GENERAL BIOLOGY

UNIT 1/ FIRST SEM

CELL THEORY - A two-layered barrier formed by the phospholipids group
 10 to 100 mm (size of the cell) - Makes the plasma membrane selectively permeable. This means
 The inside of the cell has low concentration that not all substances can pass through this membrane
- “FLUID MOSAIC BILAYER”
FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL  According to this model, proteins, carbohydrates, and
1. Regulation of the Internal Environment cholesterol molecules are embedded in the membrane so
 Homeostasis that they look like a mosaic.
- Maintaining, adjusting the internal  This characterized is emphasized because of the fluidity
environment that the lipid bilayer imparts
o This fluidity is due to the natural viscosity of
2. Acquisition and utilization of Energy the membrane, which allows protein to
 Cellular respiration freely flow and drift in the membrane
 Production of glucose in our body to - ROLES:
produce energy  Selective permeability
 Chemical breakdown  passive
 It converts the energy in food molecules to
make energy

3. Responsiveness to its environment

 Impulses (stuff that flows through our neurons)
 Related to homeostasis

4. Protection and support

 Immune cells impart protection against pathogens and
other foreign bodies that may enter the general circulation

HISTORY
1. Zacharias Janssen (1585-1632)
 Invented the 1st microscope

2. Robert Hooke
 Observed cork cells under a microscope
WHAT CAN FREELY PASS INTO AND OUT OF THE CELL???
3. Francesco Redi
 Disproved the spontaneous generation theory - Lipids and small, nonpolar molecules such as oxygen and
 Spontaneous theory carbon dioxide can freely pass into and out of the cell
 Living things came from non-living things - HOWEVER, the chemical nature of the tails block ions and other
(abiogenesis) charged polar molecules like glucose

4. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek EUKARYOTIC CELLS PROKARYOTIC CELLS

 Observed microorganisms by using his own practical - Multicellular - Unicellular
microscope - Contains a nucleus - Does not contain a
 Observed a drop of water - Contains an organelle nucleus
- Does not have an
5. Matthias Schleiden organelle
 Proposed that all plants are composed of cells
CELL MEMBRANE
6. Theodor Schwann - Separates the internal and external part/environment
 Proposed that all animals are composed of cells - Provides a wall
7. Rudolf Virchow OSMOSIS
 All cells come from pre-existing cells - High concentration to low concentration
PRINCIPLES OF THE CELL THEORY PERMEABLE
1. Every living organism consists of one or more cells - Allows solute and solvent to pass through
2. The cell is the fundamental unit of life - Plant cells are permeable
3. Cells came from pre-existing cells - Passive (doesn’t need energy)
- Lipids, alcohol, small molecules
MITOSIS - (H2O, CO2, O2, N2)
 Somatic cells/ body cells
IMPERMEABLE
MEIOSIS - No molecules can pass through
 Sex cells - This is because they are polar molecules/ large molecules

2 Major Regions MEMBRANE PROTEINS

- Attached to the phospholipid bilayers
1. The cell membrane  Channel protein
2. The protoplast o Found in permeable
o Allow certain molecules to pass through
2 compartments of the protoplast  Carrier protein
o Chooses a shape
1. The cytoplasm o Changes shape
 Provides a vessel where the organelles can be suspended, o Active transport
alongside the cytoskeleton and the semi-fluid cytosol. o Won’t be able to change shape without
energy
2. The nucleus  Cell recognition protein
o Detect invading pathogens
 Serves as the control center of the cell
 Receptor protein
Organelles o Binding of molecules to trigger response
o Can change form
- Are structure in cells that perform specialized functions which will
o Allows shape to pass through
be further elaborated
CYTOSKELETON
THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
- Gives support to our cell
- Divided into 3:
Structure  Intermediate filaments
 Microtubules
- Every cell has its own plasma membrane or cell membrane  Microfilaments
- It consists mostly of phospholipids, which is a form of lipid
molecule 1. Microtubules
o Consists of helically arranged globular
2 Distinct Regions of Phospholipids proteins called tubulin
o Created dimers with 13 rows
1. The head o It radiates from the centrosome
- With a negative changes phosphate group with polar covalent bonds  Spindle fibers which are
- Phosphate group attached to chromosome is made
- Hydrophilic out of microtubules
o Is a helix of a-tubulin and b-tubulin subunits
2. Tails
- Made up of the 2 nonpolar fatty acid 2. Microfilaments
- Two fatty acid chains o Actin proteins
- hydrophobic o Flexible fibers
o Composed of 2 chains of globular actin
PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER o Twisted structure
GENERAL BIOLOGY
UNIT 1/ FIRST SEM
o Facilitates cell and organelle movement
o Can help change the shape of the cell
 Myosin Filaments
 Moves actin to have muscle
contraction
o Relaxation and contraction
TRANSFER RNA
- acts as adaptors of amino acids
RIBOSOMAL RNA
- machine that attaches each amino acid to create a polypeptide chain
 polypeptide chain – protein

