BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE -The assumption you’re beginning with

-The opposite of what you’re testing

PROBLEM: Does taking aspirin every day reduce the

SCIENTIFIC TRAITS
chance of having a heart attack?
1. Curious- inquisitive; who wants to find out how
FULL HYPOTHESIS: Taking aspirin daily affects heart
and why things occur
attack risk.
2. Rationalistic- all things have reason for their
NULL HYPOTHESIS: Taking aspirin daily does not affect
occurrence
heart attack risk.
3. Objective- no personal biases
EXPERIMENTATION
4. Empirical- bases his ideas on the physically
- The process in which scientists test the veracity
observable and measurable
of the hypothesis.
5. Seeks intellectual accuracy- inaccurate findings
2 VARIABLES IN AN EXPERIMENT
bring about faulty results
1. Independent Variable- elements manipulated
6. Honest- delivers findings without reserve
by the scientist in set up
7. Precise- quantifies data using standard units of
2. Dependent Variable- results observed from the
measurement
actions of the independent variables
8. Critical minded- questions accuracy of scientific
EXAMPLES:
information
PROBLEM: Determine whether how long a student
9. Open-minded- open to the opinions and
sleeps affects test scores.
suggestions of others
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: Length of time spent sleeping
10. Willing to suspend judgments- may not yet give
conclusions if there is something lacking DEPENDENT VARIABLE: Test score
11. Willing to take risks- willing to go out of comfort
zone to pursue scientific knowledge
PROBLEM: Compare brands of paper towels, to see
12. Responsible- dutifully carries out tasks which holds the most liquid.
13. Humble- cannot claim exclusivity about any INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: Brand of paper towel
data in a particular scientific field
DEPENDENT VARIABLE: Amount of liquid absorbed by
14. Observes ethical or moral standards- (human the paper towel
embryos in stem cell research)

CONCEPTS IN BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE

SCIENTIFIC METHOD
 HIERARCHY OF BIOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION
1. Observation 1. CELL- basic unit of life
2. Identification of Problem 2. TISSUE- made of cells that work together to
perform a certain task
3. Hypothesis Formulation
3. ORGANS- An organ is a system of tissues
4. Experimentation that work together on a larger scale to do
certain jobs
5. Data Gathering
4. ORGAN SYSTEM- group of organs that work
6. Formulation of Conclusion and/or together to perform specific bodily
Generalization functions
HYPOTHESIS 5. ORGANISM- recognizable, self-contained
individual
2 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS 6. COMMUNITY- consists of all the different
• Full Hypothesis species within a certain area
7. BIOME- made up of all the communities
-The claim you are testing
area
• Null Hypothesis
 8. BIOSPHERE- The biosphere is all of the
ecosystems on Earth added together
CELL THEORY
 Cell Theory is one of the basic principles
of biology. Credit for the formulation of this
theory is given to German scientists Theodor
MACROMOLECULES
Schwann (1810–1882), Matthias Schleiden
(1804–1881), and Rudolph Virchow (1821–
1902)
The Cell Theory states:
7. CENTROSOME
-Cell reproduction
8. CELL MEMBRANE
-Trafficking of substances in and out of the cell
• provide structural support, a source of stored
fuel, the ability to store and retrieve genetic
information, and the ability to speed
biochemical reactions

• All living organisms are composed of cells. They 4 MAIN MACROMOLECULES

may be unicellular or multicellular. 1. Protein
• The cell is the basic unit of life. 2. Carbohydrates
• Cells arise from pre-existing cells. (They are not 3. Nucleic Acid
derived from spontaneous generation.)
4. Lipids
The modern version of the Cell Theory includes the
ideas that: MACROMOLECULES SMALLEST UNIT

• Energy flow occurs within cells. Protein Amino Acid

Carbohydrates Monosaccharide
• Heredity information (DNA) is passed on from
Nucleic Acid Nucleotide
cell to cell.
Lipids Glycerol
All cells have the same basic chemical composition

