
3 fl = 70° fc = 35°
c = 145° d = 145°
4 a =110° b = 30° Exercise 6.10
c = 40° d = 110° 1 135
2 fc = 70, c = 40
Exercise 6.6 3 d = 60,e = 3 0 ,/= 30
4 £ = 4 0 , h = 50
X 5 lines, order 5
5 j = 20
2 1 line, no rotational (or order 1)
6 A: = 50, / = 50, m = 40, « = 50
3 2 lines, order 2
4 2 lines, order 2
5 1 line, no rotational (or order 1) Exercise 6 .1 1

6 8 lines, order 8 a 12 b 8 C 5
7 4 lines, order 4 d 9 e 6 f 4
8 n o lin e s , order 2 g 6 h 4 i 5
9 4 lines, order 4 j 8 k 5 I 1
m 1
Exercise 6.7
a a ll 90° Exercise 6 .1 2

b o p p o s ite a n g le s e q u a l 2 cone
c n o a n g le s e q u a l

654
 (Answers

Exercise 6.13 Exercise 6.16

1 a, h\ b,fi c,g\ d, i
2 b, d, c, e NOTE:
For reasons of space some of the answers to this exercise have
Exercise 6.14 been reduced in size. Yours should be full size.
1 b 11.9 to 12.1 c m c 59.5 to 60.5 km
2 b 5.3 to 5.5 km

Exercise 6.15
NOTE;
For reasons of space some of the grisvyers to this exercise have
been reduced in size. Yours should be full size.

f i 6.4 to 6 . 8 m
ii 22.4 to 22.8 m
2 a 1 line, no rotational (order 1 )
b 1 line, no rotational (order 1 )
c 4 lines, order 4
d 4 lines, order 4
e 2 lines, order 2
f 1 line, no rotational (order 1 )
3 a a = b= 15 cm, c = 60° (equilateral triangle)
b a = 60° ZPST = 30° (angles on a straight line)
y .P Q T — 30° (symmetry of kite)
ZPTQ = 90° (diagonals cross at right angles)
a = 180 - 90 - 30 (angle sum of triangle)
3 a to c b = 65° ZSRQ = 50° (angles on a straight line)
ZTRQ = 25° (symmetry of kite)
b = 180 - 90 - 25 (angle sum of triangle)
c a = 40° (angle between tangent and radius = 90°)
b = 90° (angle in a semicircle = 90°)
: 1 cm represents
1 km
c = 50° (angle sum of a triangle)
d a = 70° ZYZX = 110° (alternate angles)
a = 70° (angles on a straight line)
i> = 40° (angle sum o f triangle)
e a = 90° (angle in a semicircle)
b = 40° (angle sum of triangle)
c = 60° (isosceles triangle)
d = 60° (angle sum of triangle)
e = 1 2 0 ° (angles on a straight line)

/ = 1(180-120) = 30° (is o s c e le s tria n g le )

g = 30° (is o s c e le s tria n g le )

d 3.5 to 3. i km 4 T h e lo c u s w ill b e a h o llo w s p h e re , in n e r ra d iu s 10 c m , o u te r
4 3.2 to 3.5 km ra d iu s 10.5 c m , c e n tre d o n p o in t A.
5 a s q u a re b tra p e z iu m c k ite

655
Answers j

72°
ii 54 to 58°

b x = 129
23 a 140° b 105°c75°
24 a equilateral triangle
b rectangle c kite
25 a 24 b x = 45
26 a A and E b B,D and F

Chapter 7
Essential Skills
O

10 a -7
O
r-H
*—J

11 a 90° b 65° d -9
12
C

7 = 150
*—
ON
X
II
1

13 a 120 b 70 b 3
c i 130 ii 100
14 a rectangle rhombus b parallelogram rectangle rhombus
c rectangle square
15 a
d I
e -6
{-3 ,-2 ,-1 ,0 ,1 ,2 ,3 }

Shaped ShapeS
Exercise 7.1

b 2
16 a 51.4°
b i isosceles
i i p = 50,q = 80, r = 50, s = 50, t = 80
c 25
17 75°
18 a 22° (tangent and diam eter meet at 90°)
b 90° (angle in a semicircle)
c 68° (angle sum of triangle)
d 68° (alternate angles)
19 a x = 64 b 7 = 58
20 a 18 b i x = 70 ii y = 105

\
656)
 1V
0
-
F 8

/ 6
r \
/ 4 - \
J
( o s
u E AJ
!
n 8 -d n 1n X
o

A
1

e T h e tria n g le s a re th e s a m e s h a p e a n d size
f T h e tria n g le s a re fa c in g in d iffe re n t d ire c tio n s c $9 2.5 0 d 7.5 h o u rs

3 A: (8 ,9 ) 8: (0 ,8 ) C: ( - 6 , 8 ) D: ( - 3 , 3 ) 4 a 1 hour b 1.5 h o u rs c 1.5 km

E: (3 ,3 ) F: ( - 7 , 0 ) G: (9 ,0 ) H: (0 ,0 ) d 1 k ilo m e tre p e r h o u r e A n to n
J: ( 0 , - 3 ) K: ( 9 , - 3 ) L: ( - 6 , - 5 ) M: ( 5 , - 7 )

Exercise 7.4
Exercise 7.2
y‘

\ iy
\ 10 3
\ _ /
S /
2 /
\ y=x
s /
s /
S 1
/
f F> 4 ~~7
s i I I 1n V /
<
s\ -3 -2 -1 .0 2 3 X
rj 4 ks v V /
T
Ja \ /
ife s -2
s /
/ -3
2 Z: x = 10 m :y = - 5

Exercise 7.3
1 a July b 9
5
/
- 4 /
/
J
/
/
? / y- x+2

/
/ 1
/
/
-3 /-2 -1 0 1 2 3 X
/ -1

UK Pounds

b i 6000 ru p e e s ii £37.50
Answers j

y
- 6-

- 5 - j
f-
t-
- 4-

- 3-
/ - 2x
-2- JH T

- 1 -V -
£
i
—
o —1 1 £ ox

L
7
—J ~ -2 -
( —
3~
L -
/ -4 -
J
-t- -5 -
7
y
1 -b-
e

y v= 5
- 8 - J
A
- 7 - - t
t — O
- 6- !
o
- 5 - d
/ -
- 4-
t

= 2x + 2
- 3 - ± > -2 -1 0 2 3 4 x\
i

8 In each graph the constant term in the equation shows w here

the line cuts they-axis
I
o o- 4 u <L 3x
1
- f - - -1 -
1
Exercise 7.5
—2 -

- t - --3 -
t
4 - -
1 -
i

658
 (Answers

10 w = l, c = 0 11 ffi = 0 , c = - 1 0 12 m = 2, c = 0

13 m = —1, c = 0 14 m = - l,c = 4

Exercise 7.8
1 y = -2 x + 2 2 y = 2x-2 3 y = jx + 1

4 = -x + 3 6 -3

3 a b (iv) c (i) d (iii) Exercise 7.9

1 a and c
4
angle made less than 45° exactly 45° between 45°
2 for example, y = -^x + S
with x-axis and 90°

1 1 3 3 a 1 C 4=2
gradient 2 2 " 1
2' 5' 5 2 5' f
b and c are parallel

Exercise 7.10
Exercise 7.6 1 a
i
JO
^2y-3x =12

m
y = - 2 x -Z
8- -10*

jc=2 y=5
b x = 2 ,y = 5
0
2 a
sm SB
£ 1- \
2

x = -1 ,y = 3 x --1 ,y = 5

Exercise 7.11
i
X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y 9 4 1 0 1 4 9

X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

Exercise 7.7 y -2 7 -8 -1 0 1 8 27

1 m= j,c = - 5 2 m- -± c = Z
T 2 X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-1 3 -3 3 3 1
4 m = -1 , c 6 m = j,c = j 2 2

7 m = -Z c =4 9 m= 0, c = 6
3' 3
X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
7 6 2 0 0 2 6 12

659
Answers J

X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y 12 6 2 0 0 2 6

X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y -2 5 -6 1 2 3 10 29

X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y -9 -4 -1 0 -1 -4 -9

X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y 27 8 1 0 -1 -8 -2 7

X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y 7 1 -3 -5 -5 -3 1

X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y -2 1 2 1 -2 -7 -1 4

Exercise 7.12

Exercise 7.13
b 2.5 m c no
b = -x c x= 5 d y = —2

660
 (Answers

9 a i - 1 0 , - 2 0 , - 6 0 , 30, 20, 15

c i 0 between 2.4 and 2.5

i ii between - 5 and - 6

10 a 15 km /h b 36 c 36 km
d 60

Distance
from P

Time of day

11

60
Ch arge ($)

40

Tim e (hours)

5 a This should be a continuous smooth curve, not flat at the base a $62
b This should be a sm ooth curve, not m ade up of straight line b 2.5 hours
segments c 5 hours
c One point is out of line because it has been incorrectly plotted 12 y = 2 x -3
6 a (ii) b (iv) c (i) 13 a i Minimum temp on Sunday = -3, Maximum temp on Sunday = 9
d (vi) e (v) f (iii) ii 9°C

7 a1 bI c 2
8 a

/ 4
s .

r -
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 '
S in g a p o re D o llars c i 3 days
b 55 Singapore Dollars ii Sunday
d 42.8
answers J

2 a Square root
b Finding the cube root
c i 169 ii 3.61
Distance
iii 2197 iv 2.35
from
house
(km)
Exercise 8.1
1 a 28 cm b 22 cm c 24 cm
1010 1020 1030 1040 1110 d 29 cm e 32 cm
Time day
2 a 31.4 cm b 15.7 cm
b i 10 48 ii 4 km c 44.9 m d 330 cm
15 3 a 20.6 cm b 26.7 cm c 41.1 cm
X -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-1 -3 -1 3 9 d 23.7 cm e 30.3 cm
y 9 3 -3
4 a x = 2.6 b x = 4.77
b
c x = 1.75 d i =3
5 a 2cm b 9 cm

Exercise 8.2
1 a 12 cm 2 b 15 cm 2 c 25 cm 2
d 12 cm 2 e 15 cm 2 f 21 cm 2
2 a x = 3.16 cm b x = 1.75 cm

Exercise 8.3
1 a 113 cm 2 b 32.2 m2 c 50.3 cm 2
d 56.5 cm 2 e 25.8 cm 2
2 a 25.1 cm 2 b 41.9 cm 2 c 113 cm 2
d 26.5 cm 2 e 14.1 cm 2
c x = -0 .5 , y = -3 .2 o r -3.3 d ii x = -0.5 3 a x = 2.33 b x = 3.91 c * = 1 .7 8
16 a 1.9 minutes b 420 m d x = 3.91
c 0 m /m inute d 500 m /m inute 4 37.1cm 2

Exercise 8.4
Chapter 8 1 15 cm2 2 54 cm 2 3 31.5 crrv
4 163 cm2 5 33 cm 2 6 36 cm2

E s s e n tia l S k ills
Exercise 8.5
l 1 56 cm 2 2 283 cm 2
Measurement Unit Equivalent W orking 3 96 cm 2 4 540 cm 3
Length 1 cm 1 0 mm
1m 100 cm
Exercise 8 . 6
Area 1 cm 2 100 m m 2 lO m m x lO m m 1 32 ml 2 339 ml
1 m2 10000 cm 2 100 cm x 100 cm 3 42 cm 3 4 648 cm 3
5 a 240 cm 3 b 860 cm 3
Volume 1 cm 3 1000 m m 3 1 0 mm x 1 0 mm x
6 2 cm 7 2.25 cm 2
10 mm
8 1.20 cm
1m3 1 000000 cm 3 100 cm x 100 cm x 9 a 1180 cm 2 b 118000 cm c 7850 m
100 cm
Capacity 1 m illilitre 1 cm 3 Exercise 8.7
1 litre 1000 ml
1 a 771 + 6 cm b 10.5tt cm 2
1 litre 1000 cm 3
2 length = -J J—~cm or length = ^ cm
lm 3 1000 litres ° 10.571 ° 21 ti
 1 Answers

3 a
b
21 + 2b + 2nr c m
lb - ixr; cm
Chapter 9
Exercise 8.8 E ssential S kills

1. a S u rfa c e area: /A: 2 8 00 0 cm 2 B: 3 9 5 0 0 c m ' 1 a 56.2 b 7.95 c 6.14

C: 3 5 0 0 0 cm -'
2 a 60.2 b 73.0 c 14.6
b V o lu m e : A: 4 4 2 0 0 0 c m 1 8 :5 1 8 0 0 0 c m 1
C: 5 0 0 0 0 0 c m ' 3 a x=2 b x = 2.24 C x = 3.22
c V o lu m e s u rfa c e a re a : A : 15.8 6 :1 3 .1 4 a x = 0.739 b x = 33.58 C x = 0.859
C : 14.3
5 a x=- b x = ab c x= —
d A is th e b e s t v a lu e a a
2 h = 12.7 6 a Area = 15.21 cm2 b Length of side = 2.39
3 a 1.26 c m b 5.0 9 c m
4 b 2a + 2b = 16 o r a + b = 8
c a = 2 b= 6 d 8 c m , 2 cm
Exercise 9.1
5 7 cm and 4 cm 1 a 1.4826 b 3.7321 c 0.5122
6 a 54 m b 9 .1 5 m d 0.5774 e 1.7321 f 1.1667
7 b 5 cm 2 2 a 9.4° b 38.7° C 58.9°
8 2.71 d 80.5° e 8 6 .1 ° f 26.6°
9 a 160 m b 50.9 m
10 a 2830 cm 2 b 226 litres
11 24500 litres
Exercise 9 . 2
12 a diam eter 1 20.6° 2 71.6° 3 27.4° 4
b i 30.8 cm ii 56.5 cm 2 5 71.0° 6 35.0° 7 6 6 .1 °
13 a i 10.8 m ii 32400 litres iii 36 litres
b i 61 hours and 30 minutes Exercise 9 . 3
ii 13500 gallons iii 3.38 litres iv 4
1 a 3.57 cm b 4.11 cm c 2.29 cm
14 6.5 cm
d 2.84 cm e 17.3 cm f 9.18 cm
15 a i 43.0 cm 2 ii 10.0
b i 22.2 cm, 14.8 cm, 20 cm 2 a 27.5° b 9.60 cm C 4.43 cm
ii iii 78.5%
6570cm3 d 13.5 cm e 65.3°
16 a 1 2 0 cm 3 b 184 cm 2
it a io o u ii b 475 Lin3 E x e r c is e 9 . 4
18 a 6n x cm b 3KX2 cm 2 1 52.4° 2 2.96 metres 3 66.4
19 a 3 2 x+ 1 2 0 4 5.44 cm 5 2 0 . 6 cm 6 57.2
b 32x + 120 = 376 7 11.7 cm 8 42.8 metres 9 62.8
x = 8, height = 8 cm 10 9.05 m
20 a DE2= 132 - 5 2
O f = Vf44
b i 116 cm ii 690 cm 2
Exercise 9 . 5
21 a 4 minutes 1 5.50 cm
2 5.71cm
3 12.5 m
4 3.85 cm

Exercise 9 . 6
1 1 1 0 cm 2 8 8 . 8 cm 3 49.6 m
Time (minutes)
4 9.05 cm 5 128 mm 6 68.3 mm
22 F o r e x a m p le ,

W idth (m) 2 3 6 and so on Exercise 9 . 7

Length (m) 35 33 27 1 1 0 . 2 cm 2 1 2 . 8 cm 3 9.40 cm
Area (m 2) 70 99 162 4 4.68 m 5 4.46 cm 6 5.80 m
7 41.8° 8 31.7° 9 53.0°
le n g th = 19 m a re a = 190 m 2
23 a 12 c m 2 b 34 4 c m :
Answers J

Exercise 9.8 10 a i Z C 06 = 1(180 - 56) = 62

1 a i 12 ii 10 iii 7 ii 2.82 m iii 5.63 or 5.64 m iv 5.30 m

b C ut th e 7 m le n g th in to tw o pieces, 3 m and 4 m long. b i 29.8 or 29.9 m2 ii 12.5 m 2
Join all three lengths to form a tria n gle w ith sides 3 m, 4 m iii 42.3 or 42.4 m2
and 5 m long c i 21100 or 21200 m3 ii 30
2 5.66 cm 11 a 208 cm2 b 192 cm 3
3 8.66 cm c ii 12.8 cm iii 51.3 or 51.4°
4 8.06 m
12 26 cm
5 a 5.32 cm b 48.8° c 131°
6 15.1 cm or 15.2 cm 13 a 348° b 218°
7 a 12 cm b 9 cm c 36.9° 14 a C b 40°
15 31m
Exercise 9.9
16 a 56° b 2 cm
1 a 240° b 280° c 50°
d 120°
2 240° 3 015° Chapter 10
4 a answer between 18.5 and 19 km
b 282° to 284°
Essential Skills
5 16.2 nautical miles, 158°
6 16.4 km
1 a D b F c E d C e A f B
7 a i SE ii NW
b i 090° ii 225°
Exercise 10.1
Exercise 9.10
1 4 cm
2 8.10 cm
3 a 7.14 cm
I i
b i 0.7 ii 0.714 iii 1.02

Exercise 9.11
1 31.5 m
2 a 32.6 m b 73.1 m

z s
Exercise 9.12
1 a 32.6°, 6.11cm b 3.36 cm, 42.1°
c 53.1°, 36.9° d 7.28 cm, 74.1°
2 2.90 m I
3 6.54 cm
4 a Bearing of D from W is 300° so the angle between the North
line and the line DW is 60°. 60° + 30° is 90° y
b a = 110, b = 30, c = 40, d = 50
\ /
c 6.43 km d 7.66 km \ /
\ /
5 a = 11.3° \ /
\ ) /
6 a i 105m3 ii 197m2 D/ /
\ / / X
b i 0.845 ii 0.280 B is L
A
7 325° \
\ /
8 a 1500 m b 36.9° -5 4 3 I -1 < X
/
(i
\
9 a 270° b 045° - -4- . ar - -
J
'/ n
/ j E
/
V
s C N
/ V. \
/ \
/

\
6641
 (Answers

Exercise 10.2 Exercise 10.4

1 Refle c tio n in th e y -a x is (o r th e lin e x = 0) l a
2 R e fle c tio n in th e x -a x is (o r th e li n e y = 0)
f /
3 R e fle c tio n in th e lin e y =x /
4 R e fle c tio n in th e lin e y = - x + 1 /
/
5 R e fle c tio n in th e lin e x = -1
6 R e fle c tio n in th e lin e y = - x —
/
/
/
Exercise 10.3 /

l a
... .

A- _ ..