3. Intermediate Filaments CHROMATIN

o Made out of variety of proteins - Uncoiled chromosomes
o Help maintain the cell shape
o Helps to maintain the structure and place of RIBOSOMES
- Are the organelles that uses instructions from the nucleus, written in
cells and organelles
mRNA, to build proteins
o Achor cells to cells/ cell junction
- Synthesizes protein
o Fasten organelles
o Anchor cells to environment FREE RIBOSOMES
o Stronger than actin filaments - Found in the cytosol
o Less dynamic
BOUND RIBOSOMES
- Attached to the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum
CYTOPLASM
- It is composed of the cytosol, a semifluid solution that consists of THE ENDOPMEMBRANE SYSTEM
water and inorganic and organic molecules ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
One of the manufacturing facilities
CELL WALL  Because it has the ribosome, it produces protein
- A rigid structure that surrounds the cell membrane
- Maintain the shape of the cell THREE FORMS
- Prevent them form bursting 1. Lamellar form or cisternae
- Composed of cellulose  Parallel
o Cellulose  Usually found in the cells of pancreas, notochord,
 most abundant organic brain
compound
2. Vesicular form or vesicle
PEPTIDOGLYCAN  Oval
- Most bacteria have cell wall made out of peptidoglycan  Suspended in our cytoplasm
- When observed, it turns violet  Occurs in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum

CHITIN 3. Tubular form or tubules

- The cell wall in some fungi contains chitin  Tube like

CELLULOSE TYPES OF ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

- In plant cells, the cell wall consists of mesh-like cellulose fibers ROUGH ER
- Have thousands of ribosomes attached to the outer surface which
PECTIN give the organelle a “rough” appearance
- Helps the cell wall to bind with the plasma membrane - Main role is to produce protein
- Found in middle lamella
SMOOTH ER
PRIMARY CELL WALL - Does not have ribosomes
- Helps with growth, flexibility - Produces lipids
- Synthesizes phospholipids
CELL WALL
- Provides mechanical strength and support GOLGI BODIES
- Can withstand the turgor pressure - Traffic police
- Helps regulate growth - Sorting center/ packaging center
- Helps regulate diffusion - Delivers proteins in/out
- When it comes to trees, transpiration pull happens - Delivers with the help of the vesicles
 Vesicles are made out of phospholipids
SUBCELLULAR ORGANELLES
- the genetic control of the cell EXOCYTOSIS
ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY - Process where the proteins come out of the golgi
- Double membrane of mitochondria and chloroplasts
- Large eukaryotic cell engulfed prokaryote LYSOSOMES
- Mitochondria - Also called the waste disposal system
- Phagocytosis and autophagy
 PHAGOCYTOSIS
o Engulfed, attached, digests