CELLULAR COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTION IN COMPARISON BETWEEN PLANT CELLS AND
THE CELL ANIMAL CELLS

1. NUCLEUS Cellular Plant Cells Animal Cells

- Central control of all cellular activities; Components
contains RNA and DNA molecules
2. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM Food Contains No chloroplasts.
-substance processing and packaging; site for production chloroplast Thus, they have
sites which serves as to procure food
protein synthesis
site of food substances
3. MITOCHONDRIA
production via from external
- Energy/ food production photosynthesis sources
4. VACUOLES
-Food and substance storage; stores food for Energy Mitochondria Mitochondria
digestion and excretion molecule
5. LYSOSOMES production
-Food processing and or digestion; contains sites
digestive enzymes; also called “suicide
vesicles”- they destroy old damaged cells Cell structural Plant cells have Animal cells
6. PSEUDOPODIA ability a central have no cell
-Cell locomotion and movement vacuole that walls or central
almost occupies vacuoles
MICROFILAMENTS- assist with cell movements the entire cell
area,
1. Cilia- hair-like structure contributes to
2. Flagella- whip-like cell stability via
turgor pressure.
3. Epiglottis-flap-like Plant cells have
primary and
4. Villi- finger-like secondary cell
5. Pseudopods- false feet walls.
COMPARISON BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC AND TISSUES
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
TYPES OF TISSUES
Prokaryote Eukaryote 1. Epithelial Tissue

Nucleus Absent Present -Protection of internal structures (e.g. skin) gas

exchange (e.g. alveolar tissue), sensory perception
Membrane- Absent Present (tymphanic membrane or eardrum)
bound 2. Adipose Tissue (Fat Tissue)
organelles
-Heat insulation and thermoregulation- fat tissue can
Cell structure Unicellular Mostly conserve and regulate internal body heat
multicellular; 3. Connective Tissue
some
unicellular - Tissue holding organs in place within body cavities.
Cell size Smaller (0.1-5 Larger (10-100 • Loose connective tissue
μm) μm)
Complexity Simpler More complex • Fibrous connective tissue

• Cartilage tissue
DNA Form Circular Linear
4. Bone Tissue (Osteous Tissue)
Examples Bacteria, Animals,
-Osteous tissue make up bones, which make up the
archaea plants, fungi,
skeleton, aids in structural ability, and protection of
protists
internal organs such as heart, lungs and brain

5. Blood Tissue

CELL REPRODUCTION -Molecular transport, such as oxygen, carbon dioxide,

2 TYPES OF CELL REPRODUCTION
1. MITOSIS among somatic cells (cells that constitute
the body)
-one cell reproduces into 2 offspring cells. It retains the
original diploid (46 chromosomes) chromosomal
number originally seen in the parent cell
2. MEIOSIS among reproductive cells
- one cell produces 4 offspring cells. In meiosis, sperm
and egg cells contain a haploid (23 chromosomes)
chromosomal nature; they contain half the original
number of chromosomes seen in the parent cell.
PHASES OF THE CELL
1. Interphase
2. Prophase
3. Metaphase
4. Anaphase
5. Telophase
food molecules and waste materials. Hemoglobin in red
blood cells give them the ability to carry oxygen to cells.
6. Muscle Tissue
- Striated muscle tissue seen in skeletal muscles, cardiac
muscle seen in the heart, and smooth muscle tissue
seen in the inner linings of the blood vessels.
7. Nerve Tissue
- Constitutes the brain and the spinal cord
ORGAN SYSTEM
1. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
-Protects the internal structure of the body from the
external environment, thermoregulation, insulation,
first line of defense against external health threats.
Wound and trauma healing, and prevents destructive
water transpiration from the body.
2. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
- Food digestion in its 2 aspects, mechanical digestion
and chemical digestion; waste production excretion.