-T— i .. w1

2 a Rotation 90° clockwise about (0,0)

b Rotation 90° anticlockwise about (0, -1 )
c Rotation 90° clockwise about (1, 3)
d Rotation 180° about (0, 0)
2 For example,
e Rotation 90° clockwise about (2,1)
A
\ I
f Rotation 180° about (1.5,1.5)
i -C \ \ g Rotation 90° anticlockwise about (0, 0)
\ \ C
c ’ \
\ B
Exercise 10.5
y
5 -- 1 a y
ZS -6
4—
""■~ ■
> 5
3--
Vs
3 -4 s
s
ZS s
\--- ^3
* 2
_
^ ---- ! <■ ■1

t 2 ---- 0 t e X

3— - -1

i
■— 4 j ----
2 a Enlargement, centre (0,0), scale factor 2
b Enlargement, centre (-1, -1 ), scale factor |
c Translation

0
Exercise 10.6
4 a i Translation ii Translation
-4 .5 -10
1 a 2
1 0
-5
iii T ra n s la tio n 2 a=4 3 x = 2, y = 3
-4 .5
4 a, b a n d /a re parallel
4 2
b i T ra n s la tio n ii T r a n s la tio n
-0 .5 3.5 * ( ,K
6 They are parallel and the second is twice as long as the first
-2
iii T ra n sla tio n
-3 .5
Answers J

Exercise 1 0 .7

2 a i Reflector in the lin e y = x ii Reflection in the line y = - l

c Enlargement, centre (0, 0), scale factor 2

d i 1 ii 1 iii

iv Reflection in the x-axis.

ii M =

iii rotation 90° anticlockwise about (0, 3)

c ii Enlargement, centre (-3, -2 ), scale factor 2
5 a b AB and CD are parallel.
CD is th ree ti mes the length of AB 11 a f 14l b 5 1 and 2
1 °) 2
6 a M b ( - 2 , - 1)
3)

7 a Trapezium
h

b -0 .7 5 or - f
4

\
666
13 a and b Class Frequency
y
0 < x < 10 15
10 < x < 20 5
20 < x < 30 2
30 < x < 40 3
40 < x < 50 5
50 < x < 60 13
60 < x < 70 1

b
14 a i ii 3 16

12
b i Reflection in y = - x ii (-1,1) Frequency
8

Chapter 11 4

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
C la ss
E s s e n tia l S k ills
Height h Frequency
1 a 2 0 x 1 8 = 360 b 360x0.05 = 18 C 360 + 20 = 18 120 < h < 130 3
d 18 + 0.05 = 3 6 0 e 2 0x0.05 = 1 130 < h < 140 4
2 a 3 6 0 x 0 .0 8 3 = 3 0 b 360 + 12 = 30 c 360x0.03 = 12
140 < h < 150 6
150 < h < 160 8
d 36 0 + 30 = 12 e 1 0 x 3 6 = 360 f 360x0.027=10
160 < h < 170 4
g 36 0 + 3 6 = 10 h 3 6 0 x 2 = 720 i 360 + 0.6=540
b .
j 1 4 4 0 x 0 .2 5 = 3 6 0 8 ------------------------------------------------------------
i a 1 0 0 x 3 .6 = 3 6 0 b 7 2x0.75 = 54 C 690 + 30 = 23 6 ------------------------------------------------------------
Frequency ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
d 6 9 0 x 0 .0 3 = 23 e 72 + 3 = 24 f 42 + 1.5 = 28
2 ------------------------------------------------------------
g 5 5 x 1 . 8 = 99 h 81 + 2.25 = 36 i 8 1 x 0 .4 = 36
o *—.1 L -L-L-1—L L 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 —
j 9 0 x 0 . 8 = 72 k 90 + 1.25 = 72 120 130 140 150 160 170
Height

5 a and b
Exercise 1 1 .1
35 --------------------------------------------------------
J a 30-----------------------------------------
Score 1 2 3 4 5 6
25----------------- ~ “ ------------------
Frequency 6 8 10 6 10 4 Frequency 20- - - - - - - - - -
15-----------------------------------------
10-----------------------------------------
10
8
Maths Physics Chemistry English Economics
6 Examinations
Frequency
4 c 131
2
0 6 .............................
2 3 4 5 6 1 2 ---------------------------------------------1
Score
1 0 - I ------------ 1 ------------------------1
Frequency
2 a Class 1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 6 - - - - - - - - --Z
Frequency 15 10 7 12 11 4 ---------------------------------------
2 ---------------------------------------
oi l 1 1 1 1 11 1.1 1 1-1—1.-LI L I.,I
Red Green Yellow Purple
Colours of sweets

Box ticked 0 1 2 3 4 5
Frequency 6 7 8 11 8 4
Answ ers!

12
Exercise 1 1 .4
10 1 a and c
>*

I8
o6
Category Fresh Groceries Household Magazines Frozen TOTAL
it produce products and goods
4
stationery
2
N um ber
1 2 3 4 351 183 66 31 5 165 1080
Box ticked o f ite m s
A n g le 117° 61° 22° 105° 55° 360°
F lo o r
Exercise 1 1 .2 space 32.5 16.9 6.1 2 9.2 15.3 100
(m 2)
a 36 0 b 18 C 20 d 0.0 5 e 0 .0 5
b 1 d 30 e 36
a 11 C M
1
<Te g 36 h 2 j 4
' I
a 3.6 b 0.7 5 c 30 d 30
e 3
f 1.5 j 0.8
« ! h ! * 1
k 1.25
Goods sold in a village store

Exercise 1 1 .3
2 a
1 a and b Quarter Units used Angle
F irs t q u a rte r 23 69°

S e c o n d q u a r te r 11 33°
T h ird q u a rte r 21 63°
F o u rth q u a r te r 65 195°
TO TAL 120 36 0°

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time

C 25 < f < 30

2 a
height ( h) m frequency
2 < /i< 4 7
4<h <6 10
on farm
6<h<8 8

8< h < 10 5 3 a
Percentage of total Angle on pie
10 < h < 12 3 stock chart
N e w s p a p e rs 35 126°

M a g a zin e s 50 180°

S n a ck s 15 54°

TO TAL 100 360°

Height

c 4 < /j < 6

p 68|
 (Answers

Number of students Angle on pie chart Exercise 1 1 .7

P s y c h o lo g y 14 70° 1 a m o d e = 8, ra n g e = 25
S o c io lo g y 20 100°
Days absent Frequency
E c o n o m ic s 22 110°
0 to 4 10
H is to ry 16 80°
5 to 9 10
TOTAL 72 360°
10 to 14 7

15 to 19 3

2 0 to 24 2
2 5 to 30 1
T o ta l fre q u e n c y 33

10

>o 8
Exercise 1 1 .5 3ai 6
? 4
LL 4
1 a i 5.875 ii 5.5 iii 9 iv 9
2
b i 4 .9 3 ii 6 iii 7 iv 8
c i 3 .9 8 ii 4.2 iii 2.6 iv 3.1 0 -4 5 -9 10-14 1 5-19 2 0 -2 4 2 5 -3 0
Days absent from work
2 a 80 0 c m b 159 c m
3 a 28.5 b 5 n e w c la s s ro o m s C 24.5 2 a 840
4 a 1500 b 100 ba g s b T h e m o d e m ig h t g iv e a n in d ic a t io n o f th e p o s s ib le re s u lts fo r
th e w h o le s c h o o l, b u t th e m e d ia n o n ly re fe rs to th e d a ta

Exercise 1 1 .6 f o r th e 1 0 0 s tu d e n ts .
3 a = 3, b = 6, c= 7
Data value Frequency Value x frequency
100 7 70 0 10
110 10 11 00
8
120 15 1800
130 2 26 0 | 6
140 6 840 !<
150 3 450
160 7 11 20
TO TALS 50 6270
0.5 10.5 20.5 30.5 40.5
a 125.4 b 120 c 120 Tim e to complete test (minutes)

5 M e a n = 3 .4 1 . M e d ia n = 3. T h e re a re t w o m o d e s : 3 a n d 5
Data value 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 TO TALS
6 M e a n = 4.9. M e d ia n = 4.5. M o d e = 4
Frequency 51 70 69 32 15 43 15 295
7 1.38
Value x 1275 1820 1863 89 6 43 5 1290 465 80 44 8 a and c
frequency

a 27.3 b 27 C 26

Data value Frequency Value x frequency

12.4 3 37.2
12.5 5 62.5
12.6 2 25.2
12.7 1 12.7
12.8 0 0
12.9 5 64.5
13.0 0 0
13.1 2 26.2
b i 122 k m /h ii 9 k m /l
TOTAL 18 228.3
d N e g a tiv e e 9 .4 to 9.6 k m /l f 141 to 143 k m /h
a 12.7 b 12.6 c 12.5 and 12.9

669
Answers J

9 a i 163.4 cm ii 24 cm c football
b i, ii 180
178
176
174
172
170 /
168 /
166
/
164
/
162
/ 18 a
160 V
158 /
156
/
154
/
152 Y
150.
14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Hand span (cm)

iii 163.5 to 1 6 4 c m 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 x

iv P o s itiv e b 4 < f< 8 C 13

v It in d ic a te s t h a t h a n d s p a n a n d h e ig h t a re re la te d d T h e re w e re 2 p e o p le in th e c la s s 16 < t < 2 0 b u t th e y d id n o t
10 N e g a tiv e n e c e s s a rily ta k e 20 m in .
11 N e g a tiv e
19 a F re q u e n c ie s : 4, 7, 6, 4, 4, 2, 3
12 a 126 b 40%
b 1 c 2 d 2.5 e 40
13 70
20 a i Number of
60
Tally Number o f cars
50
people in a car
Number 40 1 Ml 6
of
Students 30
2 JUTKiTMil 17

20
3 Mill 8

10
4 Mllll 9

0
5 MMI 11
Basket bal Soccer Tennis Volley ball 6 Mllll 9
14 a Grade Number o f students Angle on pie chart
A
ii 20
5 20°
18
B 15 eo°
16
c 40 160°
14
D 20 80°
i 12
E 10 40°
TO TALS 90 360°
z 8
6
4

2
0 2 3 4 5
Number of peopleinacar
iii 2 iv 3 v 3.48
b 66°

21 a 60 b 13

15 a 590°C b Neptune 22 a 1 b 2.9

16 a i 50 ii 43.9 iii 47 23 a 9 mintues 20 seconds b 2 mintues 20 seconds
b T w o of the estimates (20 and 24 cm) were much lower that c 2 mintues 45 seconds
th e others and have too great an influence on the mean
24 a 10
17 a
Sport Volleyball Football Hockey Cricket 25 a 23 35 b 4 mintues 1.5 seconds
N um ber of 26 a 2.6 m b -0.5 m c -0.8 m
6 9 7 2
students
Angle on
90° 135° 105° 30°
p ie c h a r t
\
670
 (Answers

27 3 a _3_ d 0
12 12 12

Exercise 1 2 .3
1 a 0.95 b i 50 ii N o
2 4 9 % o r 0.49

3 b 5 c 20%
4 3880
35
5 b 47
Chapter 12 6
a !
b 7
6

14
7 30
E s s e n tia l S k ills
8 a 10 b 4
35
23 9 a 20, 6 0 ,1 6 0 , 80, 4 0
6 40 C To e 40
1
■ ! “ 3 c l
a 0.6 b 0.75 C 0.17 d 0.625 e 0.24
a 20 % b 37 .5 % c 39% d 16.5%
. 1 a 12 11
a 1 b To d 35 35

Exercise 1 2 .1
1 a iii b i c iv
d v e ii
2 a b ia s e d b m u tu a lly e x c lu s iv e
c m u tu a lly e x c lu s iv e d ra n d o m , o u tc o m e 10 a i b 40
30 30
3 a and d
11 a 1 5 % o r 0.15
4 6 0 % o r 0.6
b i ± ii 10 iii 0
5 > 5 b A o ri C 0
d ^ 1 15 15
12 12 3
6 12 a l ~ ill ^24
7 i 24 24
d 0
8 a ro 10 P ro b a b ility S cale
9 i 10 Im possible C ertain
6 18
T~T T ~
U B e c a u s e th e a re a s a re n o t a ll e q u a l in size . T h e la rg e r th e a re a
th e h ig h e r th e p r o b a b ility th a t th e c o u n te r w ill la n d o n it.
T
(i) 0 A B (ii) 1
12 a B e c a u s e t h e n u m b e r s o f e a c h c a r s o ld a n d a w a it in g
13 a I i b II
c o lle c tio n a re d iffe re n t so th e o u tc o m e s a re n o t a ll e q u a lly 23 20
lik e ly . T h e p r o b a b ility t h a t th e n e x t c a r to b e c o lle c te d w ill 14 a i ii 0 iii 1 b 1Z c P ie ro ’s
36 99

15 a i
C 0 d ^ 2 or I
360 3 60 9 + 2 3 5 7 11

2 4 5 7 9 13
Exercise 1 2 .2 3 5 6 8 10 14

1 a 25 10 d £ e 10 f 6 5 7 8 10 12 16
25
—*
►
00

2a 7 9 10 12 14
R B G P W
11 13 14 16 18 22
R RR RB RG RP RW

B BR BB BG BP BW ii a 25 25
G GR GB GG GP GW
Y YR YB YG YP YW
Answers j

NOTE: In some o f these answers a range o f values has been given. Answers w ithin these ranges should obtain fu ll marks.
They represent the different values th a t m ight be obtained in th e following w ays. Some o f the questions in some exercises require
proofs or explanations. In these cases b rie f explanations have been given to help you, but alternatives are possible.
• Correct w orking, but using e ith e r rounded o r calculator values from previous (num bered) parts o f the question. (Remember
never to round w ith in th e w orking fo r p art o f a question.)
• Using different values fo r n. (The calculator value is best.)
• Reading from graphs.
• Measurements from accurate draw ings.
The graphs and diagram s in these answers are here to guide you, but they m ay have been reduced in scale fo r reasons o f space.
Yours should be fu ll size. W here w orking has to be shown some of the key steps are som etim es included in th e given answer.

Chapter 13 2 a

E s s e n tia l S k ills

1 a 1 0 0 ,1 ,9 ,1 8 ,2 4 ,6 .1 ,2 ,4 9
n o

to
b 100,1, 9,18, 24, 6 , 0, J x , 2, 49
C 100,22.5,1,9,18, 24, 6 , 0, -J25, 2, 49
d Jt, V2 e V25, 2 f 1, 9, V25
g 18,24,6 h 2 i 49 j 9
2 a {1, 2, 3,4, 6 , 8 , 9 ,1 2,16 ,18 , 24, 36, 48, 72,144}
b {2,3} c 144 = 24 x 32
3 -764 = 2* x /6 4 < 3 2 19 > 1 8
4 {23,29,31,37}
15
5 a if 49
C 4
6 8.64
7 44.4% to 3 S.f. 8
8
-14
2-

Exercise 1 3 .1
1 a {16,25,36} b {March, May}c {1, 2 ,3 , 4,5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ,9,10}
2 a The set of odd numbers less than 10
b The set of days of the week.
c The set of letters of the English alphabet.
3 a and d are empty sets
4 a 1 e {prime numbers} b 1000 e {even numbers}
b i 15 ii 23
5 a [a, c, e, h, i, m, s, (} b8
6 a % P S

Exercise 1 3 .2 f
1 a {3,5,7} b {5} C {3, 4, 5, 6, 7} d {3,7,8,9} ( v )
e {4, 6, 8, 9} f {3, 7} g {8, 9}
2 0 3 {4, 5, 6, 9}
D q
U j
4 2 5 4 6 4

Exercise 1 3 .3 Exercise 1 3 .4
1 a 7784 = 74 X 4 X 49 = 4 x 7 = 28
l a N P E b

GO
Z S E b Vi 600 = \/l 6 x 100 = 4 x 10 = 40
f 3 f \ 4 \ c 7625 = 7 5 x 5 x 2 5 = 5 x 5 = 25
5 2
V 7 V / 6 / 2 a 7l80 = 79 x 20 = 79 x 4 x 5 = 675
b 798 = 72 x 49 = 772
c 7l92 = 7 2 x 9 6 = 7 2 x 2 x 4 8 = 7 4 x 3 x 1 6 = 2 x 4 x ^ 3 = 8 7 3

\
67 2
 ( Answers

3 a 7 5 0 = 7 2 x 2 5 = 5n/2 irra tio n a l 7 a 7^6 or b i or 7 m

b 7 l4 4 = 12 ra tio n a l
8 a i (4, 8, 10, 14} ii 1 iii {2, 5, 7 ,1 1 ,1 3 }
c 74 5 = 7 5 x 9 = 375 irra tio n a l
C 16

Exercise 1 3 .5
1 a 2 23 h 223
'100 100
1 21
2 2 x 10 J 0 . 21 %
250 500

3 a 130% b 95 .5 % C 0.5%

9 19 77 1 9
2 0 ' 4 0 ' 1 6 0 ' 2 ' 16
49
5 a 60
10 a P r ^ Q n R ' b 47

Exercise 1 3 .6 11 a 8 b 18
12 , 1 % , 0 .0 0 2 1 6
i 2500' 8
1
13 8x10 , 0 .0 0 0 8 , 0 .8 %
1 25000

14 97

15 a

b i [c, e] ii {a, b, c, d, e , f \ iii [b, d , f g , h}

iv {a, g, h] v {a,b,d,fg,h}

b fo r e x a m p le 10 o r 26 o r 58

16 a

17 a i 0 ii {7, 8, 11, 13, 14}

b i 3 ii 11 iii 18
2 {-2, - 1, 0, 1, 2}
18 a 0 c A
3 a The set o f th e firs t fo u r c u b e n u m b e rs
19 1 2 or 51
b The set o f th e firs t five sq uare n u m b e rs 37 37
20 a n (S u F)' or n(S' n F) b y = x — 15
4 a 74 09 6 = 7 4 X 1024 = 7 4 x 4 x 256 = 716 x 4 x 64
c i 15 ii 20
= 4 x 2 x 8 = 64
21 i a 8 b 4 c 21 d 19
b 7 2 4 5 0 = 7 2 x 1225 = 7 2 x 5 x 245 = 72 X 5 x 5 x 49
ii For example, students w ho study Mathematics but
= 5 x 7 x 7 2 = 3572
not Physics
5 a is irra tio n a l

d 11 e 10 23 a B n C n A ' b i 31 ii 9
Answers j

24 a b 9 Exercise 1 4 .3
i (x + l)(x + 5) 2 (x - l)(x + 5)
3 (x + l)(x - 5) 4 (x - l)(x - 5)
5 (x + l)(x - 8 ) 6 (x - 2)(x - 4)
7 (x - 2)(x + 4) 8 (x - l)(x + 36)
9 (x + 2 )(x - 1 8 ) 10 (x - 4)(x - 9)
25 a i 1, 2 ,3 ,4 ii 1,2 b 22
Exercise 1 4 .4
Chapter 14 i (x + l)(3 x + 1) 2 (2x+ l)(3 x+ 1)
3 (x + l)(3x + 2) 4 (x + 2)(3x+ 1)
5 (x - l)(3x + 1) 6 (x + l)(3x - 1)
E s s e n tia l S k ills 7 (x - l)(3x - 1) 8 (x + l)(6 x + 1)
9 (4x+ l)(x —2) 10 (2x+ l)(2x + 3)
1 a a2= b2+ c2 b y = 2x+3 c2x + 5 y -x -l 11 (4x+ l)(x + 3) 12 (2x+ l)(2x - 3)
2 a 2x b -6 c -1 d 3xy and —4xy 13 ( 2 x - l)(2x + 3) 14 (2x - l)(2x - 3)
3 a a5 b x9 c b3 15 (4 x + l)(2 x + 3) 16 (4x - l)(2x + 3)
d c10 e a3b6 17 (4x+ l)(2x + 3) 18 ( 2 x - l)(4x + 3)
3X 19 (2x + 5)(4x + 3) 20 (3x + 5)(3x + 5)
4 a x 2— x 3 c xy + xty2 d &
21 (3x - 5)(2x - 5) 22 (2x + 5y)(4x + 3y)
5 a x7/ b 6X6 c x 12 d x 12/ 0
23 (3x + 5y)[3x + 5y) 24 {3xy - 5)(2xy - 5)
6 a -3 x - 2y b 2a + 2c c 0 d -a b + 4a

7 a 1
b il c 4 d ±
" 25 Exercise 1 4 .5
8 a n= 0 b n = -1 c « = —2 d « =1 1 (x-y)(x + y) 2 (a - l)(a + 1 )
9 a —4y b -pq c a3 + 2a2b2+ b 3 d 1 - x 2- f 3 ( x - 3)(x + 3) 4 (2y-3)(2y + 3)
10 a 5xy(z + 2x) b 7xy(2x - 3y) c 3a2( l - 2a) d x(2x - 1) 5 (5 - o)(5 + a) 6 (6a-7b)(6a + 7b)
7 {ab - xy)(ab + xy) 8 (1 - 2 c)(l + 2 c)
Exercise 1 4 .1
1 a2 + 2a + 1 2 x 2 + 9x + 20
Exercise 1 4 .6
3 x2 - x - 2 0 4 x 2 + x-20 3(3a + 5b) 2 ( l - x ) ( l + x)
5 x 2 - 9x + 20 6 2b2 + 3 b + l 2 (3 -x )(3 + x ) 4 (2x+ l ) ( x - 1)
7 5c2 -1 2 c + 4 8 12x2 + 2 8 x + 1 5 6x(x - 3) 6 2 ( x - 3)(x— 3)
9 x2 + 2xy+y2 10 x2-2xy + y2 5 x (2 x - l)(2 x + 1) 8 3(x + 2 )(x - 1)
11 x2- / 12 4d2-9 e 2 2 y (y -l)(y -l) 10 4xy[4y - x)
13 14Z2 - 5z — 1 14 8 + 6X + X 2 11 4x^(2_y- x)(2y + x) 12 3(2a + x)(2b+y)
15 4 -x 2 16 a 3 + a2b + ab + b2
17 x 3 + x2 - x - l 2b2+ 4bc+b + 2c2+ c
18
Exercise 1 4 .7
19 x 3- ! 20 x *-l
21 4x 2 + 12x + 9 22 4X2 - 9 1 3 2 3 3 27
23 4x 2 - 1 2 x + 9 24 gx2- ^ 2
4 7x5 5 10x? 6 I
25 4b2 - 1 26 2ac + 2ad + 3be + 3 bd
o
00