 AUTOPHAGY
o Digests non-functioning cells

ENDOCYTOSIS
- Engulfs the food outside the cell

CATHEPSINS
Infoldings - Hydrolytic enzymes
- Cracks or breaks, compresses nucleoid, results to a nucleus
PEROXISOME
Prokaryotes - Almost the same with lysosome
- Engulfed the aerobic bacterium - Has catalase
- Hydrogen peroxide (2H2O2) is harmful, so catalase breaks it down
Aerobic Bacterium to 2H2O + 2O2
- Uses oxygen - Helps in synthesizing and breaking down of lipids
- Evolved as a mitochondria - Lipid catabolism
 Breaks down lipids and alcohols
Cyanobacterium
- The cell engulfed the cyanobacterium VACUOLES
- It then became a chloroplast - Storage of water, organic nutrients, variety of salts, sugar and some
weak acids
NUCLEUS - HELPS IN:
- Prominent, usually oval structure in a eukaryotic cell 1. Maintaining proper PH
- Located at the center 2. Storing water
3. Maintaining turgor pressure
PARTS OF THE NUCLEUS 4. Adjusting the size of the cell
NUCLEOPLASM
- Semifluid matrix MITOCHONDRION
- “The powerhouse of the cell”
NUCLEAR ENVELOPE - Generates chemical energy/ adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
- Separates the cytoplasm to the nucleus - Cellular respiration

NUCLEAR PORES CHLOROPLAST

- Permit the passage of the ribosomal subunits and mRNA - Unique to plant and algae cells
- Helps in photosynthesis
RIBOSOMAL SUBUNITS - Converts light energy from the sun to glucose
MESSENGER RNA - Oxygen is just a BYPRODUCT
- intermediates that carry DNA information/ genetic information - Photosynthesis’ PRODUCT is sugar
- carries information from the DNA - THYLAKOID
 Stack of thylakoid is called granum
GENERAL BIOLOGY
UNIT 1/ FIRST SEM
- protection against abrasion or constant exposure to friction
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ANIMAL CELL
HIERARCHY
- Chemicals – atom and molecules
 Macromolecules
1. Carbohydrates - 2 TYPES:
o Monosaccharides provides short 1. NON- KERATINIZED
term energy o Moist; flexible
2. Protein 2. KERATINIZED
o Amino acid o Dry, water proof
o Polypeptide chain
o Provides cell structure/ signal STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL
3. Lipids - More than one layer
o Glycerol/ fatty acids - Serves as a secretion and protection
o Provides long term energy - It acts as a barrier so that it can filter the nutrients and water that
o Found in phospholipids, fats, will go in the cell
spheroids - “gatekeepers”
- Found in sweat glands
CODON
- Composed of nucleotide triplets STRATIFIED COLUMNAR
- Start: AUG; STOP: UAG, UGA, UAA - Rare type of epithelial tissue
- More than one layer
ECOLOGY - Elongated; column shaped
- Relationships of organisms to the environment - Found in male urethra, and ducts of some glands, anus, pharynx,
and conjunctiva
ORGANISM - Protection and secretion
- formed by different organ systems that create complex interactions
with one another to maintain balance or homeostasis, and sustain CONNECTIVE TISSUE
life - Highly vascularized/ has constant blood supply except tendons and
ligaments
POPULATION
- organisms that belong to the same species and live in the same area TYPES OF FIBER IN CONNECTIVE TISSUE
ELASTIN FIBERS
COMMUNITY - Rubber like protein because it can be stretched/ recoiled
- different populations living in the same area
RETICULAR FIBERS/ FIBROBLASTS
- Helps shape our tissue

