CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Overview of Charge Controller

A charge controller or charge regulator limits the rate at which electric current
is added to or drawn from electric batteries. It prevents overcharging and may prevent
against overvoltage which can reduce battery performance or lifespan, and may pose a
safety risk. It may also prevent completely draining ("deep discharging") a battery, or
perform controlled discharges, depending on the battery technology, to protect battery
life. In simple words, Wind Turbine Charge controller is a device, which controls the
battery charging from Wind turbine and also controls the battery drain by load. The
simple Wind turbine Charge controller checks the battery whether it requires charging
and if it checks the availability of wind power and starts charging the battery.
Whenever controller found that the battery has reached the full charging voltage
levels, it then stops the charging from wind turbine. On the other hand, when it found
no wind power available then it assumes that it is no blow time and switch on the
load. It keeps on the load until the battery reached to its minimum voltage levels to
prevent the battery dip-discharge. Simultaneously Charge controller also gives the
indications like battery dip discharge, load on, charging on etc. Block diagram of
wind power system is shown in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1. Block diagram of wind power system

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2.2. 1kW 24V Wind Turbine

The wind turbine used at the site, intended for this research, is the Missouri
Basic 24V, 1kW, 3-blade wind turbine. It produces a 3-phase alternating current (AC)
that is converted to direct current (DC) using a bridge rectifier. Having 3 blades is
optimal for lower wind speeds and uses a tail fin to help change position to capture
winds in all directions.

2.3. Primary Function of a Charge Controller

The primary function of a wind turbine charge controller is to prevent the
battery from being over/under charged by the wind turbine. Most charge controllers
have various set points for regulation based on battery voltages; these set points can
be fixed or variable. Variable set points can be adjusted by potentiometers,
dipswitches, jumpers, displays, computers, and other means. The charge set points
should be adjusted for temperature with either a local or remote temperature probe

2.4. Types of Charge Controllers

The two types of charge controllers are most commonly used. Which are pulse
width modulation (PWM) and maximum power point tracking (MPPT). Both adjust
charging rates depend on the battery’s maximum capacity as well as monitor the
battery temperature to prevent overheating.

2.4.1. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Charge Controller

Pulse width modulation (PWM) charge controller is the most effective means
to achieve constant voltage battery charging by adjusting the duty ratio of the
switches (MOSFET). In PWM charge controller, the current from the wind turbine
tapers according to the battery’s condition and recharging needs.
When a battery voltage reaches the regulation set point, the PWM algorithm
slowly reduces the charging current to avoid heating and gassing of the battery; yet
charging continues to return the maximum amount of energy to the battery in the
shortest time. The voltage of the turbine will be pulled down to near that of the
battery.
PWM system has the following advantages:
1. Higher charging efficiency
2. Longer battery life
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3. Reduced battery over heating

4. Minimizes stress on the battery
5. Ability to de-sulphate a battery
A PWM controller is not a DC to DC transformer. The PWM controller is a
switch which connects the wind turbine to the battery. When the switch is closed, the
turbine and the battery will be at nearly the same voltage. Assuming a discharged
battery, the initial charge voltage will be around 13V, and assuming a voltage loss of
0.5V over the cabling plus controller, the panel will be at V pwm=13.5V. The voltage
will slowly increase with increasing state of charge of the battery. When absorption
voltage is reached, the PWM controller will start to disconnect and reconnect the
panel to prevent overcharge (hence the name; pulse width modulated charge
controller).

2.4.2. Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) Charge Controller

Nowadays, the most advanced wind turbine charge controller available is the
Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT). It is more sophisticated and more
expensive. It has several advantages over the PWM charge controller. It is 30 to 40%
more efficient at low temperature. The MPPT is based around a synchronous buck
converter circuit.
It steps the higher wind turbine voltage down to the charging voltage of the
battery. It will adjust its input voltage to harvest the maximum power from the wind
turbine and then transform this power to supply the varying voltage requirement of
the battery plus load. It is generally accepted that MPPT will outperform PWM in a
cold temperature climate, while both controllers will show approximately the same
performance in a subtropical to tropical climate.
The MPPT charge controller is a DC to DC transformer that can transform
power from a higher voltage to power at a lower voltage. The amount of power does
not change, therefore, if the output voltage is lower than the input voltage, the output
current will be higher than the input current, so that the product P=VI remains
constant. Hence, in order to get the maximum out of a solar panel, a charge controller
should be able to choose the optimum current-voltage point on the current-voltage
curve: the Maximum Power Point. An MPPT does exactly that. The input voltage of a
PWM controller is, in principle, equal to the voltage of the battery connected to its
output.
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2.5. Comparison between MPPT and PWM Charge Controller

