Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S.

Kadhim)

Resistivity Logs
 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Resistivity logs
Resistivity is one of the most useful physical properties measured in the borehole. Formation resistivity
measurements, in conjunction with porosity and water resistivity, are used to obtain values of water
saturation and consequently, hydrocarbon saturation. They are also used in conjunction with lithology logs
to identify hydrocarbon bearing intervals and to estimate the net pay thickness. True resistivity (Rt) may be
obtained from Deep Induction Log (ILD) or Deep Lateral Log (LLD), so any invasion correction should be
applied to obtain the true resistivity which will lead to good interpretation for water saturation.

The resistivity of the flushing zone (Rxo) also had obtained from the Micro Spherical Focused Log (MSFL)
tool and mud cake correction chart Rxo-3 . The invasion correction charts, also referred to as (tornado) or
(butterfly) charts, Tornado chart, as shown in the following Figure, which used to correct deep induction
resistivity to true resistivity.

Resistivity is the degree to which a substance “resists” or impedes the flow of electrical current. It is a
physical property of the material, independent of size and shape. In well logging, both resistivity and
conductivity are used frequently. One is the reciprocal of the other. Thus;

Resistivity = 1/Conductivity
 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Tornado chart used to correct deep induction resistivity to true resistivity

 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

• Resistivity is the degree to which a substance “resists” or impedes the flow of electrical current.
It is a physical property of the material, independent of size and shape. In well logging, both
resistivity and conductivity are used frequently. One is the reciprocal of the other. Thus;

Resistivity = 1/Conductivity

Low resistivity corresponds to high conductivity and high resistivity

corresponds to low conductivity. The resistivity unit used in well logging is ohm-meter2/meter,
which is usually shortened to ohm-meter. Electrical conductivity is expressed in mhos per meter.
In order to avoid decimal fractions, in electrical logging, it is expressed in milli-mhos per meter.

In reservoir rocks, the sedimentary minerals that make up the formation matrix are non-
conductors. Also, hydrocarbons such as gas and oil are non-conductors. Therefore, current flow in
sedimentary rocks is associated with the water in the pore space. Most of the waters encountered
in well logging contain some sodium chloride (NaCl) in solution. The current then is carried by
the ions of the salt, which is dissolved in the water. Therefore, conductivity is proportional to the
salt concentration (salinity) of the water.
 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Although each ion is capable of carrying only a definite quantity of charge, as the formation temperature
is increased, these ions are capable of moving faster. This results in increased conductivity. The
following Figure shows the variation of water resistivity with temperature at various salinities.

Variation of water resistivity with temperature and salinity.

 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

• The amount of water contained in the formation is directly related to the porosity and, also, affects
the formation resistivity. As the volume of water increases, the capacity for ions increases and the
conductivity increases. Thus, the formation resistivity is affected by:

 Salt concentration in the water (salinity)

 Reservoir temperature
 Water volume (porosity)
 Hydrocarbon content.
Thus, although we cannot directly measure the amount of hydrocarbon in a formation, we can infer
the hydrocarbon content from resistivity measurements.
The apparent formation water resistivity (Rwa) and apparent mud filtrate resistivity (Rmfa) are
obtained depending on Rt, Rxo, and the resistivity formation factor (F) in clean water-bearing
formation (Sw=100%), so Rwa is defined as a ratio of true resistivity (Rt) to the F factor. Whereas Rmfa
is defined as a ratio of true resistivity in the flushing zone (Rxo) to the F as shown in the following
equations:
Types of Resistivity Logging

Electrode type tools (resistivity):

 Latero-log
 Micro-log

Induction Tools (conductivity=1/Resistivity)

 Dual Induction
 Array Induction Tools
 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

The Electrode Tools

 The normal curve is produced by two effective electrodes downhole, a current electrode and a
pickup electrode as shown in the following figures. Resistivity values are measured by
recording the voltage drop across these electrodes. A short normal, with electrode spacing of 18
inches, is used for correlation to define bed boundaries, and to measure the resistivity near the
wellbore. Normal curves have a radius of investigation of approximately twice the electrode
spacing.

 The lateral curve is produced by three effective electrodes, one current and two pickup
electrodes ( below figures). The radius of investigation is approximately equal to the electrode
spacing, which is the distance from the current electrode to the midpoint between the two
pickup electrodes. The spacing is usually in the range of 16 to 19 feet. Lateral curves are non
symmetrical and highly distorted by adjacent beds and thin beds, but are effective in measuring
true resistivity in thick homogeneous formations.
Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Schematic of electric logging tool: (A) Normal curve, (B) Lateral curve.
Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Micro-logs tools are very similar to lateral/normal logs except that the electrode spacing is
very small (few inches). These are used mainly to define boundaries of permeable
formations. To minimize the borehole effects (due to very shallow depth of investigation;
~4inches) the electrodes are mounted on a rubber pad which is in contact with the borehole
wall. When run in collapsed mode it measures the resistivity of the mud -“mud log”. Also
used to obtain borehole calliper. his log is also used to obtain the value of Rxo. Measurements
of Rxo are important for several reasons. When invasion is moderate to deep, a knowledge of
Rxo allows the deep resistivity measurements to be corrected to Rt. Also, some method for
computing Sw require the Rxo/Rt ratio. In clean formation a value of F can be computed from
Rxo and Rmf if Sxo is known.