ECOSYSTEM COLLAGEN FIBER

- includes all the communities interacting with one another and with - Strongest and thickest
their environment
FUNCTION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
BIOSPHERE 1. STRUCTURE AND SUPPORT
- includes all the different kinds of ecosystem  Provides skeletal framework
2. HELPS IN BINDING AND CONNECTING
ANIMAL TISSUES 3. HELPS IN TRANSPORTATION
EPITHELIAL TISSUES 4. IMMUNE AND RESPONSE
- Epithelium is a type of animal tissue that forms the inner and outer 5. CUSHIONING AND SHOCK ABSORPTION
lining of an organ  This is because of the cartilage
6. REPAIR AND HEALING
STRUCTURE
APICAL (TOP) TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- TIGHT JUNCTIONS LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 Forms the continuous intercellular barrier between - Divided into:
epithelial tissues/ cells 1. AREOLAR
 Composed of different proteins o Viscous
 “Occluding junctions” o Has collagen and elastic protein fibers
o Composed of complex junctions o Highly vascularized
o Consists of proteins like claudin, o Contains different cells
occluding, junctional adhesion molecule  Fibroblasts
(JAM- A)  Producing fibers into our
o Helps to regulate the paracellular extracellular cells
transport  Adipose
 Paracellular – travels through  Contains adipocytes that
the tight junctions contains fat cells
 Transcellular – travels through  Helps to/in vascularity
the cell  2 TYPES
- MICROVILLI 1. White/ WAT
 Finger-like structure that helps with absorption; can be – energy storage
found in the intestine 2. Brown/ WAT
- Thermogenesis or
- CELIA/ CILIA production of heat
 Hair-like structure that is motile
 Can be found in our fallopian tube to help egg cells to 2. RETICULAR
move towards out uterus o Found in bones, lymph nodes, spleen
 Minsan kaya nagkakaroon ng ectopic pregnancy ay o Produces fibers
dahil hindi ayos ang motility ng celia o Helps in scaffolding
o Helps in supporting/ framework
- STEREOCILIA
 microvilli but hair-like structure DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 to balance, to hear 1. DENSE REGULAR CT
TYPES OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES o Has collagen fibers
SIMPLE SQUAMOUS  Collagen fibers
- one layer; scale-like  Helps in maintaining the fiber
- found in air sacs, alveoli, capillary walls in our tissue
o Examples are tendons to ligaments
SIMPLE CUBOIDAL o Avascular – has low blood supply
- one layer; cube shaped  When a tissue is damaged, it’ll take a long
 single layer where absorption and secretion occur time to heal
- found in the glands, ducts, ovaries, lining of our kidneys  Possible that it won’t heal
 this is because absorption and secretion occur here
2. DENSE IRREGULAR CT
SIMPLE COLUMNAR o Has collagen fibers; has fibroblast
- one layer; elongated, column shaped o Seen in our skin; dermis, coverings of our bones
- absorption and secretion; contains goblet cells that secrete mucus (Periosteum)
- walls of the gastrointestinal tract and body cavities
ELASTIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE
PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR - Has no collagen fibers
- one layer; elongated or column shaped - Has elastic fibers
- found in the lining of the respiratory tract  Can be stretched and will return to its original form
- absorption and secretion - Elastic fibers have fibroblasts
- Can also be seen in our vocal cord
STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS
- more than one layer SUPPORTING CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- flat; scale-like - Has cartilage
- found in epidermis, lining of mouth, esophagus, and vagina - TYPES OF CARTILAGE
GENERAL BIOLOGY
UNIT 1/ FIRST SEM
1. HYALINE CARTILAGE  Smallest unit of muscle –
o Has glassy translucent appearance sarcomere
o Has gel-like matrix  Production of
o Gives support and maintains structure protein; actin
o Avascularized filaments and
myosin
2. FIBRO CARTILAGE filaments
o Specialized because it can be a connective tissue/  Causes the
cartilage stripes/ striated
o Contains collagens look
o Intervertebral disk – found in our spine o Myofibril -> muscle fiber -> fascicle -> skeletal
o Meniscus – found in our knees muscle