3. URINARY SYSTEM

- Removal of un-needed and unwanted nitrogenous by-

products of cellular respiration, and also regulation of
cell water and ion content.
 4. CARDIO-VASCULAR SYSTEM
- Transport of substances and molecules throughout the
body. Immune response provided by phagocytes and
lymphocytes. Trauma healing facilitated by
thrombocytes.
1. Taproot system- central taproot, usually the
thickest, with branching extensions
2. Fibrous root system- diffused array of thin
roots, emerging directly from the base of the
shoot.

5. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM Shoot System Features

- Returns fluid (lymphatic fluid or lymph) that leaks from a. Stalk/ Stem- grows above-ground and support
the blood vessels, back into the circulatory system. the branches, leaves, flowers and fruit
Lymph nodes produce lymphocytes that produce
b. Branches- extension of stem/ stalk, originating
antibodies, key to immune response of the body.
from nodes on the stalk.
6. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
c. Leaves- main photosynthetic organs among
- Gas exchange between the body and the external plants
environment, and voice production.
d. Flowers- main reproductive system
7. SKELETAL SYSTEM
e. Fruit- contains the seeds the result of successful
-Structural ability, facilitates movement together with pollination
skeletal muscles, blood cell production (bone marrow in
MONOCOT VS. DICOT
long bones is site for red blood cells production)
protection of internal organs such as the heart, lungs
and brain.

8. MASCULAR SYSTEM

- Gives bodily structural stability, gives the body shape,

and facilitates bodily movement with the contraction
and expansion of skeletal muscle fibers. Also provides
protection of internal organs from trauma.

9. NERVOUS SYSTEM

-Sensory perception of external and internal stimuli,

relay and processing of stimuli, and coordinating bodily
response to such stimuli. Control of voluntary and
involuntary mechanisms in the body.

10. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

-Facilitate bodily processes and metabolism, it also aids

in the development of bodily structures with regards to
growth (life phases)
PLANT TROPISMS
11. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
-specialized reflexes and growth responses among
-Production of sperm cells for male, ova for females; plants in response to sensory stimuli
key function is the perpetuation of the species and the
a. Phototropism- the response of plant towards
redistribution of parental genes into the offspring.
light. Plants grow toward the light needing it for
PLANT PHYSIOLOGY photosynthesis