7 10 9 |xf
Exercise 1 4 .2 5
10 2y* 11 12 x -
1 ( x + l) ( x + 3) 2 (x + l)(x + 5) y4 J
1
3 (x + l)(x + 12) 4 (x + 2)(x + 6 ) 13 i 14 2 + 2x5 15 4x5
(x + 3)(x + 4) x*y
5 6 (x + 4)(x + 4) or (x + 4)2
7 (x + l)(x + 16) 8 (x + 2 )(x + 8 ) 16 x - 2*5 + 1 17 x - 2 + —
9 (x+ l)(x + 17) 10 (x+ l)(x + 1) or (x+ l )2
X
18 a x = i b x =l c x =l
 ( Answers

i x +1
Exercise 1 4 .8 5 a
a x-i x +6
2 2+ X 3x2 y+x2
7 3M 2 —X x(y + x)
4 2x —4 5 6 y+ z 6 a Id2 4x
2X + 3 (a + b ) ( a - b ) (X — 1)(X + 1)
1 9 3x + 2 ( x + 1 )'
8
3y + 5z 5x — 4 c
(x - 1)2
d 1
3yz • c(c + d + 1)
10 11
1
12 2 x + 3 7 a c2 + erf - 1 b e i dr -
y-4z x-y c2 - a 2
x +1 x -1 8 7
13 7+ 1 14 x -1 15 x + 1
9 a -1 b 5k
y + x2
16 17 x + y 2 18 al + b2 10 a Sxy(2x + 3y) b (sa-b){sa + b)

r 1~2X j ab
( x + 1)2
Exercise 1 4 .9 11
X + 11
xy (X — 3)(X + 4)
27 x 2+ y 2 12 a (a - 2 fo )(l - 3c) b 5t2 + 6
x 2y
A *+1 X+ 7
y ( x - 1) ( x - 1 ) ( x + 1) x 2+ y 2 13 (X - 3)(X + 2)

7 x+y 14 a 8 c -3
xyz
15 a 2
Exercise 1 4 .1 0 16 a x 3- 1 b (a-b){x-3y)
19 x +1 1A 4 (x + 1 )
15 X 12 17 X (X + 2)
2a 2b X'>
xy (a - b)(a + b) (a-b)(a + b)
18 aV b 2*
6 x -3 3 - x -6 19 a ( 2 x - 3 )(2 x + 3) b x (4 x - 9) C ( 4 x - l) ( x —2)
x ( x -1 ) x(x —1) 12
20 a (2 x + 3 ) ( x - 5 ) b (2y-z)(t-4s)
1 7 X -1 8 X + 5^ x 2 + y2
10 11
12 ( x + y ) ( x + 2 }') 12 ( x - y ) ( x + y) 21 a i 3x2 - 4 ii ^ ^ 2 = x
x ( a - 1)
x 2 + 2xy - y 2 2(a2 + b 2) 4 ab
13 14 (a - b ) (a + b) 15 b 7 ( x - 3 ) ( x + 3)
(x - y)(x + y) (a - b )(a + b)
X 2 - 6 x + 25
- 3 x 2 + 5xy - y 2 22 4 (X — 3)
17 x 2— 1
2X-1
16 18 AT(x + 1)(* 1)
(2 a - y ) ( x + y ) 23 a |or 2.5 b -l
1 1x -1 8
24 25 9X2 26
Exercise 1 4 .1 1 18 (2x + 3)(x — 3)

1
1 a 1
b 2
C Ii
27 a 0 b 0.2or C 0.6 or |

d 6 e 65 f 16 28 a 3X2 b —6

8 I 42
i 42 29 c
7 17

2 a 1 4x5 d 24a^b6 30 a i 9 - 5 p ii 3q2 + 5 qr - 2r2

b 2 (3 f + l ) ( 3 f - 1)
3 a 6x2 - 7 x - 4 9 b x 2- 2 x + 1 c i _y = 30 ii x = - 5 o r x = 5 iii
c x4- 2x^y + / d x 2/ - ! .. X —2
31 a i 5 (x + 2 ) ( x - 2) 2 (x — 1)
e xy + xb + ay + ab f 6oc - 10 be + 9 ad - 15 bd
y + 29
4 a ( 3 x - 2 ) ( x + l) b (x + 5 )(x — 10) 0 ( y- 3) ( y + 3)
c (2 x — 7 )(x — 7) d 2 ( 5 x - 3 )(5 x + 3)
32 a 3 « 2(5 + 4a) b (1 - 4b) (1 + 4b) c (3c-d )(2x-y)
e x y ( x - l)(x + 1) f 3 (2 x + 3 )(x - 4)
8 —t
g (« + fo) (2c + d) h (2c-d){a-b) 33 2(t - W + 2)
i 2ab(2a - 3b)(2a + 3fo)
Answers j

34 a i 5 x (3 x + 2) ii (f + 3 )(f - 5) 3 a 3 .495 < / < 3 .505 b 0.055 m o r 5 .5 c m

b x = 0.6 4 a $ 2 04 93 b $5 50 8
35 a 1 b 32 c 25 5 a €34 b €40
36 a 1 c 27 6 a 1 : 1 3 o r 13 :1 5 b 12600 c 4 1 .0 %
b *i
d 20000 e 14 00 0
37 a 26 b i x2 ii x 3
7 a 115 125 b 2400 m 2
8 3 h 20 m in
b 6 cm
Chapter 15 11
9 5 0 .1 2 2 5 c m 2
38
10 a 6.5 m m
12 $231 .13
13 a 10 45 .28 b 1000
E s s e n tia l S k ills 14 a $4 50 b i $120 ii $8 0
15 20 16 £3 00 0
1 a 10500 c m 2 o r 1.05 m 2 b 3014 c m o r 3 0 .1 4 1 17 6 2 2 2 5 0 0 0 o r 6 .2 2 2 5 x 107 o r 62 .2 2 5 m illio n
2 a 4.6 7 b 501 c 0.01 18 5 0 .1 2 2 5 c m 2
d 0.0 1 0 6 e 516cm f 100 k ilo g ra m s
19 a i $6 00 0 ii 15 %
g 92 0 0 h 1000
b $11200 c i $7 50 0 d $8 6 4 0
3 a 4 3 8 .5 < 4 3 9 < 4 3 9 .5 b 5 6 6 5 < 5 6 7 0 < 56 75 80
20 a 06 41 b $2 04
4 a 2 x 1 0 10 m m 3 b 2 x 107 c m 3 c 2 x 101m 3
21 a i $250 ii $2 60 0 iii 6 .1 2 %
5 a 0.5 c m 2 b 0.5 litre s c 12 00 0 g
b i 12 m ii 7 h 12 m in iii 2.78 k m /h iv 16 0 7
6 a 7 0 0 x 0 . 7 = 50 0 b 80 . 200 _ 2 , 10 0 0 , 4 0 0 _ c 25 0 0 0 o r 2.5 x 10'
80 ' 4 0 0 500 30
22 23 7.5 242.5
7 a 1.425 x l O " 2 b 2 .4 9 x 1 0 12 t o 3 s.f.
c 1.107 x l O 3 d 6.002 x 10-5 23 a 0 .0 0 3 X 3 0 0 0 b O .O Io r ^
(10 + 20P
8 a 1.93 b 4 .0 7 c 6.32
24 a 0.701 b £190
d 2.82 e 2.02
25 135 165
9 a 2 : 25 b 1 : 400 c 4 :1
d 4 8 :8 5 e 2 :1 :1 0 f 3 7 :5 0 0 26 a
Lower Upper
10 a 1 :0 .0 0 0 2 b 5 0 0 0 :1
/ Bound Bound

X 65 75
Exercise 1 5 .1
y 875 925
1 a i 1.0 ii 3.0
b i 26 ii 78 b $117 5
c i 15 5.2 5 ii 18 1.2 5 27 a 50 0 0 b 20 c m
d i 1.08 ii 1.26 to 3 s.f. 28 a i 150 g ii 9 :1 1 i 48%
iii
2 a i 702.4 ii 72 8.8 b i $3.60 ii $7.75
b i 20 .88 ii 21 .67 29 a 3 4 0 c m b 9 m
c i 69 .28 75 ii 7 1 .0 7 7 5
30 a | ( x - 1 5 0 0 0 )= 3 0 0 0 b i 9% ii $1 7 7 2 0
c $ 2 75 00 d i |( x - ii $4 50 00
Exercise 1 5 .2
31 a 0 .7 2, 0.7, | b 40 0
1 $90 2 $1 2.5 0 3 $138 8
4 a Rs 4 8 0 b Rs 4 0 8 32 a $825 ii £625 iii
b i $1 62 00 ii $ 1 8 8 9 5 .6 8 ii
Exercise 1 5 .3 33 a
Lower Upper
1 a 19.8 c m b 2 2 .25 25 c m 2 bound bound
2 a u p p e r b o u n d o f s h o rt p ie c e s = 10.5 c m
M ass of
lo w e r b o u n d o f la rg e p ie c e = 99.5 c m 5.35g 5.45g
1 marble
= 9 .4 76 s o it m a y o n ly b e p o s s ib le to c u t 9 w h o le le n g th s . Mass of
82.5g 87.5g
the box
b u p p e r b o u n d o f la r g e p ie c e = 100.5 c m
lo w e r b o u n d o f s h o r t p ie c e s = 9.5 c m b 189.5 g
lo w e r b o u n d o f 10 s h o r t p ie c e s = 95 c m 34 a i 31.2 t o 31.3% ii 1.76
m a x im u m le ft o v e r = 100.5 - 95 = 5.5 c m b i $5.60 ii $0.28 or 28 c e n ts iii 16

\
6761
 ( Answers

35 a i $31.25 ii 15 0% iii 2 :5 b 16 Exercise 1 6 .6

36 a 9 250 b i 9.4 5 g ii a 0 .3 %
ii b 0 .9 % iii 2.205 g c 2000 1 x = - 0 .6 1 8 o r 1.62 2 x = - 7 .8 7 o r -
3 x= 1 4 x = - 2 or |

Chapter 16 5 x = 1.31 o r - 0 .3 0 6 6 0 .382 o r 2.62

7 x = - 0 .3 0 3 o r 3.30 8 x = -1 or
9 x = - 0 .2 1 5 o r 1.55 10 x = 1
E ssen tia l S k ills
11 x = - 4 2 .6 o r - 0 .1 0 3 12 x = - |o r3
D

1 a x = sh b x A C .v - c
I Exercise 1 6 .7
d x = ^ - - v2 e x _ 2A x~-
2a a+ b 1 x = - lo r - 2 2 x = | or 2
2 a 5«-3 b 5 n - 15 C n2+ 1 3 * = |o r2 4 x = -3 or 2
d - 2 n + 12 e n2
5 x = -2 or 1 6 x = j or 1
3 a i | o r 4 .5 ii 5202 b i -9 ii 90 00
7 x= 1 8 x = - i or 1
c i -9 iii -8 0 1
4 a x = l l ,y = -A b x = 2,y = 3 9 x = 2 or - i 10 x = 1 o r 4
c x = 0,y = 2 d x = 5, y = 4 11 a (x - 4 )(x - 5) = 12 b x = 1 or 8 c 4 cm by 3 cm
12 8,9
Exercise 1 6 .1 13 1 2 ,1 4
14 a x (x + 3) = 40
1 x=3 2 i =6 3 x=14 4 i= 2
x 2 + 3 x - 40 = 0
5 x = -2 1 e *=i 7 x = -J\ 8 x = -l b x = -8 or 5
c le n g th 8 c m , b re a d th 5 c m
Exercise 1 6 .2
1 x = -2 o r-3 2 x = -2 or 1 3 x = 5 o rl Exercise 1 6 .8
1 a 1, 4, 9, 16 b - 1 , 2, 7 ,1 4 c - 1 , 0, 3, 8
4 x = -^ o r1 5 x = - l or 1 6 x = 1 or |
d -3 , -2 ,1 , 6 e 12 3 4 f 1 1 1 1
2 ' 3 '4 '5 2' 5' 10 ' 17
7 x = -1 or j 8 x = ^ o rx = | 9 x = -| o r |
i 0 ,1 , 4, 9 h 1, 8, 27 , 64 i 3 ,1 1 , 30 , 67
10 x = 3 o r5 11 x = -2 or 2 12 x = —1 j 0, 6, 24, 60 k 3 , 6, 9 ,1 2
13 x = l 14 x = 1 o r | 2 a n { n + 1) b n2- n c (n + 1)2
3n
d 2n2 e nn+2 1 f n+ 3
Exercise 1 6 .3
3 a 19, 99, 201 b i n= 4 ii n = 1 1
1 x = - 6 .1 4 o r 1.14 2 x = - 1 .1 4 o r 6.14
4 a 24 , 6 3 ,1 0 2 0 0
3 x = - 3 .1 2 o r - 0 .2 1 4 4 x = - 0 .6 1 8 o r 1.62
b i 1 ii 9 iii 10 iv 16
5 x = - 1 . 5 6 o r 2.56 6 x = 0 .3 1 4 o r 3.19

Exercise 1 6 .9
Exercise 1 6 .4
1 7 = 2, x = - l 2 y = \ .x = \
1 (x - 3 )2 - 8
2 H ) " T 3 (*" !) ~T
3 y = - i , x = ! 4 7 = 2, x = 2
4 2 (x + l ) 2 - 7 5 3 ( x - l) 2- 7 6 2 (x -| )i + |

7 2 (x + | f - f
Exercise 1 6 .1 0
Ln|rn

1 x = 1 ,7 = 3 2 x = -1 ,7 = -1 3 x =| j =
Exercise 1 6 .5
4 x = - 2 ,7 = 10 5 x = 1 ,7 = 1 6 x = ^ ,7 =
1 x = -1 ± V 2 1 __ 1± 733
4
3 x = 5 or -1 4 x = = ^ o r - 1± f Exercise 1 6 .1 1
5 7± V41 6 x = ^ or 1 1 x = 0,7 = 4 2 x = 10,7 = -1
2
3 x = 3 ,7 = 3 4 x = -1 0 , 7 = -5

677
Answers J

5 x = 18, y = - 1 6 x = 5 ,y = - ± Exercise 1 6 .1 4
7 x = - f ,y = n 8 x = 7 , y = -2
1 b = 4Y2V+a 2 r= ^ p o rr =
’" I
9 x = -4 , y = 2 10 x = - ^ ,y = f
3 z = yjx2 + y2 - 2xyC 4 a = -4x
/-
Exercise 1 6 .1 2
5 fl = l g - ( « - W ) 6 v = M + u>
Vtn
1 a x > -l 7 a w- ^ - e )
e b w = ^1- e
l i l »
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 8 u = >/v2 - 2as 9 1=11 10 A - b‘ + cl ~ a2
4itJ 2be
b x > 1

Exercise 1 6 .1 5
0 1 2 3 4 5
l a x= y b x - —J
C x< -|

i ■ II 2 a x = -|o r | b x = —4.5 or3 c x = -3 .1 0 or 0.431

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
3 (x -1 )2- ^ 4 a nth term = 2” ~ 1 b nth term =
d x>3 n2

0 1 2 3 4 5
b i ^ = 4.74 ii x = 2.25
e x > —6.4 6 a B = A -Dc b fc -M
7 -2.5 < x < 1
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
8 a x = 4, y = - l
b * =~ f' >’ = !
f - j< x < 2
9 i o l i l
9 2 5 '9 ' 49
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
10 a i -1 < x < 4
M I *" i t
g 2<x< 7
-4 -3 - 2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
b (1, 3), (1, 5), (3, 5), (5, 3)
h -5 < x < -3 11 a p is inversely proportional to the square root of q
b <j = 9
-tS -9 -4 -3 -i -1 u 1 2 a 5 x(x - 2 ) b -v — 4 e /> - - 2 o r O

2 a x < -2 { ......- 5 , - 4 , - 3 }
13 a 190 b j ( « + l)(n + 2)
b x<-2 {....-5 , - 4 ,-3 , -2 } 14 x = -7 y = -3
15 a Jt = - 1 2 b y = - l or 2
c x < | {.. .. - 2 , - 1, 0 , 1}
16 a - 1 < x < 2 b - 1, 0 ,1
d -3 < x < l { - 2 , - 1 , 0} 17 a 120 Newtons b y=8
e -1 < x < 4 { - 1 , 0, 1, 2, 3} 18 a x = 28
(-4 , - 3 , -2 , -1 }
bH
19 a t < - 1 .5 b 58
g -3 < x < 1 ( - 2 , - 1 , 0}
20 a - 3 9
3 a { - 6, - 5 , - 4 } b -6 < x < -3 k 3« +1
b i 3n + 1 ii a ; b n>
Exercise 1 6 .1 3 21 a y = 4x2 b x = -fo r§

1 a T = 33/V b the cost of one item 22 a T=

2 3 a 10 b D= n 23 a x > - l b y= 10
y= !* 7
24 a y = 24x b x= 25
4 a b Ii C 3.52
3
25
"
a3 20 b x> 10
5 a m = 3 /3 b
26 y = 12.5
6 a r _ 1O38 b F = 10s Newtons

\
678
 ( Answers

27 a i k > 2 ii t = 30 e i t - 3 . . 3f2 - 1 2
2
b x = i 8 i , ) ' = io±
5(< - 3) = 2(3t2 - 12)
28 x = 8, y = 6 5 f - 15 = 6 t 2 - 24
29 a 3 b a = - 5f - 9 = 0
b -c
40 , _ 4 0 . ii t = -0 .8 8 o r 1.7
30 a i —
a; x +2 X
46 a a = -2 .3 8 o r 0.66
iii - 10, 8 iv $8
b i 4 x + 6y = 816 ii 3 x + 5y = 654
b i m = n + 2.55, 2 m = 5n
iii x = 78, y = 84
ii m = 4.25, n = 1.7
47 a x = -0 .7 9 o r 2.12
31 b i p = 25, g = 40
b 9 o 2 - 24 ab + 16 b2
II X: -n2, y = (n + 1)2, z = (n + 1)2+ «2—1, o r z = 2n(n + 1)
C ( 4 - 7 )(3 + 2f)
c ■ 4 + /+ S = 4 _ 24 . 24
48 x X + 0.5
ii | x 2 3+ / X 2 2+ g X 2 = 12 24 24
X X + 0.5
•= 2
4
Hi / = 2. * = f IV
2 4 (x + 0.5) - 2 4 x = 2 x (x + 0.5)
32 x > —4 or x > —0.571 2 4 x + 12 - 2 4 x = 2 x 2 + x
0 = 2x 2 + x - 12
33 a y = \ . k 4.8 X 5 2 = 120 b 7 = 30 d x = -2 .7 1 2 o r 2.212
7 x2
C x = 3.46 d x = 4.93 e 10 m in u te s 51 to 52 se co n d s
e y is d iv id e d by 4 f x increased by 25% 49 a t = 2 ± b x = - 2 ^ , y = 17
'3 ' 2'
3y + 2 2 / —3h
gx=W d x -
34 b2+s
50 a 7 = 3 b p=2
35 d = ij2{c — 5) c g = —6 o r 6 d d = -1 .2 9 o r 1.09
51 a i p = 19 ii <j = 29
36 5xlO4
b i _/'= 16 ii k = 25
37 a x = 13.5 b x = - l or 4
iii S = n 2
38 x < -2 3 .5
c i 3" 4 ii U = « - 1 iii T = n 2 + n - 1
39 a 3 x l O 11 b 5 x 106
1080 1080
40 a i (x + 4 ) ( x - 5 ) ii x = - 4 o r 5 52 a i
X X + 30
b x = —0 .55 o r 1.22 . 1080 1080 _ 1
c i (m - 2 n)(m + 2 n) ii - 1 2 D X X + 30 2
2 ie u ( x + j o ) - 2it>ux = x (x + j u )
iii 7 = 2 0 x + 5 iv ” =
2 1 6 0 x + 64800 - 2 1 6 0 x = x 2 + 3 0 x
d i A: = 4 o r —4
0 = x 2 + 3 0 x - 64800
ii n(m - 2 n) (m + 2 n) ( m 2 + 4 n 2)
C x = - 2 7 0 o r 240
41 36 d i 4 ^ h o u rs ii 254 km p e r h o u r
r2
_ Ip ’ + d 2 53 a p = - 5 b ^
42 a x 2\ a + b ) b x
a+ b c i (lO y + x ) - ( lO x + 7 ) = 63
♦3 1.25 45 y = (9(1 —x ))2 4 6 x = 2 ,7 = -6 9y - 9 x = 63
♦4 a m = —13 y -x = 7
b i 7 = 0.5 ii a (lO x + y) + (IO 7 + x) = 99 b x = 1, 7 = 81
x +11 l l x + 11^ = 99
( x - i X x + 3)
III X-
54 a i x = 2.71 ii b = V x2 - 2o x
C q = >P + l b i 8x - 27 ii 8x - 27 < 300
P
x < 40.875
« a y = 3 b x - - 2 or 2
iii 40
C i / = 3 ii y = ~ i

679
Answers)

Chapter 17 b One axis of rotational symmetry, order 4. 4 planes of

symmetry.
c Rotational symmetry, order 6 about one axis. 6 more axes,
The answers to questions in this chapter which require
each with rotational symmetry order 2.
drawing and measuring have been given as a range of values.
7 planes of symmetry.
You should get yo u r answers w ithin the given range, o r ve ry
close; if you do not, sharpen yo u r pencil and try again w ith
more attention to accuracy! The answers to many of the Exercise 17.2
questions can be arrived at by different routes.
1 a= 20 (isosceles triangle)
Where reasons are required one explanation has been given to

CD
(angles between radius and tangent)

O
II
help you. Yours could be different and still be correct. c = 140 (isosceles triangle)

^3

o
(angles on a straight line)

II
cn
(angle sum of a triangle)

II
o
E s s e n tia l S k ills
2 Let BS = x
1 55-56°, 41-42°, 82-83° AU = AS = 4 cm (tangents from a point outside the circle
are equal)
2 140° 3 1980°
CT = CU = 6 cm (tangents from a point outside the circle
4 a rectangle or parallelogram b kite are equal)
c trapezium d rhombus BT=BS = x c m (tangents from a point outside the circle
5 a rotational symmetry, order 2. 2 lines of symmetry are equal)
b rotational symmetry, order 2. No lines of symmetry 2x + 2 x 4 + 2 x 6 = 29
x = 4.5 a = 10.5
c rotational symmetry, order 5. 5 lines of symmetry
d rotational symmetry, order 4.4 lines of symmetry 3 a = 35 (isosceles triangle)
b =110 (angle sum of a triangle)
6 (regular) tetrahedron
c = 55 (ZABC =90°, angle in a semicircle)
7 a for example, Z TAP and Z A B R d = 55 (isosceles triangle)
b for example, Z P A B and Z A B C e = 25 (isosceles triangle)
c for example, Z A C B and Z S C V / = 25 (alternate angles)
d Z PAB = Z RBU = 50° (corresponding angles) g = 45 (angle sum of a triangle)
Z B A C = 180 - 50 - 55 = 75° (angles on a straight line)

Exercise 17.3
Exercise 17.1
1 a Z B A O = 40° (isosceles triangle)
1 a, c 2 ^ :a o b = 100“ (a n g le b u rn o f a tria n g le )
3 x = 80° (angles on a straight line)
b ZOAB = ZOCB = 90° (angle between radius and tangent)
ZAOC = 130° (angle sum of a quadrilateral)
x = 65° (the angle at the centre is twice the
angle at the circumference)

b 4 2 <1= 70° (cyclic quadrilateral)

d 4 b = 70° (angles in the same segment)
c= 20° (angle sum of a triangle)
2 a, b and c
d= 20° (angle sum of a triangle)
3
3 a = 20° (isosceles triangle)
b = 20° (alternate angles)
c = 180° - (180° - 2 x 20°) (angle sum of an
c = 40° isosceles triangle and angles on a
straight line)
d = 40° (angles in the same segment)
e = 180° •(20° + 40° (angle sum of a
e = 120° triangle and vertically
opposite angles)
3 a One axis of rotational symmetry, order infinity.
/ = 20° (angles in the same segment)
Infinite num ber of planes of symmetry.