There are many types of Micro-logs such as; Micro-laterolog(MLL), Micro-log(ML),

Proximity (PL), and Micro Spherical Log (MSFL).
MSFL tool is the latest one and has two main advantages over the other micro-tools:
I. combinability with other logging tools, including the deep induction log (DIL) and deep
lateral log (DLL) tools.
II. insensitive to the mud cake while maintaining shallow depth of investigation in contrast
to Proximity tool.
Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

MSFL Principle
 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

MSFL Tool

Pad based tool, similar to density.

Pad is kept in contact by a caliper.

Pad uses a spherical pattern of bucking currents to focus measure current.

Can be affected by hole rugosity .

Pad is rubber and can be damaged.

Force (AC) current between two (or more) electrodes.

Measure voltage between two intermediate electrodes.

Force current to flow in zone of interest by using ‘bucking’ currents.

Do not work in non conductive muds such as oil base mud (OBM).

Can give extremely high resolution and depth of investigation.

 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Induction Tools

The induction tool works by the principle of electromagnetic induction. A high-frequency alternating
current flows through a transmitter coil mounted on the logging tool as shown in the following
figure. This current sets up a high-frequency magnetic field around the tool, which extends into the
formation. The alternating magnetic field causes currents to flow through the formation concentric
with the axis of the induction tool. The currents, called ground loops, are proportional to the
conductivity of the formation. They alternate at the same frequency as the magnetic field and the
transmitter current flowing through the induction coil. The ground loop currents set up a magnetic
field of their own. This secondary magnetic field causes a current to flow in the receiver coil located
in the logging tool.
Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

The amount of current flowing in the receiver coil is proportional to the ground loop currents and
therefore to the conductivity of the formation. The signal in the receiver coil is detected, processed
and recorded on the log as either a conductivity measurement or a resistivity measurement.

The tool illustrated in the Figure of induction log tools is a simple two-coil device. In practice,
bucking coils are used to help focus the effects of the main transmitter and receiver coils and to
remove unwanted signals from the borehole. One popular induction tool used today has six
different coils. The depth of investigation (the depth from which most of the measurement is
obtained) for a typical deep induction tool is about 10 feet. The vertical resolution (the thinnest
bed that the tool will detect) is 40 inches.

Both the depth of investigation and the vertical resolution are affected by the spacing between the
main transmitter and receiver coils as well as by the placement of the focusing coils. By judicious
selection of these parameters, different depths of investigation can be designed into a tool. Thus,
one can measure the resistivity profile through the invaded zone and correct the deep induction
reading to move it close to the true formation resistivity, Rt.
 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Dual Induction tool

Dual Induction (DIL)

 Has a deep reading device, ILd, or LD
 Has a shallow reading device; i.e., LL8 or SFL, or MSFL
 Has a medium reading device; i.e., ILm, LM
 Has an SP (or Gamma Ray in non-conductive fluids)
 This log gives the most precise knowledge of the invasion profile, therefore, better Rt values in zones
of deep invasion.

Array induction tool

The Array Induction Imager Tool (AIT)/ High Definition Induction Log HDIL. These two new tools
from Schlumberger and Atlas respectively are designed to resolve down to 1 foot beds with multiple
arrays of receiver coils. The spacing ranges from 6 inches to 90+ inches and has coils at 3 inch
intervals. The device operates simultaneously at three frequencies, which allows both the in phase
radial, and quadrature (X) components to be analysed for each of 8 coils. The signal is processed into
5 logs giving 10, 20, 30, 60 and 90 inch investigation depth from the centre of the borehole.
Obviously invasion profiles are easily assessed, however, because of the increased data, volumes of
filtrate loss can also be computed.
 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Environmental Factors Affecting Induction Log Response

The induction log, if calibrated correctly, can accurately read the formation conductivity in resistive beds
from two to five feet or more in thickness and in two to three, or more, feet thick conductive beds. The
resistivity is automatically reciprocated from the conductivity curve. On the linear scale, the reciprocation
should be checked for accuracy. When values become less than two ohm–m, the resistivity value used
should be calculated from the conductivity curve.

Under certain conditions, the log requires other corrections due to environmental factors which affect its
response. These factors are skin effect, borehole size, adjacent bed boundary (shoulders), geometrical
factor and depth of invasion. Each correction must be made in a sequence that preserves precision. The
following is a brief highlight of each of these factors.

1. Skin Effect

In conductive formations, the induction log induces strong secondary currents. The magnetic field
generated by these induces additional emf’s which interfere and reduce the conductivity reading recorded
at the receiver. This is known as skin effect; however, modern logs automatically correct for this. In
resistive beds, the effect is negligible.
 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Environmental Factors Affecting Induction Log Response

2. Borehole Size
The size of the borehole can affect the induction log’s response. The borehole effect increases as the hole
diameter increases. This is typically corrected through use of the geometric factor. There still may be
some uncertainty in this factor, which may cause a significant error in highly resistive zones. Use
Schlumberger Chart make corrections.