VASCULAR TISSUES b. Gravitropism- a plant’s growth response to

• Xylem- for water transport
• Phloem- for food transport
• Root system features- provide anchorage and
structural support to the shoots, nutrient and
water absorption and food storage.
• Taproot system
gravity
c. Thigmotropism- a plant’s growth response or
even reflex action in response to touch or any
solid sensory stimuli
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS IN ECOLOGY
1. Ecology- the study of interaction of organisms
with their environment and with each other
 2. Ecosystem- a community of biotic and abiotic
factors interacting with each other
3. Habitat- particular habitat in which an organism
lives in a given ecosystem
4. Biosphere and Biomes- biosphere is that the
portion of the Earth where living organisms
exist, composed of several types of biomes,
each of which are largely determined by climate
patterns, dominant vegetation, dominant
abiotic factors and the organisms that live
there.
BIOME
1. Tundra- climate predominantly cold, frozen
subsoil, areas located at the arctic and Antarctic
regions, and high altitude areas with snowfall
and are above the mountain tree-line.
WALRUS- large flippered marine mammal with a
discontinuous distribution about the North Pole in
the Arctic Ocean and subarctic seas of the
Northern Hemisphere
2. Taiga- Summer is comparatively longer than
winter though overall temperatures may still be
cold, yet summer can also be humid. There is a
predominant winter, a brief spring and summer
and autumn.
3. Temperate Forest- four seasons observed in this
area, namely, winter, spring, summer, and
autumn. Overall temperatures are warmer than
taiga and tundra
4. Tropical Rainforest- located from0 to 90
latitudinal degrees north and south of the
Equator. Climatic conditions dominated by rain
producing phenomenon such as monsoons, the
inter-tropical convergence zone and typhoons.
Overall humid conditions.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HURRICANE AND TYPHOON
• HURRICANE- ATLANTIC OCEAN
• TYPHOON- PACIFIC OCEAN
5. Savanna- climate is warm and dry. Rainfall not
as extensive as with tropical rainforests. Plant
and animal life adapt to live in a place with
extensive periods of dry weather.
6. Deserts- predominantly dry climate, rainfall
occurs only on very few occasions, but violent
enough to cause flashfloods. Dry sand fields
marked with dunes, dry rocky areas and barren
mountains and canyons may be seen in the
area.
7. Scrubland- climate is dominantly dry. This
biome is seen among coastal.
COMMUNITY
- an assemblage of all organisms living and interacting
with each other in a given area.
1. Mutualism- 2 organisms mutually benefitting
from the presence of each other
EXAMPLE: Flower and butterfly; flowers provide
nectar for the butterfly that pollinates the flower for it
to produce fruit
2. Symbiosis- akin to mutualism, two organisms in
a very close relationship that the 2 merge to
become organism
EXAMPLE: Lichens. They are not plants but a
symbiotic organism between 2 different organisms, an
algae and a fungi
What is a lichen and why is it important?
-Lichens are a symbiotic collection of fungi and
cyanobacteria or algae. The fungi provide a moist,
sheltered habitat for the cyanobacteria or algae, and, in
turn, they provide food for the fungi. Lichens are
important as early stage primary succession organisms.
3. Commensalism- One organism benefits from the
other, which is not benefitted nor injured by the other
EXAMPLE: Orchid and tree. Orchid grows from
the tree, but the tree does not benefit from the orchid
4. Parasitism- One organism (parasite), benefits
from another organism (host) which is harmed
by the parasite
EXAMPLE: The tapeworm lives inside the human
host’s intestines. The tapeworm sucks nutrients from
the human host, who in turn suffers from malnutrition
5. Predation- One organism (predator) eats another
organism (prey) for food
EXAMPLE: Cats and mouse- the cat is the
predator, that eats the mouse (prey) for food
TROPHIC STRUCTURE
- a pattern of feeding relationships
a. Autotrophs- or producers, organisms that can
produce their own food.
 b. Heterotrophs- or consumers, they cannot • Trisomy X- (XXX)
produce their own food, but they obtain energy
by eating other organisms

c. Herbivores- those organisms that eat plants

d. Carnivores- organisms that hunt and eat other

animals

e. Detritivores- organisms that eat dead organic 4 TYPES OF NUCLEOTIDE

matter, or organic by products; they are also
called saprophytes or decomposers. Fungus, 1. Adenine
bacteria and insects or bugs that eat dead 2. Cytosine
organic matter are examples
3. Guanine
FOOD WEB AND FOOD CHAIN
4. Thymine
• Food web- shows various possible channels of
energy transferred between and among PAIRING
organisms • ADENINE & THYMINE
• Food chain- shows single, unidirectional energy • GUANINE & CYTOSINE
transfer through a series of organism, starting
with the producers, down a chain of consumers -Ang APPLE (Adenine) ay para sa TREE (Thymine)
and finally to the detritivores -Ang CAR (CYTOSINE) ay para sa GARAGE (GUANINE)
GENETICS
- Scientific field devoted to the study of inheritance

GREGOR MENDEL

• Father of modern genetic science

• Pioneered the study of how traits may be

passed on and expressed in successive
offspring, through his experiment using garden
peas

LAW OF HEREDITY

1. Law of Segregation

2. Law of Independent Assortment

3. Law of Complete Dominance

4. Law of Incomplete Dominance

5. Law of Codominance

• XY- MALE

• XX-FEMALE

MUTATION- damage to DNA

• Down’s Syndrome- Trisomy 21

• Jacob’s Syndrome- extra Y chromosome (XYY)

• Klinefelter’s Syndrome- extra X chromosome

(XXY)

• Turner’s Syndrome- missing X chromosome (X0)

“You didn’t come this far to only come this far.”