N
680
 (Answers

4 a = 35° (c o rr e s p o n d in g a n g le s ) 9 a 44° b 158°

b = 90° (a n g le in a s e m ic irc le ) 10 a 90° T h e ra d iu s is p e r p e n d ic u la r to th e ta n g e n t a t
c = 55° (a n g le s u m o f a tria n g le ) th e p o in t o f c o n ta c t
d = 90° (a n g le in a s e m ic irc le ) b x = 75
e = 45° (is o s c e le s tria n g le ) 11 a 54° b 42° c 78°
/ = 45° (a lte r n a te a n g le s ) 12 a i 69 ii 57 iii 72 iv 15
b 135
5 Z A U C = 50° (a n g le s o n a s tr a ig h t lin e )
13 a 65° b 25°
Z /1 6 C = 130' (a n g le s o n a s tr a ig h t lin e )
Z A D C + Z A B C = 180°
c 58° d 206°

th e re fo re AB C D is a c y c lic q u a d r ila te r a l ( o p p o s ite a n g le s

14 C irc le , c e n tre 6 , ra d iu s BD
a d d u p to 180°) 15 a 58° b 32°
c 58° d 24°

Exercise 17.4 16 a i 107° ii 34°

b F o r e x a m p le ,
1 13 3 a = 2 0 ,6 = 70 L e t X b e th e p o in t o n th e m in o r
a rc AC o f c irc le II s u c h t h a t AX = CX.
Exercise 17.5 T h e n a n g le AXC = 146° (a n g le s in th e s a m e s e g m e n t)
A n g le AXC = 2 x a n g le A B C
1 x = 60 7 = 65
So X is th e c e n tre o f c irc le I
2 w = 30
(a n g le a t th e c e n tre is tw ic e a n g le a t th e c irc u m fe re n c e )
x = 75
7=60
17 a i23°
z = 50 ii 90° Z A B C = 90° (a n g le in a s e m ic irc le ), AFBE is a
s tr a ig h t lin e (g iv e n )
3 a a = 70°
& = 140° iii Z D F E = Z C B E = 90° (c o rre s p o n d in g a n g le s in p a ra lle l lines)
c = 70° b P e rim e te r = PX + X Y + Y Z + PZ
rf = 40° Z X Y Q = Z Y Q R ( a lte r n a te a n g le s ), Z X Q Y = Z X Y Q (a n g le
b & + d = 180° b is e c to r)
th e re fo re 40 C 7" is a c y c lic q u a d r ila te r a l ( o p p o s ite a n g le s o f a so XQ = XY (is o s c e le s tr ia n g le )
c y c lic q u a d r ila te r a l a re s u p p le m e n ta r y ) PX + X Y = P Q
c O n th e m id p o in t o f OT T h e s a m e a r g u m e n t fo r YZ + Z P = PR
4 O n e a xis o f s y m m e tr y , o r d e r 6 . 10 72
6 p la n p s o f s y m m e tr y IS a i 00° ( a n g l e in a o c m ic ir c lc )
5 a AE = BD ( e q u id is ta n t fr o m c e n tre o f c irc le ) ii 34° (a n g le s u m o f tria n g le )
b A ll e q u a l a n d h a lf A E a n d B D ( p e r p e n d ic u la r b is e c to r o f a iii 124° (o p p o s ite a n g le s o f a c y c lic q u a d rila te ra l)
c h o rd p a s s e s th r o u g h c e n tre o f c irc le ) iv 28° (a n g le s in th e s a m e s e g m e n t)
6 Z O C B = 50° ( v e rtic a lly o p p o s ite a n g le s ) b F o r e x a m p le , E B D = 28° (a lte rn a te a n g le s)
Z C B O = 90° (a n g le b e tw e e n ta n g e n t a n d ra d iu s ) A D B = 28° (g iv e n t h a t DE b is e c ts ADC)
Z C O B = 40° (a n g le s u m o f a tria n g le ) S o tr ia n g le BD X is is o s c e le s ,
Z A O B = 140° (a n g le s o n a s tra ig h t lin e ) c 62°
x = 20 (is o s c e le s tria n g le ) d F o r e x a m p le , B A E = 90° (a n g le s u m o f tria n g le )
7 a = 55° (is o s c e le s tria n g le ) S o BE is a d ia m e te r
b = 70° (a n g le s u m o f a tria n g le ) A D a n d B E a re b o th d ia m e te r s w h ic h c ro s s a t X
c = 125° (c y c lic q u a d rila te ra l) S o X is th e c e n tre o f th e c irc le .
d = 110 ° (c y c lic q u a d r ila te r a l) Or AD is a d ia m e te r a n d tr ia n g le BD X is is o s c e le s
e = 27.5° (is o s c e le s tria n g le ) BX=DX (ra d ii)
8 a x = 78 ( a lte r n a te a n g le s ) So X is th e c e n tre o f th e c irc le
y = 144 ( o p p o s ite a n g le s o f a c y c lic q u a d rila te ra l) 19 a 9 b 80°
z = 102 ( o p p o s ite a n g le s o f a c y c lic q u a d r ila te r a l) 20 a 36° b 18° c 108° d 72°
b D raw DE p ro d u c e d to F. 21 i a 3 b 3
ZAEF=1&° (a n g le s o n a s tr a ig h t lin e ) ii a F o r e x a m p le , 9 s id e s m e a n s 7 tria n g le s m a y b e d ra w n
Z A E F * ZE A C , th e re fo r e ED a n d AC a re n o t p a ra lle l fr o m o n e v e rte x . T h e n : 7 x 180 = 1260°
c R eflex a n g le EOC = 2 x 144 = 2 8 8 (a n g le a t th e c e n tre is b y = 420 - 2x c x = 136
tw ic e th e a n g le a t th e c irc u m fe re n c e ) 22 a 35° b i 55° ii 125°
T h e re fo re Z E O C = 72° (a n g le s ro u n d a p o in t)
d 51°

681
Answers J

Chapter 18 a ii b

E s s e n tia l S k ills
HH
__
1 a g r a d ie n t = 1 , / - in t e r c e p t = 1
il
b g ra d ie n t = - 1 , / - in t e r c e p t = - 3
c g r a d ie n t = | , / - i n t e r c e p t = 0
d g ra d ie n t = 0 , / - in t e r c e p t = 5
e g ra d ie n t = - 2 , / - in t e r c e p t = 1

2 / - in t e r c e p t = | , g r a d ie n t = - | if
m i:
3 y

Degrees C

b i 76° t o 78°F ii 51° t o 53°C

X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 e

y 10 4 0 -2 -2 0 4 10

b * - 4

Exercise 1 8 .1
1 a 7 .7 5 c m 2 b 9 cm 2
2 a 4 5 m in u te s b 2 | k m /h
c b e fo re v is it: 9 k m /h
a fte r v is it: 7.5 k m /h
d a p p r o x im a te ly 7 2 7 a m e 1.7 k m /h
f a p p r o x im a te ly 7 12 a m a n d 7 5 1 a m
3 a 1050 k m /h 2 b 890 km
Q u e s tio n F u n c tio n x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

a y = y? y -2 7 -8 -1 0 1 8 27
Exercise 1 8 .2 b y = -x* 27 8 1 0 -1 -8 -2 7
y
Q u e s tio n F u n c tio n x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 c y = ( x + l )3 y -8 -1 0 1 8 27

a y 9 4 1 0 1 4 9 d
J*.
ii

-5 -4 -3 4 23
1

-3 1 -12
II

y
b
y

y -9 -4 -1 0 -1 -4 -9
ii

c y = (x + lY y 4 1 0 1 4 9 16

d 5 0 -3 -4 -3 0 5
1

y
II

e 7 0 -5 -9 -5
OO
1

y
II

- 8 - 8
I

682
 1 Answers

X -2 .5 -2 -1 .5 -1 -0 .5 0 0.5 1
y = x 2(x + 2) -3 .1 0 1.1 1 0.4 0 0.6 3

X -4 .5 -4 -3 -2.5 - 2 -1.5 - 1 -0.5 0 0.5 1

7 = x3 + 4x2+ 1 -9 .1 1 10 10.4 9 6.6 4 1.9 1 2.1 6

X -2 .5 -2 -1 .5 -1 -0 .5 0 0.5 1
y = -x?(x + 2 ) 3.1 0 - 1.1 -1 -0 .4 0 - 0.6 - 3

X -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 2

y = x 3 + x2 - 2x -4 .4 0 1.9 2 1.1 0 - 0.6 0 8

4 Question Function X -3 -2 .5 -2 -1 .5 -1 -0 .5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

a y = l
y -1 -1 .2 -1 .5 -2 -3 -6 6 3 2 1.5 1.2 1
7 X
H

b y 1 1.4 2.3 4 9 36 36 9 4 2.3 1.4 1

c y = x2 +l 8 5.1 2.5 0.3 -2 - 5 .8 6.3 4 4.3 5.5 7.5 10

y
Answers J

2 a iii b v c VI

3 a X 0 i 2 3 3.5 4

y 0 2.5 2.2 1.9 1.7 1.6

b y

F u n c tio n X -0 .5 - 0 .2 5 0 0 .25 0.5 0.75 1

y = 10* y 0.3 0.6 1 1.8 3.2 5.6 10

c 1.4 t o 1.5

Exercise 1 8 .4
1 a 4.12 b 4 C (0 .5 ,4 ) d
2 a 1.41 b 1 c ( - 1 .5 ,- 1 . 5 ) d
3 a 22.4 b 2 c (0 , 0 ) d

4 a 24.1 c (5, 5) d
Exercise 1 8 .3 b i

5 a 10.6 c ( 0 .5 ,- 3 ) d 001"J
b -f VO|NJ I—*

6 a 5.66 b -1 c ( 1 , 1) d

7 a 9.22 c ( - 2 , 0.5) d
■ » -§

8 a 6.40 c (3 ,0 .5 ) d
* >!

Exercise 1 8 .5
t (se co n d s) 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5 2.75 3
h (m e tre s ) 0 3.4 6.3 8.4 10 10.9 11.3 10.9 10 8.4 6.3 3.4 0
 { Answers

a
X 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
y 10 5.0 2.7 2.0 1.9 2 2.9 4.5 6.7 9.3

:n v{*
j/
/ •

i'i : /%
\ y '
\ ' 2 17■- ■
t (seconds) : | L& T I 4-rT: -f4-:it r: It iii-

NOTE:
This graph is reduced in size to show you the general d (1 , 2 )
shape. Yours should be to the Scale stated in the e y= x +1
question.
X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
_y = x 2- x -6 6 0 -4 -6 -6 -4 0 6
c 11.1 to 11.5 metres
y = - x 2- x + 6 0 4 6 6 4 0 -6 -1 4
d 2 to 3 m/s
e It stops momentarily before changing direction
f -1 6 to -1 4 m/s

t (seconds) 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5

speed (m/s) 15 12.5 10 7.5 5 2.5 0

x = -2.4 to -2.5, y = 2.2 to 2.4

x = 2.4 to 2.5, y = -2.2 to -2.4

6 a i | ii -4
b 2y = 3x + 2
c 3y = - 2 x + 1
t (seconds)
a CD and GH are parallel: both have gradient

c i The graph would continue in a straight line downwards so

b 3 x -3 = -1 , so AB and JK are perpendicular
that the speed would correspond to negative numbers on a (-) 5 m s "2 b 3400 m
the vertical axis a A (2, 0) B (0, - 6)
ii The ball has reached its maximum height, where the speed b AB = 6.325 C M (1, -3)
is momentarily zero, and then is coming back down, so a (5,0.5)
travelling in the opposite direction
d 10 metres

e m/s2

NOTE:
The acceleration is negative because the ball is slowing
down as it travels upwards.

3 752 or 2VT3 or 7.21 units

f
685
Answers)

11 c k = + / — 1.73
12 a p = 2.5

b, d, e

b 5 .7 to 5.9
C i —6 to —4
ii s p e e d (o r v e lo c ity )
d i a 15 m b 9 m
iii 7 to 7.4 m
c i 1.4 to 1.5 ii 6.4 to 6.5
18 a i k = 1 ii m = - 1 iii n =
d 2.0 to 2.5
b i r = 0 .25 s = l t= 8
f ,4 = 8 S = - 1 3 6
c i, ii, iii
13 a i p = 12, q = 1.5, r — 1.2 y

g ra d ie n t: - 0.6 to - 1.0

d ii 1.52 to 1.57 iii 1

c i I T i = 8- * 19 a p = 0 .89 q = —10.1
12 = (8 - x )(x + 1)
b, d, f i
x2 -7 x + 4 = 0

ii 0.5 to 0.8, 6.2 to 6.5

14 a i y = 5 ii K: ( - 1 , 0), L: (3, 0) iii ( 1 , - 4 )

b i T h e g ra p h w o u ld b e th e o t h e r w a y u p , w ith a m a x im u m
p o in t
ii T h e m in im u m p o in t w o u ld b e (0, 0)
c i c= 0 ii a = 2, b = - 6
15 i 2 ii 1.1 to 1.3
16 a 0.6 m /s * b 1170 m
 (Answers

c fo r e x a m p le , k = 2 28 a 13 to 14 m s : ms ■
e i -0 .4 5 to -0 .3 , 0.4 to 0.49, 2.9 to 2.99
c i 500 m ii 700 m
ii 7x‘j - 6x + 1 = 0
f ii y = 2x - 2
20 a, b i, c ii

29 a (4, 4) b (2 .5 ,2 ) C7=4
d e 20 s q u a re u n its
30 a i (9, 6 ) ii | iii 10 u n its
4

i—1
NJ
NJ
b ii tra p e z iu m

i
31 a 40 s e c o n d s b 0.12 to 0.24 m s ‘ 2

b i - 0 .4 5 t o -0 .3 2 32 a 3.75 m s " 2 b 270 m

33 a (3, - 6 ) b -4 c y = -A x + 6
ii T h is is th e ra te a t w h ic h th e w a te r le v e l is c h a n g in g
34 a 1.7 to 1.71
c i 4m iii 75 to 85 c m iv 5.7 to 5.9
h o u rs
b i

21 a (2 .5 ,4 ) b 5 ‘ t
d 3y = 4x + 2 e (7, 2)
22 a fig u re 6 b fig u re 4 c fig u re 2
23 y = ± x + 5

24 (4 ,2 )
25 a i 1 .5 ,3 .7 5 ,- 1 .5
ii

ii (2.1, 4.5) iii a = 20, fo = - 5

35 a3 b 2 c 1
36 a i a 0 .02 m s -2 b 12 00 m c 5 ms~
ii 6.5 m s ' 1
b i 195 m ii 7.64 to 7.65 m s -1

Chapter 19
b - 1 . 4 to - 1 .1 a n d 3.1 to 3.4
c i 0.8 to 1.2 ii 0.8 to 1.2
E s s e n tia l S k ills
d ii - 1 . 3 to - 1 .0 5 a n d 1.05 to 1.3
e fo r e x a m p le , y = x o r y = x - 1
1 a 0.25 m b 0.00002 m * o r 2 x 1 0 m
26 a k = - 12 b i /= -4 II m = c 15 0000 c m 2 d 17 00 m l
2 a 56.5 c m b 25 4 c m 2
27 a i - 4 ii A x + 3 y = 10
3 i a 19 c m b 20 c m 2
b i 5 u n its ii 10 u n its ii a 15.6 c m b 13.5 c m 2
c For e x a m p le , A C 2 = 5 2 + 1 0 2 = 125, A B 2 = 25, B C 2 = 100 4 a 46 0 c m 2 b 600 c m !
So AC-' = AB- + B C 2, a n g le AB C = 90° (P y th a g o ra s ) 5 a 471 c m 2 b 785 c m 1
d 25 s q u a re u n its 6 70 7 m l
Answers j

Exercise 1 9 .1 In triangles ABC and PQR

a 5.24 cm b 26.2 cm 2 ZABC = ZPQR = 53.1°
c 19.5 cm d 78.2 cm 2 ZBAC = ZQPR = 81.9°
e 17.5 cm f 43.6 cm 2 ZACB = ZPRQ = 45°
g 191.0° h 15 cm 2 the triangles are similar (equiangular)
i 11.5 cm j 68.8 cm 2 b i 5.6 cm ii 27.44 cm 2
k 15.3° 1 4 cm 2 a In triangles ABC and CDE
m 15.1cm n 5.28 cm ZABC = ZCDE (alternate angles)
p 35.4° q 5.56 cm ZBAC = ZDCE (alternate angles)
r 8.29 cm s 14.5 cm ZACB = ZDCE (vertically opposite angles)
the triangles are similar (equiangular)
Exercise 1 9 .2 b 5.71 cm c 18.375 cm 2
3 a In triangles PRT and QRS
1 a 113 cm 2 b 113 cm 3
ZPTR=ZSQR (cyclic quadrilateral and angles on a
c 84.8 cm 2 d 56.5 cm 2
straight line)
e 616 cm 2 f 1440 cm 3
ZRPT=ZRSQ (cyclic quadrilateral and angles on a
g 462 cm 2 h 718 cm 3
straight line)
i 1.26 cm j 8.41 cm 3
ZR is common to both
k 15 cm 2 1 4.21 cm 3
The triangles are similar (equiangular)
m 1.93 cm n 46.7 cm 2
b 30 cm
p 35.0 cm 2 q 15 cm 3
r 2.88 cm s 104 cm 2
t 100 cm 3 u 78.1cm 2 Exercise 1 9 .5
2. a 47.1 cm 2 b 264 cm 3
1. For example,
c 1.91 cm d 30.6 cm 3
XYZ= ABC = 90° (angles in a semicircle)
e 1.20 cm f 48.9 cm 2
YZ=BC (given)
3. a 339 cm 2 b 467 cm 2 c 75.6 cm 3
AC = XZ (diameters)
4. a 3.00 cm b 245 cm 2
AB = XY (by Pythagoras)
So the triangles are congruent (SSS)
Exercise 1 9 .3 2. For example,
AP = AB (sides of square)
i a i 1:25 ii 1:5 AR = AC (S id e s o f s q u a r e )
b i 0.4 cm ii 424 cm 2
CAP = BAR = 90 + 50 = 140°
iii 100 cm iv 10000 cm 3
So the triangles are congruent (SAS)
1.26 cm
3. For example,
a 2:3 b 4:9 c 45 cm 2
ACB = DCE (vertically opposite)
a 125:343 b 2000 ml, or 2.00 litres
BC = CE (given)
3.125 x 105 m 2
ABC = CED (alternate angles)
95 cm 3
So the triangles are congruent (ASA)