If maximizing charging capacity is the only factor considered when specifying
a charge controller, everyone would use a MPPT controller, but two technologies are
different, each with its own advantages. The decision depends on site conditions,
system components, and size of wind turbine, load and cost of a particular wind
turbine system. They are compared as follows.

2.5.1. Temperature Conditions

An MPPT controller is better suited for colder conditions. The MPPT
controller is able to capture the excess module voltage to charge the batteries. It
produces up to 20-25% more charging than a PWM controller. The PWM type is
unable to capture excess voltage because the pulse width modulation technology
charges at the same voltage as the battery. But when solar panels are deployed in
warm or hot climates, there is no excess voltage to be transferred making the MPPT
unnecessary and negating its advantage over a PWM.

2.5.2. Wind Turbine Voltage

Wind turbine voltage and battery voltages should match for PWM but wind
turbine voltage can be higher than battery voltage for MPPT.

2.5.3. Battery Voltage

PWM operates at battery voltage, so it performs well in warm temperature and
when battery is almost full while MPPT operates above the battery voltage, so it can
provide “boost” in cold temperatures and when the battery is low.

2.5.4. System Size

PWM is typically recommended for use in smaller systems where MPPT
benefits are minimal, while MPPT is recommended for a 150W-200W or higher sized
systems to take advantage of its benefits.

2.5.5. Cost
MPPT controllers are typically more expensive than PWM controllers but are
more efficient under certain condition, so they can produce more power with the same
number of solar modules than a PWM control.
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2.6. Preventing Overcharge

When a battery reaches full charge, it can no longer store incoming energy. If
energy continues to be applied at the full rate, the battery voltage gets too high. Water
separates into hydrogen and oxygen and bubbles out rapidly. (It looks like it's boiling
so we sometimes call it that, although it's not actually hot.) There is excessive loss of
water, and a chance that the gasses can ignite and cause a small explosion. The battery
will also degrade rapidly and may possibly overheat. Excessive voltage can also stress
your loads (lights, appliances, etc.) or cause your inverter to shut off.
Preventing overcharge is simply a matter of reducing the flow of energy to the
battery when the battery reaches a specific voltage. When the voltage drops due to
lower sun intensity or an increase in electrical usage, the controller again allows the
maximum possible charge. This is called "voltage regulating." It is the most essential
function of all charge controllers. The controller "looks at" the voltage, and regulates
the battery charging in response.
Some controllers regulate the flow of energy to the battery by switching the
current fully on or fully off. This is called "on/off control." Others reduce the current
gradually. This is called "pulse width modulation" (PWM). Both methods work well
when set properly for your type of battery.
A PWM Charge Controllers holds the voltage more constant. If it has two-
stage regulation, it will first hold the voltage to a safe maximum for the battery to
reach full charge. Then, it will drop the voltage lower, to sustain a "finish" or "trickle"
charge. Two-stage regulating is important for a system that may experience many
days or weeks of excess energy (or little use of energy). It maintains a full charge but
minimizes water loss and stress.
The voltages at which the controller changes the charge rate are called set
points. When determining the ideal set points, there is some compromise between
charging quickly before the sun goes down, and mildly overcharging the battery. The
determination of set points depends on the anticipated patterns of usage, the type of
battery, and to some extent, the experience and philosophy of the system designer or
operator. Some controllers have adjustable set points, while others do not.

2.7. Overload Protection

A circuit is overloaded when the current flowing in it is higher than it can
safely handle. This can cause overheating and can even be a fire hazard. Overload can
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be caused by a fault (short circuit) in the wiring, or by a faulty appliance (like a frozen
water pump). Some charge controllers have overload protection built in, usually with
a push-button reset.
Built-in overload protection can be useful, but most systems require additional
protection in the form of fuses or circuit breakers. If you have a circuit with a wire
size for which the safe carrying capacity is less than the overload limit of the
controller, then you must protect that circuit with a fuse or breaker of a suitably lower
amp rating. In any case, follow the manufacturer's requirements and the National
Electrical Code for any external fuse or circuit breaker requirements.