3. ELASTIC CARTILAGE
o Specialized 2. CARDIAC MUSCLE/ MYOCARDIUM
o Found in our heart
o High content of elastic fiber
o Cardiomyocytes – cells in our heart
o Has collagen fibers
 Heart
o Can be found in our ear
 Helps in contraction to pump
o Avascularized
blood
o Can also be found in our epiglottis o Structure:
 Epiglottis  Intercalated disk
 Stops the food from going to  we can find gap junction
our lungs (this is where the stimulus/
 Clump like structure electrical impulse flow)
- Has bones
- TYPES OF BONES 3. SMOOTH MUSCLE
1. COMPACT BONES o Found in our arteries, nerve vessel, alveoli
o Dense, hard
o Not striated
o Found in the outer layer
o There actin and myosin filaments are spread out of
o Osteocytes – cells of our bones
their cytoplasm
 Osteone – circle-like structures o It helps in peristalsis
 Central canal – pathway of blood
 Peristalsis
 Helps in swallowing; making
2. SPONGY BONE
waves in our esophagus
o Porous
 Contracts to help pee in our
o Hydroxyapatite bladder
 Form of calcium phosphate that gives  helps in reproductive system
hardness in contracting the uterus to
o The bone marrow is suspended in the pores of spongy push the baby during child
bones birth
o Vascularized
o hematopoiesis NERVOUS TISSUE
 formation of blood NEURON
o helps in absorbing shock - basic unit of the nervous system
- consists of structure that consists of structure
FLUID CONNECTIVE TISSUE - the cell of the nervous tissue
1. BLOOD - this is where the electrical impulses flow
o 55% of plasma - longest cell in our body
o Helps in transporting nutrients and fighting pathogens - amitotic – don’t divide
o RBC/ erythrocytes - STRUCTURE:
o WBC/ leukocytes o CELL BODY
o Platelets/ thrombocytes  Sub cell organelles
o DENDRITES
 Extensions of cell body
 Pulmonary embolism  Receives signals
 a sudden blockage in your o AXON
pulmonary arteries, the  Blue
blood vessels that send  Attached to the axon hillock
blood to your lungs. It o AXON TERMINAL
usually happens when a  Where the other impulses go out to go/ be
blood clot in the deep veins received by other neurons
in your leg breaks off and  When we feel something
travels to your lungs. A o MYELIN SHEATH
blood clot that travels to  To speed up the transmitting of electrical
another part of your body is impulses
called an embolus.
- TYPES OF NEURONS
2. LYMPH NODE 1. UNIPOLAR
o Clear o One process
o Transport lymphocytes to fight pathogens and to o Peripheral and central process
remove wastes o Specialized in our central neurons
o Helps in sensing the stimuli in our environment
MUSCLE TISSUE o Sense of touch
- Helps in doing voluntary and involuntary movements
- Has muscle cells 2. BIPOLAR
- 3 TYPES: o Two processes
1. SKELETAL MUSCLE o Responsible in vision sensory, smell, hearing
o The precise number is unknown
o 650 muscles known 3. MULTIPOLAR
o Tendons o Most abundant neuron
o Helps in doing voluntary movements o Possessed a single axon, many dendrites, many
 Muscle Hypertrophy terminal
 Muscle growth
o Helps in maintaining our posture - GLIAL CELLS
o Helps in swallowing/ excretion  Not a part of the neurons
 Upper esophageal sphincter  Helps in supporting our neurons
 Found at the top of our  2 TYPES
esophagus 1. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM/ CNS
 Voluntary 1. Astrocytes
 Swallowing  Star shaped
 Internal sphincter  Responsible for support, maintaining the
 Voluntary chemical concentration
 Found in our anus  Helps in removing waste
 Controlling of feces  Repairing tissues
 Urethral sphincter
 Found under our gallbladder 2. Microglia Cells
 Controlling pee  Ovoid cells
o Helps in thermogenesis or producing heat  Can transform to phagocytic macrophage
o Multi-nucleated  Digests waste/debris in our neurons
 Myoblast cells
 A fusion during embryonic 3. Ependymal Cells
period  Helps in both brain and spinal cord
 Myofibrils
GENERAL BIOLOGY
UNIT 1/ FIRST SEM
 Responsible to clean the cerebrospinal
fluid and the tissue of CNS
 Ciliated
 Helps in homeostasis, brain metabolism,
clearance of brain

4. Oligodendrocytes
 Responsible for production of myelin
sheath

2. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM/ PNS

1. Satellite Cells
 Sensory; ganglia
 Ganglia
 Clusters of nerve cell
bodies that can be seen
in our body
 Regulating the microenvironment of our
body

2. Schwann Cells
 Production and creation of myelin sheath
in our central nervous system