Exercise 1 9 .4 Exercise 1 9 .6
1 a In triangle ABC
1 144°
ZABC = 53.1° (angles on a straight line)
2 1250 m2
ZBAD = 36.9° (angle sum of a triangle)
3 a /48:DF=3:4.5 = 1:1.5
ZDAC = 45° (isosceles triangle)
BC:EF= 8:12 = 1:1.5
ZBAC = 36.9 + 45 = 81.9° AC:DE = 6:9 = 1:1.5
In triangle PQR The triangles are similar (sides in the same ratio)
ZPQR = 53.1° (angle sum of a triangle) b w = 121.9°, x = 39.5°,y = 18.6°, z = 39.5°
ZSPR = 45° (isosceles triangle) c 1:2.25
ZQPR = 36.9 + 45 = 81.9°

"\
688
 ( Answers

4 s q u a re , s id e 6 c m B P = QC (p ro v e d )
re c ta n g le , le n g th 9 c m , b re a d th 4 c m B Q = CR (g ive n )
5 a|itx 3 b |nx 3 PB Q = QCR = 90° (s q u a re )
s o th e tr ia n g le s a re c o n g ru e n t (SAS)
c T h e c o n ic a l b o w l h a s tw ic e as m u c h w o o d as th e
iii F o r e x a m p le ,
h e m is p h e ric a l b o w l
L e t B Q P = x°
6 a i 462 c m 3 ii 216 c m 2
th e n BPQ = 90 - x = RQC (c o n g r u e n t tria n g le s )
iii a 118 c m 2 b 81.2 c m 2
PQR + x + (90 - x ) = 180 (angles o n a s tra ig h t line)
b i 71 to 72 c m * ii 15.7 to 16.4 c m
So PQR = 90°
7 i ^Z- = l ±1 b F o r e x a m p le ,
y +2 2y - l
PQ = QR ( c o r r e s p o n d in g s id e s in c o n g r u e n t tria n g le s )
y ( 2 y - l ) = ( y + l ) ( y + 2)
b y e x te n s io n
2y2 - y = y2 + 3 y + 2
PQ = QR — RS ~ SP
/- 4 y - 2 = 0
A ls o PQR = 90°
n y __ 4_+ >/l6~+8
22 a i f = 69 ii u = 57
7 = - 0 .4 5 o r y = 4.4 5 iii x = 72 iv 7 = 15
iii 7.90 c m b z = 135
8 a 6 4.8 m 3 b 12 30 % c i 12 c m ii 15 c m
c 22.1 m d 150 m 23 i 78 .2 c m 2 ii 4 6 .7 c m
9 18 c m 24 a3 : 5 b 9 : 25 c 27 : 98
10 a 74.8 to 74 .9 c m 25 a 2 1 7 0 0 c m 2 to 3 s.f.
b 36 5 c m 2 b i 2 5 4 litre s ii 1 m in u te 25 s e c o n d s
c 14 60 0 c m 3 iii 1 .6 9 0 t o 1 .700 m
d 3 7 2 0 to 3 7 3 0 c m 2 26 a i 25 litre s
11 i (x 2 - 40) + (x + 2) + (2 x + 4) + x = 62 ii F o r e x a m p le , c o s t p e r litr e fo r th e th re e b a g s : 40 , 35 , 36
x 2 + 4 x - 96 = 0 c e n ts p e r litre .
ii x = - 1 2 o r 8 iii 8 S o 2 5 litr e b a g is b e s t v a lu e ,
iv 176 s q u a re u n its b i 2 .2 0 litre s ii 3 4 iii 2 7 2
12 a i 6 0 .3 c m 3 27 a i 9 .8 2 m
ii a 6.4 c m x 9.6 c m ii a OE = EB.
b 98.9 c m 3 A B a n d CD a re p e r p e n d ic u la r
b i 2 2 4 .5 3 7 5 c m 2 .\C E = ED, .'.O C B D is a rh o m b u s
ii N o, th e p h o to m ig h t n o t fit in th e fra m e . T h e lo w e r b o u n d CQD = CBD
o f th e fr a m e is s m a lle r th a n th e lo w e r b o u n d o f th e p h o to . L e t CAD = x
13 ra d iu s = 1 8 c m h e ig h t = 42 c m x = 60°, COD = 120°
14 a 45498 km b 72 4 0 k m EOD = 60°
15 a 320 c m 3 b 56 7 c m 2 b 0 .4 9 7 m 2
16 a 40 c m 3 b 0 .0 0 0 0 4 m 3 c 4 8 8 0 to 4 8 9 0 litre s
b 5 m
17 a 44 0 c m 2 b h -A -2 n r>
2kv
c 3.99 to 4.01 c m 2 d 9.77 to 9.78 c m
18 a i 2 4 0 0 km ii 5 2 0 0 0 0 k m 2 Chapter 20
b i 1 :5 0 0 0 0 0 0 ii 738 to 742 k m /h
19 2 £1.2 , 28.6 E s s e n tia l S k ills
20 314 c m 2
21 a i F o r e x a m p le , 1 a x = 14 ,y = - 3 b x = l , y = -2
A B = B C (s q u a re )
A P - B Q (g iv e n ) 2 a “S b I
S o PB = QC 3 ay> 7 b y > -l c x > -1 0
ii For example,
Answers j

Exercise 2 0 .1 Exercise 2 0 .4
1 a no 20^ 1 d etP = 5 2 det Q = 2 3 detR = 18 4 detS = -1 9
Black White
14 15J
Laptops 10 20 Exercise 2 0 .5
Desktops 4 15

(3 2 n
Win Draw Lose
4 0 2
Reds 3 2 1 0 5 1 3 !,) «>°
Blues 4 0 2 0 3 3

Greens 0 5 1 5 ■ *-(;
Yellows 0 3 3
Exercise 2 0 .6
2 a

e-y
E:2 x 2 F :2 x 3 6 :2 x 2
U ’“J
H :2 x 1 J :lx 2 K:3 x 2
a 2x2 b 3x3 c 2x 2
d 1x 1 e 3x1
3 a A 2x3 B 2x2 C 2x3 7 3'
D 2x2 E 3x2 F 1x3 F' = 1 5 F’ : 3 x 2
6 2
(5 ^
b A '= 1 5 a f7 1 6\ b (6 10
^10 6 4J 41
(J4 2 12
-3 2 J
n 4^ d (16)
C' = 2 9 * c
5 3
(1 0 'I
r-i'i (o 1J
F' = 2
- ( ■ : ’) 6 1 r2 0) ■_ 17 0 - 2>l
a 2 ,0 1J b 4 [-2 0)
c i D' 2 x 2 ii E' 2 x 3 iii F' 3 x 1

iii (-4 8 24)

' *c :)
b= -l
• ( W y b - 5’
Exercise 2 0 .2
II

II

■ ( : :)■■ G 3
1 FG not 2 GH not 3 HK 2 x 2 4 KH 4 x 4
5 LG not 6 GL 3 x 2 7 LF 3 x 2 8 FL not ru \ ' X '
9 a 10 b 10X
js j k5x

Exercise 2 0 .3 10 a a = 1.5, b = 1, c = -2.5, d=2

b x = 4,i> = 6 c 7=1
00

1 a = 34 2
ca­

c= 8
1
ll

'3 0 13 15' <* P = * . 9 = 3, r= 7

3 a not possible b r 5 3 5
^15 7 9 )
] C (12 25) d 20 6 2
,-5 2 10 , R e lia b le s G o fa ste rs
4 x = 2 y= 0 0=2
R e ta il V a lu e $5 00 0 $6 00 0
9 '
5 a I '3 I b (
1 ° -6;1 I G 7) B lu e Red B la c k

1° ° )j
-2 e I[ t? A) R e lia b le s

G o fa ste rs
10

5
5

16
2

\
690
 I Answers

10 5 2 2 a
b R = (5 0 0 0 6000) N=
5 16 3

c RN = (8000 121000 28000) d 229000

e T h e to ta l v a lu e o f th e c a rs s o ld by th e s a le s p e rs o n
12 A is 2 x 3 B is 1 X 4
T h e y a re n o t c o n fo rm a b le fo r m u ltip lic a tio n e ith e r as AB o r BA
13 T h e d e te r m in a n t is zero. T h e in v e rs e d o e s n o t e x is t

Exercise 2 0 .7
1 a d 0

2 x = -5 or x = -1
3 a 1 b 0.25
13

4 x = -3
5 a 0 b0 c 0.5
d -1 or 3 e -2 or 2 f -1

Exercise 2 0 .8
1 /■ ’(* ) = 2 /■ ’{*) = I p

3 f~\x) = 2 ( x - 1) 4 f \ x ) = —2
3 a, b
5 f~\x) = 5 - 2 x 6 g~1{x)=xi + 3
7 £ ~ '(x ) = (x + 1)3 8 g - \x ) = ^

10 /■’{*) = l +i
1—x

Exercise 2 0 .9
T
1 a -1 b -2 c -^ o r-l •X

2 a 2 b ] c | d 1 1
y y
C ( - 1 , 2), ( - 1 , 1), (0, 1), (0, 2), (0, 3)
e x = -2 or 2
9000 7200'!
3 a f h ^
b 18 C h - '( x ) = ~ - j - 10500 5400
4 a
12000 3 600
d x = -2 e -i f -2 g -I 13500 1800

b T h e p r o fit fro m e a c h p o s s ib le c o m b in a tio n o f c a rs

Exercise 2 0 .1 0 c 6 R e lia b le s a n d 4 G o fa s te rs . T o ta l p ro fit: $16200

1 a x + /< 5 ,> , > x + 3 ,x > 0

b x + y < 5 ,x > 3 ,y > 0
Exercise 2 0 .1 1
C y > 0 , x > 0 , x + y< 5 , y < x + 3 ,x < 3 1 a A :2 x 2 B :2 x 2 C :2 x 3 D :lx 2
d y < 0 , x > 3, x + y < 5 E :3 x 2 F :2 x 1
e x > 3 ,x + y > 5 ,y < x + 3 b i 2x2 ii 3x3
iii 1 x 1 iv 2x 2

1691
Answers!

' 1 2^ 10 a y> jx b x = ~ 4 o r -3
C C’ = 3 0
-5 4, 11 a (-1,3) b y <3, y > j x
d i det A = 1
12 a b r ,w = M f i

in

v B
IV
n 13 a

b P shows John’s total earnings in Week 1 and Week 2.

14 f~ 'M = s h .
2 a i 1 ii 1 iii x = 4
_ 1 (3 8
iv g-' (x)=± v 4 15 a BA
1°
°1
38j
c ^ f4
38^5 61
—2 /
b i x= -\o x \ ii x = 0 iii x = - l o r 2 0 11
16 a - 1 2 b (1 - 1)
3 a r ' M - ^ 0 -3

2 0 14 2
b r w = ^ 17 a
0 2 2 1 1

4 a y -m
18 19 a b I

BM*laaHiX«KgMR9MSBB
-11
-1 4 (S3
B K * . l 3 W * B B « « » v .< « • * »
BBBSgaaBBMaMSMMW 20 a |A| = jc2— 16 b x == - 5 or 5
SS8 ®t^S^SISSi8 S S S 0 §8*j

BMBBBBk 21 a -14 b r '(*)= *± 1

BRBBBBBk. 22 a = 3,b = 4
BHBBBBflBk
B R IIIU IIl
NMKMBMBB* 24
p x + 12 3 x + 6 '|
b x=5
BBBBBBBBBB 23
« 3 3 I 14 15 j
E s 's s s a m s s a a a f^ a a
rn in
b ec = 3, d = — 5
25 26 a k= 2
b (-1, 0), (-1,1), (-1, 2), (0, 0), (0,1), (0, 2), (1, 0), (1,1), (1, 2), 121 3 4 J
(2, 0), (2,1), (2, 2), (3, 0), (3,1) 27 y > 3 x+_y<5
28 a 14 b i k-= 5 ii x = --5 or 11^
5 a 4
29 a -17 b t= 5 C |x+ 7 d 3
no 17 4) b 1 f —2 -4 ) f 0 .4 0 .f |
6 a 30 B 75 b S
^ -6 - 9 0) 2^ 3 5) [o .2 0.3J
31
7 a m = -1 b "zl

32 a i 4/>+ 7 ii 3 b a(a - 2)

33 a p i and y < 2x b 3
3
34 a 2.5 b 2 X -4

' o r
35 b 1 4
• P 3 I 3 3,

36 a -5 b p=\

37 a (2,5.5) b y >-2 x + 4y < 24

8 a fc = b 38 i (215) ii Total distance travelled

iii 43 km/h
9 a 13 b -4

\
692
 I, Answers

Chapter 21 Exercise 2 1 .6
1 a 7.07 c m b 6 .9 6 c m
E s s e n tia l S k ills C 59.5° d 67.4°
2 13.9 c m
1 a a = 53.1° 3 a 4.7 9 c m b 1 5 .7 c m
b b = 16.6 c m , c = 25.0° c 16.6 c m d 24.9°
c d = 9.96 c m , e = 8 .36 cm
d k = 11.8 c m , / = 10.7 c m Exercise 2 1 .7
e m = 6.93 c m , n = 9.17 c m
2 245° a 22.1 c m b 4 3 .6 c m

3 020° c 55 3 c m 2 d 128.4°

4 a 135° b 337.5° a 100° b 1 5.3 c m c 66.3 c m 2

a 7.3 7 c m b 1 4 .0 c m
c 136.8° d 17.7 c m 2
Exercise 2 1 .1 a 6 .4 6 c m b 3 .7 7 c m
1 a 0 .6 4 3 b 0.643 C 0.5 c 79.2° d 2 7 .8 c m 2
d 0.966 e 0.766 f -0 .7 6 6 a (b + c)2 b a2
g - 0.8 6 6 h 0.259 c j1b c d (b + c)2 - a 2
2 a 74.3° b 53.8° 4
e (b + c)2 - a2 = 2be
C 105.7° d 126.2°
b2+ 2be + c2 - a 2 = 2be
3 a 163.7° b 123.9°
b2 + c2 = a 2
C 145.2° d 129.6°
f P y th a g o ra s ’ T h e o re m
4 a 34.3°, 145.6° b 7.2°, 172.8°
6 a 43 .1 c m
C 57.5°, 122.5° d 32.2°, 147.8°
b ± x 6 lx 3 0 x s in 4 1 = 600

Exercise 2 1 .2 c T h e t w o tr ia n g le s h a v e th e s a m e h e ig h t, a n d b a s e s in th e
ra tio
1 a = 36 .3 c m 2 b = 23.8° 4 5 : 3 0 = 3 : 2.
3 c = 14.4 c m 4 d = 20.4°
5 e = 60.4° 6 / = 12.5 c m
7 NOTE:
o
00
**-»
t-D
LO
00

r—1

£ = 1 8 .8 cm
V_
O
II

Drop a perj5e n d ^ i j l a r | ^ | | | the K n^A . This is the h e i$ H B

E x e r c is e 2 1 .3 both triangles.

1 a = 95.7° 2 b = 14.9 c m
3 c = 8 .5 5 c m 4 d = 28.1° d 900 m 2 e 4 1 .7 t o 4 1 .9 m f 21.0 to 2 1 . 1 °

5 e = 52.4° 6 / = 142.6° a j1 x 40.3 x 26.8 x sin92 = 540cm2

7 ^ = 7 .5 7 cm 8 h = 13.7 c m
b AB - 40 3
9 » = 111.8° 10 j = 4 6 .2 c m sin92 sin55
AB _ 4 0 .3 X sin92 _ 49 2cm
sin 55
Exercise 2 1 .4 c 55° (angles in the same segment)
1 a c = 3 .42 c m d 33°
b 6 = 12.7 c m
e similar
c d = 5 .1 2 c m d e = 9.8 6 c m
. xd _ 20.1
e / = 137.0° f a = 56.9° T 4 0 .3 26.8
g £ = 8 . 0 9 c m , h = 31.4° XD = 30 .2 cm
2 a a = 128° b b = 30.8 km 9 a 0 .1 7 6 b 1.76 x 10 _1
c c = 32.5° d 273° o r 27 2.5 ' 10
11 a 0 b -1 .5
c It is b e lo w th e h e ig h t a t m id d a y
Exercise 2 1 . 5
12 i (2y - I)2 = y2+ (y + 2)2
1 a 26 .6 c m 2 b 45.1 c m 2 c 1 000 k m 2 4 / - 4 y + 1 = / + / - 4y + 4
d 32.4 m 2 e 43 .3 c m 2 2 / - 8y - 3 = 0
2 a i 50.6° ii 99.4° iii 23.1 c m 3 ii - 0 .3 5 o r 4 .3 5 iii 13.8
b i 129.4° ii 2 0 .6 ° iii 8.22 c m 2

69 3
Answers J

13 a 59.2 m b 23 60 m 2 c 129 m 2 d 31.9°

E s s e n tia l S kills
14 7.94
15 6 0 ,1 2 0 1 a R e fle c tio n in th e lin e x = 3
16 a i i x ( x + 4 ) = 4 8 b R o ta tio n 180° a b o u t th e p o in t (2 ,3 )
ii - 1 2 o r 8 iii 12 c m c T ra n s la tio n
b | o r 0.8 d E n la rg e m e n t, c e n tre th e o rig in , s c a le fa c to r 2
c i (x + 4 )2 + x 2 = 9 2 2 a
x 2 + 8 x + 16 + x 2 = 81
3 a * = -6 ,/ = -3
ii - 8 + V 64 + 4 X 2 X 6 5 b x = 3, y = 2
* 4 4 bandcande
x = - 8 . 0 4 o r 4.0 4
5 T h e y a re p a ra lle l, b u t p o in tin g in o p p o s ite d ir e c tio n s , a n d v is
iii 21.1 c m
3 tim e s lo n g e r th a n w.
17 a j x 1 0 x 1 4 x s in f = 4 8
sin P = f § J -’ = 4 3 .2 9 = 43.3° to 1 d p Exercise 2 2 .1
b 9.60 c m 1 a 790 = 3^10 b 750 = 572
18 a (7 x )2 + (2 4 x):! = 1 5 02 C 752 = 2713 d 729
6 2 5 x 2 = 2 2 5 0 0 .x 2 = 36
b 336 cm 2 * 1(!) »(") "(3
19 a 24.7 m b 11.5 m
b i 7T49 ii 741
20 a 3 9 3 to 393.5 k m b 1210 k m
c 8 2 0 9 0 0 to 8 2 2 0 0 0 k m 2 iii 7104 = 2726
d i 073° ii 289° 3 a aE = v + u b b5=- u+ v o rv - u
e 1 :2 0 0 0 0 000 4 a B e c a u s e PQRS is n o t a p a ra lle lo g ra m
21 1== 4 0
(o r W * b )
22 a H in t: u s e th e C o s in e R ule
b 24 .2 c m 2
b Q? = - a + b o rb -a cPj& = l(a + b)
c i ii 1 4 r iii r = 1.73
d 6 1 .1 %
23 a 4 .5 9 m b 9.7 7 m c 8.96 m 5 b i bK = - p
24 a 8 1 .5 m b 18 10 m 2 c 44 .5 m ii ~b 5 = q + r
d 19 3 m 0 23,4° iii — p + q+ r or 2 q
25 a i 28.1° ii 7 1 8 m iii 696 m iv FA?=p
b 35.7°
26 a i 292° ii 8 0 .9 m iii 4 5 .7 0 to 45. V W + C S = C5 + CS = r - q
iv 15 7 .7 0 to 158° vi C? - A S = CF + bA = 2 p - p = p
b 28.1° vii 1 5 + W + FM = p - q + p = 2 p - q
27 a 101.7° b 70.4° c 1850 m 2
28 a H in t: u s e P y th a g o ra s
b i 25° ii 18.00 to 18.10 m Exercise 2 2 .2
c i 1 3.70 to 13 .80 ii 5 0 .7 5 to 50.
29 a i 3 3.5 c m ii 47.9° iii 17 8 c m 2 1 a - a + to rfc -d b -2 a + b+ c
b 60 km c a + b-2c d - a + 2 b -c
30 a i 2 2 2 ° ii 107° 2 a - a + b o rb -a b l(6 -a )
b i 6.22 k m ii 5.71 k m 2
c j( a + b)
c i 2.54 k m ii 06 50

Chapter 22
NOTE:
D ia g ra m s h a v e b e e n d ra w n fo r s o m e o f th e a n s w e rs in th is
NOTE:
c h a p te r. F o r o th e rs , e n o u g h in fo rm a tio n ha s b e e n g iv e n fo r
Y o u r d ia g ra m m a y n o t lo o k lik e th is b e c a u s e it d e p e n d s o n
y o u to c h e c k y o u r o w n d ia g ra m s .
w h e re y o u p u t 0 .