2.8. Displays and Metering

Charge controllers include a variety of possible displays, ranging from a single
red light to digital displays of voltage and current. These indicators are important and
useful. Imagine driving across the country with no instrument panel in your car! A
display system can indicate the flow of power into and out of the system, the
approximate state of charge of your battery, and when various limits are reached.
It acts like an electronic accountant to keep track of the energy available in
your battery. If you have a separate system monitor, then it is not important to have
digital displays in the charge controller itself. Even the cheapest system should
include a voltmeter as a bare minimum indicator of system function and status.

2.9. Equalization
Equalization is essentially a controlled over charge. Some charger
manufacturers call the peak voltage the charger attains at the end of the BULK mode
(absorption voltage) an equalization voltage, but technically it's not. Higher capacity
wet (flooded) batteries sometimes benefit from this procedure, particularly the
physically tall batteries. The electrolyte in a wet battery can stratify over time, if not
cycled occasionally. In equalization, the voltage is brought up above typical peak
charging voltage (to 15 to 16 volts in a 12 volt charger) well into the gassing stage,
and held for a fixed (but limited) period. This stirs up the chemistry in the entire
battery, "equalizing" the strength of the electrolyte, and knocking off any loose
sulphation that may be on the plates. The construction of the sealed batteries (AGM
and Gel), all but eliminates any stratification, and most all manufacturers of this type
do not recommend it (advising against it). Some manufacturers (notably Concorde)
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list a procedure, but observing voltage and time specifications are critical to avoid
battery damage.

2.10. Charge Controller Designs

There are two basic methods for controlling or regulating the charging of a
battery; they are shunt and series regulation. While both of these methods are
effectively used, each method may incorporate a number of variations that alter their
basic performance and applicability. When the MOSFET switch is connected in series
with the turbine and the battery, the Controller is called Series Type. When it is
connected in parallel across the wind turbine / the Battery, it is called Shunt Type. In
Series Type, the MOSFET Switch is kept open when the battery is fully charged. The
wind turbine stops supplying current during this period. In the Shunt Type, when the
battery is fully charged, the MOSFET switch is kept closed to shunt (divert) the full
short circuit current of the turbine away from the battery.

2.10.1. Series Controller Design

A series charge controller disables further current flow into batteries when
they are full. This type of controller works in series with the turbine and the battery.
There are several variations to the series type controller, all of which use some type of
control or regulation element in series. Relay or solid-state switch either opens the
circuit between the array and the battery to discontinuing charging, or limits the
current in a series-linear manner to hold the voltage of the battery at a high value.
Figure 2.2 shows the series charge controller design.

Figure 2.2. Series charge controller

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2.10.2. Shunt Controller Design

A shunt charge controller diverts excess electricity to an auxiliary or "shunt"
load, such as an electric water heater, when batteries are full. Shunt charge controller
design is shown in Figure 2.3. The shunt controller regulates the charging of a battery
from the turbine internal to the charge controller. All shunt controllers must have a
blocking diode in series between the battery and the shunt element to prevent the
battery from short-circuiting when the array is regulating. The regulation element in
shunt controllers is typically a power transistor or MOSFET, depending on the
specific design.