3. Dipping Beds
If the Borehole encounters formations with variable resistivities and dips, then there are corrections that
apply to the Induction logs. The higher the angle of dip, with respect to the borehole trajectory, the larger
the correction. Thin beds are more affected than thick ones. Highly resistive beds are more effected than
conductive ones.

4. Geometrical Factor
This is a concept which implies that different zones, moving horizontally away from the borehole,
contribute differently to the over all resistivity measurement. So a fractional geometric factor is assigned
to each zone and, thus, will indicate what portion of the total signal is contributed by each zone. Knowing
this, a more accurate resistivity can be determined which takes into account the responses in the borehole,
adjacent beds, and the invaded zone.
 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Environmental Factors Affecting Induction Log Response

5. Invasion Effects
The effect of invasion increases as the invasion diameter increases and as resistivity contrast increases.
The invasion effect also becomes greater as the resistivity of the formation becomes greater than that of
the invaded zone. For the best results, formation resistivity (Rt) should be less than 2.5 times that of the
flushed zone (Rxo) and the diameter of invasion be less than 100 inches for the ILd and 200 inches for
the IDPH. So, the induction log works better in a fresh-water, resistive mud than a salty, conductive mud.
In a system where the filtrate is more resistive than the Rw, an annulus of formation water may be
flushed ahead of the filtrate. This results in a ring of more conductivity around the invaded zone and
before the virgin formation. Annulus effects the Induction logs, mostly the IM but some times the ID and
can suppress Rt. The Annulus will dissipate with time.
Though very resistive beds do not require corrections other than just mentioned, it should be noted that
the ID log does not accurately read resistivities over 100 ohm-m. This is due to an uncertainty of about
+2 mS/m on the zeroing of the sondes. That means the error becomes greater than 20% as the
conductivity becomes less than 10 mS/m (or greater than 100 ohm-m). So to insure a less than 20%
error, the tool’s accuracy is best in less than 100 ohm-m formations. The IDPH is better calibrated and
the uncertainty is down to 0.75 mS/m in zeroing. This means that the tools are only 7.5% in error at 100
ohm-m. In more resistive formations the Laterologs are more accurate. Depth of Invasion can be
determined from inspection of the Tornado charts applicable from, any chart book.
 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Environmental Factors Affecting Induction Log Response

 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Environmental Factors Affecting Induction Log Response

 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Environmental Factors Affecting Induction Log Response

 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Environmental Factors Affecting Induction Log Response

 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Parameters determining from resistivity logs:

 True resistivity of the formation Rt
 Resistivity of the invaded (flushed) zone, Rxo
 Diameter of the invaded zone, di
 Resistivity of the mud, Rm
 Resistivity of the mud cake, Rmc
 Mud cake thickness, hmc
 Hole Diameter, dh
 Bed thickness, h
 Resistivity of the adjacent beds, Rs
 Vertical resolution of the measuring tool.
These parameters can be divided into four groups. Each group determines the effects of one of the four
zones in the well:
1) the borehole (Rm, Rmc, dh, hmc)
2) surrounding beds (Rs, h, tool vertical resolution)
3) the invaded zone (Rxo, di)
4) the uninvaded zone (Rt, di)
Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Tutorial
Determination of Water Saturation from Well Logs
 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Tutorial
Determination of Water Saturation from Well Logs

Uninvaded
Zone
(Rt)
Invaded
Zone
(Rxo)
Wellbore
Mud
(Rm)

Uninvaded Mud Cake

Zone (Rmc)
(Rt)
Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
Tutorial
Determination of Water Saturation from Well Logs
Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Tutorial
Determination of Water Saturation from Well Logs
 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Tutorial
Determination of Water Saturation from Well Logs

Ro = Resistivity of uninvaded formation when 100% saturated with water

Rt = Resistivity of uninvaded formation
F = Formation Factor
Rw = Resistivity of formation water at formation temperature
Sw = Water saturation of uninvaded formation
Rwa = Apparent resistivity of formation water

𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Tutorial
Determination of Water Saturation from Well Logs

Example: The following data are given from the following figure

Given: a=1, n=2, m=1.8, Rmf= 0.32 @ 174Fᴼ , Ro &Rw @ 174Fᴼ for each zone and from sonic log Δt
= 60, 70 and 80 µsec/ft (from each zone of interest respectively (Assume Δt m= 47.6 µsec/ft and Δtf =
189 µsec/ft
Calculate:
1. F (resistivity formation Factor)
2. Sw depending on sonic log porosity
3. Sw depending on resistivity data

Zone Δt-log ФS Rw Ro Rt-ILD F=Ro/Rw Sw 

a Rw 𝑺𝒘

n m

(µsec/ft) Rt
= 𝑹𝒐/√𝑹𝒕
A 60 - 0.12 1.19 - - - -
B 70 - 0.09 2.48 - - - -
C 80 - 0.05 8.64 - - - -
Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Tutorial
Determination of Water Saturation from Well Logs

30,33,31