694
 I Answers

a q - p b | (q -p ) c h o r d s p a s s th r o u g h th e c e n tre o f th e c irc le s , s o w h e re th e
b is e c to rs m e e t is th e c e n tre o f ro ta tio n ,
c |(p + 2 q) d \ { q ~ p ) g r o ta tio n , 90° c lo c k w is e , c e n tre (8 , 0).

NOTE:
As in question 3, the diagram depends on where you put 0.

a -b + a b 7 ( - b + c)
c -b + c d a + b -2 c b E n la rg e m e n t, s c a le fa c to r ~

3 a i /-'(x) = ^ L
y 6 ~x
ii, iii, iv
b [7s| = 3V 2, js c j = 4V 2, |dC| = S\f2
c \AB\2 = 18, |ec|2 = 32, |AC|2 = 50 y

so \AC\2 = [ SC| 2 + \AB\2 , Z A B C = 90°,

(b y P y th a g o ra s )

b i 3VT0 ii 782 iii 4

Exercise 2 2 .3
v re fle c tio n in th e lin e y = x
1 a (2 , 1) b ( 6, 1)
b i r \ x ) = ± ( x - 1)
c (11 , 6 ) d (8 , 0 )
ii, iii, iv
-11 -9' ( y
a b C
-2 0 -7 I

Exercise 2 2 .4

v re fle c tio n in th e li n e y = x
4 a T h e s id e s o f tria n g le s A a n d A ’ p ro d u c e d s h o u ld m e e t o n th e
l i n e x = 1.5.
S tre tc h , fa c to r 3, in v a r ia n t lin e x = 1.5
f P is th e c e n tre o f th e r o ta tio n w h ic h m a p s tria n g le A B C o n to b T h e d ia g o n a ls o f re c ta n g le s 6 a n d B ' p ro d u c e d m e e t o n th e
t r ia n g ie A ' B 'C ' . AA’ a n d C C a re c h o r d s o f tw o c ir c le s w h ic h y - axis.
h a v e th e s a m e c e n tre . T h e p e r p e n d ic u la r b is e c to r s o f th e S tre tc h , fa c to r 2, in v a r ia n t lin e y -a x is

695
Answers J

Exercise 2 2 .5 Second transformation

M2 m3 m4
m3
r2 m2 V
2 a ^ °j b enlargement, centre (0 , 0 ), scale factor 2 1
r2 "I1 m2 M, m3
( 0
3 a l_ 1 J b reflection in the line>,= -x M4 m2 1 «2 R,
M3 r2 1 ",
m3 m4 "l Ri1 i r2
* U T . X I o)
m2 m3 "2 i
* ■ (-3 - (1) *U
5 A' = (1, -3 ), f i '= (-5, 7), C ' = (0,1)
Exercise 2 2 .7
Exercise 2 2 .6 1 * = 0 ,7 = 8
2 a 4'(10.5, 3), B'(3, 7.5)
1 i reflection in the liney = .x b similar
Enlargement, centre (0,0), scale factor 2.5 c 40 square units
( 0 O') (2.5 o W 0 2.5') 3 a, b
H [1 o j’ [ 0 2.5J' [ 2.5 0 J
------p & — j—

-------
/
s
“ 7 *
0 ) A -
f ...
/ —
? ~

-4 -3 -I -1
- 7 "

b vertices at (0,0), (2,2), (1,3), (3,5) - V

7 1— 1> —

/ ----- H v —

c Rotation, 90° anticlockwise, centre (-1, -2 )

3 b A2{-2, -1 ), B2(—4, -1 ), C2(—2, -2 )
(° 5 7 A
c reflection in y = x 4 > , 5 4j
b ii r h o m b u s
n 0
4 a 1= c 18 square units
0 1 -(-? 3 d i det M = 18 ii They are the same
f3'\
c R: d M 5 a i translation
=(0 °)
ii rotation, 90° anticlockwise, centre (0 , 1 )
-1 0
e M ,= f M
0 1
-P m ( o !)
g M,

J Rotation 90 anticlockwise about (0, 0)

696
 [ Answers

6 a i a -= p + - b r+p -q C lp + j r
14 a i
ii they are equal and parallel
ii V45 o r 6.7
7
8 a i b- a ii j (b + c) \\\ \ b + \ c iii a e n la rg e m e n t s c a le fa c to r 3 c e n tre B
15 a i p + r ii -p + r
b i 2 b-la ii 2 : 3 iii | a - ^ b - c
5 5 iii - p + | r iv p + -jr
e re fle c tio n in t h e / - a x is
f i <43 = (2, - 1 ) , S 3 = (3, 0), C3 = (5, - 4 ) b i-|p + r ii - f P
ii shea r, y - a xis in v a ria n t, fa c to r 1
c Q, R a n d S lie o n a s tra ig h t lin e
1 o
Ml |, 1
16 a 2J2 52+ 12 = 4 8
9 a i (5 ,3 ) ii (3 ,5 ) b i 147° ii 33°
Ci p+q ii -p + q
d p + 3q e 0.5p + 2.5 q
c M(Q) = (* - 3, fc - 2) f i
TM(Q) = ( k - 3 + 3 , k - 2 + 2) = (k,k) » (-L )
th is p o in t lie s o n th e l i n e / = x g 50
(o n
1 o

o 1
e i ii ro ta tio n , c e n tre (0 , 0 ),
-1 0
90° c lo c k w is e
10 a i -p + q ii § (-p + <?)

iii - \ p ~ h iv ^P + fg

b i (4 ,-2 )
■ (D c ~ -2 a + -b
3
c i r o ta tio n , 90° c lo c k w is e a b o u t (0, 0)
ii ( 3 , - 5 ) 18 a i 6.08
•UJ
iii re fle c tio n i n / = -x
iv e q u a l a n d p a ra lle l 6 is th e m id -p o in t o f CD
11 a ia ii - a + b iii a + b
b tr ia n g le OAB is e q u ila te r a l, s o th e le n g th s o f OA, OB a n d AB 1.5
are e q u a l
GD - ( 2 ) 0
c ia b b 3b
ii Y,A a n d X ile o n a s tra ig h t lin e
d 3a b 1(-“ ’o) " (J “)
e X? = -3a, YX = 3b, Yl = 3 (b - a), 19 a i (- 1 , - 2 ) , ( - 1 , - 3 ) , ( - 3 , - 2 )
since |a| = |h| = \b- a\, then \XZ\ = |VX| = |VZ| ii re fle c tio n i n / = -x

T h e tr ia n g le is e q u ila te ra l

20 a E n la rg e m e n t, s c a le f a c t o r - 2 , c e n tre C
M2A
12 a (0 , - 1 ) b re fle c tio n i n / = - x
c (2, 1), (2, - 1 ) , (3, - 3 )
21 a i R e fle c tio n i n / = - x
13 i V T o o r 3 .16 i b i ( - 1 ,3 ) ii (2 , - 1 )
iii a = 2 b = 3 iii R o ta tio n , 90° a n tic lo c k w is e , c e n tre o f th e o rig in
iv shea r, x -a x is in v a ria n t, fa c to r 0.5 '1 o'
■v ,(0 -1
c i 1 :9 ii h = 27

697
Answers j

22 a i 3.61 units ii 3x+ 2y = 24 Exercise 2 3 .1

b i | 1 0 I ii Reflection in y = x 1 a
[o - i j
Class Class Frequency
Class (Zcm) Frequency (/)
»' ■(:I) boundaries width (w) density (f+w)
20 < / < 30 1 20 30 10 0.1
*(? :: 30 < / < 50 10 30 50 20 0.5
C h = 0 it= - 3 d (0,-3) 50 < / < 70 15 50 70 20 0.75

23 a i Translation 7 0<l<: 100 20 70 100 30 0.67

(1) 100 < I < 150 3 100 150 50 0.06
ii Enlargement, scale fa c to r-^ ,
centre ( - 2 , 1 ) Modal class = 50 < I < 70
iii Rotation 90° anticlockwise, centre (-1,0)
Class Class Frequency
- Co -” ) Class Frequency(/)
boundaries width (w) density ( /+ w)
b i a p + 2q b 2 p -2 q C *? + § « 0-30 5 0 30.5 31 0.16
M 31-50 25 30.5 50.5 20 1.25
24 a i a 37 51-70 41 50.5 70.5 20 2.05
‘ (-3 -
71-100 50 70.5 100.5 30 1.67
iii (-6,51)
"U ) 101-150 7 100.5 150.5 50 0.14
b i 2 units2 ii a (-2,3) b 32 units2
151-250 2 150.5 250.5 100 0.02
iii a (3,1) b 2 units2
25 a b i 5 units ii n = 2 Modal class = 51-70
Co) 2 a

Chapter 23
E s s e n tia l S k ills

1 a Data item 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150

Lengths of le aves (cm)

Frequency 5 4 5 3 6 4 4 4 4
b mean = 4.87
median = 5
mode = 5 2.0
range = 8
« 1-5
2 a = 120 ° b = 6 c = 60° &
i
Heights of Lower class Upper class g- 1.0

students (h cm) boundary boundary

0.5
141 to 150 140.5 150.5
151 to 160 150.5 160.5
50.5 100.5 150.5 200.5 250.5
161 to 170 160.5 170.5 Numbers of letters posted

698
 ^ Answers

3 a Exercise 2 3 .2
A ge {a) Class C lass F re q u e n c y F re q u e n c y
b o u n d a rie s w id th d e n s ity 1 30.1 2 5.1 7 3 1.70

0 < a <20 0 20 20 0.2 4

20 < a < 40 20 40 20 0.5 10

Exercise 2 3 .3
40 < a < 50 40 50 10 1.0 10
1 a
50 < a < 65 50 65 15 0.8 12 y

65 < a < 85 65 85 20 0.7 14

8 5 < « < 110 85 110 25 0.4 10

b
N um ber C lass C lass F re q u e n c y
F re q u e n c y
o f pe a s b o u n d a rie s w id th d e n s ity
1 -3 0.5 3.5 3 2 6

4 -5 3.5 5.5 2 5 10

6 -8 5.5 8.5 3 3 9

9 -1 0 8.5 10.5 2 0.5 1

4 a ,c
Class 0 < s < 1000 1000 < s < 5000 5000 < s < 10000 10000 < s < 20000
Frequency 20 100 105 100
Class width 1000 4000 5000 10000
Frequency 0.02 0.025 0.021 0.01
density

b y
0.025 L

0.02

Upper class boundary

| 0.015
3
©
3
I
^ 0.01

0.005

0 10000 20000
Number of steps

d 1000 < 5 < 5000

699
Answers J

b m e d ia n = 31 .5 to 33.5
Q , = 24.5 to 26 .5 Q 2 = 37 .5 to 39.5
I n te r q u a r t ile ra n g e = 11 to 15
c 6 5 th p e r c e n tile = 3 5 to 37

2 a C lass 65 < m < 70 70 < m < 75 75 < m < 80 80 < m < 85 8 5 < m < 90 9 0 < m < 100

F re q u e n c y 3 5 6 7 4 3

C u m u la tiv e
3 8 14 21 25 28
fre q u e n c y

y
30tn

i i

20

10

0^ 80 90 100
M asses of adults (kg)

c i 79.5 to 80 .5 kg
ii 10 to 12 k g
iii 77 to 78 kg

Exercise 2 3 .4
i
C u m u la tiv e F re q u e n c y
T im e C la ss b o u n d a rie s M id p o in t C la s s w id th F re q u e n c y
fre q u e n c y d e n s ity

70 < (< 8 0 70 80 75 10 4 4 0.4

80 < ( < 90 80 90 85 10 5 9 0.5

90 < i < 100 90 100 95 10 9 18 0.9

100 < t < 120 100 120 110 20 38 56 1.9

120 < t < 160 120 160 140 40 8 64 0.2

70 0
 I Answers

b
2.0 -

1.8

1.6

1.4

U> 1.2
c
"0O)
o 1.0
c
C
3D
<g 0.8
III
0.6

0.4

0.2

0 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160

Tim e (minutes)

c 108 m in
d 100 < t < 120
e

d m e d ia n = 9 6 to 100 ( ^ = 8 8 1 0 92 Q 2 = 1 0 2 t o l0 6
e o n e o f 37 , 3 8 o r 39 f o n e o f 7, 8 o r 9
T o ta l g irts = 25 .4 x 12 = 3 0 5 to 3 s.f.
T o ta l b o y s = 23 .8 x 15 = 3 5 7
T o ta l s tu d e n ts = 66 2
T o ta l c la s s e s = 22
M p a n ni i m h p r o f <;tnr|pnt<; p e r rla<;<; = ^ 2 _ 1
7 1 .8 %
a 24 b 7 7 .2 %
a i 125 < h < 135 ii 1 2 6 .2 5 c m
b i 11 c m ii 16

Time (min)

f m e d ia n = 102 to 10 6 lo w e r q u a r tile = 9 7 to 101

u p p e r q u a r tile = 110 to 1 1 4 7 0 th p e rc e n tile = 108 to 112
2 a

C u m u la tiv e
C lass C lass w id th M id p o in t F re q u e n c y F re q u e n c y d e n s ity
fre q u e n c y

7 0 < (< 8 0 10 75 6 6 0.6

80 < f < 90 10 85 12 18 1.2

90 < f < 100 10 95 20 38 2.0

100 < f < 110 10 105 24 62 2.4

1 1 0 < f < 120 10 115 6 68 0.6

b 96.8 m in u te s
Answers J

7 a 1.5 < x < 2 b 1.73 litres

Amount of Number of Cumulative
water (x litres) people frequency
0 < x < 0 .5 8 8
0 .5 < x S l 27 35
1 < x < 1.5 45 80
1 .5 < x £ 2 50 130
2 < x ^ 2 .5 39 169
2 .5 < x < 3 21 190
3<xZ3. 5 7 197
3 .5 < x < 4 3 200

30 45 60 75 80 *
Time (seconds)

9 a 98.2
c

Tim s (/minutes)

10 a 74.4 to 74.7 kg
b 79.1 to 79.4 kg
c one of 23, 24 or 25

11 a one of 219, 220 or 221 plants

b 13

e i 1.65 to 1.75 litres

ii 1.5 litres
iii one of 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28 or 29
f 54 to 56.5%
8 a i 1
ii 3
iii 4
b 38.2 seconds
c i p = 20,q = 72

Height (cm)

\
702
 (Answers

d For e x a m p le , w e c a n see th a t Fie ld A p ro d u c e d th e ta lle r p la n ts 17 a i

b e c a u s e th e w h o le o f c u r v e fo r F ie ld A is to th e r ig h t o f th e
c u rv e fo r F ie ld 6 . T h e m e d ia n fo r F ie ld A is 31 c m . T h e m e d ia n linXtt:
fo r F ie ld 6 is 25 cm ‘ ‘ ' "it.
13 a y

0.6

0.5

0.3

0.2

0.1

100 200 300 400

Distance {d metres)

30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Tim e {t minutes)
b 72°
14 a i 40 ii 18 ii p = 48 q = 42

b iii ^ o r 0.285

b i 4 0 < y < 60 ii 39.9

18 a 1 b 2.5 c 2.96 d 2.9
19 a

£<n £</> 5
c c
T0J ■8 4
o'
c T
s 3
£ 2
LL
1

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Length (/cm)

25 35 45 55 65 75 85 b 5 .8 c m
Speed (km/h) 20 a i 31.8 c m ii 0.42 to 0.48 c m
iii 108
15 a i 30 ii 3 0 ,3 0 .5 ,3 1 iii 3 21 a i 64.2 m in u te s ii 0.9 m in u te s
b i 20 .9 g ra m s ii 2.6, 0.7, 0.8 iii 50
16 a 3 .3 6 5 to 3 .3 7 5 g ra m s b P au l, b e c a u s e his in te r q u a rtile ra n g e is s m a lle r.
b 0.2 6 to 0.27 g ra m s 22 a i 4.5 5 to 4 .65 m in u te s ii 0 .9 to 1 m in u te s
c o n e o f 55, 56 o r 57 b 4.7 5 m in u te s
23 a i 55 ii 28
b M a th e m a tic s . For e x a m p le , b e c a u s e th e m e d ia n is lo w e r.

703
Answers)

Chapter 24 Exercise 2 4 .2
1 a Yes b 0.2 c 0 d 0.3 e 0.9
2 a
E s s e n tia l S kills

1 a 4 b A c 0
10

2 a 6°/ b 90

Exercise 2 4 .1
X a

Exercise 2 4 .3
i G irls (G) B o y s (B) T o ta ls
Y ear Five (F) 10 13 23
Year Six (S) 14 12 26
T o ta ls 24 25 49

a 24 b 14 c 11 d 11
49 49 49 26
b 1°
121 2 a 1st Selection 2nd Selection
17
2 30

New Delhi
4_ w e, P(W,W) =

b d iffe re n t

e 4 x 1 = 1*
8 7 56

3 a 20 b 12 d -2 25
3 3 50 50 50
900 900 900
d 26 4 a
30

\
704
 [ Answers

i 0 ii _L III IV
b 11 < x < 12 c 12.4 d 26
36 18
12 e * 0 " ( 1 ) f ( J )

18 12
14 i p = 1 q= 1 r =0
1 19
a P=To * 20

ii M ii a 2 b £
21
c 4
400 7 7
_____ d -5 8 - 15 iii 7 iv 1 .6 c m
8000 8000 30
16 a 3 ii 4 iii 4 .6
e 7 o r 7.25 o r 8
b i 9 ii 1
8 a p = 5, g = 12, r = 1 25
b i 17 ii 12 c i 1 ii _ L
50 30
c i 26 ii 57
45 17 a i 2 4 ii 8 iii 31
d i II
100 100 5 1
b i « 59 iii
7 31 _ 36 6
74" 73 73
18 a
9 a i 6 ii 4.5 iii 4.54
iv — V 1 vi i i 6
63 35 819
b i 0.08 ii 0 .1 2 5 iii 7 5
10 a i 1 ii 3
6
co 4
b i ^r ii 4 hi <D
30 30 30 •D
^o 3Q
c 18 d 4 c
30 <D
11 a i p = ±, q = 3 r = I 2
8' 1 '= UL

ii -p r iii 2
12 1
3
b i ii 119
120 120
0 135 140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180
12 a i Height

b 5 c l
8

d 970 o r 20 o r o .o o l
14280 476

IV

7
£
g 6
<0
28 III
900
IV
5508 TJ
b ■ £90 90 6480 6480 >* c
8 5
0)
13 a 3
cr .
0) 4
8 U-

7 3

&CO fi
o 2
c
T3 0
>- 1
o 4
n
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Waiting times