Figure 2.3. Shunt charge controller

2.11. Lead Acid Battery

It was first invented in 1859 by a French physicist Gaston planet. A lead-acid
battery is an electrical storage device that uses a reversible chemical reaction to store
energy. It uses a combination of lead plates or grids and an electrolyte consisting of a
diluted sulphuric acid to convert electrical energy into potential chemical energy and
back again.
Battery must have a case that is electrically insulated and mechanically strong
enough to support the weight of its component parts. All batteries are composed of
individual cells. A cell might be considered the smallest unit of a battery that is
capable of generating a voltage and performing the functions of a battery on its own.
The individual battery cells are composed of plates and insulators. The plates
are composed of the conductive grid and the active material. There are two polarities
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of plate, both positive and negative. One pair of opposite polarity plates is sandwiched
around some type of insulator, called a separator. The composition of the separator
varies. Electrolyte is a source of free electrons; actually the captive electrons within
the electrolyte are waiting to be liberated as a result of a chemical reaction. Before an
initial charge, the lead electrodes of lead-acid batteries are both the same and the
electrolyte is sulphuric acid.
When they are initially charged, the cathode is oxidized into lead (II) oxide,
while the anode remains unchanged. Subsequent discharging changes both electrodes
to lead sulphate and the sulphuric acid is diluted. Recharging simply restores the
previous state (the electrodes return to lead and lead oxides). The processes
mentioned above are made in inverted form. From this way lead oxide is reduced to
lead sulphate, and in the anode the lead begins to oxidize, making lead sulphate.
However, this type of transformation cannot be repeated indefinitely. After a time, the
lead sulphate crystals form, and it is possible to perform the process reversibly. This is
the moment when the battery is sulphated and you cannot return to use it. Regarding
the functioning in the process of loading it, he lead sulphate convert in lead metal in it
for the negative cathode. When the batteries are overcharged (charged even after most
of the sulphate has been converted), the excess energy is used to split the water in the
electrolyte into hydrogen and oxygen gases.
Battery capacity, C, refers to the number of ampere-hours that a charged
battery is rated to supply at a given discharge rate. A battery’s rated capacity is
generally used as the unit for expressing charge and discharge current rates, i.e., a 2.5
amp-hour battery charging at 500 mA is said to be charging at a C/5 rate.

2.12. Types of Lead Acid Battery

According to the purpose of the lead acid battery, they are divided into four
types-
1. Deep cycle battery
2. Starter battery
3. Flooded battery
4. Valve regulated lead-acid (VRLA)

2.12.1. Deep Cycle Battery

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A deep-cycle battery is a lead-acid battery designed to be regularly deeply

discharged using most of its capacity. They are the key component in various types of
renewable energy systems that require the storage of electricity. A deep-cycle battery
is designed to discharge between 45% and 75% of its capacity, depending on the
manufacturer and the construction of the battery. Although these batteries can be
cycled down to 20% charge, the best lifespan vs cost method is to keep the average
cycle at about 45% discharge.

2.12.2. Starter Battery

A starter battery is designed to deliver large bursts of power for a while to start
an engine. Once the engine is started, the battery is charged by the charging system
that is driven the engine. Starter batteries are intended to have a low depth of
discharge on each use. They are constructed of many thin plates with thin separators
between the plates, and may have a higher specific gravity electrolyte to reduce
internal resistance.

2.12.3. Flooded Battery

In this type of battery the gases and vapours are allowed to escape from the
container.

2.12.4. Valve Regulated Lead-Acid (VRLA)

VRLA batteries remain under constant pressure of 1-4 psi. This pressure helps
the recombination process under which 99+% of the Hydrogen and Oxygen generated
during charging are turned back into water. The two most common VRLA batteries
used today are the Gel and Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM).

2.13. Characteristics of the Lead-Acid Battery

The following describes more detail the lead-acid batteries to accumulate the
excess energy of the wind turbine is used such batteries. Lead acid batteries created
batteries 2V, in the case of the commercial battery, to offer a practical output voltage,
2V has several cells connected in series. Figure below shows the internal and external
structure of Pb-acid battery for car, which shows the serial connection of the cells,
which are physically separated by partitions within the box that contains them. Each
cell is composed of several positive and negative plates, those with intermediate
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separators. All plates like polarity within a cell are connected parallel. Figure 2.4
shows the Lead-Acid Battery.

Figure 2.4. Lead-Acid Battery

The voltage provided by a battery is direct current. To charge it needs a DC

generator, which shall be connected to polarity correct the generator positive battery
positive and negative to negative generator battery. In order to force a load current,
the voltage of the generator should be higher than the battery.

2.13.1. Load Cycle

For loading, it is observed that the voltage corresponding to a current state of
charge and load is always lower as the temperature decreases. You should charge a
battery with a current level less than or equal to 10% of its capacity. If the current
value is larger battery overheating during charging, the losses will be greater and
decrease battery life.
The process is reversible battery. If we disconnect the generator and connect
one electrical charge to the battery, a current will flow through it in a direction
opposite to that of load, causing chemical reactions at the electrodes that return the
system to its condition initial.
In principle, the charge-discharge cycle can be repeated indefinitely. In
practice there are limitations to the maximum number of them, because the electrodes
lose part of each discharge material.