0 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Ages

/
705
Answers J

b 7 < t< 9 c 5.8

d i 0 ii 1 |

e i TT5 U TT5

20 a
First student Second student
A cceleration is rate of change of speed.
A lte rn a te angles are between the transversal
and the parallel lines on alternate sides of the
transversal.
A ngle o f depression measures the angle between
the line of sight of an object below the observer
and the horizontal.
A ngle o f e le v a tio n measures the angle between
the line of sight of an object ab o v e an observer
and the horizontal.
A p p ro x im a tio n is expressing a m easurem ent or
other value to a convenient or sensible degree of
accuracy.
A rea is a m easurem ent in tw o dimensions.
Axes on a graph are tw o lines which cross at right
angles and are used to locate the positions of
points.
B a r c h a rt is a graph in which se p arate d bars are
drawn lo illustrate the frequency of categorical or
discrete data.
B earing gives the direction of one place from
another relative to due north.
Bias describes how fair a supposedly random
event is.
Biased means th at one result is m ore likely than
another.
C alc u late means find a numerical answer.
C ancelling d o w n is w riting a fraction in a sim pler
form by dividing the num erator and denom inator
by the same number.
C a p acity is the am ou nt of liquid a container can
hold.
C ategorical d a ta is usually non-num erical data
such as people’s names.
C en tral te n d e n c y is a measure of the m iddle
or most representative value of a set of data.
The m iddle is assessed by finding the mean, the
m edian or the mode.
Class b o u n d aries are used to decide into which
class rounded continuous data should be entered.
C o efficien t of a term is the num ber in front o f it,
for exam ple the coefficient of 3x is 3.
C o m m o n facto rs are factors th at are in m ore than
one term; for exam ple, in 3xy and 9 x 3, 3 and x are
com m on factors.
C om m on o r v u lg a r fractio n s are ordinary
fractions, for exam ple Here, 2 is the num erator
and 3 is the denom inator. Usually just abbreviated
to ‘fractions’.
C o m p le m e n t o f a set is all the elem ents th at are
not in the set, but th at are in the universal set.
C o m p letin g th e square is a m ethod used to solve
quadratic equations. The quadratic form ula is
derived using this m ethod.
C o m poun d in te re s t is calculated on the original
am ount plus all the interest to date.
C onform able: Two matrices are conform able for
m ultiplication if the num ber of colum ns in the first
is the sam e as the num ber of rows in the second.
C o n g ru en t shapes have exactly the sam e size and
exactly the sam e angles.
C ontinuo us d a ta is measured data such as
length. It has to be divided into suitable groups by
rounding, such as ‘to the nearest m etre’.
C o rre latio n is a measure of how strongly tw o sets
of data appear to be connected.
C orresp o n d in g angles are equal angles on the
same side of the transversal.
C orrespondin g sides in tw o or m ore sim ilar
triangles are the sides opposite the equal angles in
each triangle.
Cosine of an angle in a right-angled triangle is
the ratio of the length of the adjacent side to the
length of the hypotenuse.
Cosine rule extends Pythagoras’ theorem so th at
it can be used in any triangle. It has a ‘correction
te rm ’ which allow s for the fact th at the triangle is
not right angled.
Cumulative frequency is the running total of the
frequencies in a grouped frequency distribution.
Data is th e set o f pieces o f inform ation, usually
num bers, w hich w ill be exam ined statistically.
Decimal fractions are usually abbreviated to
‘decim als’.
Denominator is the num ber under the line of a
fraction.
Density is the w eight per unit volum e of a
m aterial.
Dependent events: Two events are dependent
if the probability o f the second depends on the
result of the first.
Depreciation is the loss of value of goods as they
age.
Determinant of a 2 x 2 matrix ^ is the num ber
obtained from th e difference of the products o f the
diagonals: a d x b c .
Difference of squares is an expression w ith tw o
term s, both perfect squares, in which one term is
subtracted from the other.
Direct proportion: Two items, or am ounts, are
in direct proportion when the rate at which they
increase or decrease is always the sam e for both.
Directed line segment,ab, is the particular vector
which joins the p o in ts to the point B.
Directed numbers are num bers th at can be
positive as w ell as negative. The sign indicates
a direction, for e x a m p le - 1 0 °C is 10 °C below
freezing.
Discrete data is data th at takes individual values
such as shoe sizes.
Domain is the set of num bers th at a function
m aps from.
Elements: The m em bers of a set are also called
the elements of the set.
Elimination is a m ethod used to solve
sim ultaneous equations.
Empty set has no mem bers.
Enlargement makes an object larger or sm aller
according to a given scale factor.
Equation has an equals sign and can often be
solved.
Equivalent fractions represent the sam e num ber,
for exam ple | , ^ all represent | of the whole.
Estimation is a m ethod of m aking an inform ed
guess at the size of a m easurem ent or o ther value.
Event is any collection of outcom es of an
experim ent.
Expressions are groups of terms to be added or
subtracted. They do not have an equals sign. They
cannot be solved, but may be sim plified.
Factors of a number can be m ultiplied together
to m ake th a t num ber, for exam ple 1 ,2 ,3 and 6 are
factors o f 6.
Formula (plural formulae) is used to calculate
quantities, for exam ple speed - d' ^ ce.
Frequency density of a class is the ratio o f the
frequency to the class width.
Frequency distribution or frequency table
shows how often each item in the data set
occurs.
Frequency polygon is formed w hen the
m idpoints of the tops of the bars o f a sim ple
histogram are joined by straight lines.
Frustum is the part of a cone left w hen the
pointed part (vertex) of the cone is rem oved.
Function is a m apping from one set of num bers to
another.
Gradient is a measure of the steepness o f a line
on a graph.
Grouped frequency table is w here the data set is
collected into groups or classes.
Highest Common Factor (HCF) of tw o or m ore
given num bers is the highest num ber which
will divide into both or all of the given num bers
w ithou t leaving a remainder, for exam ple 3 is the
HCF of 9 ,1 2 and 15.
Horizontal lines are parallel to th e surface of the
Earth.
Hypotenuse: In a right-angled triangle the side
opposite the right angle is the longest side and is
called the hypotenuse.
Identity matrix: A 2 x 2 matrix m ultiplied by the
2x2 identity matrix is unchanged.
Improper fractions are ‘top heavy’ fractions, for
exam ple | .
Independent events: Two events are
independent if the result of the first has no effect
on the probability of the second.
Independent: Two results are independent if one
does not affect the other.

Index (plural indices) or p o w e r shows how
m any of a certain num ber or variable are to be
m ultiplied together, for exam p len 4 = n x n x n x n .
In e q u a lity is like an equation, but its solution is a
range of values rather than discrete values.
In teg ers (Z) are the counting num bers and also
zero and negative w hole numbers, for exam ple
- 5 0 ,- 2 ,0 ,1 1 ,2 5 1 .
In te re s t is the am ou nt you pay for borrow ing
m oney, or the am ount you are paid for lending
money. It is calculated as a percentage or in te re s t
rate.
In te rq u a rtile range is the difference between
upper and lower quartiles.
In te rs e c tio n of tw o or more sets contains all the
elem ents th a t are present in both or all of the sets.
Inverse of a function m aps the m em bers of the
range back to the dom ain.
In verse m a trix: A 2 x 2 matrix m ultiplied by its
in verse m a trix gives the identity matrix.
Inverse o p e ra tio n reverses the effect of another
operation. For exam ple, divide and m ultiply are
inverses of each other, or square and square root.
Inverse p ro p o rtio n : Two items are in
inverse p ro p o rtio n w hen w hile one increases the
other decreases always at the sam e rate.
Irra tio n a l n u m b e rs are num bers which cannot be
w ritten as fractions, for exam ple n, 7 2 , yjs 1.
Irre g u la r p olyg o n does not have all its sides or alt
its angles equal.
Length is a m easurem ent in one dim ension.
Like te rm s have the sam e letters, for exam ple 4 z
and 10 z.
L im its o f accuracy are the sm allest and largest
values a m easurem ent might take and still be
within the stated accuracy.
Line sym m etry: A shape has lin e s y m m e try if it
fits exactly on itself w hen it is folded along its lin e
o f s y m m e try .
Linea r e q u a tio n is an equation in tw o variables
which will produce a straight line w hen it is drawn
on a graph (see Chapter 7), for e x a m p le ;'= 2 x - 1.
Locus (plural loci) of points is the possible
positions o f those points defined by som e rule.
The positions may be in one (a line), tw o (an area)
or three (a volum e) dimensions.
Lo w er b o u n d or lim it is the lowest value a
m easurem ent might take.
Low est C o m m o n M u ltip le (LCM) of tw o or m ore
given num bers is the lowest num ber which is a
[ Glossary
m ultiple of both or all of the given num bers, for
exam ple 18 is the LCM of 2 ,6 and 9.
M a rin e r’s com p ass expresses a bearing direction
w ith reference to the four m ain directions, N, S, E
and W.
M a trix (plural m atrices) is a rectangular
arrangem ent o f elem ents, usually numbers.
M ean is calculated by adding all the values
together and dividing by the num ber o f values
used.
M e d ia n is the m idd le value w hen all the values are
arranged in order of size.
M ixed n u m b e rs com bine integers and fractions,
for exam ple 3 | . Here, 3 is the w hole num ber part
and | is the fraction part.
M o d a l class is the class w ith the highest
frequency in a grouped frequency distribution.
M o d e is the m ost frequent value.
M o d u lu s of a vector is the sam e as th e length or
m agnitude o f th e vector.
M u ltip le s o f a n u m b e r are the result of
m ultiplying th a t num ber by any of the natural
num bers for exam p le 6 ,1 2 ,3 6 and 600 are
m ultiples o f 6.
M u tu a lly exclu sive results cann ot possibly
happen at the sam e tim e.
N a tu ra l (o r C o u n tin g ) n u m b e rs (N ) are the
w hole num bers you need to count individual
items, for exam ple 1 ,5 ,7 2 ,1 0 0 0 .
N e g a tiv e c o rre la tio n is seen if as one set ot data
increases th e o th e r set decreases. For exam ple,
th e m ore builders you em ploy to build a house the
less tim e it should take.
N e t o f a solid is a tw o-dim ension al shape
w hich can be cut and folded to m ake the three-
dim ensional solid.
n th te rm in a sequence provides the rule for
w orking o ut every term in the sequence, for
exam ple if th e nth term = 3m + 1 then th e second
term is 3 x 2 + 1 = 7.
N u m e ra to r is th e num ber above the line of a
fraction.
O rd e r of a m atrix is given as the num ber of rows
by the n u m b er of colum ns.
O rd e r o f s y m m e try : The num ber o f tim es a shape
will fit on itself before a com p lete rotation is its
o rd e r o f s y m m e try .
O rig in on a graph is the point w here the two axes
cross.
Glossary J
Outcome is the result of an experim ent or other
situation involving uncertainty.
Parallel lines never meet.
Percentages are fractions w ith a deno m inator of
100. Think of the % sign a s ‘out of 100’.
Percentiles divide a set o f data into one hundred
equal parts.
Perimeter o f a shape is the sum of all its sides. It is
a length m easurem ent.
Perpendicular lines are at 90° to each other.
Pictogram is a sim ple m ethod of illustrating the
frequency of usually categorical data.
Pie chart is a circle divided into sectors to
represent categories with angles at the centre
proportional to th e frequency of each category.
Polygons have three or m ore straight sides.
Population is the entire set of data from which a
sam ple is taken.
Position vector,p, is the vector which joins the
origin to the point P.
Positive correlation is seen if as one set of data
increases in value the other also increases. For
exam ple, as the population of a city increases
m ore schools are needed.
Possibility or probability space diagram
illustrates all th e possible outcom es of com bined
events.
Prime numbers can be divided only by
them selves and 1 w ithou t leaving a rem ainder, for
exam ple 2 ,1 1 ,3 7 ,1 0 1 .
Prism is a solid w hich has the sam e cross-section
all the w ay throughout its length.
Probability m easures how likely it is th at
som ething will happen.
Probability scale is a fraction lying betw een 0
(impossible) and 1 (certain to happen).
Proper subset does not contain all of the
elem ents of the larger set.
Pythagoras’ theorem defines the relationship
betw een th e lengths of the three sides in a right-
angled triangle.
Quadrant is a quarter of a circle.
Quadratic expression is a sum of terms usually
involving a single variable in which the highest
pow er of th at variable is 2. There may also be
a term w ith the variable to the pow er 1, and a
constant term .
\
710
Quadrilateral shape has four straight sides.
Quartiles together with the m edian divide a set of
data into four equal parts.
Random means com pletely w ithou t order.
Range is the difference betw een the highest and
lowest values. It is a measure of the spread of the
data.
Range is the set o f numbers th a t a function
maps to.
Rate is a measure of how one quantity changes as
another changes.
Ratio compares the sizes of tw o o r more
quantities th at are in proportion.
Rational numbers (Q) are the counting numbers,
integers and also num bers which can be w ritten as
fractions (or ratios), for e x a m p le -20, - | , 0 ,1,50 j .
Real numbers (R) include natural numbers,
integers, rational num bers and also irrational
numbers.
Reflection is the image of an object in a mirror.
Regular polygon has all of its angles equal, and
all of its sides equal.
Relative frequency is a measure of how
often a particular result occurs in a repeated
experim ent.
Rotation is the turning of an object about a given
point through a given angle.
Rotational symmetry: A shape has rotational
symmetry about a point if it fits exactly on itself
w hen rotated a b o u t that point through an angle
less than 360°.
Rounding is the process of w riting the num ber to
a stated degree of accuracy according to a rule.
Degrees o f accuracy could be, for exam ple, to the
nearest w hole num ber, to the nearest metre, to a
stated num ber of decim al places, or to a stated
num ber o f significant figures.
Sample is taken when the entire set of data is too
large to be conveniently used.
Scale factor is the ratio of a length of the image to
the corresponding length of the object.
Scatter diagram or scatter graph is a m ethod for
showing the connection between two sets of data.
For exam ple, shoe sizes and ages of children.
Sequence is a list of num bers or terms which vary
according to some rule. Each term is related to the
previous term , or to its place in the sequence.

Set: A collection of objects, ideas or num bers that
can be clearly defined.
Significant figures are literally the figures in a
n u m berw hich are significant. For exam ple,
5.01 has three significant figures, but 0.12 has
only two.
Similar shapes have exactly the sam e angles, but
are different sizes.
Simple histogram is similar to a bar chart, but is
used to represent continuous data th at has been
grouped into classes of equal size. The bars are
not separate but must be of equal w idth.
Simple interest is calculated on the original
am ou nt only, at the sam e rate year after year.
Simplify means w rite in its sim plest form.
Simplifying fractions means expressing
them in their lowest terms, for exam ple ~
simplifies t o | .
Simultaneous equations are tw o equations, each
with tw o variables, which have a solution which
satisfies both equations. When drawn on a graph
the lines cross at this solution.
Sine o f an angle in a right-angled triangle is the
ratio o f the length of the opposite side to the
length of the hypotenuse.
Sine rule equates the ratios of the lengths of sides
of a non-right-angled triangle and th e sines of the
opposite angles.
Solve usually means find a num erical solution to a
problem or equation.
Speed is rato o f ch a n g c of distanco.
Straight line segment is part of a straight line.
Subject of a form ula is the quantity the form ula is
designed to find; for exam ple, i r s = ut + ^ a P ,s is
the subject.
Subset is a sm aller set entirely contained w ithin
another set. It may also be all the elem ents of the
larger set.
Substitution is replacing an unknow n variable by
a num ber so th at a form ula or expression may be
evaluated. It can be used to solve sim ultaneous
equations.
Subtended The angle at the centre of a circle
standing on an arc of th at circle is called the angle
subtended at the centre by the arc.
Supplementary angles add up to 180°.
Surd An irrational square root of a natural
number.
Survey is a collection of information.
[ Glossary
Tally chart is a convenient m ethod of recording
data before it is organised further.
Tangent ratio is usually shortened to tangent.
The tangent of an angle in a right-angled triangle
is the ratio of the length of the opposite side to the
length of the adjacent side.
Terms in algebra are num bers and letters that
are added or subtracted for exam ple, in 3x + 5y, 3x
and 5y are term s. 3x is a term in x and 5y is a
term iny.
Three-figure bearings express the direction as
an angle m easured clockwise starting w ith 000" at
due north.
Total surface area of a three-dim ensional object
is the sum of th e areas of each of its faces.
Transformation is the collective n am e for a group
of m ovem ents or changes of shape or size of a
tw o-dim ension al object on a plane according to
certain rules.
Transforming a form ula m eans rearranging it to
change the subject of the form ula.
Translation is th e m ovem ent of a tw o-
dim ensional object in a plane w ith o u t turning it or
changing its shape or size.
Transposed A m atrix is transposed by
turning the colum ns into rows and the rows into
colum ns.
Transversal is a line which cuts a pair of parallel
lines.
Trapezium (plural trapezia) is a quadrilateral w ith
two parallel sides.
Tree diagram displays all possible results of tw o
or m ore events.
Unbiased m eans th a t each result is equally
likely.
Union of tw o o r m ore sets is all the elem ents of
both or all of th e sets.
Universal set in a particular context contains all
the elem ents from which the other sets are drawn.
Upper bound or limit is the highest value a
m easurem ent m ight take.
Variables are usually letters which represent
num bers or am ounts th a t can change or be given
different values.
Variation relates tw o or m ore variables which
are in direct or inverse proportion in an
algebraic way.
V e cto r specifies the exact translation of an
object or point on a graph from one place to
another.
Venn d ia g ra m shows the relationship between
the sets in the universal set.
V e rtic a l lines are perpendicular to the surface of
the Earth.
V e rtic a lly o p p o s ite angles are m ade w hen tw o
straight lines cross. They are opposite at the vertex
or point of intersection.
V o lu m e is a m easurem ent in three dimensions.
x- and ^ -c o o rd in a te s of a point on a graph locate
the exact position of th at point relative to a pair of
axes.
y -in te rc e p t is the point w here a line cuts the
y-axis.
Z ero c o rre la tio n means th at there is no
correlation between the tw o sets o f data.
Zero m atrix: All the elem ents of a zero matrix
are zero.
12 -hou r and 2 4 -h o u r clocks, 86 alternate angles, 139,251
am ount, 92
acceleration of object, 448 angle(s), 128-130
accuracy, 6 8 -69 acute, 128
appropriate degree of, 69 alternate, 139,251
limits of, 6 9 -70 com plete turn, 128
acute angle, 128 corresponding, 139
of sines and cosines, 537 cosine of, 241
addition of depression, 255-257
algebra, 4 2 -4 3 of elevation, 255-257
decimals, 27 interior and exterior, 148
directed numbers, 4 4 -4 6 obtuse, 139
fractions, 2 2 -23 opposite, 236
vector, 283 in opposite segm ent, 434
adjacent, 236 in parallel lines, 139-140
adjacent side, of a triangle, 2 40-241 reflex, 128
algebra round a point, 128
addition and subtraction of terms in, 4 2 -4 3 in sam e segm ent, 434
algebraic expression, 39 in a semicircle, 151
collocting like term s, 39 sine of, 2 4 1
difference betw een an expression and an equa­ of sines and cosines, 537
tion, 3 8 -3 9 straight, 128
directed num bers in, 4 8 -4 9 on a straight line, 128
equation, 3 8 -3 9 between a tangent and the radius, 150
form ulae, 41 vertically opposite, 139
graphs with, 182-195 anticlockwise direction, 274-275
like terms, 39 anticlockwise rotations, 575
m ultiplication and division in, 4 3 -4 4 arc, 150
similarities between arithm etic and, 37 -3 8 length of, 476
solution of equations, 103-10 8 arctan, 237
substitution, 41 area, 244
algebraic fractions of a circle, 218-21 9
addition and subtraction, 378 of a parallelogram , 221
bracketed expression, 376 of a rectangle, 213-21 4
com m on errors, 376 of a shape, 60
m ultiplying and dividing, 377 -3 7 8 total surface, 222-223
simplifying, 375 -3 7 6 of a trapezium , 219-222
algebraic shorthand, 3 6 -37 of a triangle, 2 1 5 -2 1 7 ,5 4 6
alpha, 535 units of, 213-21 4
I nde x)

average, se e also m ean; m edian; m ode radius, 148,150

average rates, 89 sector, 150
average speed, 89 sector area, 4 76 -4 7 7
axes, 17 4 -1 7 7 segm ent, 150
axis o f rotational sym m etry, 430 sem icircle, 149
axis of sym m etry, 140 tang ent, 150
circum ference, 208
bar graphs (charts), 2 9 9 ,3 0 3 o f a circle, 149
bearings, 2 5 0 -2 5 4 class w id th , 602
three-figure, 2 5 0 -2 5 4 clockwise direction, 2 5 0 ,2 7 4 -2 7 5
using 360° protractor for measuring, 251 clockwise rotations, 575
best buys, 91 coefficient, 39
bias, 334 collecting like term s, 39
bisector, 428 collection o f data, 295
o f a chord, 432 colum n vector, 2 6 9-27 0
o f the line, 132 com bined events, 340-341
perpendicular, 1 3 2 ,1 4 3 ,1 6 0 com m on factors, 55,371
in rhom bus, 159-16 1 co m m o n /vu lg ar fractions, 20
BoDMAS, 1 5 ,5 3 ,4 1 7 co m p lem en t, 353
bounds o f m easurem ent, 385 com p lete turn, 128
bracketed expression, 365 com pound interest, 92
for algebraic fractions, 376 calculating, 92
brackets, 5 3 -5 5 com pound units, 8 9 -9 0
cone, 153
calculator curved surface area, 478
appropriate accuracy, 69 total surface area, 478
calculation o f tim e , 85 volum e of, 478
standard form for, 77 conform ab le for m ultiplication, 504
tang ent ratio, 2 3 6 -2 3 7 congruent triangles, 1 5 5 -1 5 6 ,4 8 8
w orking w ith a, 7 6 -7 7 corresponding sides, 488
w orking w ith o u t a. 73 construction
capacity, 224 of locus (loci), 159
categorical data, 2 9 8 ,3 0 3 o f regular polygons, 148
centre o f rhom bus, 160
o f a circle, 435 o f triangles, 135-138
o f the enlargem ent, 279 construction lines, 159
o f rotational sym m etry, 142 continuous data, 2 9 8 ,3 0 0 ,3 0 3
changing units, 7 1 -7 3 conversion betw een com m on fractions, decim als
chord, 150 and percentages, 2 9 -3 0
circles, 1 4 9 -1 5 2 ,2 2 6 . se e a lso cone coordinates, 1 7 4 -1 7 7 ,1 2 4
angle at the circum ference, 434 correlation, negative, 306
arc, 150 corresponding angles, 139
arc length, 476 cosine ratio, 2 4 1 -2 4 3
area, 21 8 -2 1 9 cosine rule, 542
chord, 150 com m on errors with, 542-54 3
circum ference, 150 cosines, angles of, 537
diam eter, 149 cost price, 92
equal chords, 432 counting num bers, 2 ,5 0
line of sym m etry, 4 3 1 -4 3 2 cross-section of prism, 152
perpendicular bisector of a chord, 4 3 2 ,4 3 5 cube, 152
perim eter of, 208 of a num ber, 9

7141
 (Index

cube root, 9 in algebra, 4 8 -4 9

cubic numbers, 9 m ultiplication and division of, 47
cuboid, 224 direct proportion, 8 3 ,4 1 4 -4 1 5
cum ulative frequency curve, 6 06 -6 0 7, 608 discount, 9 3 -9 4
cum ulative frequency polygon, 607 discrete data, 298, 303
currency, 88 d istan ce/tim e graphs, 20 5 ,4 4 6
curved surfaces, 478 of gradient, 449
curves, 199 distance travelled at a tim e, 448
drawing, 19 6 -19 8 division, 8
table of values for a, 199-20 1 algebra, 4 3 -4 4
curves, graphs of decim als, 28
application, 4 5 4 -4 5 5 directed num bers, 47
plotting of, 4 5 2 -4 5 3 dom ain, 514
sketching, 456
w orking w ith function notation, 457 edge, 152
cyclic quadrilateral, 434 electricity and utility bills, 94
cylinder, 153, 2 2 4 -2 2 6 ,4 7 8 elem ents of set, 350
elim ination, 11 8 ,4 0 9
data, 295 em pty set, 350
categorical, 29 8 ,3 0 3 enlargem ent, 2 7 9 -2 8 2 ,5 7 4
central tendency of, 315 equation, 3 8 -3 9
collection of, 295 algebra, 3 8 -3 9 ,1 0 3 -1 0 8
continuous, 2 9 8 ,3 0 0 ,3 0 3 difference betw een an expression and, 3 8 -3 9
discrete, 2 9 8,3 03 linear, 117
illustration of, 2 98 -3 0 1 of the lines, 177
raw, 301 sim ultaneous, 117-121
types of, 298 solving, 39
decagon, 147 straight line, 1 9 0 -1 9 1 ,1 9 2 -1 9 3
decim al fractions, 2 0 ,2 7 equidistant (equal distance) points, 160,161
decim al places, 67 equilateral triangle, 1 3 3 ,1 4 1 ,1 4 6 ,1 5 5 ,2 4 8
decim als, 359 equ ivalen t fractions, 21
addition and subtraction, 27 estim ation, 6 4 -6 5
division of, 28 w orking w ith a calculator, 7 6 -7 7
m ultiplication, 28 w orking w ith o u t a calculator, 73
in probability, 333, 339 event(s), 333
recurring, 3 com bined, 3 4 0 -3 4 1
degree m ode, 235 d ependent, 627
degree of accuracy, 69 indep endent, 34 0 ,6 2 7
denom inator, 2 0 -2 1 m utually exclusive, 336, 630
density of the body, 89 relative frequency of an, 3 3 8 -3 4 0
depreciation, 93 exchange rates, 88
determ inants of m atrix, 5 1 0 -5 1 1 expanding the brackets, 365
diagonals, 143 exterior angle, 148
d iam eter of a circle, 209
difference of squares, 3 7 0 -3 7 1 faces, 152-153
dimensions, 60 factorising, 55
three, 6 1 ,1 5 2 ,2 2 4 factorising quad ratic expression, 3 6 7-37 0
tw o, 6 0 ,1 5 8 -1 6 6 ,2 1 3 difference o f squares, 370-37 1
directed line segm ent, 564 systematic, 372
directed num bers, 1 0 ,4 4 factors, 4
addition and subtraction of, 4 4 -4 6 factors of a num ber, 4

715
 factor tree, 5 height of bar, 599
form ulae, 4 1 ,1 0 9 -1 1 1 heptagon, 147
fractional indices, 373 hexagon, 147
roots, 373 hexagonal prism, 224
rules for w orking, 373 higher lim it or bound, 70
fractions, 3 2 ,3 5 9 highest com m on factor (HCF), 6
addition and subtraction, 2 2 -2 3 histograms, 2 9 9 ,3 0 0 ,3 0 2 -3 0 3 ,3 2 1 ,5 9 9 -6 0 5
'cancelling dow n,’ 23 horizontal lines, 131
c om m on/vulgur, 20 horizontal plane of symm etry, 430
denom inator, 2 0 -2 1 hour clocks, 86
equivalent, 2 1 ,2 2 H shapes, 224
exam ples of, 2 1 -2 2 hypotenuse, 2 3 6 ,2 4 1 ,5 6 4
im proper, 2 0 -2 1 square, 244
mixed num bers, 2 0 -2 1
m ultiplying and dividing, 2 5 -2 7 identity matrix, 509-511
simplifying, 23 image, 263 -2 6 4
top heavy, 21 im proper fractions, 2 0 -2 1
w orking w ith com m on, 2 2 -2 3 independent events, 340
frequency density, 599 index, 49
frequency distribution, 296 indices, 4 9 -5 3
frequency polygons, 3 0 9 -3 1 1 inequalities, 411-41 2
frequency table, 2 9 6 ,3 1 9 -3 2 1 ,5 9 9 graphs of, 520-527
m ean from , 6 0 5 -6 0 6 inequality signs, 1 3 ,4 1 1 -4 1 2
frustum , 479 integers, 2 ,1 0 ,2 0 9
fully o r com p letely factorised, 55 interest rate, 92
function, 5 1 4 -5 1 8 interior angle, 148
algebraic notation of, 514 interquartile range, 607
definition, 514 intersecting lines, 131
inverse, 5 1 8 -5 2 0 intersection of sets, 351
function notation, 457 inverse matrix, 509-511
inverse o f cu b in g a num ber, 9
geom etric instrum ents, 127 inverse of function, 518-520
geom etric shapes, 4 2 8 -4 2 9 inverse of m ultiplication, see division
gradient, 446 inverse operations, 9
of the curve, 455 inverse proportion, 8 3 ,4 1 4 -4 1 5
of line, 4 5 9 -4 6 0 invert, 51
o f line perpendicular to a given line, 460 irrational numbers, 3
gradients, 8 9 ,1 8 5 -1 8 8 irregular polygons, 437
w hen scales are not the sam e on both axes, isosceles triangles, 133
19 1-1 9 2
graphs label a vector, 270
w ith algebra, 1 8 2-1 9 5 length m easurem ent, 62
bar charts, 303 length of a straight line, 207-209
of curves, 196 -1 9 8 less than symbol, 1 2 ,1 4 ,7 0
d ista n ce-tim e , 205 like terms, 39
everyday, 178 limits of accuracy, 6 9 -70
histograms, 3 0 0 ,3 0 2 -3 0 3 ,3 2 1 linear equation, 117
straight line, 1 8 2-18 4 linear inequalities, 520-527
greater than sym bol, 12,14, 7 0 ,2 0 7 ,2 7 9 line of symmetry, 140
grouped frequency distribution, 321 line perpendicular to a given line, gradient of, 460
grouped frequency table, 296 lines, 128-130
line segments, 459 directed num bers, 47
gradient of, 4 59 -4 6 0 of matrices, 5 0 4 -5 0 9
length of, 4 60-46 1 m ultiplication tables, 1
m idpoint of, 461 m ultiplicative inverse, 510
lines that are not parallel, 131 m ultiplying out the brackets, 53
line with equation, 177 m utually exclusive events, 336, 630
locus (loci)
m ethods of construction, 158 nam es of lines, 177
of points, 158 natural num bers, 2 ,5 0
in two dimensions, 158-166 negative correlation, 306
lower bound of m easurem ent, 385 negative gradients, 188
lower class boundaries, 302 negative num bers, 1 0 ,1 4 ,4 4 -4 6
lower lim it or bound, 70 negative powers, 5 1 ,5 4
lower quartile range, 608 net of a solid, 1 5 3-15 4
lowest com m on denom inator, 396 nonagon, 147
lowest com m on m ultiple (LCM), 6 non-prism s, 153
not equal to sym bol, 12
‘m any-to-one’ m apping, 516 nth term , 114
m ap scales, 7 8 -7 9 num ber line, 2 -3 ,1 0 ,1 3 ,4 4 ,4 6 -4 7 ,1 7 4
m ariner’s compass, 250 num ber m achines, 105, 111
m ark-up price, 387 num bers
mass of a body per unit volum e, 89 counting, 2 ,5 0
m athem atical operations, 8 cubic, 9
m athem atical symbols, 12,59 directed, 1 0 ,4 4 -4 9
angles, 128 irrational, 3
matrix, 501 mixed, 2 0 -2 1
2 x 2 m atrix,501 natural, 2 ,5 0
determ inants of, 5 10-511 negative, 1 0 ,1 4 ,4 4 -4 6
m ethods forfinding, 5 77-57 8 prim e, 4
m ultiplication of, 50 4-50 9 random , 334
o p e r a t io n s , 5 0 2 -5 0 -1 r a t io n a l, 2
order of the, 502 real, 3
successive transform ations of, 5 8 1 -5 8 2 standard form for writing, 14
transpose of, 503 num erator, 20
zero, 509 *
m ean, 3 1 5-31 9 object, 263
from the frequency table, 31 9-3 2 1 obtuse angle, 128
m edia, statistics in, 322 -3 2 5 of sines and cosines, 537
m edian, 3 15 -3 1 9 octagon, 147
m etal density, 90 ‘o n e-to -o n e’ m apping, 5 1 5 -5 1 6
mirror images, 263 operations, 8
m irror line, 2 6 3 -2 6 4 opposite angles of a quadrilateral, 434
mixed numbers, 20-2 1 opposite side, o f a triangle, 2 3 9 -2 4 0
m odal class, 321 ordering integers, 13
of a grouped frequency distribution, 599 ordering quantities, 32
m ode, 3 1 5-3 1 9 order of rotational sym m etry, 141,430
from the frequency table, 319-321 order of the matrix, 502
multiples of a num ber, 4 order of w orking in calculations, 15 -1 6
m ultiplication, 365 origin, 174
algebra, 4 3 -4 4 original cost price, 92
decimals, 28 outcom es, 333
pair of lines, 130-133 product, 4
parabola, 196 of factors, 4
parallel lines, 1 3 1 ,1 9 3 -1 9 4 profit and loss, 92
shortest distance between two, 133 proportion, 4 14 -4 1 5
parallelogram , area of a, 221 Pythagoras’ theorem , 2 4 4 -2 4 5 ,4 6 0 -4 6 1 ,
parallel vectors, 5 6 8 -5 6 9 53 4 ,5 4 7
partially factorised, 55 Pythagorean triples, 249
pentagon, 147
percentages, 2 9 ,3 0 ,3 5 9 quadrants, 535
calculating one num ber as a percentage of quadratic equations, 397
another, 3 1 -3 2 alternative m ethod for m ultiplying, 404
percentiles, 609 com pleting the square, 400-40 1
perfect squares, 9 ,3 7 0 m ultiplication, 398
perimeter, 62 ,20 7 quadratic expression, 367
of a circle, 208 quadratic form ula, 398-40 0
perpendicular, 131 plus or minus sign, 399
perpendicular bisector, 1 3 2 ,1 4 3 ,1 5 9 -1 6 1 quadrilaterals, 1 4 3 -1 4 6 ,1 4 7
of a chord, 4 3 2,4 35 quartiles, 608
perpendicular lines, 131
personal and sm all business finance, 9 1 -9 4 radius, 148,150
pictogram, 29 8-29 9 random num ber generators, 334
pie chart, 3 1 2 -3 1 5 random num bers, 334
pi (p), 3 ,2 0 9 range, 31 6 ,5 1 4
planes of symm etry, 429 rate, 87
plus or minus sign, 399 average, 89
points, 174-17 7 exchange, 88
polygons, 146-14 9 slope/gradient, 89
regular, 147 ratio, 7 8 ,8 0
population, 295 of fractions, 80
position vectors, 5 7 0 -5 7 1 ,5 7 7 simplifying, 80
possibility diagram , 341 sine and cosine, 241-243
power, 49 use of, 81
price, calculation of, 387 rational num bers, 2
prime factors, 5 raw data, 301
prim e numbers, 4 real numbers, 3
prism, 1 5 2 -1 5 3 ,2 2 4 -2 2 6 rearranging com plex formulas, 417-41 8
probability rearranging form ulae, 1 0 5 ,1 0 9 -1 1 0
dependent events, 627 reciprocal, 51
of an event, 334 -3 3 6 recognisable squares, 245
experim ental, 338-34 0 rectangle, 2 1 3 -2 1 4 ,4 7 8
independent events, 627 recurring decim als, 3
m utually exclusive event, 630 reflection, 263-26 9
selection w ithou t replacem ent, 627 reflex angle, 128
space diagrams, 341, 625 region, 158
terms used in, 333-33 4 regular polygons, 147,437
theoretical, 3 34-33 6 relative frequency of an event, 338-3^0
tree diagram , 6 25-629 retail price, 387
Venn diagram, 630 reverse percentage, 386-387
of zero, 333 rhombus, 159-162
 [Index

right angle, 128 cuboid, 224

right-angled triangle, 237, 2 4 4 ,2 4 8 ,5 6 4 cylinder, 1 5 3 ,2 2 4 -2 2 6
rotation, 274-278, 575 -5 7 6 edge, 152
symm etry of dim ensional shape, 430 faces, 152-153
rotational symmetry, 141-142 net of, 153-154
rounding, to the nearest w hole num ber, 65 prism, 1 5 2 -1 5 3 ,2 2 4 -2 2 6
pyramid, 132,153
sale price, 387 sphere, 153
sample, 295 square pyram id, 153
scale drawings, 156-158 tetrahedron, 153
scale factor, 279 triangular prisms, 153,224
scale models, 78-7 9 vertices, 152-153
scalene, 133 speed, 8 7 ,8 9 ,4 4 6 -4 4 7
scatter diagrams, 305 -3 0 9 speed /tim e graphs, 448-451
sector, 150 of gradient, 449
sector area of circle, 476-477 sphere, 153
segm ent, 150 volum e of, 478
selection w ithout replacem ent, 627 square-based pyramid, 430
semicircle, 149 square of a num ber, 8
sequences, 113-116 square pyramid, 153
set, 514 square root, 358
defining a, 349 of a num ber, 8
elem ents of, 350 standard form for w riting numbers, 14
em pty, 350 statistics, need for, 295
intersection of, 351 straight angle, 128
subset, 352 straight line equation
universal, 351 general form, 190-191
shapes, 480-48 2 on a graph, 192-193
significant figures, 6 8 -6 9 straight line graphs, 182-184
sim ilar shapes, 480 -4 8 2 w hen it is not in the form y = m x + c , 190
sim ilar triangles, 155 15G, 48-4 w ithout using a table of values, 100-109
simple interest, 92 subject of the form ula, 109
calculating, 92 subset, 352
sim ultaneous equations, 1 1 7 -1 2 1 ,4 0 8 -4 1 1 substitution, 4 1 ,4 1 0
solving using graphs, 194-19 5 subtended angle, 476
sine ratio, 241-24 3 subtraction
sine rule, 538-53 9 algebra, 4 2 -4 3
am biguity of, 53 9-54 0 decimals, 27
practical application, 540-54 1 directed numbers, 4 4 -4 6
sines, angles of, 537 fractions, 2 2 -2 3
single transform ation, 264 successive transform ations of matrix, 581-58 2
slope/gradient, 89 supplem entary angles, 434
small business finance, 9 1 -9 4 surds, 358
SOHCAHTOA, 242 survey, 295
solids, 477 heights of students, 304-305
solid shapes, 152 reduction of pollution, 297-298
cone, 153 of traffic congestion, 296-297
cross-section of prism, 152 w aiting tim es in a surgery, 301-304
cube, 152 of wild flowers m eadow, 297

719
sym m etry congruent, 155-156
axes of, 140 enlargem ent, 574
axis o f rotations!, 430 equilateral, 1 3 3 ,1 4 1 ,1 4 6 ,1 5 5 ,2 4 8
circle, line of sym m etry, 43 1 -4 3 2 finding adjacent side, 240-241
horizontal plane of, 430 finding a side, 239
line of, 140 finding opposite side, 239-24 0
order of rotational, 430 isosceles, 133
rotational, 141 -1 4 2 m ethods for constructing accurate, 135-138
using, 143 right-angled, 2 3 7 ,2 4 4 ,2 4 8
scalene, 133
tally chart, 296 similar, 155-15 6
tangent, 1 5 0,23 7 sum of angles, 134
of an angle, 237 triangles, simitar, 484
tang ent ratio, 2 3 5-24 1 corresponding sides of, 484
tang ent to the curve, 447 triangular prisms, 153,224
term , 113 trignom etry, 5 3 5-53 8
tests of divisibility, w ith o u t using calculator, 7 -8 acute and obtuse angles of sines and cosines,
tetrahedron, 153 537
theoretical probability, 3 3 4 -3 3 6 investigation o f sines and cosines, 536-537
therm om eter, 10 three-dim ensional, 547-55 1
three dim ensional shapes, symm etry' in, 4 2 9 -4 3 0 trigonom etry, 254
three-dim ensional trignom etry, 5 4 7 -5 5 1 truncate the numbers, 69
three-figure bearings, 2 5 0 -2 5 4 tw o dim ensional shapes, 429
tim e, 8 5 -8 6
12-hour and 24-ho ur clocks, 86 ungrouped frequency table, 605
calculation using calculators, 85 union, 352
to p heavy fractions, 21 units of m easurem ent, 60. se e also area
total surface area, 2 2 2 -2 2 3 approxim ation, 6 5 -6 7
transform ation(s), 2 6 3 ,5 6 2 for area and volum e, 61
enlargem ent, 2 7 9 ,5 7 4 capacity, 224
of matrix, 577 578 ch a n gin g units, 71 73
recognising, 286 conversions for length, area and vo lu m e units,
reflection, 264 61 -62
rotation, 2 7 6 ,5 7 5 -5 7 6 estim ation, 6 4 -6 5
single, 264 length, 207 -2 0 9
successive, 5 8 1 -5 8 2 limits of accuracy, 6 9 -7 0
translation, 2 7 1 ,5 7 3 -5 7 4 universal set, 351
transform ing form ulae, 1 09-110 upper bound of m easurem ent, 7 0 ,3 8 5
translations, 2 6 9 -2 7 4 ,5 7 3 -5 7 4 upper class boundaries, 302
transpose of matrix, 503 upper quartile range, 608
transversal, 138
trapezium , area of a, 2 1 9 -2 2 2 variables, 36
travel graphs, 4 4 6 ,4 4 8 powers of algebraic, 49
tim e on, 449 vectors, 269
tree diagram , 6 2 5 -6 2 9 addition, 283
im po rtant points about, 627 com bining of, 5 6 4-56 6
using set notation, 630 dividing a line in a given ratio, 568
triangles, 13 3 -13 5 length of, 564
area, 2 1 5 -2 1 7 ,5 4 6 m agnitude of, 564
centre of rotational symm etry, 142 m odulus of, 564
 m ultiplying a vector by a number, of frustum, 479
283-284 of hem isphere, 478
multiplying of, 567 of a prism, 2 2 4-22 6
negative, 282 -2 8 3 of sphere, 478
notation for length, 564 unit, 224
parallel, 56 8-56 9 volum e of a solid, 61
position, 570-57 1, 577
Venn diagram , 353-3 5 5, 630 w holesale prices, 387
vertical lines, 131 w orking w ith a calculator, 7 6 -77
vertically opposite angles, 139 w orking w ith o u t a calculator, 73
vertices, 152-153
volum e y-intercept, 184
capacity, 224 y = mx + c, 190
of cone, 478
of cuboid, 224 zeroes, 68
of a cylinder, 32 24 -2 2 6 zero matrix, 509