2.13.2. Discharge Cycle

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For discharge of a battery, the output current may be much greater than that of
load. In fact, many of these batteries are designed for very fast downloads and deep,
but what is not good is that they remain unloaded for a long time.
The higher the discharge current, the value of the internal resistance becomes
greater, warming worse performance and battery. Discharge curves show that at low
temperature the voltage drop is much more severe than that observed, for the same
current, 78°F. The low temperature slows chemical reaction, resulting in an abrupt
increase in internal resistance battery, which causes a greater voltage drop. It also
notes that maintaining electrolyte temperature constant, the voltage drop is always
higher (increased internal resistance) when the discharge current increases.

2.14. Battery Conditions

Usually all types of batteries experience several phenomenon, which affect
their performance:
1. Self-discharge – usually all batteries discharge automatically in ideal state.
2. Gassing – happens when batteries are overcharged and it is caused by
hydrolysis of water from the electrolyte into hydrogen and oxygen.
3. Sulfation – refers to crystallization of lead sulphate that is released on the
plates when the battery is discharged. When in crystalline form, it cannot take
part in the chemical reaction and effectively blocks the access of electrolyte to
electrodes. It causes the battery capacity to drop over time and it is accelerated
by leaving the battery in an uncharged state.
4. Freezing – the electrolyte can freeze, especially when the battery is discharged
when it contains more water. The freezing point therefore depends on a state
of charge of battery. Freezing can mechanically damage the battery.
5. Dehydration–happens when the flooded battery loses water due to over-
charging. The water has to be replenished, so that the electrodes do not dry up.
Therefore it is not desirable to overcharge flooded batteries significantly.

2.15. Battery Choice

When selecting batteries as energy storage, we chose those Lead-acid because
they are the cheapest in the market and easy to acquire a low price. In our case we use
car batteries. The batteries can be connected in series or in parallel depending on the
needs of each application. When combined in parallel, what is intended is maintain
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tension and increase capacity, being able to give more power to the load. In turn, in
series that is done is to increase the tension and maintaining the current, another way
to increase the capacity. The battery capacity is measured in Ah, means the amount of
amperes can to discharge the battery in one hour. If a battery is 12V and 55Ah, means
that for download it completely for an hour must extract 55A, or can give a stream of
1A for 55h.

2.16. Charging Stages

Basically, 3 charging stages are used to charge the battery and the battery is
used which have 6 cells and 12V. Those stages are-
1. constant-current charge/bulk charging,
2. Constant voltage charging/absorption and
3. Float charge.

2.16.1. Constant-Current Charge/Bulk Charging

During the Bulk phase of the charge cycle, the voltage gradually rises to the
Bulk level (usually 14.4 to 14.6 volts) while the batteries draw maximum current
which remains constant in this stage. Here, in this project we considered 14.4 volt as
bulk level voltage and we charged our battery at 14.6 volt. When Bulk level voltage is
reached the absorption stage begins.

2.16.2. Constant Voltage Charging/Absorption

During this phase the voltage is maintained at Bulk voltage level for specified
times (usually an hour) while the current gradually tapers off as the batteries charge
up. When the battery reaches the bulk charge set voltage, the PWM begins to hold the
voltage constant (14.4volt) to avoid overheating and over gassing the battery.

2.16.3. Float Charge

The controller will maintain the battery voltage at the float voltage setting by
giving shorter On-pulse charge to make up for any detected self-discharge of the
battery. After the absorption time passes the voltage is lowered to float level (usually
13.4 to 13.7 volts) and the batteries draw a small maintenance current until the next
cycle. Load will be disconnected when the battery voltage decreases below typically
10.5V when loaded. It is good to change the voltage levels according to battery
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temperature, as the voltage values have a significant temperature characteristics, it is

safe to charge most of lead-acid batteries by currents up to C/10h, where C is the
battery capacity in Ah. Charging stages of lead-acid battery is shown in Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5. The diagram of charging stages of lead-acid battery